A groundbreaking study by paleontologists at the Field Museum of Natural History reveals that Archeopteryx, the oldest known bird, has a feeding mechanism intricately shaped by the demands of early flight. This discovery implies a simultaneous evolution of diet and aerodynamics during the early history of birds. For detailed insights, check the full report, coming this week in Innovation.
Reconstruction of Archeopteryx, highlighting features such as an oral papilla, a beak tip organ, and a flexible tongue supported by an extra lingual bone. Image credit: Vir Shinkonen.
Flying demands a significant amount of energy compared to walking, swimming, or running, making it one of the most physically taxing forms of exercise. Birds have therefore evolved specialized strategies for efficient food intake and digestion.
Archeopteryx, the oldest known bird-like dinosaur, inhabited regions of present-day Germany around 150 million years ago during the Jurassic period.
Dr. Jingmai O’Connor, associate curator of fossil reptiles at the Field Museum, states, “For a long time, the characteristics defining the transition from land-based dinosaurs to avian dinosaurs were poorly understood.”
Dr. O’Connor notes, “The unique features found in Archeopteryx that are also present in modern birds provide new criteria for determining avian characteristics in dinosaur fossils.”
This research focused on the latest Archeopteryx specimen from Chicago, enhancing our scientific understanding of this ancient bird.
The team compared the preserved tissues of Archeopteryx to the oral papillae of contemporary birds, leading to the significant finding that they identified the first example of an oral papilla in Archeopteryx, as well as the first in the fossil record.
Additionally, the study uncovered several previously unseen features within the skull of Archeopteryx.
A small bone fragment, identified as a tongue bone, was discovered. While human tongues lack bones, many birds possess a series of bones that structure their tongues, allowing for greater flexibility and food manipulation.
“This tiny bone is one of the smallest in the body, yet it indicates that Archeopteryx had a highly mobile tongue, similar to many modern birds,” said Dr. O’Connor.
CT scans also revealed small tunnels at the tip of Archeopteryx’s beak, indicating the presence of nerve traces. Many birds possess a beak tip organ, a sensitive feature at the end of the beak that aids in food foraging.
These findings collectively suggest that Archeopteryx utilized oral papillae, lingual bones, and beak tip organs to develop advanced feeding mechanisms, reflecting their adaptive strategies for survival in flight.
“Our results indicate a significant transformation in feeding strategies as dinosaurs took to the air to meet the high-energy demands of flight,” Dr. O’Connor added.
“Birds possess incredibly efficient digestive systems, designed to maximize the energy extracted from food—a process that begins right in the mouth.”
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Jimmai K. O’Connor et al. 2026. Characteristics of Archeopteryx‘s feeding apparatus reveal the growing demands of flight. Innovation 7(2):101086; doi: 10.1016/j.xinn.2025.101086
Recent microwave measurements from NASA’s Juno spacecraft indicate that Europa’s icy shell could extend nearly 29 kilometers (18 miles) deep, significantly altering planetary scientists’ understanding of how this intriguing moon facilitates the exchange of vital chemicals between its hidden ocean and surface.
Artist’s concept showing a cross-section of Europa’s icy shell. Image credit: NASA / JPL-Caltech / SwRI / Koji Kuramura / Gerald Eichstädt.
Europa has captivated planetary scientists for over 40 years.
The question of whether Jupiter’s icy moons can support life has sparked extensive debate among researchers.
Interest in Europa’s potential habitability surged when NASA’s Galileo spacecraft revealed an ocean of saline water beneath its icy crust, complemented by surface cracks.
On September 29, 2022, NASA’s Juno spacecraft flew by Europa at an altitude of 360 km (220 miles).
During this flyby, Juno’s Microwave Radiometer (MWR), which is primarily designed to analyze Jupiter’s atmosphere, gathered brightness temperature data at various depths within Europa’s icy crust.
Juno project scientist Steve Levin and his team utilized this MWR data to conclude that the icy shell averages approximately 29 kilometers in thickness.
“The estimated thickness of 29 km pertains to the cold, dense, electrically conductive outer layer of Europa’s water ice shell,” Dr. Levin stated.
“If a slightly warmer convective layer exists beneath, the total thickness could be even greater.”
“Conversely, if the ice shell contains a moderate amount of dissolved salts, as some models suggest, the thickness could decrease by around 5 km (3 miles).”
“A thicker shell implies that oxygen and nutrients have longer distances to travel to connect Europa’s surface with its subsurface ocean, as indicated by the MWR data.”
Understanding this exchange process is crucial for future studies on Europa’s habitability.
Furthermore, MWR data shed light on the composition of Europa’s subsurface ice.
This technology uncovered “scatterers,” irregularities such as cracks, pores, and voids that scatter microwaves reflected off the ice.
These scatterers, estimated to be only a few inches in diameter, are believed to extend hundreds of feet below the surface.
The small size and shallow depth of these features suggest they are unlikely to serve as significant pathways for transporting oxygen and nutrients from the surface to the salty ocean beneath.
“The thickness of the ice shell, along with the presence of cracks and pores, adds complexity to our understanding of Europa’s potential for habitability,” remarked Scott Bolton, Ph.D., Juno’s principal investigator at the Southwest Research Institute.
“These findings provide essential context for NASA’s Europa Clipper and ESA’s Juice missions, both en route to the Jupiter system.”
“The Europa Clipper is expected to arrive in 2030, followed by Juice the next year.”
The team’s new results were published in the Journal on December 17, 2025, in Nature Astronomy.
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S.M. Levin et al. 2026. Characterization of Europa’s ice thickness and subsurface structure using the Juno microwave radiometer. Nat Astron 10, 84-91; doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02718-0
Marco Schioppo and Adam Park monitor ultra-stable lasers at the National Physical Laboratory in Teddington, UK.
David Severn, part of Quantum Untangled (2025), Science Gallery, King’s College London
In a striking portrayal, two physicists observe Britain’s revolutionary quantum technology involving ultra-stable lasers at the National Physical Laboratory in London. Captured by photographer David Severn for the **Quantum Untangled** exhibition at King’s College London, this fascinating image was shortlisted for the **Portrait of Britain Award**.
Severn states, “This portrait offers a rare peek into a domain typically hidden from view, like opening a door to a normally restricted lab.” While the photographs are contemporary, he notes that the scientists’ engagements with technology evoke imagery reminiscent of earlier eras, such as a 1940s submarine pilot or operators of a cotton spinning machine from the turn of the 20th century.
Having no background in quantum mechanics before this venture, Severn was briefed on current quantum physics projects in the UK. He observed that the bewildering aspects of quantum science closely align with artistic perspectives. “Although many scientific concepts eluded my detailed understanding, ideas like superposition and quantum entanglement resonated with me intuitively, akin to artistic realization,” he shared.
