Scientists Reveal the Largest Human Organ: What You Need to Know

Posted on May 16, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Some scientists propose that the stroma is the largest organ in the human body, although this perspective is somewhat debated. Stay tuned for a detailed explanation.

The stroma, a recently discovered component of our anatomy, has only been identified in the last decade, leaving many unaware of its existence.

So, what exactly is stroma, where can it be found, and what functions does it serve?

Consider the stroma a vast network of channels that navigate around and between our cells and tissues, essentially the ‘spaces within spaces.’

These fluid-filled channels perform multiple functions: they buffer and support tissues, facilitate the transport of oxygen, nutrients, and waste, and play an integral role in our immune system.

Prior to 2018, this network was primarily viewed as simple interstitial fluid. While significant, researchers did not recognize it as a distinct organ or organized system. This notion changed when a groundbreaking paper compelled biologists to rethink their understanding.

Digital illustration depicting the interstitial network beneath the skin, showcasing fluid-filled channels interwoven among connective tissue scaffolds. – Photo credit: Getty

The study employed an advanced imaging method known as confocal laser endoscopy, which allows for real-time visualization of bodily functions. The importance of this real-time aspect underlines how we’ve historically overlooked crucial components of human anatomy.

During biopsies or autopsies, researchers often find that the tissues they evaluate are in a “disintegrated” state, as the interstitial fluid is typically expelled in laboratory settings.

Confocal laser endoscopy enables a three-dimensional view of bodily functions, revealing that this fluid doesn’t merely flow through compressed tissues. Instead, researchers observed open, interconnected channels supported by a scaffold of collagen and elastin fibers—a previously unseen aspect of anatomy.

Since the discovery of the stroma, discussions regarding its nature and function have intensified. For example, it could serve as a type of intracellular buffer.

These channels drain into lymph nodes, playing a significant role in waste removal and potentially acting as communication pathways within the body. They may also be involved in immune responses or serve as transport vehicles for white blood cells and cancer cells spread throughout the body. Additionally, they may contribute to swelling and inflammation.

Since the pivotal 2018 paper, debate has arisen about whether the stroma qualifies as an organ in its own right. Its spongy structure and multifunctionality contribute to this classification.

Estimates suggest that the stroma could encompass as much as 20% of the body’s volume.

Conversely, others argue that it is not a standalone organ but rather an intricate refinement of an existing network that carries out essential bodily functions.

Regardless, we are in the early stages of research, and scientists are just beginning to unravel how the stroma impacts our health and whether it might offer new avenues for treatments and medications.

This article answers the question posed by Joel Percival from Sutton Coldfield: “What is stroma?”

For inquiries, please contact us at: questions@sciencefocus.com or reach out via Facebook, Twitteror Instagram Page (please include your name and location).

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Ancient Teeth Reveal Connections Between Denisovans and Homo Erectus

Posted on May 14, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

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A tooth discovered in Sunjiadong, China. *Homo erectus*.

Credit: Qiaomei Fu, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences

Fossilized tooth of homo erectus from Sunjiadong, China — A tooth discovered in Sunjiadong, China. *Homo erectus*.

Credit: Qiaomei Fu, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences

For the first time, researchers have successfully extracted significant amounts of preserved protein from fossils attributed to ancient humans, specifically Homo erectus.

While previous discoveries of H. erectus fossils exist, this is the first instance revealing substantial insights into this species. The recovered protein indicates interbreeding between H. erectus and another ancient Asian hominin, the Denisovans.

H. erectus is recognized as one of the longest-lived and widely dispersed species of hominins. They emerged in Africa approximately 2 million years ago and reached Eurasia around 1.8 million years ago, as evidenced by fossils found in Dmanisi, Georgia. Notably, some traveled to the island of Java, now part of Indonesia, where they thrived until roughly 108,000 years ago.

In 2020, a research team led by Fried Welker from the University of Copenhagen successfully extracted protein from the tooth enamel of a H. erectus specimen from Dmanisi. While this provided proof that proteins could be recovered from ancient fossils, John Hawkes of the University of Wisconsin-Madison noted that the data gathered was underwhelming, lacking substantial information about the Dmanisi fossils.

Recently, a team led by Qiao Meifu at the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology in Beijing analyzed proteins from six designated H. erectus teeth. These specimens are approximately 400,000 years old and were sourced from various Chinese sites, including Zhoukoudian, Hexian, and Sunjiadong. The team identified a distinctive protein called amelogenin Y, finding that five teeth belonged to males, while one belonged to a female.

Mr. Fu did not respond to interview requests.

Among the six teeth analyzed, two unique protein variants were identified. One variant had not been observed in any human population, suggesting it is characteristic of H. erectus. The other variant was previously identified in Denisovans, who inhabited East Asia during the last several hundred thousand years. This raises intriguing questions about Denisovan interbreeding with an unidentified hominin group, potentially linked to H. erectus.

Hawkes acknowledges that while this interpretation is plausible, it’s merely one of three possible explanations for the data.

The critical uncertainty for Hawkes lies in whether the six teeth genuinely belong to H. erectus. Although results from the three sites seem reliable, the isolated tooth raises doubts regarding its classification, as its morphology does not match known H. erectus characteristics. Additionally, the historical context of H. erectus fossils in China complicates this determination, since all previously discovered fossils date back over a million years.

Hawkes posits an alternative scenario where the group may not actually be H. erectus at all but could be Denisovan. This potential mutation in protein may reflect variation within Denisovan populations. Supporting this idea, recent research analyzing Denisovan DNA across 30 modern human populations has indicated connections from three distinct Denisovan groups, each of which interbred with early Homo sapiens.

Alternatively, if the interbreeding between Denisovans and H. erectus did occur, Hu’s team suggested it hints at a lineage of Denisovans possessing H. erectus traits.

To resolve these possibilities, more fossil and molecular data will be essential, as noted by Hawkes.

Such uncertainties are not uncommon, as the study of ancient proteins is still in its nascent stages. Hawkes compares these early challenges to those faced during the initial exploration of ancient DNA.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Ancient Bite Marks Reveal Tyrannosaurus: The Multifaceted Behavior of a Legendary Predator

Posted on May 6, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

A transformative study conducted by paleontologists at Aarhus University challenges the long-held belief that tyrannosaurs were exclusively apex predators. By analyzing 16 meticulously mapped bite marks on the bones of a 75-million-year-old Tyrannosaurus rex, researchers found that smaller Tyrannosaurs scavenged on their larger tyrannosaurid relatives.

Visualization of a small Tyrannosaurus rex eating the carcass of a larger Tyrannosaurus. Image credit: Yu Xin, Shen Li, Liang Junwei, Aarhus University.

“Tyrannosaurus was the apex terrestrial predator in the Northern Hemisphere during the Late Cretaceous period,” stated lead author Josephine Nielsen, a master’s student at Aarhus University, alongside her research team.

“Species found in the Campanian region of the northern interior of western North America include Daspletosaurus and Gorgosaurus.”

“Tyrannosaurs were substantial predatory carnivores with massive skulls capable of enduring extreme bite forces and stresses.”

“Bites can crush and process bones, even from prey significantly larger than themselves, as evidenced by coprolites containing bone fragments.”

“However, such fossils do not provide direct evidence of biting strength, and debates continue concerning the feeding strategies of Tyrannosaurus and their ecological interactions.”

Nielsen and her colleagues utilized advanced 3D scanning technology to identify 16 bite marks on a fossilized metatarsal (foot bone) of a giant tyrannosaur.

“By examining the depth, angle, and position of the bite marks in a virtual 3D setting, we demonstrated that these marks were not incidental,” Nielsen remarked.

“These distinct tooth impressions of a smaller tyrannosaurus indicate scavenging on much larger relatives.”

This groundbreaking study sheds light on the recycling of resources in the age of dinosaurs, revealing their behaviors as scavengers.

The robust leg bones may have been consumed late in the decomposition phase, after most of the flesh had been stripped away.

“The bone lacks signs of healing after a bite from a smaller dinosaur,” Nielsen noted.

“The marks were found on a foot that had minimal flesh, indicating the dinosaur was possibly ‘sweeping’ and scavenging the last remnants of a carcass.”

The authors conducted their research using digital models and 3D printed replicas instead of original bones.

The metatarsals measured 10 cm in length and belonged to a tyrannosaurid estimated to be between 10 to 12 meters long and weighing several tons during its lifetime.

The bones were uncovered by amateur fossil hunters in the Judith River Formation in Montana. This region is an eroded landscape that acts as a geological archive of a 75-million-year-old ecosystem, teeming with dinosaur fossils.

“What makes this study exceptional is not only the insight into ancient dinosaur food chains, but also the innovative technology employed to extract these details.”

“By developing a digital version, we can now zoom in on intricate details.”

For more in-depth findings, visit this study published in the journal Evolving Earth.

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Josephine Nielsen et al. 2026. Investigating size-asymmetric feeding in tyrannosaurids using metatarsal tooth impressions from the Judith River Formation, Montana, USA. Evolving Earth 4:100107; doi: 10.1016/j.eve.2026.100107

Source: www.sci.news

Chimpanzee Population Conflicts Reveal Evolutionary Origins of War

Posted on April 9, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Violent Conflict Among Ngogo Chimpanzees

Aaron Sandel

Conflict between Ngogo chimpanzees — Violent Conflict Among Ngogo Chimpanzees

Aaron Sandel

Once a cohesive group, the Ngogo chimpanzees have divided, leading to escalation in violence and conflict. Researchers suggest this division might indicate that warfare is an innate aspect of our nature, rather than a recent development linked to our evolving culture.

According to Aaron Sandel and his team from the University of Texas at Austin, a comprehensive analysis of 24 years of social networks, 10 years of GPS tracking, and 30 years of demographic data on the chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in Kibale National Park, Uganda, was conducted.

Sandel emphasizes caution with terminology: “These are chimpanzees. Terms like war and civil war carry specific meanings for humans. While the conflict is not a civil war, there exist notable parallels, particularly regarding the shifts in group identity that precipitate lethal conflict.”

Chimpanzees are notorious for violence, predominantly targeting infants of rivals or outsider males.

The Ngogo population, comprising 150 to 200 individuals, is closely related to bonobos (Pongo niger), recognized as humans’ nearest relatives.

Between 1995 and 2015, the Ngogo chimpanzees were known for their cooperative behavior, showcasing fission-fusion dynamics, where individuals form temporary associations throughout the day and regroup each evening.

During puberty, female chimpanzees typically leave the group, while males remain for life. Prior to 2015, adult males formed alliances with females, facilitating hunting and territory patrols.

However, on June 24, 2015, a pivotal confrontation occurred when one faction, known as the central group, violently expelled the western group from their shared territory.

Following this event, the unity among the chimpanzees deteriorated. By 2018, the groups had permanently separated. During the ensuing years, the western group undertook 24 attacks, resulting in the deaths of seven adults and 17 infants from the other faction.

Chimpanzees from the Western Group on Patrol

Aaron Sandel

Sandel noted that the central chimpanzees were the first to pursue the western group; yet, the initial aggressors remain unclear. “As new factions emerged and divisions solidified, both groups engaged in territorial disputes,” he explained. “However, the western group has become the dominant aggressor, responsible for all fatal attacks.”

Various factors are believed to have contributed to the conflict’s escalation. Initial disagreements over food resources may have sparked tensions. In 2014, the deaths of five males and one female likely weakened the social structure. Changes in alpha male dynamics further exacerbated the situation, culminating in an outbreak of respiratory disease.

This outbreak, which claimed 25 Ngogo chimpanzees in January 2017, including the last surviving males of both factions, extinguished hopes for reconciliation.

Sandel and his team propose that the patterns observed in chimpanzee conflicts could provide insights into the evolutionary foundations of human warfare. While contemporary human conflicts are often attributed to ethnic, religious, and political divisions, this perspective may overlook the fundamental social dynamics shared with our primate relatives.

“In specific scenarios, the path toward peace may stem from simple, everyday acts of reconciliation,” the researchers articulated in their findings.

Maud Muzino from Boston University emphasizes that there are two predominant theories regarding the origins of human conflict. The first posits that war is a recent cultural innovation stemming from agrarian society and the establishment of nation-states. The alternative viewpoint asserts that the roots of warfare trace back through human evolution. “Ngogo’s findings significantly contribute to understanding the deep-seated origins of human conflict,” Muzino notes.

This study reveals that social fragmentation and subsequent conflicts can arise independently of the cultural differences often presumed to trigger human wars, be it in beliefs, language, or religious practices, states Luke Glowacki, also from Boston University.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Ancient Fossil Octopus: New Findings Reveal Multiple Species Identified

Posted on April 8, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Paulsepia mazonensis has captivated the scientific community as a cephalopod species first identified in 2000 from a remarkable 300-million-year-old specimen. This fascinating creature has earned a spot in the Guinness Book of World Records for being the world’s oldest octopus. Recent research has led to its reclassification as a distant relative of the nautilus, offering new insights into the timeline of octopus evolution, according to paleontologists.

Depiction of old cadmus collapse in the Mason Creek Basin, highlighting various Mason Creek fauna, including the polychaete Esconites zelus and the elasmobranch shark Bandringa rayi. Image credit: Franz Anthony.

Originally described from isolated siderite concretions, Paulsepia mazonensis has been recognized as the oldest known octopus, predating earlier estimates by over 150 million years. This revelation raises significant questions regarding our comprehension of cephalopod evolution, according to Dr. Thomas Clements, a paleontologist from the universities of Leicester and Reading.

This intriguing fossil from the Late Carboniferous Maisonkrieg Lagerstätte (311 to 360 million years ago) possesses distinct features, including a ‘sack-like’ fused head and mantle, symmetrical fins, and a pair of eyespots, alongside arms and specialized tentacles, yet lacks evidence for an inner or outer shell.

In a recent comprehensive study, researchers revisited this enigmatic fossil alongside several new specimens.

Employing advanced analytical methods, they uncovered a previously unrecognized radula, the toothed tongue characteristic of most molluscs.

Analysis of the alveolar bone suggests that Paulsepia mazonensis is more aligned with the shelled nautilus than previously thought.

This organism experienced significant decomposition prior to fossilization, leading to its ambiguous classification for decades.

“We conclude that Paulsepia mazonensis is synonymous with the Old Cadmus poli, based on morphological evidence,” the researchers confirmed.

This reinterpretation resolves a longstanding mystery regarding octopus evolution and unveils the oldest preserved nautilus soft tissue ever documented.

Through synchrotron micro-X-ray fluorescence elemental mapping, the team identified dental ossicles concealed within the concrete matrix of Paulsepia mazonensis.

The morphology of radial elements indicates that Paulsepia mazonensis does not correspond to coronal octamers but represents the oldest soft-tissue nautilus fossil discovered to date.

This reclassification challenges the Paleozoic origin of octopuses, further supporting a mid/late Mesozoic origin for crown octopuses while diminishing the credibility of the colloid affinity related to controversial Cambrian soft-bodied fossils like Nectocaris pterix.

The findings accentuate the complexities in interpreting exceptionally preserved soft tissue at the Masonkrieg Lagerstätte and underscore the necessity for thorough reevaluation of enigmatic consolidated soft-bodied fossil materials.

The team’s research paper has been published today in Proceedings of the Royal Society B.

_____

Thomas Clements et al. 2026. Synchrotron data reveals characteristics of nautiloids Paulsepia mazonensis refuting the Paleozoic origin of octopods. Proc Biol Sci 293 (2068): 20252369; doi: 10.1098/rspb.2025.2369

Source: www.sci.news

Webb Observations Reveal TOI-5205b: A Carbon-Rich, Oxygen-Poor Atmosphere of a Giant Exoplanet

Posted on April 7, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Astronomers have utilized the Near Infrared Spectrometer (NIRSpec) on the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope to analyze the atmosphere of TOI-5205b, an extrasolar gas giant orbiting a dim red dwarf star. These groundbreaking observations reveal that the atmosphere is surprisingly deficient in heavy elements, raising intriguing questions regarding the formation and evolution of such “forbidden” alien worlds.

The Jupiter-sized planet TOI-5205b has a surface temperature of 737 K and orbits at a distance of 0.02 astronomical units from its parent star, TOI-5205. Image credit: Sci.News.

TOI-5205b is a short-period gas giant with only 1.03 times the radius and 1.08 times the mass of Jupiter, completing its orbit in just 1.63 days.

Discovered in 2022, this planet orbits the TOI-5205, an M4-type star with approximately 39% of the Sun’s size and mass.

The system, also known as TIC 419411415, is located about 283 light-years away in the constellation Vorissa.

“Short-period Jupiter-mass planets are among the first exoplanets found around Sun-like main-sequence stars, yet their formation processes are still not fully understood,” explained Dr. Caleb Cañas from NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center.

“The increasing number of short-period giant exoplanets around M dwarfs adds further complexity to gas giant planet formation theories.”

“These worlds are challenging to form through nuclear accretion due to the low disk masses and longer orbital time scales of M dwarfs, which hinder the efficient creation of massive planetary cores necessary for runaway gas accretion.”

“These planets exemplify an extreme formation regime for mid-to-late M-type dwarfs since the significant planet-to-star mass ratio demands a core mass exceeding the estimated dust mass of the protoplanetary disk.”

Astronomers used Webb’s NIRSpec to observe three separate transits of TOI-5205b.

To their surprise, they discovered that the concentration of heavy elements in the planet’s atmosphere, relative to hydrogen, is lower than found in the gas giants of our solar system, including Jupiter. Remarkably, it is even less metallic than its host star.

This finding sets TOI-5205b apart from all other studied giant planets.

Furthermore, the observations revealed the presence of methane and hydrogen sulfide in the planet’s atmosphere, corroborating previous findings.

To better understand their results, the researchers employed an advanced model of the planet’s interior, predicting that TOI-5205b’s overall composition is about 100 times richer in metals than its atmosphere.

“We observed a significantly lower metallicity than what models predicted for the planet’s bulk composition, based on measurements of its mass and radius,” noted Dr. Shubham Kanodia of Carnegie Science.

“This suggests that heavy elements migrated to the interior during formation, indicating that the interior and atmosphere are not currently mixing.”

“In essence, our findings imply that the planet’s atmosphere is notably carbon-rich and oxygen-poor.”

For more information on these findings, check out the latest publication in Astronomy Magazine.

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Caleb I. Cañas et al. 2026. GEMS JWST: TOI-5205b’s transmission spectroscopy reveals significant contamination of the star and a metal-poor atmosphere. A.J. 171, 260; doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/ae4976

Source: www.sci.news

3I/ATLAS Discovery: Interstellar Comets Reveal Unique Water Chemistry Unlike Our Solar System

Posted on March 17, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

3I/ATLAS: A Fascinating Discovery

Credit: International Gemini Observatory/NOIRLab/NSF/AURA/B. Bolin

Interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS showcases unprecedented levels of water and carbon compounds, hinting that it originated around a star vastly different from our Sun—likely billions of years older.

Astronomers have meticulously monitored 3I/ATLAS since its entry into our solar system last year, revealing an astonishing composition rich in carbon dioxide and water. Initial analyses estimate its age at about 8 billion years—almost double that of our Sun.

According to Martin Cordiner and his research team at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, the comet’s deuterium levels (a hydrogen isotope with additional neutrons) are at least ten times higher than any previously recorded comet.

Typically, deuterium exists in minor concentrations in Earth’s oceans, but 3I/ATLAS displays levels more than 40 times greater. “3I/ATLAS continues to amaze us with its revelations about the similarities and differences between its host system and our own,” Cordiner stated. His team utilized the James Webb Space Telescope for these groundbreaking observations.

“It’s truly extraordinary,” commented Paul Hartog from the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research in Germany. “The ratio of deuterium to hydrogen in its water composition is highly unusual and unexpected.”

Such elevated deuterium levels are generally found in the coldest regions of the Milky Way, suggests Ewain van Dishus of the Leiden Observatory in the Netherlands. “This indicates it likely resides in the outermost disk of the star it orbits, facilitating its ejection,” Dishus explained.

Cordiner and colleagues also identified relatively low levels of carbon-13, an isotope usually created during supernova explosions. The low carbon-13 concentrations found in 3I/ATLAS point to its formation during a time when supernovae contaminants were rare, implying the comet formed around a star system aged between 10 to 12 billion years—again, more than twice the age of our solar system, according to Cordiner.

However, Dishus cautions that the imprecise carbon data means we cannot conclusively determine its exact age.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Discover How One Day Could Reveal Your Remaining Lifespan

Posted on March 13, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Science is advancing towards accurately predicting lifespan based on daily habits, as highlighted in new research conducted by Stanford University.

The study observed the behavior of 81 African turquoise killifish in a camera-monitored aquarium throughout their lifespan, which ranges from four to eight months.

By analyzing billions of frames of video footage, scientists established a link between daily behavioral patterns and longevity.

Co-first author Dr. Claire Bedbrook, a bioengineer and neuroscientist, stated, “One of the main findings of this study is that behavior serves as a non-invasive indicator of the aging process.” BBC Science Focus.

She added, “By tracking simple metrics such as activity and sleep patterns over a 24-hour period, we gain insights into aging progression and potential lifespan predictions.”

With the rise of smartwatches, scientists anticipate a future where individual aging journeys can be quantified more effectively.

Claire Bedbrook (right) and Ravi Nath (left) studied the behavior of African turquoise killifish. Credit: Andrew Brodhead/Stanford University

This research sheds light on the aging processes in animals with complex brains.

A key finding suggests that towards early middle age, when their lifespans reach approximately 70 to 100 days, fish destined for longer lives exhibit different behaviors compared to those that die earlier.

Co-first author Dr. Ravi Nath, also a neuroscientist and geneticist, remarked, “We could accurately estimate an animal’s age and whether it has a short or long lifespan based on its behavior at a relatively young age.” BBC Science Focus.

Notably, the research revealed variations in sleep patterns. Long-lived fish primarily sleep at night, while those with shorter lifespans increasingly sleep during the day as they mature.

Additionally, more active fish—those that swim more vigorously and spontaneously during the day—were found to have a higher likelihood of living longer.

The team identified a total of 100 distinct “action syllables,” representing short actions that form the foundational aspects of medaka behavior, many of which correlate with lifespan.

Claire Bedbrook (left) retrieves a tank of African turquoise killifish while Ravi Nath observes. Credit: Andrew Brodhead/Stanford University

Utilizing machine learning models, researchers accurately predicted the lifespan of individual fish based on a few days of behavioral data during mid-life.

Furthermore, the study found that fish age in distinct stages rather than continuously, supporting similar findings in recent research on humans.

Dr. Bedbrook explained, “I initially believed aging to be a gradual process, but our behavioral tracking indicates long periods of stability followed by sudden aging phases where animals enter new life stages.”

Future studies will aim to analyze behaviors in more natural settings, potentially allowing fish to exhibit increased social interactions.

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com

ALMA Observations Reveal Unusually High Methanol Levels in 3I/ATLAS

Posted on March 10, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Astronomers utilizing the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA) have made a groundbreaking discovery of hydrogen cyanide, a nitrogen-rich organic molecule commonly associated with comets, and remarkably elevated levels of methanol, an organic compound linked to prebiotic chemistry, in the interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS.

Artist’s impression as 3I/ATLAS approaches the Sun. Methanol gas appears in blue, and hydrogen cyanide in orange. Image credit: NSF / AUI / NRAO / M.Weiss.

“Observing 3I/ATLAS is like capturing a fingerprint from an entirely different solar system,” said Nathan Ross, a professor at American University.

“A detailed analysis reveals its composition, showing methanol emissions that are atypical for comets in our own solar system.”

Professor Ross and his team employed ALMA’s Atacama Compact Array in Chile to monitor 3I/ATLAS as it neared the Sun.

As sunlight warmed its icy exterior, this interstellar visitor released gas and dust, forming a surrounding coma.

By studying the coma, astronomers unveiled chemical signatures indicative of its materials.

They concentrated on the subtle submillimeter signatures of two molecules: methanol and hydrogen cyanide.

ALMA’s findings indicated that 3I/ATLAS is extraordinarily high in methanol compared to hydrogen cyanide, significantly surpassing levels typically observed in comets from our solar system.

On the two observation days, researchers recorded methanol to hydrogen cyanide ratios of approximately 70 and 120, positioning this object as one of the most methanol-rich comets ever examined.

These observations imply that the icy components of 3I/ATLAS were formed under conditions markedly different from those that motivate the formation of most comets within our solar system.

ALMA’s precision also allowed the team to analyze the movement of different molecules as they emanated from the comet, revealing unexpected disparities between methanol and hydrogen cyanide.

Notably, most hydrogen cyanide appears to originate from the comet’s core, which is an unusual characteristic for comets from our solar system.

Conversely, methanol is believed to originate from both the core and the comatose ice particles.

These minuscule ice particles behave like tiny comets; as the object approaches the Sun, the ice sublimates, releasing methanol gas.

While this behavior has been observed in various solar system comets, this is the first time the dynamics of outgassing have been documented with such detail in an interstellar object.

“The methanol to hydrogen cyanide ratio measured for 3I/ATLAS is among the highest observed in any comet, exceeded only by the anomalous Solar System comet C/2016 R2 (Pan-STARRS),” the authors noted.

Further findings will be published in the Astrophysical Journal.

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Nathan X. Ross et al. 2026. CH₃OH and HCN of interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS mapped with the ALMA Atacama Compact Array: unique outgassing behavior and significantly elevated CH₃OH/HCN production rate ratio. APJL 999, L32; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ae433b

Source: www.sci.news

How ‘Singing’ Dogs Reveal the Evolutionary Origins of Musicality

Posted on March 9, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Some Samoyed dogs howl along with the music.

Photography: Adri/Alamy

Samoyed dogs howling to music — Some Samoyed dogs howl along with the music.

Photography: Adri/Alamy

Explore the #SingingDog hashtag on social media, and you’ll discover countless clips of dogs harmonizing to popular songs. But does this showcase true musicality?
Does dog howling indicate a genuine understanding of music?

This intriguing question was tackled by psychologist
Aniruddha Patel, a professor at Tufts University. His latest research reveals that some dogs can recognize pitch and modulate their vocalizations accordingly.

The inspiration for this study arose from the howling behavior of wolves.
“Howling resembles human singing as it involves sustained vocalizations,” Patel notes. Observations suggest that wolves use varying tones to create a collective sound, which may serve as a protective strategy against threats.

The researchers faced challenges in testing this behavior experimentally; therefore, they enlisted dog owners to record their pets’ howls to their favorite songs. This included recordings in both the original key and a version transposed three semitones higher and lower to assess the dogs’ responsiveness to pitch changes.

The focus was on two ancient breeds, the Samoyed and the Shiba Inu, believed to be more closely related to wolves than contemporary breeds. To ensure reliable results, each dog contributed a minimum of 30 howls in each transposed version, with each howl lasting at least one second.

All four Samoyeds in the study demonstrated a remarkable sensitivity to pitch, consistently adjusting their howls to new keys, though they did not achieve perfect harmony.

“They seem to be attempting to connect their sound to the music rather than simply providing a reflexive response,” Patel explains. You can view one of the participants, Luna, performing “Shallow” by Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper
here.

Conversely, the two Shiba Inus appeared to be tone-deaf. Patel proposes, “Genetic variations among ancient breeds might predispose some individuals to howling,” although he acknowledges a larger sample size might yield more musical findings.

This discovery could illuminate the evolutionary roots of human music. While some theorists argue that song evolved from fine motor control in vocalizations, the dogs’ ability to control pitch without extensive vocal training suggests that language might not be an essential precursor. “The tendency to match pitch could have deep evolutionary origins, predating our sophisticated imitative capabilities,” Patel adds.

The motivation behind the dogs’ vocalizations remains unclear. “Based on observed videos, the dogs genuinely seem engaged with the music,” he states. They were not merely seeking treats from their owners but were gazing off thoughtfully. “Music appears to serve as a howling signal, placing them in a social mindset and encouraging participation.”

Researcher
Buddhamas Prale Kriengwattana from the University of Leuven in Belgium finds these findings fascinating but would welcome a broader sample for comparison. “I’d love to see comparisons between ancient and modern breeds,” she expresses.

Regarding the dogs’ somewhat off-pitch performances, she suggests various factors could influence pitch discrepancies. “Perhaps they want their voices heard when they sing,” she speculates.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

First Upright Apes Likely Evolved in Europe: New Findings Reveal Evolutionary Origins

Posted on March 9, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Illustration of *Grecopithecus freybergi*, a great ape from southeastern Europe 7.2 million years ago

Velizar Simeonovski, Chicago

Illustration of Grecopithecus freybergi, an early ape. — Illustration of *Grecopithecus freybergi*, a great ape from southeastern Europe 7.2 million years ago

Velizar Simeonovski, Chicago

Discoveries indicate that 7.2 million years ago, early apes might have been walking upright in present-day Bulgaria. Researchers uncovered ancient leg bones exhibiting characteristics of bipedalism.

These leg bones predate all known human fossils, including those from Africa, suggesting that bipedalism—a critical milestone in human evolution—may have originated in Europe rather than Africa.

“The earliest signs of bipedalism are found in Europe,” states Madeleine Boehme, from the University of Tübingen, Germany.

Boehme and a dedicated team have been excavating at Azmaka near Chirpan, Bulgaria, since 2008, uncovering a sediment layer approximately 20 meters thick, deposited by rivers over time.

A crucial find in 2016 was a right femur, known to be 7.2 million years old and nearly intact, nicknamed “Diva.” This femur, measuring 21.5 centimeters, offers substantial insight into the locomotion of early humans.

“This discovery is incredibly significant,” remarks Clement Zanoli from the University of Bordeaux, France, who was not involved in the study. “The femur’s exceptional preservation is rare in the Miocene hominin fossil record.”

During early epochs, Europe hosted various great apes, yet by 7.2 million years ago, most had become extinct. Today, all closest relatives to modern apes are located in Africa, as are the earliest human ancestors, or hominins.

The only ape confirmed from Azmaka is Grecopithecus freybegii, known primarily from a damaged jawbone found in Greece, and some teeth from North Macedonia and Azmaka. Consequently, Böhme’s team posits that the femur likely belongs to Grecopithecus.

“This is the most reasonable assumption at this time,” states Zanoli, but he stresses that more fossil evidence is necessary for stronger validation.

“The relationships among these fossils remain unclear,” explains Kelsey Pugh from OCAD University, Toronto, Canada.