3D Printed Helmet Prototype
David Severn, part of Quantum Untangled (2025), Science Gallery, King’s College London
Severn’s captivating photographs highlight a range of innovations in quantum physics, showcasing a **3D-printed helmet** (above) designed to house a quantum sensor that images the brain using magnetic fields. He also features a complex **laser table** (below) monitored by Hartmut Grothe from Cardiff University, ensuring that the vacuum pumps sustaining the system remain operational.
Hartmut Grote at the Laser Table
David Severn, part of Quantum Untangled (2025), Science Gallery, King’s College London
Severn’s photography embraces a mystical quality, showcasing the **3D-printed imaging helmet** used by researchers from the University of Nottingham’s Sir Peter Mansfield Imaging Center (as shown above), along with the intricate network of pumps and mirrors essential for maintaining cleanliness in Grothe’s experiments (as depicted below). Severn asserts that this ethereal essence is intentional.
Joe Gibson Wearing a 3D Printed Imaging Helmet at the University of Nottingham
David Severn, part of Quantum Untangled (2025), Science Gallery, King’s College London
Complex Vacuum System from King’s College London’s Photonics and Nanotechnology Group
David Severn, part of Quantum Untangled (2025), Science Gallery, King’s College London
Severn references a favorite quote from photographer Diane Arbus: “Photographs are secrets about secrets. The more they tell you, the less you understand.” He finds a parallel in quantum physics, where just when one thinks they’ve grasped how light behaves, the quantum realm subverts those expectations and exposes the elusive truths underpinning our understanding of reality.
The **Quantum Untangled** exhibition is on display at the Science Gallery at King’s College London until February 28, 2025. This event is a reimagining of the traveling exhibition **Cosmic Titans: Art, Science and the Quantum Universe** organized by Lakeside Arts and ARTlab at the University of Nottingham.
If you’ve been active on TikTok lately, you might be familiar with the concept of bird inspection. In this test, one partner casually mentions something, like observing a bird outside, to gauge if the other is engaged. An enthusiastic response signals a positive connection; lack of interest might indicate underlying issues. It’s amusing, relatable, and resonates with many. This viral phenomenon reflects something intrinsic to relationships, as psychologists recognize the significance behind it.
For years, relationship scholars have maintained that love is found in these small interactions. We refer to these daily connections as “bids”: sharing a laugh, narrating a story, or simply saying, “Look at that!” Psychologist John Gottman conducted classic studies with newlyweds, revealing that partners strive for the low bid for connection. Other longitudinal research indicates that couples with more assertive responses during disagreements are more likely to remain stable and satisfied in the long term.
Additional studies highlight that responses in everyday moments significantly affect relationship health. For instance, research on newlyweds has shown that couples exhibit heightened playfulness and enthusiasm during brief dinner interactions, showcasing more humor and affection during discussions of conflicts. Longitudinal studies demonstrate that partners perceived as sensitive and affirming tend to become more physically affectionate over time, fostering intimacy through minor everyday gestures.
Ultimately, these small expressions of gratitude function as the adhesive in relationships. The bird test cleverly encapsulates a fundamental truth: small gestures of acknowledgment are significant. While each may feel inconsequential in isolation, their cumulative effect builds positive momentum, sustaining satisfaction and resilience in relationships.
However, isolating specific moments, especially those showcased on social media, can oversimplify relationship evaluations. The bird test transforms intricate dynamics into simple pass/fail moments, potentially leading to unnecessary worries and misplaced confidence. Partners might miss bids for reasons unrelated to commitment—perhaps they are fatigued, under stress, or simply disengaged. Misinterpreting fleeting moments as definitive judgments can lead to harmful conclusions: “They ignored the bird! Do they even love me?” Even worse, it can become a manipulation tool: “You didn’t respond. You aren’t attentive to me.” One-off reactions on an arbitrary day should not define the essence of a relationship.
The pressing question is why such “testing” has gained traction. In addition to bird inspections, we’ve witnessed a rise in activities like the orange peel theory—”Will your partner peel an orange without prompting?”—and the moon phase test, which claims to measure romantic compatibility based on birthdays and lunar cycles.
One reason for this trend may stem from the fluctuating landscape of dating. Dating apps provide an overwhelming array of potential partners, but research indicates that excessive options can make commitment feel riskier and less secure. This uncertainty impacts the formation of relationships, introducing ambiguity in expectations and leaving partners guessing about their feelings. A quick bird test offers immediate feedback—a fleeting visual cue followed by a simple answer.
Another factor is that, despite relationship science gaining popularity, its complexity has been lost. Nuanced insights from extensive observational studies are reduced to simple TikTok phrases: “Did they notice the bird?” At the same time, social media prioritizes highly emotional content, whether heartwarming or heart-wrenching snippets caught on camera. This attention economy encourages individuals to transform genuine relationships into public trials. In this context, viral tests flourish, providing dramatic, recordable moments of validation that can be shared and scrutinized.
So, what should couples take away from this trend? Bird testing, while playful, underscores the importance of responsiveness when a partner reaches out, even in minor ways, as the backbone of a healthy relationship. If this phenomenon inspires more curiosity, attention, and appreciation, then it can be viewed as a positive development. However, instead of asking, “Did my partner succeed in this test?” a more beneficial inquiry would be, “What patterns have emerged in our relationship? Are they consistently present? Do they feel acknowledged and valued?” Love is not defined by one solitary act, bird, or orange, but by the countless small moments when partners choose to be there for each other behind the scenes.
Despite everything, I must admit that for the sake of research, I may just have my husband partake in the bird test tonight. Wishing him the best of luck!
Emily Impett is a professor in the Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences and director of the Institute for Human Relations and Happiness at the University of Toronto Mississauga. Her research explores sacrifice, sexuality in long-term relationships, and changes within relationships.
A monumental ancient structure unearthed in Mexico could uncover how the early Maya civilization perceived the universe. Among them, new research indicates that the 3,000-year-old site known as Aguada Fénix served as a cosmogram, representing a geometric map of the cosmos.
Archaeologists initially discovered a large cross-shaped cavity (termed a cross hole) concealed within dense jungle in 2020. Upon closer inspection, they discovered that this was merely one of numerous interconnected holes linked by canals. The cumulative volume of these cross holes exceeds 3.8 million cubic meters, equivalent to nearly one and a half pyramids of Giza or over 1,500 Olympic-sized swimming pools.
Researchers from the University of Arizona utilized laser technology to identify Aguada Fénix from aerial views, situated in the current state of Tabasco on the Gulf Coast.
They now assert that the earliest examples of these findings in Mesoamerica—colored pigments discovered in pits—align with the four cardinal directions: north, south, east, and west. Specifically, vibrant blue azurite represents north, yellow ocher marks south, green malachite signifies east, and pearl-like shells denote west.
Mineral pigments found arranged to correspond with cardinal directions. Researchers suspect that the western deposits may originally included red pigments that have faded over time. – Photo credit: Takeshi Inomata/University of Arizona
According to Independent Maya Expert Dr. James A. Doyle, “The cross shape and color symbolism embedded in the architecture physically embody the concept of how the Earth’s planes are organized and directed.” The BBC Science Focus article also highlights that “the dams and canals underscore the significance of water both practically and symbolically, which is mirrored in the blue and green pigments, shells, and greenstone products.”