Femoral bones of *Grecopithecus* (left), Lucy (*Australopithecus afarensis*, center), and a chimpanzee (right). Long femoral neck (shown in red) associated with upright walking.

Spasov et al. 2026

Böhme’s team meticulously measured the femur and conducted CT scans, uncovering attributes indicative of a bipedal organism. Notably, a short neck that laterally extends and forms a rounded ball fits into the pelvis, resembling structures found in bipedal hominids but absent in knuckle-walking species. Additionally, the outer bone layer’s thickness at the neck’s base supports vertical loads.

An additional ridge was identified, which would have allowed for the attachment of buttock muscles, playing a vital role in maintaining an upright posture, according to Boehme.

While other scientists find the findings intriguing, they remain unconvinced. “This femur displays several traits,” Zanoli points out. “Some suggest bipedalism, while others imply quadrupedal movement. Hence, determining the locomotion remains complex.”

The nuanced study of extinct great apes has revealed increasing challenges in accurately diagnosing bipedalism based solely on isolated fossil bones. Pugh notes, “Many features once thought exclusive to bipedal hominids have also been noted in quadrupedal apes. Thus, prioritization of diagnostic traits is crucial.”

Much attention has focused on Sahelanthropus tchadensis, known from a solitary location in Chad and considered the earliest hominid. This species lived 7 million years ago, slightly younger than the Azmaka specimen. The femur of Sahelanthropus has long fueled debate about bipedalism.

Boehme and her team are determined to establish that significant steps in early human evolution transpired in Europe. They’ve identified potential hominid features in Grecopithecus, despite past controversies linked to a damaged jawbone. Furthermore, they have also detailed another European ape, Danuvius guggenmosi, which existed approximately 11.6 million years ago.

These early human-like ancestors might have migrated to Africa, potentially driven by climate changes. Research indicates that this migration likely gave rise to all subsequent hominins, including modern humans.

Zanoli comments, “Numerous other animals migrated between Africa and Eurasia. If fauna can do it, why can’t hominins?”

Yet, Professor Pugh asserts that further discoveries are essential to substantiate bipedalism evidence in Grecopithecus, allowing detailed analysis of relationships among other apes and early humans. Without this, she emphasizes that it’s premature to construct comprehensive evolutionary narratives.

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Psychologists Reveal the Best and Worst Ways to End a Relationship

Posted on March 8, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

How can you navigate the complex process of ending a relationship that’s no longer fulfilling? Do you resort to the clichéd phrase, “It’s not you, it’s me,” to sidestep hurt feelings? Or is it better to embrace honesty?

These are challenging decisions that have sparked debate for decades. With the rise of technology, many are turning to AI for guidance on significant life choices, including matters of the heart.

Interestingly, ChatGPT will soon be restricted from advising users to break up with their partners, but it will still facilitate discussions about relationship challenges.

When considering a breakup, it often feels sudden for the person who is left. However, for those initiating the split, it can be a long, drawn-out experience of growing discontent. Research indicates that relationship satisfaction typically declines sharply between 7 to 28 months before a breakup—a phenomenon known as “terminal decline.”

Misunderstandings in Breakups

Breaking up can be particularly challenging if your partner feels dependent on you. One study found that individuals often hesitate to end relationships if they perceive their partner as dependent, leading to a reluctance to cause emotional pain.

A recent study identified common strategies people employ when ending relationships. The most prevalent approach aims to soften the blow by explaining the breakup and accepting some responsibility for the dissolution.

Science suggests that honesty and respect are essential components of a breakup – Photo Credit: Getty Images

The second most common strategy is to take a break, giving each person the opportunity to reflect on their feelings.

Researchers discovered that the least favorable option is ghosting, or what the study calls conflict avoidance. This method, which involves vanishing without explanation, is linked to a decline in both the physiological and psychological well-being of the person who is ghosted according to research findings.

If you’ve gathered the courage to initiate a breakup, how should you approach that tough conversation?

The Right Strategy for Both Parties

While some breakup tactics may seem obvious, they are crucial to consider if you aspire to be kind and respectful.

Firstly, honesty is vital. The classic phrase, “It’s not you, it’s me,” is not an honest way to explain a breakup and should be avoided.

Additionally, consider meeting in person. Text messages or social media farewells are generally not appropriate.

Be empathetic and think about your timing. Breaking up right before a significant job interview or during a health crisis is not considerate. Remember to consider how your ex-partner will cope after the split.

Finally, recognize that once the relationship ends, your partner is under no obligation to respond to your inquiries or maintain contact with you.

In conclusion, it’s often best to approach a breakup in a clear, respectful, and empathetic manner. A decisive, considerate break may be more beneficial than dragging out an emotional ordeal for both involved.

This article addresses the question posed by Hayden Clark from Newport: “What is the best way to end a relationship?”

To submit your questions, please email questions@sciencefocus.com or message us on Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram (remember to include your name and location).

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Get Paid for Every Post: Scientists Reveal How to Monetize Your Online Content

Posted on February 22, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

You can be compensated for your online posts, provided they are utilized for AI training.

According to Dr. Margaret Mitchell, the chief ethics scientist at Hugging Face, an open-source AI company, there is a pressing need for AI firms to trace AI-generated content back to its original creators.

“Many creators—including artists, writers, and everyday users—are losing out on compensation for their contributions,” she stated during her talk at AI Everything in Cairo, Egypt.

“I envision a future where we can truly identify the sources of input that make AI outputs possible and adequately reward them.”

Generative AI heavily relies on certain creators more than others. Some AI-generated works exhibit distinct links between input and output, such as a recognizable writing style or an artist’s signature.

Recently, renowned Japanese animator and film director Hayao Miyazaki criticized AI-generated images that mimic the unique style of his Studio Ghibli films.

But the issue extends beyond musicians and artists, as large-scale language models (LLMs) like ChatGPT and Google Gemini are trained on extensive online resources.

AI companies frequently “harvest” data from the internet to train their LLMs. – Credit: Getty

“We are all creators,” Mitchell emphasized, as reported by BBC Science Focus. It is essential that reward models recognize contributions from all online users, whether it’s a poem or a vacation sunset photo taken five years ago.

Fortunately, there are emerging models that can track the relationship between input and output, rewarding creators based on their contributions.

However, such a system is not yet in place, and existing AI business models hinder the funding required to develop it, Mitchell said, although some AI companies are exploring potential solutions.

For instance, in a document from 2021, AI company Anthropic’s CEO Dario Amodei proposed a “crazy idea” for a reward distribution model akin to the monetization platform Patreon, which was recently opened by court order.

Mitchell noted that existing LLMs could implement known technological strategies to facilitate this model. Clustering algorithms, for example, could help track similarities and attribute authorship.

To maintain user privacy, this model would require consent, allowing users to opt in for their data to be linked to their identity (with compensation) or remain anonymous.

“To foster innovation, we need to pave the way for this kind of research,” Mitchell asserted. “Currently, the path forward is completely closed.”

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New Discoveries Reveal Triceratops’ Massive Nasal Cavity Had More Functions Than Just Smell

Posted on February 22, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

For decades, triceratops and their relatives were known only through fossils. Now, groundbreaking research by Japanese paleontologists has mapped the soft tissue anatomy of these iconic horned dinosaurs, unveiling unexpected structures that may shed light on their ability to regulate body temperature and breathe effectively.

Triceratops‘ nasal cavity. Image credit: K. Sakane.

The ceratopsians, a group that includes the famous triceratops, represent one of the most diverse and successful dinosaur lineages of the Late Cretaceous period.

Their skulls are among the most intricate structures ever formed through vertebrate evolution, featuring a beak, distinctive horns, frills, an elongated snout, and a compact tooth row specifically adapted for processing tough vegetation.

Researchers have traditionally concentrated on the functionality of their cranial features—chiefly the horns, beaks, and frills—since these characteristics likely contributed to their ecological dominance on land.

In contrast, the evolutionary significance of the enlarged nasal region of these dinosaurs remains largely uncharted.

“Since my master’s studies, I have focused on the evolution of reptilian heads and noses,” said Dr. Seishiro Tada, a paleontologist affiliated with the University of Tokyo Museum.

“The triceratops possessed an unusually large and complex nose. While I knew the fundamental reptilian structure, I struggled to understand how the internal organs fit within it,” he remarked.

This curiosity led Dr. Tada deeper into the study of nasal anatomy, its functions, and its evolutionary implications.

In this recent study, Dr. Tada and his team meticulously examined various cranial specimens of the triceratops.

“Using advanced CT scan data, akin to our understanding of contemporary reptilian snout morphology, we discovered several unique attributes within the snout. This research presents the first comprehensive insight into the soft tissue anatomy of horned dinosaurs,” explained Dr. Tada.

“The nasal structures of triceratops exhibited atypical ‘wiring.’ In most reptiles, nerves and blood vessels navigate from the jaw to the nostrils. However, the shape of the triceratops skull reroutes these pathways through the nasal branches,” he added.

“Essentially, the soft tissue evolved to support their prominent noses. I noted this while assembling 3D-printed skull segments of triceratops like a jigsaw puzzle,” Dr. Tada continued.

The researchers identified specialized structures within the triceratops nasal cavity, known as respiratory turbinates. This anatomical feature is underrepresented in other dinosaurs but common in birds and mammals, descendants of modern-day dinosaurs.

These delicate, coiled nasal surfaces enhance the interaction between air and blood, facilitating temperature regulation through effective heat exchange.

While triceratops probably wasn’t entirely warm-blooded, the team believes these structures assisted in controlling temperature and humidity levels, crucial for managing the heat generated by their large skulls.

“Although we’re not entirely certain, we note that while most dinosaurs lack evidence of respiratory turbinates, some birds display similar ridges of these structures, and horned dinosaurs may exhibit analogous features in equivalent nasal locations,” Dr. Tada stated.

“This leads us to hypothesize that triceratops possessed respiratory turbinates akin to those found in birds.”

“Horned dinosaurs represent the last group in which we investigated head soft tissue, effectively completing the puzzle of dinosaur anatomy,” Dr. Tada concluded.

The team’s paper is published in the journal Anatomical Records.

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Seishiro Tada et al. Soft tissue anatomy of the nose in triceratops and other horned dinosaurs. Anatomical Records, published online on February 7, 2026. doi: 10.1002/ar.70150

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New Discoveries Reveal the Moon’s Higher Geological Activity Than Previously Believed

Posted on February 22, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Planetary scientists have identified thousands of Small Oceanic Ridges (SMRs) across the Moon’s maria, indicating active tectonic movements that could influence the next era of space exploration. These SMRs are geologically young, dating between 50 million and 310 million years, and are widely distributed across the lunar surface.

Small Mare ridge in northeast Mare Imbrium, captured by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera. Image credit: NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University.

Both the Moon and Earth experience active crustal movements, yet the tectonic forces shaping each celestial body differ significantly.

The Earth’s crust is segmented into plates that converge, diverge, and slide against one another, creating vast mountain ranges, deep ocean trenches, and a ring of volcanoes surrounding the Pacific Ocean.

Conversely, although the Moon’s crust isn’t divided into plates, internal stresses generate distinctive landforms.

Among these are foliated scarps, which arise when compressive forces push materials along faults, forming ridges. These cliffs, visible in the lunar highlands, have formed within the last billion years, representing the most recent 20% of the Moon’s geological timeline.

In 2010, researcher Tom Watters from the Smithsonian Institution discovered that the Moon is gradually shrinking, leading to the development of these foliated cliffs.

However, the creation of foliated scarps does not account for all the recent contractional topography observed on the Moon.

A newly identified category of tectonic landform is the SMR, caused by similar forces to those that form foliated cliffs. While foliated cliffs exist at high altitudes, SMRs are exclusive to the Moon’s maria.

In the latest study, Dr. Watters and his team aimed to map the SMRs in the lunar maria and assess their correlation with recent tectonic activity.

“Since the Apollo missions, we’ve known that foliation is prevalent throughout the lunar highlands, but this study marks the first documentation of similar features across the lunar maria,” stated Dr. Cole Nipaver, also affiliated with the Smithsonian Institution.

“This research will enhance our understanding of recent lunar tectonism, providing deeper insights into the Moon’s interior, its thermal and seismic history, and the potential for future lunar earthquakes.”

The researchers compiled the first comprehensive catalog of SMRs on the Moon’s far side, identifying 1,114 new SMR segments, bringing the total known SMRs to 2,634.

They discovered that the average age of these SMRs is 124 million years, aligning with the average age of foliation stumps at 105 million years.

These findings suggest that, akin to foliated scarps, SMRs are some of the Moon’s youngest geological features.

Additionally, our analysis indicates that SMRs form due to the same types of faults as foliated scarps, and that the highland foliated scarps often transition into SMRs, suggesting a shared geological origin.

The new SMR data, alongside the high-altitude foliation scarps, provide a comprehensive view of the Moon’s recent crustal contraction activities.

“Our identification of the Moon’s young SMRs and understanding their formation contributes to the global perspective of a dynamically contracting Moon,” said Watters.

For further details, view the result published in Planetary Science Journal.

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C.A. Nye Paver et al. 2025. A new global perspective on recent tectonism in the lunar maria. Planetary Science Journal 6, 302; doi: 10.3847/PSJ/ae226a

Source: www.sci.news

Archeopteryx’s Feeding Structures: Evidence of Evolving Flight Demands, Researchers Reveal

Posted on February 6, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

A groundbreaking study by paleontologists at the Field Museum of Natural History reveals that Archeopteryx, the oldest known bird, has a feeding mechanism intricately shaped by the demands of early flight. This discovery implies a simultaneous evolution of diet and aerodynamics during the early history of birds. For detailed insights, check the full report, coming this week in Innovation.

Reconstruction of Archeopteryx, highlighting features such as an oral papilla, a beak tip organ, and a flexible tongue supported by an extra lingual bone. Image credit: Vir Shinkonen.

Flying demands a significant amount of energy compared to walking, swimming, or running, making it one of the most physically taxing forms of exercise. Birds have therefore evolved specialized strategies for efficient food intake and digestion.

Archeopteryx, the oldest known bird-like dinosaur, inhabited regions of present-day Germany around 150 million years ago during the Jurassic period.

Dr. Jingmai O’Connor, associate curator of fossil reptiles at the Field Museum, states, “For a long time, the characteristics defining the transition from land-based dinosaurs to avian dinosaurs were poorly understood.”

Dr. O’Connor notes, “The unique features found in Archeopteryx that are also present in modern birds provide new criteria for determining avian characteristics in dinosaur fossils.”

This research focused on the latest Archeopteryx specimen from Chicago, enhancing our scientific understanding of this ancient bird.

The team compared the preserved tissues of Archeopteryx to the oral papillae of contemporary birds, leading to the significant finding that they identified the first example of an oral papilla in Archeopteryx, as well as the first in the fossil record.

Additionally, the study uncovered several previously unseen features within the skull of Archeopteryx.

A small bone fragment, identified as a tongue bone, was discovered. While human tongues lack bones, many birds possess a series of bones that structure their tongues, allowing for greater flexibility and food manipulation.

“This tiny bone is one of the smallest in the body, yet it indicates that Archeopteryx had a highly mobile tongue, similar to many modern birds,” said Dr. O’Connor.