Crucially, the new study published in Scientific Progress posits that the construction was a collective effort by a non-hierarchical community, as there is no evidence linking dwellings, palaces, or a central ruling class to late Maya architecture.
Given the size of the structures (Doyle describes them as “some of the largest ever constructed in this area”), it is believed that at least 1,000 individuals would have collaborated over several years to carve the rock and create the cosmogram.
These individuals were likely not coerced by an elite class but were part of an egalitarian society that sought a communal space for stargazing and sharing astronomical knowledge. These vast areas probably also served for trade, social interactions, and religious ceremonies.
Researchers believe this jade artifact depicts a woman in the act of giving birth. – Photo credit: Takeshi Inomata/University of Arizona
Archaeologists have uncovered not only pigments but also jade carvings, primarily reflecting natural experiences rather than deities or leaders. These carvings largely depict animals, although some seem to portray women in childbirth.
Doyle emphasizes that there is still much to uncover about social equality at Aguada Fénix, particularly concerning the enigmatic jade woman.
“What if she represented a strong leader, akin to figures seen in many later societies across Mesoamerica, the Caribbean, and the central Andes?” he queried.
“As excavations progress and our understanding of Aguada Fénix’s builders deepens, we will gain a clearer insight into the disparities in wealth and influence.”
The Pleiades star cluster, also referred to as the Seven Sisters and Messier 45, is an open star cluster situated around 440 light-years away from Earth in the Taurus constellation. It forms the central core of a larger network that includes several known star clusters scattered over 600 parsecs (1,950 light-years). This network is known as the Greater Pleiades Complex and comprises at least 3,091 stars.
Pleiades star cluster. Image credit: NASA / ESA / AURA / California Institute of Technology / Palomar Observatory.
Stars originate from clouds of dust and gas. Clumps of this material come together and eventually collapse under their gravity, creating the hot core that becomes a star.
Star formation typically occurs in bursts, with numerous stars being born in rapid succession.
A collection of stars that form from the same molecular cloud is known as a star cluster.
These stars remain gravitationally bound to one another for thousands of years.
Over tens to hundreds of millions of years, the materials that birthed them are expelled by cosmic winds, radiation, and various astrophysical phenomena.
As this occurs, individual stars can merge into their host galaxies, making it complex to ascertain their relationships and trace their origins, especially after more than 100 million years have elapsed.
In a recent study, Dr. Luke Buuma from the Carnegie Institution for Science Observatory and his colleagues concentrated on the Pleiades star cluster.
Utilizing data from NASA’s TESS mission, ESA’s Gaia spacecraft, and the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS), they discovered that this cluster is the core of a broader structure of related stars spanning over 1,950 light-years.
“We refer to this as the Greater Pleiades Complex,” Dr. Bouma stated.
“It includes at least three known groups of stars, and likely two additional ones.”
“We confirmed that most members of this structure have origins in the same gigantic stellar nursery.”
A key aspect of their methodology is that a star’s rotation rate decreases with age.
The study utilized a combination of TESS’s stellar rotation data (made to detect exoplanets) and Gaia’s stellar motion observations (designed for mapping the Milky Way).
With this information, they developed a new method based on rotation to identify stars that share common origins.
“For the first time, by amalgamating data from Gaia, TESS, and SDSS, we confidently identified a new member of the Pleiades cluster,” reported Dr. Buma.
“Data from each mission alone was not enough to reveal the full scope of the structure.”
“However, when we integrated stellar motions from Gaia, rotations from TESS, and chemical data from SDSS, a coherent picture took shape.”
“It’s akin to piecing together a jigsaw puzzle, where every dataset provides a different piece of a larger whole.”
Besides their comparable ages, the authors highlighted that the stars in the Greater Pleiades cluster share similar chemical compositions and were once much closer to one another.
The fifth generation of SDSS data was employed for the chemical abundance analysis.
“The Pleiades star cluster has been pivotal in human observations of stars since ancient times,” Dr. Buma remarked.
“This research marks a significant advancement in understanding the changes in the Pleiades star cluster since its formation 100 million years ago.”
The researchers believe their findings carry broad implications.
The Pleiades is not merely an astrophysical benchmark for young stars and exoplanets but also a significant cultural symbol, referenced in the Old Testament and Talmud, celebrated as Matariki in New Zealand, and represented on the Subaru logo in Japan.
Professor Andrew Mann of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill stated, “We are starting to understand that many stars near the Sun belong to extensive star clusters with intricate structures.”
“Our study provides a novel method to uncover these hidden connections.”
A paper detailing the survey results has been published this week in the Astrophysical Journal.
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Andrew W. Boyle et al. 2025. Missing Sister Found: TESS and Gaia Reveal Dissolving Pleiades Complex. APJ 994, 24; doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae0724
During the concluding phase of their main sequence life, stars with mass comparable to the Sun experience a transformative evolution. This evolutionary process is likely to affect the surrounding planetary systems. As the star expands in its post-main-sequence stage, astronomers anticipate that most exoplanets detected to date may be engulfed by the growing star.
An artist’s impression of a sun-like star engulfing a giant exoplanet. Image credits: International Gemini Observatory / NOIRLab / NSF / AURA / M. Garlick / M. Zamani
Utilizing data from NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), astronomers Edward Bryant and Vincent Van Eylen studied 456,941 stars that have just commenced their post-main sequence phase.
By employing a computer algorithm, they targeted giant planets with short orbital periods (those that complete an orbit in less than 12 days) and searched for consistent dips in brightness that would indicate these planets transiting in front of their host stars.
They discovered 130 planets and planet candidates, including 33 previously unknown, closely orbiting these stars.
The researchers observed that such planets are less likely to exist around stars that have expanded and cooled sufficiently to be categorized as red giants (more evolved stars), implying that many of these planets might have already been destroyed.
Dr. Bryant, an astronomer at University College London and the University of Warwick, stated: “This provides compelling evidence that as stars progress beyond the main sequence, planets can rapidly spiral out of existence.”
“This topic has been debated and theorized for some time, but we can now observe this phenomenon directly and quantify it at the level of stellar populations.”
“We expected to observe this phenomenon, but we were still astonished by how effectively these stars can consume nearby planets.”
“This destruction is believed to stem from a gravitational tug-of-war between the planet and the star, known as tidal interactions.”
“As the star evolves and expands, these interactions intensify.”
“Just as the moon influences the Earth’s oceans, creating tides, planets also exert a pull on their stars.”
“These interactions decelerate the planet, reducing its orbit and causing it to spiral inward, ultimately resulting in its disintegration or absorption by the star.”
“In the coming billions of years, our sun will expand and transform into a red giant,” mentioned Dr. Van Eylen, an astronomer at University College London.
“Will the planets in our solar system endure this transformation? Our findings suggest that, in some instances, planets do not survive.”
“Earth may be better off than the giant planets much closer to the stars we examine.”
“However, we only analyzed the initial part of the post-main-sequence phase, spanning the first one or two million years. There is still ample opportunity for stellar evolution.”
“Unlike the giant planets lost in our investigation, Earth has the potential to endure the Sun’s red giant phase. However, life on Earth is likely to be extinguished.”
The team’s paper was published on October 15, 2025, in Royal Astronomical Society Monthly Notices.
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Edward M. Bryant and Vincent Van Eylen. 2025. Determine the impact of post-main sequence stellar evolution on the population of passing giant planets. MNRAS 544 (1): 1186-1214; doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf1771
Both the NOvA (NuMI Off-Axis νe Emergence Experiment) and T2K experiments involve launching neutrinos from a particle accelerator and detecting them after they traverse extensive underground distances. The challenges are significant: out of trillions of particles, only a few leave a trace that can be detected. Advanced detectors and software are then employed to reconstruct these rare events, offering insights into how the “flavor” of neutrinos alters as they travel.
The world’s first neutrino observation inside a hydrogen bubble chamber, captured on November 13, 1970, in a 12-foot bubble chamber at a zero-gradient synchrotron. Here, an invisible neutrino collides with a proton, resulting in three particle tracks (bottom right). The neutrino changes into a muon, marked by a lengthy orbit extending up and to the left. The shorter track represents the proton, while the third track extending down and to the left is the pion formed by the collision. Image credit: Argonne National Laboratory.
Neutrinos are among the most prevalent particles in the universe.
With no charge and minimal mass, they are notoriously difficult to detect. Yet, this very elusiveness contributes to their scientific significance.
Understanding neutrinos may shed light on one of the greatest mysteries in cosmology: the reason the universe consists of matter.
Theoretically, the Big Bang should have resulted in equal parts matter and antimatter, which would have completely annihilated each other upon meeting, releasing energy in the process.
However, during the Big Bang, an imbalance occurred, producing a greater abundance of matter, which eventually led to the formation of stars, galaxies, and life as we know it.
Physicists theorize that neutrinos hold the key to this conundrum.
There are three types, or “flavors,” of neutrinos: electron, muon, and tau, which are different versions of the same fundamental particle.
They possess a unique ability to oscillate, changing from one flavor to another as they traverse space. Studying these oscillations and examining any differences between neutrinos and their antimatter counterparts could provide insights into why matter triumphed over antimatter in the nascent universe.
“Understanding these various identities could help scientists gain insight into neutrino masses and address significant questions regarding the universe’s evolution, including why matter became dominant over antimatter,” stated Dr. Zoya Valari, a physicist at Ohio State University.
“What makes neutrinos particularly intriguing is their ability to change their ‘taste.’”
“Consider this: you buy chocolate ice cream, stroll down the street, and suddenly it turns mint, only to change again with every step you take.”
To delve deeper into this shape-shifting behavior, the NOvA and T2K experiments partnered to direct neutrino particle beams over hundreds of kilometers.
NOvA projects a beam of neutrinos from a source at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory near Chicago, traveling 500 miles to a 14,000-ton detector in Ash River, Minnesota.
On the other hand, Japan’s T2K sends a neutrino beam 295 km from the J-PARC accelerator in Tokai to the enormous Super-Kamiokande detector situated beneath Mt. Ikenoyama.
“While our objectives are aligned, the distinct experimental designs mean that synthesizing the data yields more comprehensive insights, making the whole greater than the sum of its parts,” Dr. Valari remarked.
This study builds upon earlier findings that noted minor yet significant variations in the masses of different types of neutrinos. Researchers sought deeper clues indicating that neutrinos might operate beyond the conventional laws of physics.
One such inquiry involves whether neutrinos and their antimatter counterparts exhibit different behaviors—a phenomenon referred to as charge parity violation.
“Our results indicate that additional data are needed to adequately address these fundamental questions,” Dr. Valari said.
“This underscores the importance of developing the next generation of experiments.”
Research indicates that employing two experiments with varying baselines and energies is more likely to yield answers than relying solely on a single experiment. Consequently, consolidating results from both experiments allowed scientists to explore these urgent physics questions from diverse perspectives.
“This research is extremely complex, involving hundreds of contributors in each collaborative effort,” said John Beacom, a professor at Ohio State University.
“Collaboration in science is typically competitive, but our work together here highlights the high stakes involved.”
For further details, see the new discovery published in the journal Nature.
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NOvA collaboration and T2K collaboration. 2025. Joint neutrino oscillation analysis using T2K and NOvA experiments. Nature 646, 818-824; doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09599-3
Paleontologists studied two remarkable specimens of end-Cretaceous duck-billed dinosaurs, Edmontosaurus anectens. They employed various imaging techniques to reconstruct the species’ physical appearance during its life, showcasing features such as the prominent crest over the neck and torso, a row of spikes on the tail, and the hooves covering the toes. Alongside fossilized footprints, Edmontosaurus anectens is now in my grasp.
Reconstruction of the life of Edmontosaurus anectens. Image credit: Dani Navarro.
“This marks the first time we’ve been able to capture a comprehensive and specific depiction of a large dinosaur,” stated researchers from the University of Chicago, including Professor Paul Sereno, the lead author of the study.
“The badlands of Wyoming, where this discovery occurred, serve as a unique ‘mummy zone’, promising additional surprises from fossils collected over years by a team of university undergraduates.”
Professor Sereno and colleagues utilized historical photographs and field research to outline a compact “mummy zone” in central-eastern Wyoming, home to several notable dinosaur “mummies” unearthed in the early 20th century.
They discovered two new mummies within piles of river sand: Edmontosaurus anectens — consisting of juveniles and adults — which preserved a large, continuous area of the external skin surface.
Using these specimens, they reconstructed a complete, fleshy profile of the species.
“The two specimens complemented each other exceptionally well,” Professor Sereno remarked.
“For the first time, we could visualize the entire outline rather than isolated patches.”
Paleontologists identified a continuous midline feature that begins as a fleshy crest along the neck and torso, transitioning into a row of spikes across the hips and down the tail. Each spike was identified on a single vertebra and interlocked with one another.
The lower body and tail featured the largest polygonal scales, while the majority were small, pebble-like scales just 1 to 4 millimeters in diameter, surprisingly tiny for a dinosaur exceeding 12 meters (40 feet) in length.
Wrinkles on the thorax indicate that this dinosaur had thin skin.
The hind legs of the significant “mummy” revealed the most unexpected finding: hooves.
The tips of each of the three hind legs were encased in wedge-shaped hooves with flat soles, akin to a horse’s.
Researchers utilized CT scans of the specimen’s feet and 3D images of the best-preserved footprints from the same era to accurately map the former to the latter.
Data from both sources enabled precise reconstruction of the hind paw’s appearance.