CT scans also revealed small tunnels at the tip of Archeopteryx’s beak, indicating the presence of nerve traces. Many birds possess a beak tip organ, a sensitive feature at the end of the beak that aids in food foraging.

These findings collectively suggest that Archeopteryx utilized oral papillae, lingual bones, and beak tip organs to develop advanced feeding mechanisms, reflecting their adaptive strategies for survival in flight.

“Our results indicate a significant transformation in feeding strategies as dinosaurs took to the air to meet the high-energy demands of flight,” Dr. O’Connor added.

“Birds possess incredibly efficient digestive systems, designed to maximize the energy extracted from food—a process that begins right in the mouth.”

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Jimmai K. O’Connor et al. 2026. Characteristics of Archeopteryx‘s feeding apparatus reveal the growing demands of flight. Innovation 7(2):101086; doi: 10.1016/j.xinn.2025.101086

Source: www.sci.news

New Findings Reveal Europa’s Ice Shell is Significantly Thicker Than Previously Believed

Posted on January 29, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Recent microwave measurements from NASA’s Juno spacecraft indicate that Europa’s icy shell could extend nearly 29 kilometers (18 miles) deep, significantly altering planetary scientists’ understanding of how this intriguing moon facilitates the exchange of vital chemicals between its hidden ocean and surface.

Artist’s concept showing a cross-section of Europa’s icy shell. Image credit: NASA / JPL-Caltech / SwRI / Koji Kuramura / Gerald Eichstädt.

Europa has captivated planetary scientists for over 40 years.

The question of whether Jupiter’s icy moons can support life has sparked extensive debate among researchers.

Interest in Europa’s potential habitability surged when NASA’s Galileo spacecraft revealed an ocean of saline water beneath its icy crust, complemented by surface cracks.

On September 29, 2022, NASA’s Juno spacecraft flew by Europa at an altitude of 360 km (220 miles).

During this flyby, Juno’s Microwave Radiometer (MWR), which is primarily designed to analyze Jupiter’s atmosphere, gathered brightness temperature data at various depths within Europa’s icy crust.

Juno project scientist Steve Levin and his team utilized this MWR data to conclude that the icy shell averages approximately 29 kilometers in thickness.

“The estimated thickness of 29 km pertains to the cold, dense, electrically conductive outer layer of Europa’s water ice shell,” Dr. Levin stated.

“If a slightly warmer convective layer exists beneath, the total thickness could be even greater.”

“Conversely, if the ice shell contains a moderate amount of dissolved salts, as some models suggest, the thickness could decrease by around 5 km (3 miles).”

“A thicker shell implies that oxygen and nutrients have longer distances to travel to connect Europa’s surface with its subsurface ocean, as indicated by the MWR data.”

Understanding this exchange process is crucial for future studies on Europa’s habitability.

Furthermore, MWR data shed light on the composition of Europa’s subsurface ice.

This technology uncovered “scatterers,” irregularities such as cracks, pores, and voids that scatter microwaves reflected off the ice.

These scatterers, estimated to be only a few inches in diameter, are believed to extend hundreds of feet below the surface.

The small size and shallow depth of these features suggest they are unlikely to serve as significant pathways for transporting oxygen and nutrients from the surface to the salty ocean beneath.

“The thickness of the ice shell, along with the presence of cracks and pores, adds complexity to our understanding of Europa’s potential for habitability,” remarked Scott Bolton, Ph.D., Juno’s principal investigator at the Southwest Research Institute.

“These findings provide essential context for NASA’s Europa Clipper and ESA’s Juice missions, both en route to the Jupiter system.”

“The Europa Clipper is expected to arrive in 2030, followed by Juice the next year.”

The team’s new results were published in the Journal on December 17, 2025, in Nature Astronomy.

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S.M. Levin et al. 2026. Characterization of Europa’s ice thickness and subsurface structure using the Juno microwave radiometer. Nat Astron 10, 84-91; doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02718-0

Source: www.sci.news

Stunning Photos That Reveal the Fascinating World of Quantum Physics

Posted on January 16, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Marco Schioppo and Adam Park monitor ultra-stable lasers at the National Physical Laboratory in Teddington, UK.

David Severn, part of Quantum Untangled (2025), Science Gallery, King’s College London

In a striking portrayal, two physicists observe Britain’s revolutionary quantum technology involving ultra-stable lasers at the National Physical Laboratory in London. Captured by photographer David Severn for the **Quantum Untangled** exhibition at King’s College London, this fascinating image was shortlisted for the **Portrait of Britain Award**.

Severn states, “This portrait offers a rare peek into a domain typically hidden from view, like opening a door to a normally restricted lab.” While the photographs are contemporary, he notes that the scientists’ engagements with technology evoke imagery reminiscent of earlier eras, such as a 1940s submarine pilot or operators of a cotton spinning machine from the turn of the 20th century.

Having no background in quantum mechanics before this venture, Severn was briefed on current quantum physics projects in the UK. He observed that the bewildering aspects of quantum science closely align with artistic perspectives. “Although many scientific concepts eluded my detailed understanding, ideas like superposition and quantum entanglement resonated with me intuitively, akin to artistic realization,” he shared.

3D Printed Helmet Prototype

David Severn, part of Quantum Untangled (2025), Science Gallery, King’s College London

Severn’s captivating photographs highlight a range of innovations in quantum physics, showcasing a **3D-printed helmet** (above) designed to house a quantum sensor that images the brain using magnetic fields. He also features a complex **laser table** (below) monitored by Hartmut Grothe from Cardiff University, ensuring that the vacuum pumps sustaining the system remain operational.

Hartmut Grote at the Laser Table

David Severn, part of Quantum Untangled (2025), Science Gallery, King’s College London

Severn’s photography embraces a mystical quality, showcasing the **3D-printed imaging helmet** used by researchers from the University of Nottingham’s Sir Peter Mansfield Imaging Center (as shown above), along with the intricate network of pumps and mirrors essential for maintaining cleanliness in Grothe’s experiments (as depicted below). Severn asserts that this ethereal essence is intentional.

Joe Gibson Wearing a 3D Printed Imaging Helmet at the University of Nottingham

David Severn, part of Quantum Untangled (2025), Science Gallery, King’s College London

Complex Vacuum System from King’s College London’s Photonics and Nanotechnology Group

David Severn, part of Quantum Untangled (2025), Science Gallery, King’s College London

Severn references a favorite quote from photographer Diane Arbus: “Photographs are secrets about secrets. The more they tell you, the less you understand.” He finds a parallel in quantum physics, where just when one thinks they’ve grasped how light behaves, the quantum realm subverts those expectations and exposes the elusive truths underpinning our understanding of reality.

The **Quantum Untangled** exhibition is on display at the Science Gallery at King’s College London until February 28, 2025. This event is a reimagining of the traveling exhibition **Cosmic Titans: Art, Science and the Quantum Universe** organized by Lakeside Arts and ARTlab at the University of Nottingham.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Can a Virus-Related Test, Like the Bird Test, Truly Reveal Insights About Your Relationship?

Posted on December 2, 2025 by

Did you see that seagull? Take the bird test

Sean/Getty Images

If you’ve been active on TikTok lately, you might be familiar with the concept of bird inspection. In this test, one partner casually mentions something, like observing a bird outside, to gauge if the other is engaged. An enthusiastic response signals a positive connection; lack of interest might indicate underlying issues. It’s amusing, relatable, and resonates with many. This viral phenomenon reflects something intrinsic to relationships, as psychologists recognize the significance behind it.

For years, relationship scholars have maintained that love is found in these small interactions. We refer to these daily connections as “bids”: sharing a laugh, narrating a story, or simply saying, “Look at that!” Psychologist John Gottman conducted classic studies with newlyweds, revealing that partners strive for the low bid for connection. Other longitudinal research indicates that couples with more assertive responses during disagreements are more likely to remain stable and satisfied in the long term.

Additional studies highlight that responses in everyday moments significantly affect relationship health. For instance, research on newlyweds has shown that couples exhibit heightened playfulness and enthusiasm during brief dinner interactions, showcasing more humor and affection during discussions of conflicts. Longitudinal studies demonstrate that partners perceived as sensitive and affirming tend to become more physically affectionate over time, fostering intimacy through minor everyday gestures.

Ultimately, these small expressions of gratitude function as the adhesive in relationships. The bird test cleverly encapsulates a fundamental truth: small gestures of acknowledgment are significant. While each may feel inconsequential in isolation, their cumulative effect builds positive momentum, sustaining satisfaction and resilience in relationships.

However, isolating specific moments, especially those showcased on social media, can oversimplify relationship evaluations. The bird test transforms intricate dynamics into simple pass/fail moments, potentially leading to unnecessary worries and misplaced confidence. Partners might miss bids for reasons unrelated to commitment—perhaps they are fatigued, under stress, or simply disengaged. Misinterpreting fleeting moments as definitive judgments can lead to harmful conclusions: “They ignored the bird! Do they even love me?” Even worse, it can become a manipulation tool: “You didn’t respond. You aren’t attentive to me.” One-off reactions on an arbitrary day should not define the essence of a relationship.

The pressing question is why such “testing” has gained traction. In addition to bird inspections, we’ve witnessed a rise in activities like the orange peel theory—”Will your partner peel an orange without prompting?”—and the moon phase test, which claims to measure romantic compatibility based on birthdays and lunar cycles.

One reason for this trend may stem from the fluctuating landscape of dating. Dating apps provide an overwhelming array of potential partners, but research indicates that excessive options can make commitment feel riskier and less secure. This uncertainty impacts the formation of relationships, introducing ambiguity in expectations and leaving partners guessing about their feelings. A quick bird test offers immediate feedback—a fleeting visual cue followed by a simple answer.

Another factor is that, despite relationship science gaining popularity, its complexity has been lost. Nuanced insights from extensive observational studies are reduced to simple TikTok phrases: “Did they notice the bird?” At the same time, social media prioritizes highly emotional content, whether heartwarming or heart-wrenching snippets caught on camera. This attention economy encourages individuals to transform genuine relationships into public trials. In this context, viral tests flourish, providing dramatic, recordable moments of validation that can be shared and scrutinized.

So, what should couples take away from this trend? Bird testing, while playful, underscores the importance of responsiveness when a partner reaches out, even in minor ways, as the backbone of a healthy relationship. If this phenomenon inspires more curiosity, attention, and appreciation, then it can be viewed as a positive development. However, instead of asking, “Did my partner succeed in this test?” a more beneficial inquiry would be, “What patterns have emerged in our relationship? Are they consistently present? Do they feel acknowledged and valued?” Love is not defined by one solitary act, bird, or orange, but by the countless small moments when partners choose to be there for each other behind the scenes.

Despite everything, I must admit that for the sake of research, I may just have my husband partake in the bird test tonight. Wishing him the best of luck!

Emily Impett is a professor in the Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences and director of the Institute for Human Relations and Happiness at the University of Toronto Mississauga. Her research explores sacrifice, sexuality in long-term relationships, and changes within relationships.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Ancient Mayan Ruins Reveal 3,000-Year-Old Cosmic Map

Posted on November 20, 2025 by

A monumental ancient structure unearthed in Mexico could uncover how the early Maya civilization perceived the universe. Among them, new research indicates that the 3,000-year-old site known as Aguada Fénix served as a cosmogram, representing a geometric map of the cosmos.

Archaeologists initially discovered a large cross-shaped cavity (termed a cross hole) concealed within dense jungle in 2020. Upon closer inspection, they discovered that this was merely one of numerous interconnected holes linked by canals. The cumulative volume of these cross holes exceeds 3.8 million cubic meters, equivalent to nearly one and a half pyramids of Giza or over 1,500 Olympic-sized swimming pools.

Researchers from the University of Arizona utilized laser technology to identify Aguada Fénix from aerial views, situated in the current state of Tabasco on the Gulf Coast.

They now assert that the earliest examples of these findings in Mesoamerica—colored pigments discovered in pits—align with the four cardinal directions: north, south, east, and west. Specifically, vibrant blue azurite represents north, yellow ocher marks south, green malachite signifies east, and pearl-like shells denote west.

Mineral pigments found arranged to correspond with cardinal directions. Researchers suspect that the western deposits may originally included red pigments that have faded over time. – Photo credit: Takeshi Inomata/University of Arizona

According to Independent Maya Expert Dr. James A. Doyle, “The cross shape and color symbolism embedded in the architecture physically embody the concept of how the Earth’s planes are organized and directed.” The BBC Science Focus article also highlights that “the dams and canals underscore the significance of water both practically and symbolically, which is mirrored in the blue and green pigments, shells, and greenstone products.”

Crucially, the new study published in Scientific Progress posits that the construction was a collective effort by a non-hierarchical community, as there is no evidence linking dwellings, palaces, or a central ruling class to late Maya architecture.

Given the size of the structures (Doyle describes them as “some of the largest ever constructed in this area”), it is believed that at least 1,000 individuals would have collaborated over several years to carve the rock and create the cosmogram.

These individuals were likely not coerced by an elite class but were part of an egalitarian society that sought a communal space for stargazing and sharing astronomical knowledge. These vast areas probably also served for trade, social interactions, and religious ceremonies.

Researchers believe this jade artifact depicts a woman in the act of giving birth. – Photo credit: Takeshi Inomata/University of Arizona

Archaeologists have uncovered not only pigments but also jade carvings, primarily reflecting natural experiences rather than deities or leaders. These carvings largely depict animals, although some seem to portray women in childbirth.

Doyle emphasizes that there is still much to uncover about social equality at Aguada Fénix, particularly concerning the enigmatic jade woman.

“What if she represented a strong leader, akin to figures seen in many later societies across Mesoamerica, the Caribbean, and the central Andes?” he queried.

“As excavations progress and our understanding of Aguada Fénix’s builders deepens, we will gain a clearer insight into the disparities in wealth and influence.”

Read more:

Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Astronomers Reveal Pleiades Star Cluster is Integral to a Vast Stellar Structure

Posted on November 14, 2025 by

The Pleiades star cluster, also referred to as the Seven Sisters and Messier 45, is an open star cluster situated around 440 light-years away from Earth in the Taurus constellation. It forms the central core of a larger network that includes several known star clusters scattered over 600 parsecs (1,950 light-years). This network is known as the Greater Pleiades Complex and comprises at least 3,091 stars.

Pleiades star cluster. Image credit: NASA / ESA / AURA / California Institute of Technology / Palomar Observatory.

Stars originate from clouds of dust and gas. Clumps of this material come together and eventually collapse under their gravity, creating the hot core that becomes a star.

Star formation typically occurs in bursts, with numerous stars being born in rapid succession.

A collection of stars that form from the same molecular cloud is known as a star cluster.

These stars remain gravitationally bound to one another for thousands of years.

Over tens to hundreds of millions of years, the materials that birthed them are expelled by cosmic winds, radiation, and various astrophysical phenomena.

As this occurs, individual stars can merge into their host galaxies, making it complex to ascertain their relationships and trace their origins, especially after more than 100 million years have elapsed.

In a recent study, Dr. Luke Buuma from the Carnegie Institution for Science Observatory and his colleagues concentrated on the Pleiades star cluster.

Utilizing data from NASA’s TESS mission, ESA’s Gaia spacecraft, and the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS), they discovered that this cluster is the core of a broader structure of related stars spanning over 1,950 light-years.

“We refer to this as the Greater Pleiades Complex,” Dr. Bouma stated.