In contrast to the front feet, which made contact with the ground solely via the hooves, the hind feet featured thick heel pads behind the hooves.
“These duck-billed ‘mummies’ reveal several remarkable ‘firsts’: the oldest hooves ever found in a land vertebrate, the first ungulate reptile identified, and the first ungulate quadruped exhibiting distinct front and hind limb postures,” Professor Sereno asserted.
The team’s paper was published in today’s magazine, Science.
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Paul C. Sereno et al. 2025. The fleshy midline and hooves of a duck-billed dinosaur reveal a template for terrestrial clay ‘mummification.’ Science, published online October 23, 2025. doi: 10.1126/science.adw3536
A recent study reveals that certain optical illusions can deceive some animals, though not all. This emerging research may offer fresh insights into how perception influences survival and evolution in different species.
The optical illusion examined in this research is known as the Ebbinghaus illusion, where two identical circles appear different in size because one is encircled by a larger circle, while the other is surrounded by a smaller one.
When observing the illusion overall, the outer circle misleads our brain into perceiving the inner circle as a different size. However, focusing solely on the inner circles reveals that they are indeed the same.
Our susceptibility to this illusion hinges on how our brains interpret visual information, whether as a cohesive whole or detailed parts.
To investigate how various animals perceive their surroundings, scientists at the University of Vienna in Austria recreated the Ebbinghaus illusion using bait, arranging circles of differing sizes around a central bait area.
The two orange circles are identical, yet the left one seems smaller due to the larger circle surrounding it. Conversely, the right circle appears larger – Credit: Getty Images
Next, they observed the responses of two fish species: guppies (Poecilia reticulata) and ring doves (Streptopelia risoria).
The findings indicated that guppies are reliably deceived by optical illusions, similar to humans; they often preferred to consume fish flakes within a smaller circle, perceiving them as larger food items.
In contrast, ring doves exhibited varying responses; some birds chose millet seeds surrounded by a smaller circle, while others opted for those within a larger circle.
The researchers concluded that these choices highlight how each species is uniquely equipped to interact with its environment and tackle its challenges.
For instance, guppies inhabit shallow tropical rivers, where they encounter flickering lights, thick vegetation, swift predators, and numerous other guppies.
Guppies might be influenced by an illusion, suggesting they perceive their environment contextually rather than focusing on minute details – Credit: Getty Images
Researchers believe that for guppies, quick judgment of which fish are safe in a visually cluttered environment is crucial for survival. Thus, making rapid decisions could be advantageous.
Conversely, wood pigeons spend their lives on the ground, foraging for seeds. For them, noticing fine details could be more beneficial than analyzing the broader scene.
Nevertheless, scientists have observed that some pigeons react as if they are misled by a hallucination, indicating variability within species, much like humans.
Overall, the team concluded that optical illusions can provide a valuable lens through which to explore the diverse perceptions across species.
The prevailing theory regarding the origin of the Moon suggests it formed from a colossal impact event involving Earth and a body known as Theia. The degree to which materials from these two celestial objects mixed during this event is still debated. Poor mixing may leave traces of the original atomic and/or Theia composition. The sulfur isotopic makeup of the primordial materials that survived the impact can help establish parameters concerning the chemistry of the early solar nebula, the sulfur distribution in the early solar system, and the efficiency of mixing during this significant lunar impact event. In a recent study, researchers from Brown University and other institutions present intriguing sulfur isotope data derived from lunar rocks collected from the Taurus Littrow region during Apollo 17. Their analysis reveals that the volcanic material in the samples is significantly depleted in sulfur-33. This depletion sharply contrasts with sulfur isotope ratios found on Earth, suggesting the likelihood of:
Commander Eugene Cernan retrieves a drive tube from a lunar roving vehicle during Apollo 17 EVA. Image credit: NASA.
Some elements possess distinct “fingerprints” through specific isotopic ratios, revealing slight variations in atomic weights.
If two rocks share the same isotopic fingerprint, it strongly indicates a common origin.
In terms of the Moon and Earth, researchers have identified general similarities in the oxygen isotopes of both bodies.
Dr. James Dottin, a researcher from Brown University, stated:
“Previously, it was assumed that the Moon’s mantle shared the same sulfur isotope composition as Earth.”
“This was the anticipated outcome when we examined these samples, yet we observed values markedly different from those found on Earth.”
The sample under investigation was sourced from a double-drive tube—a hollow metal cylinder driven approximately 60 cm into the lunar soil by Apollo 17 astronauts Gene Cernan and Harrison Schmidt.
Upon returning to Earth, NASA secured the tube in a helium chamber to preserve the sample for future studies under the Apollo Next Generation Sample Analysis (ANGSA) program.
In recent years, NASA has begun to make ANGSA samples accessible to academic researchers via a competitive application process.
Dr. Dottin and his team chose secondary ion mass spectrometry for sulfur isotopic analysis. This precise analytical method did not exist in 1972 when the samples were initially returned to Earth.
For their research, they targeted specific samples from drive tubes believed to originate from mantle-derived volcanic rocks.
“There are two possible explanations for the anomalous sulfur,” Dr. Dottin explained.
They may represent remnants of chemical processes that took place during the Moon’s early history.
When sulfur interacts with ultraviolet light in a thin atmosphere, a diminished sulfur-33 ratio can be observed.
It is theorized that the Moon had a transient atmosphere in its early history, which could have facilitated such photochemical reactions.
If this is indeed the case, it would have interesting implications for the Moon’s evolutionary history.
“This offers evidence of ancient material transfer from the lunar surface into the mantle,” Dr. Dottin said.
“On Earth, we rely on plate tectonics for this process, but the Moon lacks such tectonic activity.”
“Thus, the idea of some form of exchange mechanism on the early Moon is thrilling.”
Alternatively, the unusual sulfur signatures could be remnants from the Moon’s formation itself.
The prevailing theory states that a Mars-sized object named Theia collided with Earth early on, with debris from that impact eventually forming the Moon.
The sulfur signatures from Theia differ significantly from those of Earth, and these differences may be reflected in the Moon’s mantle.
This study does not definitively resolve which explanation is accurate.
“Investigating sulfur isotopes from Mars and other celestial bodies may someday provide insights,” Dr. Dottin remarked.
“Ultimately, a better understanding of isotopic distributions will enhance our comprehension of solar system formation.”
study Published in Journal of Geophysics: Planets.
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JW Dottin III et al. 2025. Endogenous yet exotic sulfur in the lunar mantle. JGR: Planet 130(9):e2024je008834; doi:10.1029/2024je008834
The fish supergroup earball, recognized for its superior hearing abilities, includes two-thirds of freshwater fish species. They were previously believed to have originated in freshwater prior to the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea. This suggests an almost 80 million-year span from their inception to the earliest known fossils. However, the discovery of Acronichthys MacCognoi—a newly identified freshwater ear fish species from the late Cretaceous period—challenges this assumption.
Reconstruction of the Weberian apparatus in Acronichthys MacCognoi. The central golden bone arises from the rib bones (indicated in grey) that connect the fish’s air bladder (left) to the inner ear (right). Image credit: University of California, Berkeley Ken Chronicle.
Underwater ears require a distinct anatomy compared to those that sense airborne sounds.
Many terrestrial vertebrates have evolved eardrum-like structures that vibrate in response to sound waves.
These eardrums amplify sounds, moving bone arrays, similar to the malleus, incus, and stapes found in human middle ears, which then stimulate the fluid-filled inner ear.
In contrast, sound waves travel through fish, which have a density similar to that of the surrounding water.
Consequently, fish have developed an air-filled bladder that vibrates in response to sound passing through it.
These vibrations are then transferred to the fish’s inner ear in a basic manner in most saltwater species.
However, specialized fish have developed bony structures known as “bones” between the air bladder and inner ear (a system called Weberian apparatus), enhancing the amplification and range of frequencies detectable by their ears. For instance, zebrafish can detect frequencies of up to 15,000 Hz, nearing the human limit of 20,000 Hz.
The reason for these fish’s need to hear high frequencies remains unclear, though it may relate to their existence in varied and complex environments, from swift currents to still lakes.
“reason Acronichthys Maccagnoi Professor Neil Banerjee, a researcher at Western University, noted:
“This represents the oldest known North American member of the group and offers invaluable data for documenting the origins and early evolution of numerous freshwater fish species existing today.”
Acronichthys Maccagnoi thrived in the late Cretaceous period roughly 67 million years ago.
The authors utilized microCT scans of 4 cm long fossils to investigate their Weber structure.
They also studied the genomes and morphology of contemporary fish to refine the evolutionary lineage of freshwater species and simulate frequency responses of the middle ear structures of fossil fish.
Their model indicates that even 67 million years ago, Otophysan fish may have possessed hearing sensitivity on par with today’s zebrafish.
“We were uncertain if this constituted a fully functional Weberian device, but the simulation proved effective,” stated Dr. Juan Liu, a paleontologist at the University of California, Berkeley.
“The Weberian apparatus suggests it’s less sensitive than that of zebrafish.”
“However, the peak sensitivity frequency is not as low as that of zebrafish (500-1,000 Hz). This is not an insignificant finding, and it’s conceivable that this ancient Otophysan fish achieved a higher hearing frequency.”
This discovery indicates that at least two transitions from marine to freshwater species occurred during the evolution of otolaryngology.
Researchers estimate the divergence times for ear plants migrating from ocean to freshwater habitats occurred around 154 million years ago (late Jurassic period), following the fragmentation of Pangaea around 200 million years ago.
“Dinosaurs are fascinating, attracting significant attention, which means we know a lot about them. However, there’s still much to uncover regarding the diversity of prehistoric freshwater fish.”
“Many keys to understanding the origins of the groups that currently dominate rivers and lakes worldwide can be found in Canadian fossil sites.”
A paper detailing these findings was published in the journal Science on October 2nd.
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Juan Liu et al. 2025. Marine origin and freshwater radiation of ENT. Science 390 (6768): 65-69; doi: 10.1126/science.adr4494
The above image displays untreated E. coli bacteria, with the lower image showing the effects of polymyxin B after 90 minutes.
Carolina Borrelli, Edward Douglas et al./Nature Microbiology
High-resolution microscopy unveils how polymyxins, a class of antibiotics, penetrate bacterial defenses, offering insights for developing treatments against drug-resistant infections.
Polymyxins serve as a last-resort option for treating Gram-negative bacteria responsible for serious infections like pneumonia, meningitis, and typhoid fever. “The priority pathogens identified by the top three health agencies globally are predominantly Gram-negative bacteria, highlighting their complex cell envelopes,” states Andrew Edwards from Imperial College London.
These bacteria possess an outer layer of lipopolysaccharides that functions as armor. While it was known that polymyxins target this layer, the mechanisms of their action and the reasons for inconsistent effectiveness remained unclear.
In a pivotal study, Edwards and his team employed biochemical experiments combined with nuclear power microscopy, capturing details at the nanoscale. They discovered that polymyxin B, amongst other treatments, actively targets E. coli cells.
Shortly after treatment commenced, the bacteria rapidly began releasing lipopolysaccharides.
Researchers observed that the presence of antibiotics prompted bacteria to attempt to assimilate more lipopolysaccharide “bricks” into their protective walls. However, this effort resulted in gaps, allowing antibiotics to penetrate and destroy the bacteria.
“Antibiotics are likened to tools that aid in the removal of these ‘bricks’,” Edwards explains. “While the outer membrane doesn’t entirely collapse, gaps appear, providing an entryway for antibiotics to access the internal membrane.”
The findings also elucidate why antibiotics occasionally fail: they predominantly affect active, growing bacteria. When in a dormant state, polymyxin B becomes ineffective as these bacteria do not produce armor strong enough to withstand environmental pressures.
E. coli images exposed to polymyxin B illustrate changes to the outer membrane over time: untreated, 15 mins, 30 mins, 60 mins, and 90 mins.
Carolina Borrelli, Edward Douglas et al./Nature Microbiology
Interestingly, researchers found that introducing sugar to E. coli could awaken dormant cells, prompting armor production to resume within 15 minutes, leading to cell destruction. This phenomenon is thought to be applicable to other polymyxins, such as polymyxin E, used therapeutically.
Edwards proposes that targeting dormant bacteria with sugar might be feasible, though it poses the risk of hastening their growth. “We don’t want bacteria at infection sites rapidly proliferating due to this stimulation,” he cautions. Instead, he advocates for the potential to combine various drugs to bypass dormancy without reactivating the bacteria.
Paleontologists have examined fossilized flowers and bees dating back 24 million years, following the scarcity in Enspel, Germany, and unveiled new species of Linden. These include Tilia Magna Separa and two newly identified bumblebee species, Bombos (Chrono Bombos) Mesegas and Timebombus Palaeocrater. The presence of identical tyria pollen in both the flowers and on the outer surfaces of the bumblebees serves as direct evidence of their interactions, identifying Bombos as a pollinator of Tyria. At least due to the late decline, we remain anchored in the present.
Tilia Magna Separa. Image credit: Christian Geier.
“We analyzed countless fossil flowers and insect pollens in hopes of understanding the evolution of flowers, their visitors, and the pollination process,” stated Dr. Friðgeir Grímsson, a researcher at the University of Vienna.
“These microscopic pollen grains were made visible using UV and blue light, and then extracted individually from flower or insect hair, or aggregated from insects, with the aid of extremely thin needles and minimal invasive techniques.”
The pollen grains underwent careful washing and were analyzed using high-resolution light and electron microscopes.
Many of the flowers studied originated from Linden trees, with numerous bumblebees visiting Linden flowers prior to their fossilization in an ancient volcanic crater lake.