“It includes at least three known groups of stars, and likely two additional ones.”

“We confirmed that most members of this structure have origins in the same gigantic stellar nursery.”

A key aspect of their methodology is that a star’s rotation rate decreases with age.

The study utilized a combination of TESS’s stellar rotation data (made to detect exoplanets) and Gaia’s stellar motion observations (designed for mapping the Milky Way).

With this information, they developed a new method based on rotation to identify stars that share common origins.

“For the first time, by amalgamating data from Gaia, TESS, and SDSS, we confidently identified a new member of the Pleiades cluster,” reported Dr. Buma.

“Data from each mission alone was not enough to reveal the full scope of the structure.”

“However, when we integrated stellar motions from Gaia, rotations from TESS, and chemical data from SDSS, a coherent picture took shape.”

“It’s akin to piecing together a jigsaw puzzle, where every dataset provides a different piece of a larger whole.”

Besides their comparable ages, the authors highlighted that the stars in the Greater Pleiades cluster share similar chemical compositions and were once much closer to one another.

The fifth generation of SDSS data was employed for the chemical abundance analysis.

“The Pleiades star cluster has been pivotal in human observations of stars since ancient times,” Dr. Buma remarked.

“This research marks a significant advancement in understanding the changes in the Pleiades star cluster since its formation 100 million years ago.”

The researchers believe their findings carry broad implications.

The Pleiades is not merely an astrophysical benchmark for young stars and exoplanets but also a significant cultural symbol, referenced in the Old Testament and Talmud, celebrated as Matariki in New Zealand, and represented on the Subaru logo in Japan.

Professor Andrew Mann of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill stated, “We are starting to understand that many stars near the Sun belong to extensive star clusters with intricate structures.”

“Our study provides a novel method to uncover these hidden connections.”

A paper detailing the survey results has been published this week in the Astrophysical Journal.

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Andrew W. Boyle et al. 2025. Missing Sister Found: TESS and Gaia Reveal Dissolving Pleiades Complex. APJ 994, 24; doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae0724

Source: www.sci.news

Astronomers Reveal Aging Stars Could Be Devouring Nearby Giant Exoplanets

Posted on November 6, 2025 by

During the concluding phase of their main sequence life, stars with mass comparable to the Sun experience a transformative evolution. This evolutionary process is likely to affect the surrounding planetary systems. As the star expands in its post-main-sequence stage, astronomers anticipate that most exoplanets detected to date may be engulfed by the growing star.

An artist’s impression of a sun-like star engulfing a giant exoplanet. Image credits: International Gemini Observatory / NOIRLab / NSF / AURA / M. Garlick / M. Zamani

Utilizing data from NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), astronomers Edward Bryant and Vincent Van Eylen studied 456,941 stars that have just commenced their post-main sequence phase.

By employing a computer algorithm, they targeted giant planets with short orbital periods (those that complete an orbit in less than 12 days) and searched for consistent dips in brightness that would indicate these planets transiting in front of their host stars.

They discovered 130 planets and planet candidates, including 33 previously unknown, closely orbiting these stars.

The researchers observed that such planets are less likely to exist around stars that have expanded and cooled sufficiently to be categorized as red giants (more evolved stars), implying that many of these planets might have already been destroyed.

Dr. Bryant, an astronomer at University College London and the University of Warwick, stated: “This provides compelling evidence that as stars progress beyond the main sequence, planets can rapidly spiral out of existence.”

“This topic has been debated and theorized for some time, but we can now observe this phenomenon directly and quantify it at the level of stellar populations.”

“We expected to observe this phenomenon, but we were still astonished by how effectively these stars can consume nearby planets.”

“This destruction is believed to stem from a gravitational tug-of-war between the planet and the star, known as tidal interactions.”

“As the star evolves and expands, these interactions intensify.”

“Just as the moon influences the Earth’s oceans, creating tides, planets also exert a pull on their stars.”

“These interactions decelerate the planet, reducing its orbit and causing it to spiral inward, ultimately resulting in its disintegration or absorption by the star.”

“In the coming billions of years, our sun will expand and transform into a red giant,” mentioned Dr. Van Eylen, an astronomer at University College London.

“Will the planets in our solar system endure this transformation? Our findings suggest that, in some instances, planets do not survive.”

“Earth may be better off than the giant planets much closer to the stars we examine.”

“However, we only analyzed the initial part of the post-main-sequence phase, spanning the first one or two million years. There is still ample opportunity for stellar evolution.”

“Unlike the giant planets lost in our investigation, Earth has the potential to endure the Sun’s red giant phase. However, life on Earth is likely to be extinguished.”

The team’s paper was published on October 15, 2025, in Royal Astronomical Society Monthly Notices.

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Edward M. Bryant and Vincent Van Eylen. 2025. Determine the impact of post-main sequence stellar evolution on the population of passing giant planets. MNRAS 544 (1): 1186-1214; doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf1771

Source: www.sci.news

NOvA and T2K Experiments Reveal Unexpected Characteristics of Neutrinos

Posted on October 28, 2025 by

Both the NOvA (NuMI Off-Axis νe Emergence Experiment) and T2K experiments involve launching neutrinos from a particle accelerator and detecting them after they traverse extensive underground distances. The challenges are significant: out of trillions of particles, only a few leave a trace that can be detected. Advanced detectors and software are then employed to reconstruct these rare events, offering insights into how the “flavor” of neutrinos alters as they travel.

The world’s first neutrino observation inside a hydrogen bubble chamber, captured on November 13, 1970, in a 12-foot bubble chamber at a zero-gradient synchrotron. Here, an invisible neutrino collides with a proton, resulting in three particle tracks (bottom right). The neutrino changes into a muon, marked by a lengthy orbit extending up and to the left. The shorter track represents the proton, while the third track extending down and to the left is the pion formed by the collision. Image credit: Argonne National Laboratory.

Neutrinos are among the most prevalent particles in the universe.

With no charge and minimal mass, they are notoriously difficult to detect. Yet, this very elusiveness contributes to their scientific significance.

Understanding neutrinos may shed light on one of the greatest mysteries in cosmology: the reason the universe consists of matter.

Theoretically, the Big Bang should have resulted in equal parts matter and antimatter, which would have completely annihilated each other upon meeting, releasing energy in the process.

However, during the Big Bang, an imbalance occurred, producing a greater abundance of matter, which eventually led to the formation of stars, galaxies, and life as we know it.

Physicists theorize that neutrinos hold the key to this conundrum.

There are three types, or “flavors,” of neutrinos: electron, muon, and tau, which are different versions of the same fundamental particle.

They possess a unique ability to oscillate, changing from one flavor to another as they traverse space. Studying these oscillations and examining any differences between neutrinos and their antimatter counterparts could provide insights into why matter triumphed over antimatter in the nascent universe.

“Understanding these various identities could help scientists gain insight into neutrino masses and address significant questions regarding the universe’s evolution, including why matter became dominant over antimatter,” stated Dr. Zoya Valari, a physicist at Ohio State University.

“What makes neutrinos particularly intriguing is their ability to change their ‘taste.’”

“Consider this: you buy chocolate ice cream, stroll down the street, and suddenly it turns mint, only to change again with every step you take.”

To delve deeper into this shape-shifting behavior, the NOvA and T2K experiments partnered to direct neutrino particle beams over hundreds of kilometers.

NOvA projects a beam of neutrinos from a source at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory near Chicago, traveling 500 miles to a 14,000-ton detector in Ash River, Minnesota.

On the other hand, Japan’s T2K sends a neutrino beam 295 km from the J-PARC accelerator in Tokai to the enormous Super-Kamiokande detector situated beneath Mt. Ikenoyama.

“While our objectives are aligned, the distinct experimental designs mean that synthesizing the data yields more comprehensive insights, making the whole greater than the sum of its parts,” Dr. Valari remarked.

This study builds upon earlier findings that noted minor yet significant variations in the masses of different types of neutrinos. Researchers sought deeper clues indicating that neutrinos might operate beyond the conventional laws of physics.

One such inquiry involves whether neutrinos and their antimatter counterparts exhibit different behaviors—a phenomenon referred to as charge parity violation.

“Our results indicate that additional data are needed to adequately address these fundamental questions,” Dr. Valari said.

“This underscores the importance of developing the next generation of experiments.”

Research indicates that employing two experiments with varying baselines and energies is more likely to yield answers than relying solely on a single experiment. Consequently, consolidating results from both experiments allowed scientists to explore these urgent physics questions from diverse perspectives.

“This research is extremely complex, involving hundreds of contributors in each collaborative effort,” said John Beacom, a professor at Ohio State University.

“Collaboration in science is typically competitive, but our work together here highlights the high stakes involved.”

For further details, see the new discovery published in the journal Nature.

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NOvA collaboration and T2K collaboration. 2025. Joint neutrino oscillation analysis using T2K and NOvA experiments. Nature 646, 818-824; doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09599-3

Source: www.sci.news

Two New Edmontosaurus anectens Specimens Reveal Scale and Hoof Details

Posted on October 24, 2025 by

Paleontologists studied two remarkable specimens of end-Cretaceous duck-billed dinosaurs, Edmontosaurus anectens. They employed various imaging techniques to reconstruct the species’ physical appearance during its life, showcasing features such as the prominent crest over the neck and torso, a row of spikes on the tail, and the hooves covering the toes. Alongside fossilized footprints, Edmontosaurus anectens is now in my grasp.

Reconstruction of the life of Edmontosaurus anectens. Image credit: Dani Navarro.

“This marks the first time we’ve been able to capture a comprehensive and specific depiction of a large dinosaur,” stated researchers from the University of Chicago, including Professor Paul Sereno, the lead author of the study.

“The badlands of Wyoming, where this discovery occurred, serve as a unique ‘mummy zone’, promising additional surprises from fossils collected over years by a team of university undergraduates.”

Professor Sereno and colleagues utilized historical photographs and field research to outline a compact “mummy zone” in central-eastern Wyoming, home to several notable dinosaur “mummies” unearthed in the early 20th century.

They discovered two new mummies within piles of river sand: Edmontosaurus anectens — consisting of juveniles and adults — which preserved a large, continuous area of the external skin surface.

Using these specimens, they reconstructed a complete, fleshy profile of the species.

“The two specimens complemented each other exceptionally well,” Professor Sereno remarked.

“For the first time, we could visualize the entire outline rather than isolated patches.”

Paleontologists identified a continuous midline feature that begins as a fleshy crest along the neck and torso, transitioning into a row of spikes across the hips and down the tail. Each spike was identified on a single vertebra and interlocked with one another.

The lower body and tail featured the largest polygonal scales, while the majority were small, pebble-like scales just 1 to 4 millimeters in diameter, surprisingly tiny for a dinosaur exceeding 12 meters (40 feet) in length.

Wrinkles on the thorax indicate that this dinosaur had thin skin.

The hind legs of the significant “mummy” revealed the most unexpected finding: hooves.

The tips of each of the three hind legs were encased in wedge-shaped hooves with flat soles, akin to a horse’s.

Researchers utilized CT scans of the specimen’s feet and 3D images of the best-preserved footprints from the same era to accurately map the former to the latter.

Data from both sources enabled precise reconstruction of the hind paw’s appearance.

In contrast to the front feet, which made contact with the ground solely via the hooves, the hind feet featured thick heel pads behind the hooves.

“These duck-billed ‘mummies’ reveal several remarkable ‘firsts’: the oldest hooves ever found in a land vertebrate, the first ungulate reptile identified, and the first ungulate quadruped exhibiting distinct front and hind limb postures,” Professor Sereno asserted.

The team’s paper was published in today’s magazine, Science.

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Paul C. Sereno et al. 2025. The fleshy midline and hooves of a duck-billed dinosaur reveal a template for terrestrial clay ‘mummification.’ Science, published online October 23, 2025. doi: 10.1126/science.adw3536

Source: www.sci.news

This Unusual Optical Illusion Could Reveal Insights into Animal Thought Processes

Posted on October 21, 2025 by

A recent study reveals that certain optical illusions can deceive some animals, though not all. This emerging research may offer fresh insights into how perception influences survival and evolution in different species.

The optical illusion examined in this research is known as the Ebbinghaus illusion, where two identical circles appear different in size because one is encircled by a larger circle, while the other is surrounded by a smaller one.

When observing the illusion overall, the outer circle misleads our brain into perceiving the inner circle as a different size. However, focusing solely on the inner circles reveals that they are indeed the same.

Our susceptibility to this illusion hinges on how our brains interpret visual information, whether as a cohesive whole or detailed parts.

To investigate how various animals perceive their surroundings, scientists at the University of Vienna in Austria recreated the Ebbinghaus illusion using bait, arranging circles of differing sizes around a central bait area.

The two orange circles are identical, yet the left one seems smaller due to the larger circle surrounding it. Conversely, the right circle appears larger – Credit: Getty Images

Next, they observed the responses of two fish species: guppies (Poecilia reticulata) and ring doves (Streptopelia risoria).

The findings indicated that guppies are reliably deceived by optical illusions, similar to humans; they often preferred to consume fish flakes within a smaller circle, perceiving them as larger food items.

In contrast, ring doves exhibited varying responses; some birds chose millet seeds surrounded by a smaller circle, while others opted for those within a larger circle.

The researchers concluded that these choices highlight how each species is uniquely equipped to interact with its environment and tackle its challenges.

For instance, guppies inhabit shallow tropical rivers, where they encounter flickering lights, thick vegetation, swift predators, and numerous other guppies.

Guppies might be influenced by an illusion, suggesting they perceive their environment contextually rather than focusing on minute details – Credit: Getty Images

Researchers believe that for guppies, quick judgment of which fish are safe in a visually cluttered environment is crucial for survival. Thus, making rapid decisions could be advantageous.

Conversely, wood pigeons spend their lives on the ground, foraging for seeds. For them, noticing fine details could be more beneficial than analyzing the broader scene.

Nevertheless, scientists have observed that some pigeons react as if they are misled by a hallucination, indicating variability within species, much like humans.

Overall, the team concluded that optical illusions can provide a valuable lens through which to explore the diverse perceptions across species.

read more:

Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Apollo 17 Moon Samples Reveal Uncommon Sulfur, New Analysis Indicates

Posted on October 8, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

The prevailing theory regarding the origin of the Moon suggests it formed from a colossal impact event involving Earth and a body known as Theia. The degree to which materials from these two celestial objects mixed during this event is still debated. Poor mixing may leave traces of the original atomic and/or Theia composition. The sulfur isotopic makeup of the primordial materials that survived the impact can help establish parameters concerning the chemistry of the early solar nebula, the sulfur distribution in the early solar system, and the efficiency of mixing during this significant lunar impact event. In a recent study, researchers from Brown University and other institutions present intriguing sulfur isotope data derived from lunar rocks collected from the Taurus Littrow region during Apollo 17. Their analysis reveals that the volcanic material in the samples is significantly depleted in sulfur-33. This depletion sharply contrasts with sulfur isotope ratios found on Earth, suggesting the likelihood of:

Commander Eugene Cernan retrieves a drive tube from a lunar roving vehicle during Apollo 17 EVA. Image credit: NASA.

Some elements possess distinct “fingerprints” through specific isotopic ratios, revealing slight variations in atomic weights.

If two rocks share the same isotopic fingerprint, it strongly indicates a common origin.