“The newly identified linden flower has been named Tilia Magna Separa,” said Christian Geier, a doctoral student at the University of Vienna.
“Additionally, two new bumblebee species have been identified: Bombos (Chrono Bombos) Mesegas and Bombos (Time Bombos) Pereoctor.”
The fossils were uncovered during the excavation of lake sediments from the former volcanic lake near Enspel in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany.
“Tilia Magna Separa marks the first recorded flowers from the European continent, characterized and described as per pollenological standards—the science of pollen,” the researchers noted.
“The fossil bumblebees rank among the oldest representatives of their genus, with only one species from Colorado, USA, predating them.”
“This is the first instance globally where a fossil flower and its pollinator bee have been described arising from the same deposits, with pollen linking them directly,” Geier remarked.
“Such research holds significant potential to enhance our understanding of past pollinator dynamics.”
The Fossil Record offers insights into the evolutionary developments of the past, revealing changes due to climate shifts, species extinction, and evolutionary adaptation.
By analyzing fossilized animal and plant groups, we can infer their behaviors and reactions to environmental changes.
“Our research allowed us to identify specific flower homeostasis among the bumblebees studied,” Geier explained.
“This indicates that they tend to visit only one type of plant during a single flight.”
“These findings are crucial for gaining a deeper understanding of the delicate interactions and resilience within today’s ecosystems.”
The study was published today in the journal New Botanist.
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Christian Gayer et al. 24 million years of pollination interaction between European linden flowers and bumble bees. New Botanist, published online on September 22, 2025. doi: 10.1111/nph.7053
This water flow took place on ancient asteroids over a billion years after their formation, likely due to the heat generated by melting ice, which caused rock fractures that facilitated water movement. JAXA’s Hayabusa-2 Spacecraft.
This image of the asteroid was taken on June 26, 2018, by JAXA’s Hayabusa-2 Spacecraft optical navigation camera – telescopic (ONC-T). Image credits: JAXA / University of Tokyo / Kochi University / Ricchiho University / Nagoya University / Chiba University of Technology / Nishimura University / Aizu University / AIST.
Ryugu is a CG-type asteroid close to Earth and part of the Polana family of impact asteroids.
The diamond-shaped body, also known as 1999 JU3, was identified by astronomers in May 1999 during asteroid studies near Lincoln.
Its diameter measures about 900 m (0.56 miles), and it orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.96-1.41 Astronomical Units (AU) every 474 days.
“We have a relatively good understanding of how the solar system was formed, though many gaps remain,” said Shiyoshijima, a researcher at the University of Tokyo.
“One gap in our knowledge is how Earth acquired its water.”
“It has long been known that carbonaceous asteroids, originating from ice and dust in the outer solar system, have contributed water to Earth.”
“We discovered that Ryugu preserves an unaltered record of water activity, indicating that liquid water moved through the rock much later than previously anticipated,” added Dr. Ikemoto.
“This shifts our understanding of the long-term fate of water on asteroids. The water has remained for an extended period and hasn’t been depleted as quickly as we thought.”
In this study, the authors examined the isotopes of lutetium (Lu) and hafnium (HF), with the radioactive decay from lutetium-176 to hafnium-176 serving as a sort of clock to gauge geological processes.
The expected presence of these isotopes in the studied sample was hypothesized to correlate with the asteroid’s age in a predictable manner.
However, the ratio of Hafnium-176 to Lutetium-176 was significantly unexpected.
This strongly suggests to researchers that the liquid effectively washed away lutetium from the rocks containing it.
“We anticipated that Ryugu’s chemical signatures would align with certain meteorites currently under examination on Earth,” Dr. Iizuka stated.
“However, the results were strikingly different, necessitating the careful elimination of other possible explanations, ultimately concluding that the Lu-HF system was hindered by a delayed liquid flow.”
“The most probable triggers involved the parent body of Ryugu’s larger asteroid, which disrupted the rocks, melting the embedded ice and allowing liquid water to permeate the body.”
“It was truly surprising! This impact event could be the catalyst for the parent body disruption.”
One of the crucial implications is that carbon-rich asteroids may be a significant source of water for Earth, supplying far more than previously estimated.
Ryugu’s parent body seems to have retained ice for over a billion years. This suggests that similar bodies impacting the young Earth could have delivered 2-3 times more water than standard models predict, significantly influencing the planet’s early oceans and atmosphere.
“The notion that a Ryugu-like object has preserved ice for such an extended time is remarkable,” Dr. Ikemoto remarked.
“It implies that Earth’s components were far wetter than we had imagined.”
“This prompts a reevaluation of the initial conditions for the planetary water system.”
“It’s still early to draw definitive conclusions, but my team and others may build on this research to clarify various aspects, including how our planet became habitable.”
The findings will be published in the journal Nature.
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T. Iizuka et al. Late fluid flow of primitive asteroids revealed by Lu-HF isotopes of Lu. Nature. Published online on September 10th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09483-0
fA few years ago, just before the first Covid lockdown, I wrote an article exploring a rather niche query. Most gamers press down on the controller, gazing at the characters on their screens as they look up. However, controlling avatars like pilots represents a significant minority who handle their characters as if they were piloting, returning to control the plane and ascend. In many modern games, this necessitates diving into settings to adjust the default controls. Why has this practice persisted?
I figured some hardcore gamers might find this topic intriguing. To my surprise, the article resonated with over a million readers, drawing the attention of Dr. Jennifer Corbett (cited in the original piece) and Dr. Jap Munneke.
At that time, the two were investigating vision science and cognitive neuroscience, but the lockdown meant they could no longer conduct lab experiments with volunteers. The issue of controller inversion presented an ideal chance to analyze the neuroscience behind human-computer interactions using remote participants. They reached out to gamers who contributed insights into the motivations behind their controller preferences, garnering hundreds of responses.
Microsoft Flight Simulator… Many believed that being a pilot would affect control retention. Photo: Microsoft
Interestingly, it wasn’t just gamers who were engaged. “Machinists, equipment operators, pilots, designers, and surgeons — individuals from diverse fields reached out,” Corbett noted. “The variety of responses signaled a wealth of scientific literature to examine for structuring optimal research. The feedback from readers prompted us to refine how users customize their controllers.”
This month, the duo released their findings in a paper titled “Why Axis Inversion? Optimizing the Interaction Between Users, Interfaces and Visual Displays in a 3D Environment.” Why do some people choose to invert their controls? It’s a complex issue.
The study commenced with participants completing a survey detailing their background and gaming experiences. “Numerous individuals indicated that their preference for flipping controls stemmed from their early experiences with flight simulators or the first console games they played,” Corbett explained. “Many reported changing their preferences over time, prompting us to include an entirely new section in our research based on this input.”