In terms of the Moon and Earth, researchers have identified general similarities in the oxygen isotopes of both bodies.

Dr. James Dottin, a researcher from Brown University, stated:

“Previously, it was assumed that the Moon’s mantle shared the same sulfur isotope composition as Earth.”

“This was the anticipated outcome when we examined these samples, yet we observed values markedly different from those found on Earth.”

The sample under investigation was sourced from a double-drive tube—a hollow metal cylinder driven approximately 60 cm into the lunar soil by Apollo 17 astronauts Gene Cernan and Harrison Schmidt.

Upon returning to Earth, NASA secured the tube in a helium chamber to preserve the sample for future studies under the Apollo Next Generation Sample Analysis (ANGSA) program.

In recent years, NASA has begun to make ANGSA samples accessible to academic researchers via a competitive application process.

Dr. Dottin and his team chose secondary ion mass spectrometry for sulfur isotopic analysis. This precise analytical method did not exist in 1972 when the samples were initially returned to Earth.

For their research, they targeted specific samples from drive tubes believed to originate from mantle-derived volcanic rocks.

“There are two possible explanations for the anomalous sulfur,” Dr. Dottin explained.

They may represent remnants of chemical processes that took place during the Moon’s early history.

When sulfur interacts with ultraviolet light in a thin atmosphere, a diminished sulfur-33 ratio can be observed.

It is theorized that the Moon had a transient atmosphere in its early history, which could have facilitated such photochemical reactions.

If this is indeed the case, it would have interesting implications for the Moon’s evolutionary history.

“This offers evidence of ancient material transfer from the lunar surface into the mantle,” Dr. Dottin said.

“On Earth, we rely on plate tectonics for this process, but the Moon lacks such tectonic activity.”

“Thus, the idea of some form of exchange mechanism on the early Moon is thrilling.”

Alternatively, the unusual sulfur signatures could be remnants from the Moon’s formation itself.

The prevailing theory states that a Mars-sized object named Theia collided with Earth early on, with debris from that impact eventually forming the Moon.

The sulfur signatures from Theia differ significantly from those of Earth, and these differences may be reflected in the Moon’s mantle.

This study does not definitively resolve which explanation is accurate.

“Investigating sulfur isotopes from Mars and other celestial bodies may someday provide insights,” Dr. Dottin remarked.

“Ultimately, a better understanding of isotopic distributions will enhance our comprehension of solar system formation.”

study Published in Journal of Geophysics: Planets.

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JW Dottin III et al. 2025. Endogenous yet exotic sulfur in the lunar mantle. JGR: Planet 130(9):e2024je008834; doi:10.1029/2024je008834

Source: www.sci.news

Paleontologists Reveal Multiple Instances of Marine Fish Migrating to Freshwater

Posted on October 7, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

The fish supergroup earball, recognized for its superior hearing abilities, includes two-thirds of freshwater fish species. They were previously believed to have originated in freshwater prior to the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea. This suggests an almost 80 million-year span from their inception to the earliest known fossils. However, the discovery of Acronichthys MacCognoi—a newly identified freshwater ear fish species from the late Cretaceous period—challenges this assumption.

Reconstruction of the Weberian apparatus in Acronichthys MacCognoi. The central golden bone arises from the rib bones (indicated in grey) that connect the fish’s air bladder (left) to the inner ear (right). Image credit: University of California, Berkeley Ken Chronicle.

Underwater ears require a distinct anatomy compared to those that sense airborne sounds.

Many terrestrial vertebrates have evolved eardrum-like structures that vibrate in response to sound waves.

These eardrums amplify sounds, moving bone arrays, similar to the malleus, incus, and stapes found in human middle ears, which then stimulate the fluid-filled inner ear.

In contrast, sound waves travel through fish, which have a density similar to that of the surrounding water.

Consequently, fish have developed an air-filled bladder that vibrates in response to sound passing through it.

These vibrations are then transferred to the fish’s inner ear in a basic manner in most saltwater species.

However, specialized fish have developed bony structures known as “bones” between the air bladder and inner ear (a system called Weberian apparatus), enhancing the amplification and range of frequencies detectable by their ears. For instance, zebrafish can detect frequencies of up to 15,000 Hz, nearing the human limit of 20,000 Hz.

The reason for these fish’s need to hear high frequencies remains unclear, though it may relate to their existence in varied and complex environments, from swift currents to still lakes.

“reason Acronichthys Maccagnoi Professor Neil Banerjee, a researcher at Western University, noted:

“This represents the oldest known North American member of the group and offers invaluable data for documenting the origins and early evolution of numerous freshwater fish species existing today.”

Acronichthys Maccagnoi thrived in the late Cretaceous period roughly 67 million years ago.

The authors utilized microCT scans of 4 cm long fossils to investigate their Weber structure.

They also studied the genomes and morphology of contemporary fish to refine the evolutionary lineage of freshwater species and simulate frequency responses of the middle ear structures of fossil fish.

Their model indicates that even 67 million years ago, Otophysan fish may have possessed hearing sensitivity on par with today’s zebrafish.

“We were uncertain if this constituted a fully functional Weberian device, but the simulation proved effective,” stated Dr. Juan Liu, a paleontologist at the University of California, Berkeley.

“The Weberian apparatus suggests it’s less sensitive than that of zebrafish.”

“However, the peak sensitivity frequency is not as low as that of zebrafish (500-1,000 Hz). This is not an insignificant finding, and it’s conceivable that this ancient Otophysan fish achieved a higher hearing frequency.”

This discovery indicates that at least two transitions from marine to freshwater species occurred during the evolution of otolaryngology.

Researchers estimate the divergence times for ear plants migrating from ocean to freshwater habitats occurred around 154 million years ago (late Jurassic period), following the fragmentation of Pangaea around 200 million years ago.

“Dinosaurs are fascinating, attracting significant attention, which means we know a lot about them. However, there’s still much to uncover regarding the diversity of prehistoric freshwater fish.”

“Many keys to understanding the origins of the groups that currently dominate rivers and lakes worldwide can be found in Canadian fossil sites.”

A paper detailing these findings was published in the journal Science on October 2nd.

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Juan Liu et al. 2025. Marine origin and freshwater radiation of ENT. Science 390 (6768): 65-69; doi: 10.1126/science.adr4494

Source: www.sci.news

Remarkable Images Reveal the Effects of Common Antibiotics on E. coli

Posted on September 29, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

The above image displays untreated E. coli bacteria, with the lower image showing the effects of polymyxin B after 90 minutes.

Carolina Borrelli, Edward Douglas et al./Nature Microbiology

High-resolution microscopy unveils how polymyxins, a class of antibiotics, penetrate bacterial defenses, offering insights for developing treatments against drug-resistant infections.

Polymyxins serve as a last-resort option for treating Gram-negative bacteria responsible for serious infections like pneumonia, meningitis, and typhoid fever. “The priority pathogens identified by the top three health agencies globally are predominantly Gram-negative bacteria, highlighting their complex cell envelopes,” states Andrew Edwards from Imperial College London.

These bacteria possess an outer layer of lipopolysaccharides that functions as armor. While it was known that polymyxins target this layer, the mechanisms of their action and the reasons for inconsistent effectiveness remained unclear.

In a pivotal study, Edwards and his team employed biochemical experiments combined with nuclear power microscopy, capturing details at the nanoscale. They discovered that polymyxin B, amongst other treatments, actively targets E. coli cells.

Shortly after treatment commenced, the bacteria rapidly began releasing lipopolysaccharides.

Researchers observed that the presence of antibiotics prompted bacteria to attempt to assimilate more lipopolysaccharide “bricks” into their protective walls. However, this effort resulted in gaps, allowing antibiotics to penetrate and destroy the bacteria.

“Antibiotics are likened to tools that aid in the removal of these ‘bricks’,” Edwards explains. “While the outer membrane doesn’t entirely collapse, gaps appear, providing an entryway for antibiotics to access the internal membrane.”

The findings also elucidate why antibiotics occasionally fail: they predominantly affect active, growing bacteria. When in a dormant state, polymyxin B becomes ineffective as these bacteria do not produce armor strong enough to withstand environmental pressures.

E. coli images exposed to polymyxin B illustrate changes to the outer membrane over time: untreated, 15 mins, 30 mins, 60 mins, and 90 mins.

Carolina Borrelli, Edward Douglas et al./Nature Microbiology

Interestingly, researchers found that introducing sugar to E. coli could awaken dormant cells, prompting armor production to resume within 15 minutes, leading to cell destruction. This phenomenon is thought to be applicable to other polymyxins, such as polymyxin E, used therapeutically.

Edwards proposes that targeting dormant bacteria with sugar might be feasible, though it poses the risk of hastening their growth. “We don’t want bacteria at infection sites rapidly proliferating due to this stimulation,” he cautions. Instead, he advocates for the potential to combine various drugs to bypass dormancy without reactivating the bacteria.

topic:

Source: www.newscientist.com

Fossils from the Oligocene Cycle Reveal Pollination Interactions Between Flowers and Marchalace

Posted on September 23, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Paleontologists have examined fossilized flowers and bees dating back 24 million years, following the scarcity in Enspel, Germany, and unveiled new species of Linden. These include Tilia Magna Separa and two newly identified bumblebee species, Bombos (Chrono Bombos) Mesegas and Timebombus Palaeocrater. The presence of identical tyria pollen in both the flowers and on the outer surfaces of the bumblebees serves as direct evidence of their interactions, identifying Bombos as a pollinator of Tyria. At least due to the late decline, we remain anchored in the present.

Tilia Magna Separa. Image credit: Christian Geier.

“We analyzed countless fossil flowers and insect pollens in hopes of understanding the evolution of flowers, their visitors, and the pollination process,” stated Dr. Friðgeir Grímsson, a researcher at the University of Vienna.

“These microscopic pollen grains were made visible using UV and blue light, and then extracted individually from flower or insect hair, or aggregated from insects, with the aid of extremely thin needles and minimal invasive techniques.”

The pollen grains underwent careful washing and were analyzed using high-resolution light and electron microscopes.

Many of the flowers studied originated from Linden trees, with numerous bumblebees visiting Linden flowers prior to their fossilization in an ancient volcanic crater lake.

“The newly identified linden flower has been named Tilia Magna Separa,” said Christian Geier, a doctoral student at the University of Vienna.

“Additionally, two new bumblebee species have been identified: Bombos (Chrono Bombos) Mesegas and Bombos (Time Bombos) Pereoctor.”

The fossils were uncovered during the excavation of lake sediments from the former volcanic lake near Enspel in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany.

“Tilia Magna Separa marks the first recorded flowers from the European continent, characterized and described as per pollenological standards—the science of pollen,” the researchers noted.

“The fossil bumblebees rank among the oldest representatives of their genus, with only one species from Colorado, USA, predating them.”

“This is the first instance globally where a fossil flower and its pollinator bee have been described arising from the same deposits, with pollen linking them directly,” Geier remarked.

“Such research holds significant potential to enhance our understanding of past pollinator dynamics.”

The Fossil Record offers insights into the evolutionary developments of the past, revealing changes due to climate shifts, species extinction, and evolutionary adaptation.

By analyzing fossilized animal and plant groups, we can infer their behaviors and reactions to environmental changes.

“Our research allowed us to identify specific flower homeostasis among the bumblebees studied,” Geier explained.

“This indicates that they tend to visit only one type of plant during a single flight.”

“These findings are crucial for gaining a deeper understanding of the delicate interactions and resilience within today’s ecosystems.”

The study was published today in the journal New Botanist.

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Christian Gayer et al. 24 million years of pollination interaction between European linden flowers and bumble bees. New Botanist, published online on September 22, 2025. doi: 10.1111/nph.7053

Source: www.sci.news

Scientists Reveal That Liquid Water Once Flowed Through the Parent Body of Asteroid Ryugu

Posted on September 22, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

This water flow took place on ancient asteroids over a billion years after their formation, likely due to the heat generated by melting ice, which caused rock fractures that facilitated water movement. JAXA’s Hayabusa-2 Spacecraft.

This image of the asteroid was taken on June 26, 2018, by JAXA’s Hayabusa-2 Spacecraft optical navigation camera – telescopic (ONC-T). Image credits: JAXA / University of Tokyo / Kochi University / Ricchiho University / Nagoya University / Chiba University of Technology / Nishimura University / Aizu University / AIST.

Ryugu is a CG-type asteroid close to Earth and part of the Polana family of impact asteroids.

The diamond-shaped body, also known as 1999 JU3, was identified by astronomers in May 1999 during asteroid studies near Lincoln.

Its diameter measures about 900 m (0.56 miles), and it orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.96-1.41 Astronomical Units (AU) every 474 days.

“We have a relatively good understanding of how the solar system was formed, though many gaps remain,” said Shiyoshijima, a researcher at the University of Tokyo.

“One gap in our knowledge is how Earth acquired its water.”

“It has long been known that carbonaceous asteroids, originating from ice and dust in the outer solar system, have contributed water to Earth.”

“We discovered that Ryugu preserves an unaltered record of water activity, indicating that liquid water moved through the rock much later than previously anticipated,” added Dr. Ikemoto.

“This shifts our understanding of the long-term fate of water on asteroids. The water has remained for an extended period and hasn’t been depleted as quickly as we thought.”

In this study, the authors examined the isotopes of lutetium (Lu) and hafnium (HF), with the radioactive decay from lutetium-176 to hafnium-176 serving as a sort of clock to gauge geological processes.

The expected presence of these isotopes in the studied sample was hypothesized to correlate with the asteroid’s age in a predictable manner.

However, the ratio of Hafnium-176 to Lutetium-176 was significantly unexpected.

This strongly suggests to researchers that the liquid effectively washed away lutetium from the rocks containing it.

“We anticipated that Ryugu’s chemical signatures would align with certain meteorites currently under examination on Earth,” Dr. Iizuka stated.

“However, the results were strikingly different, necessitating the careful elimination of other possible explanations, ultimately concluding that the Lu-HF system was hindered by a delayed liquid flow.”

“The most probable triggers involved the parent body of Ryugu’s larger asteroid, which disrupted the rocks, melting the embedded ice and allowing liquid water to permeate the body.”

“It was truly surprising! This impact event could be the catalyst for the parent body disruption.”

One of the crucial implications is that carbon-rich asteroids may be a significant source of water for Earth, supplying far more than previously estimated.

Ryugu’s parent body seems to have retained ice for over a billion years. This suggests that similar bodies impacting the young Earth could have delivered 2-3 times more water than standard models predict, significantly influencing the planet’s early oceans and atmosphere.

“The notion that a Ryugu-like object has preserved ice for such an extended time is remarkable,” Dr. Ikemoto remarked.

“It implies that Earth’s components were far wetter than we had imagined.”

“This prompts a reevaluation of the initial conditions for the planetary water system.”

“It’s still early to draw definitive conclusions, but my team and others may build on this research to clarify various aspects, including how our planet became habitable.”

The findings will be published in the journal Nature.

____

T. Iizuka et al. Late fluid flow of primitive asteroids revealed by Lu-HF isotopes of Lu. Nature. Published online on September 10th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09483-0

Source: www.sci.news

Why Do Some Gamers Reverse Their Controls? Scientists Reveal Surprising Insights | Games

Posted on September 18, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

fA few years ago, just before the first Covid lockdown, I wrote an article exploring a rather niche query. Most gamers press down on the controller, gazing at the characters on their screens as they look up. However, controlling avatars like pilots represents a significant minority who handle their characters as if they were piloting, returning to control the plane and ascend. In many modern games, this necessitates diving into settings to adjust the default controls. Why has this practice persisted?

I figured some hardcore gamers might find this topic intriguing. To my surprise, the article resonated with over a million readers, drawing the attention of Dr. Jennifer Corbett (cited in the original piece) and Dr. Jap Munneke.

At that time, the two were investigating vision science and cognitive neuroscience, but the lockdown meant they could no longer conduct lab experiments with volunteers. The issue of controller inversion presented an ideal chance to analyze the neuroscience behind human-computer interactions using remote participants. They reached out to gamers who contributed insights into the motivations behind their controller preferences, garnering hundreds of responses.

Microsoft Flight Simulator… Many believed that being a pilot would affect control retention. Photo: Microsoft

Interestingly, it wasn’t just gamers who were engaged. “Machinists, equipment operators, pilots, designers, and surgeons — individuals from diverse fields reached out,” Corbett noted. “The variety of responses signaled a wealth of scientific literature to examine for structuring optimal research. The feedback from readers prompted us to refine how users customize their controllers.”

This month, the duo released their findings in a paper titled “Why Axis Inversion? Optimizing the Interaction Between Users, Interfaces and Visual Displays in a 3D Environment.” Why do some people choose to invert their controls? It’s a complex issue.

The study commenced with participants completing a survey detailing their background and gaming experiences. “Numerous individuals indicated that their preference for flipping controls stemmed from their early experiences with flight simulators or the first console games they played,” Corbett explained. “Many reported changing their preferences over time, prompting us to include an entirely new section in our research based on this input.”

Mental rotation… Subjects engaging in the controller inversion study. Photo: Jen Corbett

However, Corbett and Munneke, currently based at MIT, were convinced that critical cognitive aspects of inversion could only be assessed through behavioral reactions. They developed a sequence of four experiments, in which participants were monitored via Zoom. Corbett elaborated, “They had to mentally rotate random shapes, adopt the perspective of the ‘avatar’ in the scenario, judge the tilt of an object against a differing background, and navigate the typical ‘Simon effect’ when responding to targets while using a machine. These varied tasks clarified whether an individual tends to invert.”

The outcomes of the cognitive evaluations revealed that many assumptions surrounding controller preferences were indeed incorrect. “There was no discernible reason provided by participants [for inverting controls],” Corbett stated. “It was linked to their actual inversion habits. The quicker participants were, the less inclined they were to invert. Conversely, those who identified as occasional invertors were significantly slower in these tasks.” Does this imply that non-inverters excel at gaming?

In essence, gamers believe they are inverters or non-inverters based on their initial exposure to game controls. Many flight simulators from the 1980s may have conditioned players to instinctively turn themselves around. Conversely, gamers raised in the 2000s might assume they are inherently non-inverted, given that non-reverse controls became the norm. Yet cognitive testing suggests otherwise. Depending on how your brain perceives 3D objects, you may be predisposed to either invert or not.

Consequently, Corbett suggests that trying out a controller configuration you’re not accustomed to might enhance your gaming skills. “Non-inverters should experiment with inverting. Inverters should consider giving non-inversion a fair shot,” she suggests. “You might want to commit to it for a few hours. People have learned one way, but that doesn’t necessarily mean they can’t excel with the alternative. A parallel can be drawn with left-handed children who are compelled to write with their right hand, potentially leading to long-term handwriting difficulties and learning challenges.”

Through their research, Corbett and Munneke established that complex, often subconscious cognitive processes govern how individuals utilize controllers, affecting not just gaming hardware but also human-computer interfaces across various fields, from aviation to surgical technology. They crafted a framework for assessing how to optimally tailor controls for individuals, now detailed in their published research.

Learning curves… Corbett and Munneke’s research can also influence surgical practices. Photo: Oksana Krasiuk/Alamy

“This research has significant potential for optimizing inverted settings to enhance human-machine collaboration,” Corbett stated. “Many technologies blend human capabilities with AI and various machines to amplify performance. It allows individuals to tailor a specific configuration for tasks—whether aiming for a target or avoiding a mistake—such as in laparoscopic surgery.”

What began as a casual, almost nerdy inquiry has evolved into a published cognitive research document. One scientific publication has already referenced it, and interview requests have surged from podcasts and YouTube channels. What’s my takeaway? “The most remarkable discoveries for gamers [who don’t invert],” Corbett remarked:

Source: www.theguardian.com

How Your Nose Can Reveal Insights into Your Mental State

Posted on September 11, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

It’s no surprise that stress is a key factor in various health issues, including mental health disorders like anxiety and depression, as well as physical ailments such as heart disease. There’s an urgent need for a straightforward, objective, and non-invasive method to study and assess stress. Interestingly, the temperature of an individual’s nose might provide valuable insights.

Our stress levels are shaped by our mental perceptions of situations and our physical responses to them. Factors such as genetics, social influences, and cultural backgrounds contribute to our unique stress responses.

Traditionally, stress has been measured in two ways. First, surveys are commonly used, typically administered after stress has occurred, which can disconnect participants from their immediate experiences. These surveys are also subjective; not everyone accurately identifies or articulates their feelings.

The second approach involves monitoring physical indicators like blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory patterns. While these measures can appear more objective, they require specialized equipment in clinical settings, which can disrupt daily life. Ironically, the process of testing can itself induce stress, leading to an increase in the very markers being measured.

Exciting advancements in science suggest that thermal imaging, originally designed for identifying heat loss in structures, is now proving invaluable in tracking medical conditions related to temperature variations, such as infections, inflammation, and tumors. Researchers are now utilizing thermal cameras to assess stress levels based on facial temperature changes. Their research explores how temperature variations in the face can indicate stress.

When we experience stress, blood flow is redirected within our bodies. The nervous system prioritizes blood flow to vital sensory organs, such as the eyes and ears, while reducing blood circulation to the nose. This reduction in blood flow is detected as a decrease in temperature by thermal cameras. This phenomenon, known as “nose dip,” isn’t exclusive to humans; it has also been observed in both adults and children, as well as in nonhuman primates, suggesting an evolutionary connection to stress responses.

While undergoing stress, our nervous systems can redirect blood flow to heighten sensory awareness, resulting in a cooler nose. Since the nose remains relatively still, these temperature changes can serve as a clear indicator of stress.

The integration of thermal imaging with existing stress measurement techniques could revolutionize stress research. This method offers continuous monitoring in a non-intrusive manner, eliminating the need for lab environments or stressful questionnaires.

In the future, we may be able to utilize nose temperature as a form of biofeedback to help manage stress levels. This approach could support individuals—especially those who struggle to communicate their stress—by allowing for the monitoring of stress levels in high-pressure environments such as emergency rooms, trading floors, or even zoos.

Studies indicate that recognizing stress responses can enhance stress management. Making stress visible allows individuals to better understand its impacts on their mental and physical well-being before, during, and after stressful situations. The future of stress research promises to be groundbreaking.

Gillian Forrester is a professor of comparative cognition at the University of Sussex, UK. Tune in to hear her speak at New Scientist Live on October 18th.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Polls Reveal Half of UK Adults Fear AI Will Impact Jobs

Posted on August 27, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Half of adults in the UK express worries about artificial intelligence affecting their employment, prompting union leaders to advocate for a significant shift in the government’s strategy towards emerging technologies.

The primary concern for 51% of the 2,600 adults surveyed by the Trade Union Council was job loss or alterations to contract terms.

AI poses a specific worry for workers aged 25 to 34, with nearly two-thirds (62%) of participants in this age group sharing such apprehensions.

The TUC’s survey results coincide with announcements from major employers, including BT, Amazon, and Microsoft, indicating potential job cuts due to advancements in AI over recent months.

The UK job market is experiencing a slowdown amid an easing economy, with the official unemployment rate reaching 4.7% for the first time in four years; however, most economists do not attribute this to increased investment in AI.

While the TUC recognizes that AI technology could benefit employees and enhance public services, it urges the government to involve both workers and unions in the deployment of AI to safeguard jobs and offer training for roles replaced by AI.

Half of those surveyed (50%) wish to have a say in how AI is implemented in the workplace and the broader economy, as opposed to leaving this decision solely to businesses, with only 17% against this idea.

As part of its AI strategy, the TUC is calling for conditions to be attached to the substantial public funds allocated for AI research and development, ensuring that workers are not displaced by innovative technologies.

Furthermore, it is essential for companies to share the “digital dividends” from productivity improvements achieved through AI by investing in employee training and skills, enhancing wages and working conditions, and involving workers in corporate decision-making processes, including representation on boards.

Union representatives have cautioned that without such regulations, allowing workers to influence AI usage, the rise of new technologies may result in “prolonged inequality,” worsened working conditions, and increasing social unrest.

The TUC has insisted on the need to strengthen the UK’s social security and skills systems to support and reskill workers whose jobs are threatened by AI advancements.

Kate Bell, TUC’s assistant secretary, stated: “AI holds transformative potential, and if developed correctly, it can enhance productivity, benefiting workers.”

She further noted: “The alternative is grim. In unchecked and improper hands, the AI revolution might establish deepening inequality as jobs decline or vanish, with shareholders growing wealthier.”

Source: www.theguardian.com

Insights from the Thylacine Genome Reveal Reasons for Its Extinction

Posted on August 27, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Thylacines were once found throughout Australia and New Guinea

Robert Nickelsberg/Getty Images

SEI 263374247 — Thylacines were once found throughout Australia and New Guinea

Robert Nickelsberg/Getty Images

The extinction of crucial genes over the millennia since humans arrived in Australia may have made the thylacine more prone to extinction.

The thylacine, also known as the Tasmanian tiger (Thylacinus cynocephalus), was the last remaining member of a marsupial family called Thylacinidae, which once thrived in Australia and New Guinea.

It became extinct on mainland Australia around 2000 years ago, primarily due to human hunting and competition with dingoes. After European settlers arrived in Tasmania, the animal was targeted by farmers and government bounties, leading to the last of its kind dying in 1936 at Hobart Zoo.

Nagarjun Vijay and Buddha Bhashan Gilish Salv from the Institute of Science and Education in Bhopal, India, grew fascinated by the Tasmanian tiger’s genome while studying that of the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris).

“We noticed some parallels between the extinction of thylacines and our own tiger,” Vijay notes. “There’s a significant push to protect Indian tigers.”

The duo theorized that hypercarnivores like the Bengal and Tasmanian tigers may have lost vital genes through their evolutionary journey in response to environmental shifts and emerging diseases.

They examined genetic data previously obtained from thylacine specimens and compared these to the genome of the Tasmanian devil, a close relative (Sarcophilus harrisii), along with other marsupials.

Unlike nearly all other marsupials, including the Tasmanian devil, the thylacine has lost at least four crucial genes: SAMD9L, HSD17B13, CUZD1, and VWA7.

Vijay found it surprising that this genetic loss did not occur after Tasmania’s populace was isolated due to rising sea levels roughly 10,000 years ago.

This genetic loss may have been beneficial under certain historical conditions, but can hinder species health by diminishing antiviral defense, metabolic functions, lactation, as well as increasing susceptibility to cancer and pancreatitis.

Thylacines lost SAMD9L, CUZD1, and VWA7 at least 6 million years ago, coinciding with a significant climatic transition when species sizes increased dramatically, resulting in an oversaturation of carnivores entirely dependent on meat.

“The overarching narrative is that much of the human influence, or artificial changes, has perpetually shaped the extinction of thylacines,” Vijay states. “We speculated that there would be lost genes linked to disease, and that’s exactly what we uncovered.”

Timothy Churchill from the University of New South Wales in Sydney emphasizes that climate change over the course of human history has indeed led to a drastic decrease in genetic diversity among thylacines. He believes that the genetic losses identified in the new study may have rendered the Tasmanian tigers more vulnerable to illnesses, though confirming this requires additional research.

“It’s one of those species that truly survived against the odds for an extended period in that niche,” Churchill explains. “But once dingo-like canids arrived, it was the beginning of the end on the mainland. Then, of course, after creating adversaries in Tasmania, it marked their doom.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Archaeologists Reveal the Hidden Secrets of Pompeii’s Vibrant Legacy

Posted on August 24, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

When Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD, it buried Pompeii under a meter of ash and pumice, effectively freezing the Roman city in time. However, a new study reveals that the story didn’t end there. Life persisted for centuries, emerging among the abandoned structures in significantly altered forms.

Recent findings from restoration efforts in the city’s southern quarter indicate that Pompeii was reoccupied shortly after the eruption and remained inhabited until at least the fifth century.

“Researchers and archaeologists have always been intrigued by the idea of people returning to Pompeii, but this was often overshadowed by a focus on the remarkably preserved artwork from before 79 AD,” said Gabriel Zuchtliegel, director of Pompeii Archaeological Park and lead author of the new study, in an interview with BBC Science Focus.

However, the resettlement was a shadow of Pompeii’s former self. “The reoccupation of Pompeii was not comparable to the city as it existed before AD 79,” Zuchtliegel stated.

“It resembled more of a slum—a highly unstable and unstructured settlement. As far as we know, there were no temples or public buildings.”

A collection of ceramic containers (amphorae), fragments, tiles, and marble repurposed by the inhabitants of this space after 79 AD – Credit: Archaeological Park in Pompeii

Families fashioned makeshift homes on the remaining upper floors of the buried buildings, while the lower levels (previously above ground) were transformed into hearths and caves, complete with ovens and small workshops.

But who chose to return to the devastated city? According to Zuchtliegel, these residents were likely those with limited options. “Certainly, they would have preferred to live elsewhere if possible, but some may not have had other resources.”

There was also an additional motivation: the opportunity to reclaim treasures buried beneath the ash. “A vast amount of wealth lay hidden underground, including metals, statues, coins, and marble,” Zuchtliegel noted.

“People may have initially returned to unearth the ruins of Pompeii… over time, vegetation would have reclaimed the land, creating a green and thriving landscape.”

This fragile community endured for centuries. Alongside the broader decline of the Western Roman Empire, it likely ceased to exist after another eruption in 472 AD. “There may have been general demographic declines, migration, and hardships related to the collapse of centralized governance,” Zuchtliegel explained.

“It’s astonishing to see how people endure and cope in such extreme circumstances.”

About our experts

Gabriel Zuchtliegel is the director of the Archaeological Parks in Pompeii. He studied Classical Archaeology at Humboldt University in Berlin and obtained his PhD from the University of Bonn.

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Polls Reveal Increased Children’s Exposure to Pornography Since the 2023 Online Safety Act

Posted on August 19, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Research conducted among English children has revealed a rise in exposure to pornography following the implementation of UK regulations intended to safeguard them online, with six-year-olds encountering it inadvertently.

Dame Rachel de Souza reported that the findings indicated an uptick in the number of young people encountering pornographic content before turning 18, even after the Online Safety Law came into effect.

Over a quarter (27%) admitted to having viewed porn online by the age of 11.

These results build on a similar survey carried out by the Children’s Commissioner in 2023, highlighting minimal progress despite newly instituted laws and commitments from government officials and tech companies.

She stated: “Violent pornography is readily accessible to children, often encountered accidentally via popular social media platforms, and has a profound impact on their behaviors and views.

“This report should signal a clear turning point. The fresh protections introduced in July by Ofcom, part of the Online Safety Act, present a genuine opportunity to prioritize child safety unequivocally in the online space.”

The findings stem from a representative national survey conducted in May with 1,010 children and young people aged 16-21, just prior to the implementation of the OFCOM child code in July.

The regulations set forth by Ofcom have brought significant changes designed to restrict access to pornographic websites for those under 18. Utilizing the same methodology and questions as in the 2023 survey ensures consistency:

A higher percentage of young people reported seeing porn before age 18 (70%) in 2025 compared to 2023 (64%).
More than a quarter (27%) acknowledged viewing porn online at age 11, with the average age of first exposure remaining at 13.
Vulnerable children, including those receiving free school lunches, children in social care, and those with special educational needs or disabilities, reported higher rates of exposure to online porn by age 11 compared to their peers.
Nearly half of the respondents (44%) agreed with the statement: “Girls might say no at first, but then they could be persuaded to have sex.” Further analysis showed that 54% of girls and 41% of boys who had viewed porn online resonated with this sentiment, in contrast to 46% of girls and 30% of boys who hadn’t.
A significant number of respondents indicated they encountered porn online accidentally rather than actively seeking it (35%). The rate of accidental exposure rose by 21 percentage points compared to 2023 (59% vs. 38%).
Social networking and media platforms constituted 80% of the primary sources of porn access for children, with X (formerly Twitter) being the most common portal, surpassing dedicated porn sites.
The disparity between the number of children viewing porn on X versus dedicated porn sites has widened (45% vs. 35% in 2025 compared to 41% vs. 37% in 2023).
Most respondents reported witnessing portrayals of actions which are illegal under existing pornography legislation or could be deemed illegal under forthcoming crimes and police bills.
Over half (58%) encountered pornographic content that depicted strangulation, with 44% observing sexual activity while individuals were asleep, and 36% witnessing instances where consent was not given or had been ignored.
Further scrutiny revealed that only a minority of children expressed a desire for violent or extreme content, indicating it is being made available to them.

The report highlights concerns that, even under current regulations, children may circumvent restrictions by utilizing virtual private networks (VPNs), which remain legal in the UK.

The report advocates for online porn to adhere to the same standards as offline porn, prohibiting depictions of non-fatal violence. It also calls for the Ministry of Education to equip schools to effectively implement new curricula on relationships, health, and sex education.

Recently, it was announced that traffic to the UK’s leading porn sites has drastically decreased following the strengthening of age verification measures. According to data analytics firm Simarweb, the popular adult site Pornhub saw a decline of over 1 million visitors within just two weeks.

Pornhub and other major adult platforms initiated enhanced age verification checks on July 25 after acknowledging that online safety laws should complicate access to explicit materials for individuals under 18.

Simarweb compared the average daily user statistics of porn sites from August 1 to 9 against the average from July, revealing that Pornhub, the UK’s top adult content site, experienced a 47% dip in domestic traffic on July 24, the day before the new regulations came into effect.

A government spokesperson remarked, “Children are growing up immersed in a digital landscape bombarded with pornography and harmful content, which can have damaging effects on their lives. Online safety laws are addressing this issue.”

“To be clear: VPNs are legitimate tools for adults, and there are no intentions to ban them. However, platforms promoting loopholes like VPNs to children could face stringent enforcement and hefty fines. We mustn’t prioritize business interests over child safety.”

Source: www.theguardian.com

Webb Observations Reveal Two Stars Shape the Irregular Structure of NGC 6072

Posted on August 5, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Astronomers captured a new high-resolution image of the planetary nebula NGC 6072 using two instruments on board the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope.

This Webb/Nircam image depicts NGC 6072, a planetary nebula located about 4,048 light years away in the constellation of Scorpius. Photo credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/STSCI.

NGC 6072 is situated approximately 1,241 parsecs (4,048 light years) away from the southern constellations of Scorpius.

Also known by designations such as ESO 389-15, HEN 2-148, and IRAS 16097-3606, this nebula has a dynamic age of about 10,000 years.

It was first discovered by British astronomer John Herschel on June 7, 1837.

“Since their discovery in the 1700s, astronomers have learned that planetary nebulae, the expanding shells of luminous gases expelled by dying stars, can take on various shapes and forms,” noted Webb astronomers.

“While most planetary nebulae are circular, elliptical, or bipolar, the new Webb image of NGC 6072 reveals a more complex structure.”

Images captured by Webb’s Nircam (near-infrared camera) suggest that NGC 6072 displays a multipolar configuration.

“This indicates there are multiple oval lobes being ejected from the center in various directions,” the astronomers explained.

“These outflows compress the surrounding gas into a disk-like structure.”

“This suggests the presence of at least two stars at the center of this nebula.”

“In particular, a companion star appears to be interacting with an aging star, drawing in some of its outer gas and dust layers.”

The central area of the nebula glows due to hot stars, reflected in the light blue hue characteristic of near-infrared light.

The dark orange regions, composed of gas and dust, create pockets and voids appearing dark blue.

This material likely forms when dense molecules shield themselves from the intense radiation emitted by the central star.

There may also be a temporal aspect; for thousands of years, rapid winds from the main star could have been blowing away the surrounding material as it loses mass.

This web/milli image highlights the planetary nebula NGC 6072. Image credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/STSCI.

The long wavelengths captured by Webb’s Miri (mid-infrared instrument) emphasize the dust, unveiling a star that astronomers believe resides at the center of the nebula.

“The image appears as a small pink dot,” remarked the researchers.

“The mid-infrared wavelengths also reveal a concentric ring expanding outward from the central region.

“This might indicate the presence of a secondary star at the heart of the nebula, obscured from direct observation.”

“This secondary star orbits the primary star, creating rings of material that spiral outward as the original star sheds mass over time.”

“The red regions captured by Nircam and the blue areas highlighted by Miri track cool molecular gases (likely molecular hydrogen), while the central region tracks hot ionized gases.”

Source: www.sci.news

Paleontologists Reveal Significant Size Difference Between Male and Female Australopithecus

Posted on July 31, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Two extinct hominins, Australopithecus afarensis and Australopithecus africanus, exhibited much greater sexual dimorphism than chimpanzees and modern humans. According to Dr. Adam Gordon, a paleontologist at the University of Albany and Durham, Australopithecus afarensis displayed even higher levels of dimorphism.

Reconstructing the face of Australopithecus afarensis. Image credit: Cicero Moraes/CC by-sa 3.0.

The sexual size dimorphism is not just a mere physical trait; it indicates deeper behavioral and evolutionary strategies.

In line with sexual selection theory, the sexual size dimorphism seen in modern primates typically correlates with intense male-male competition and social structures, fostering a one-sided mating system where one or more large males dominate access to multiple females.

Conversely, low sexual dimorphism is characteristic of species that exhibit paired social structures with lower competition for mating opportunities.

Contemporary human populations show low to moderate sexual size dimorphism, with males generally being slightly larger than females on average, although there is considerable overlap between the sexes.

Fossil data is often incomplete, making it exceedingly difficult to ascertain the gender of ancient individuals.

To overcome this issue, Dr. Gordon utilized a geometric averaging method for estimating size from multiple skeletal elements, including the upper arm, femur, and tibia.

Resampling techniques were then employed to simulate thousands of comparisons between fossil hominins and living primates, ensuring that the statistical model accounted for the incomplete and varied nature of fossil samples.

A comparative framework was developed using data from contemporary gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans with known genders and complete skeletons.

Unlike earlier studies where ambiguous or inconclusive statistical results were interpreted as signs of similarity, Dr. Gordon’s approach unveiled clear and significant differences, even with relatively small fossil samples.

To eliminate the potential of body size changes in Australopithecus afarensis reflecting broader evolutionary trends rather than gender distinctions, Dr. Gordon also analyzed time series trends over a 300,000-year span from the Khadar Formation in Ethiopia.

His analysis indicated no significant size increase or decrease over time, suggesting that the observed variations were more likely due to differences between males and females.

“These were not minor differences,” Dr. Gordon stated.

“In the case of Australopithecus afarensis, males were significantly larger than females—possibly more so than the great living apes.”

“Both of these extinct hominin species displayed gender-specific size distinctions from modern humans, yet differed from extant ape species in this regard.”

Australopithecus africanus. Image credit: JM salas/cc by-sa 3.0.

Dr. Gordon’s previous research indicates that the elevated sexual size dimorphism seen in living primates may correlate with considerable resource stress. In situations where food is scarce, smaller, healthier females can better meet their metabolic needs and reproduce quicker than larger females, leading to offspring with smaller mothers and greater size disparities between males and females.

The pronounced sexual size dimorphism observed in both Australopithecus afarensis and Australopithecus africanus suggests a high level of male competition, akin to differences noted in chimpanzees and gorillas. However, the distinctions between the two fossil species could reflect varying intensities of sexual selection or resource stress in their environments (e.g., differences in the length of dry seasons that could affect female body size).

In any event, the high sexual size dimorphism of these fossil hominins starkly contrasts with the more balanced sizes seen in modern humans, offering insights into different models of early human existence.

The implications of these findings are significant. Australopithecus afarensis, which inhabited the Earth between 3.9 and 2.9 million years ago, is often viewed as very closely related to the direct ancestors of modern humans.

However, its pronounced sexual dimorphism suggests that early human social systems may have been much more hierarchical and competitive than previously believed.

On the contrary, Australopithecus africanus—which appears slightly later in the fossil record—exhibits less dimorphism compared to Australopithecus afarensis. This could represent different evolutionary branches within the human lineage or perhaps reflect various social behavioral stages in the development of hominins.

“We often categorize these early hominins together as a single group called Gracile Australopithecines, believed to have interacted with their physical and social environments in similar ways,” Dr. Gordon explained.

“While there is some truth to this, the significant differences in dimorphism between the two species indicate that these closely related hominins were under distinct selection pressures, unlike those affecting modern human pair bonds.”

The survey findings will be published in the American Journal of Biological Anthropology.

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Adam D. Gordon. 2025. Dimorphism of sexual size in Australopithecus africanus and A. afarensis in contrast to modern humans despite low power resampling analysis. American Journal of Biological Anthropology 187(3): E70093; doi: 10.1002/ajpa.70093

Source: www.sci.news

Competitions Reveal Human Coders Still Outshine AI

Posted on July 26, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

While computers have triumphed in chess, go, and poker, humans maintain an edge in competitive coding.

Recently, Polish coder and mind sports champion Przemysław Dębiak narrowly defeated OpenAI participants at the Atcoder World Tour Finals 2025 held in Tokyo. The elite coder, known online as Psyho, anticipates he might be the last to claim such an honorable title due to rapid technological advancements.

“That’s a distinct possibility,” said Psyho, 41, who previously worked at OpenAI before retiring five years ago. “I enjoy these competitions and acknowledge there’s this incredible entity that can challenge me more than I might expect.”

Psyho expresses a certain skepticism regarding his contribution to the decline of his profession.

“Before the competition, I tweeted, ‘Live by the sword, die by the sword,'” he reflected. “I was part of the AI development. Ultimately, I will be the one who loses in this match. For now, I emerged victorious.”

Polish programmer Przemysław Dębiak, alias Psyho. Photo: Provided by Przemysław Dębiak

The Atcoder Euristic Division featured 11 human competitors (invited based on global rankings) and a coding algorithm developed by OpenAI, which secured second place. OpenAI CEO Sam Altman congratulated the participants via Twitter.

The 10-hour competition entails solving intricate optimization challenges. Classic problems in this category include the traveling salesman problem, where participants must determine the shortest routes between multiple cities, visiting each only once. While these challenges are straightforward in concept, finding optimal solutions proves computationally complex. Consequently, ChatGPT is often used for generating boilerplate code, although its effectiveness on open-ended logic problems is regarded as noteworthy.

“Currently, humans excel at inference and tackling complex problems,” Psyho stated. However, humans are constrained by the pace at which they can code, while AI can rapidly explore countless minor adjustments.

“This model essentially allows for cloning a single person multiple times to work in parallel,” he elucidated. “While AI may not be the most intelligent option presently, it is certainly the fastest. In many cases, duplicating an average individual several times might yield better outcomes than relying on one exceptional individual.”

These findings emerge amid major tech companies like Meta and Microsoft increasingly adopting AI for software development. Dario Amodei, CEO of Anthropic, cautioned that AI could displace 20% of white-collar jobs in the upcoming 1 to 5 years, as reported in May.

“Today, nearly every profession faces this challenge,” Psyho commented. “Some individuals are now performing all white-collar tasks. Automation in manual labor, however, still lags a few years behind.”

Like many in the industry, Psyho expresses uncertainty about the implications of increasingly advanced AI models. “We have numerous issues,” he remarked. “Disinformation, social manipulation, and a lack of purpose among people. Historically, societal progress has been slow, but technological advancements are accelerating at an unprecedented pace.”

Source: www.theguardian.com

What Your Dog’s TV Watching Habits Reveal About Their Personality

Posted on July 17, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Recent studies indicate that a dog’s response to your preferred TV show can reveal much about your personality.

In a recent Nature study, researchers found that enthusiastic dogs tend to interpret what they see on TV as reality, whereas anxious dogs are more inclined to react to non-animal elements, like humans and vehicles.

According to Lane Montgomery, a graduate student from Auburn University who spearheaded the research, there was a single consensus among all dogs regarding one topic.

“Overall, dogs generally seem to enjoy television, particularly when it features other dogs and animals,” Montgomery said to BBC Science Focus.

However, a note of caution before curating dog video playlists for your beloved pet: nearly half of the 453 dogs analyzed reacted every time their on-screen counterparts barked or howled.

Interestingly, breed and gender did not appear to influence their reactions, with older dogs exhibiting similar caution to younger puppies.

Dogs have been enjoying television alongside humans for nearly a century. Today, there are even specialized channels and programs designed to enhance dogs’ lives while their owners are engaged elsewhere.

Despite this, there has been little scientific inquiry into how dogs respond to visual stimuli.

To fill this gap, Montgomery encouraged dog owners to complete a survey that documented their pets’ responses to various dogs, animals, humans, inanimate objects, and environmental effects appearing on TV.

Montgomery posits that more impulsive dogs are likely to chase objects appearing on the TV screen or look behind the TV to track their movement, indicating they perceive the visuals as real.

Research indicates that dogs engage with TV for an average of 14 minutes – Credits: Getty Images/Manabougaswara

Conversely, skittish dogs were more prone to react when they saw people on TV or heard doorbells.

This research focuses solely on interactions with the most common individuals, rather than assessing whether these interactions are positive or negative.

Nevertheless, the insights gathered could aid owners in targeting training to eliminate undesirable behaviors and better identify which shows might be stressing their pets.

“The primary aim of this study was to enhance our understanding of how dogs react to various TV programs, thereby increasing the effectiveness of television as a tool for dog enrichment,” Montgomery stated. “Understanding which types of shows captivate dogs can help dog TV programs improve their content according to what dogs are likely to enjoy.”

About our experts

Lane Montgomery is a doctoral candidate in the Cognitive and Behavioral Sciences Program at Auburn University, USA. Her research concentrates on canine behavior and cognition to enhance the welfare of companion dogs and the efficiency of working dogs.

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Source: www.sciencefocus.com