Mental rotation… Subjects engaging in the controller inversion study. Photo: Jen Corbett
However, Corbett and Munneke, currently based at MIT, were convinced that critical cognitive aspects of inversion could only be assessed through behavioral reactions. They developed a sequence of four experiments, in which participants were monitored via Zoom. Corbett elaborated, “They had to mentally rotate random shapes, adopt the perspective of the ‘avatar’ in the scenario, judge the tilt of an object against a differing background, and navigate the typical ‘Simon effect’ when responding to targets while using a machine. These varied tasks clarified whether an individual tends to invert.”
The outcomes of the cognitive evaluations revealed that many assumptions surrounding controller preferences were indeed incorrect. “There was no discernible reason provided by participants [for inverting controls],” Corbett stated. “It was linked to their actual inversion habits. The quicker participants were, the less inclined they were to invert. Conversely, those who identified as occasional invertors were significantly slower in these tasks.” Does this imply that non-inverters excel at gaming?
In essence, gamers believe they are inverters or non-inverters based on their initial exposure to game controls. Many flight simulators from the 1980s may have conditioned players to instinctively turn themselves around. Conversely, gamers raised in the 2000s might assume they are inherently non-inverted, given that non-reverse controls became the norm. Yet cognitive testing suggests otherwise. Depending on how your brain perceives 3D objects, you may be predisposed to either invert or not.
Consequently, Corbett suggests that trying out a controller configuration you’re not accustomed to might enhance your gaming skills. “Non-inverters should experiment with inverting. Inverters should consider giving non-inversion a fair shot,” she suggests. “You might want to commit to it for a few hours. People have learned one way, but that doesn’t necessarily mean they can’t excel with the alternative. A parallel can be drawn with left-handed children who are compelled to write with their right hand, potentially leading to long-term handwriting difficulties and learning challenges.”
Through their research, Corbett and Munneke established that complex, often subconscious cognitive processes govern how individuals utilize controllers, affecting not just gaming hardware but also human-computer interfaces across various fields, from aviation to surgical technology. They crafted a framework for assessing how to optimally tailor controls for individuals, now detailed in their published research.
Learning curves… Corbett and Munneke’s research can also influence surgical practices. Photo: Oksana Krasiuk/Alamy
“This research has significant potential for optimizing inverted settings to enhance human-machine collaboration,” Corbett stated. “Many technologies blend human capabilities with AI and various machines to amplify performance. It allows individuals to tailor a specific configuration for tasks—whether aiming for a target or avoiding a mistake—such as in laparoscopic surgery.”
What began as a casual, almost nerdy inquiry has evolved into a published cognitive research document. One scientific publication has already referenced it, and interview requests have surged from podcasts and YouTube channels. What’s my takeaway? “The most remarkable discoveries for gamers [who don’t invert],” Corbett remarked:
It’s no surprise that stress is a key factor in various health issues, including mental health disorders like anxiety and depression, as well as physical ailments such as heart disease. There’s an urgent need for a straightforward, objective, and non-invasive method to study and assess stress. Interestingly, the temperature of an individual’s nose might provide valuable insights.
Our stress levels are shaped by our mental perceptions of situations and our physical responses to them. Factors such as genetics, social influences, and cultural backgrounds contribute to our unique stress responses.
Traditionally, stress has been measured in two ways. First, surveys are commonly used, typically administered after stress has occurred, which can disconnect participants from their immediate experiences. These surveys are also subjective; not everyone accurately identifies or articulates their feelings.
The second approach involves monitoring physical indicators like blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory patterns. While these measures can appear more objective, they require specialized equipment in clinical settings, which can disrupt daily life. Ironically, the process of testing can itself induce stress, leading to an increase in the very markers being measured.
Exciting advancements in science suggest that thermal imaging, originally designed for identifying heat loss in structures, is now proving invaluable in tracking medical conditions related to temperature variations, such as infections, inflammation, and tumors. Researchers are now utilizing thermal cameras to assess stress levels based on facial temperature changes. Their research explores how temperature variations in the face can indicate stress.
When we experience stress, blood flow is redirected within our bodies. The nervous system prioritizes blood flow to vital sensory organs, such as the eyes and ears, while reducing blood circulation to the nose. This reduction in blood flow is detected as a decrease in temperature by thermal cameras. This phenomenon, known as “nose dip,” isn’t exclusive to humans; it has also been observed in both adults and children, as well as in nonhuman primates, suggesting an evolutionary connection to stress responses.
While undergoing stress, our nervous systems can redirect blood flow to heighten sensory awareness, resulting in a cooler nose. Since the nose remains relatively still, these temperature changes can serve as a clear indicator of stress.
The integration of thermal imaging with existing stress measurement techniques could revolutionize stress research. This method offers continuous monitoring in a non-intrusive manner, eliminating the need for lab environments or stressful questionnaires.
In the future, we may be able to utilize nose temperature as a form of biofeedback to help manage stress levels. This approach could support individuals—especially those who struggle to communicate their stress—by allowing for the monitoring of stress levels in high-pressure environments such as emergency rooms, trading floors, or even zoos.
Studies indicate that recognizing stress responses can enhance stress management. Making stress visible allows individuals to better understand its impacts on their mental and physical well-being before, during, and after stressful situations. The future of stress research promises to be groundbreaking.
Gillian Forrester is a professor of comparative cognition at the University of Sussex, UK. Tune in to hear her speak at New Scientist Live on October 18th.
Half of adults in the UK express worries about artificial intelligence affecting their employment, prompting union leaders to advocate for a significant shift in the government’s strategy towards emerging technologies.
The primary concern for 51% of the 2,600 adults surveyed by the Trade Union Council was job loss or alterations to contract terms.
AI poses a specific worry for workers aged 25 to 34, with nearly two-thirds (62%) of participants in this age group sharing such apprehensions.
The TUC’s survey results coincide with announcements from major employers, including BT, Amazon, and Microsoft, indicating potential job cuts due to advancements in AI over recent months.
The UK job market is experiencing a slowdown amid an easing economy, with the official unemployment rate reaching 4.7% for the first time in four years; however, most economists do not attribute this to increased investment in AI.
While the TUC recognizes that AI technology could benefit employees and enhance public services, it urges the government to involve both workers and unions in the deployment of AI to safeguard jobs and offer training for roles replaced by AI.
Half of those surveyed (50%) wish to have a say in how AI is implemented in the workplace and the broader economy, as opposed to leaving this decision solely to businesses, with only 17% against this idea.
As part of its AI strategy, the TUC is calling for conditions to be attached to the substantial public funds allocated for AI research and development, ensuring that workers are not displaced by innovative technologies.
Furthermore, it is essential for companies to share the “digital dividends” from productivity improvements achieved through AI by investing in employee training and skills, enhancing wages and working conditions, and involving workers in corporate decision-making processes, including representation on boards.
Union representatives have cautioned that without such regulations, allowing workers to influence AI usage, the rise of new technologies may result in “prolonged inequality,” worsened working conditions, and increasing social unrest.
The TUC has insisted on the need to strengthen the UK’s social security and skills systems to support and reskill workers whose jobs are threatened by AI advancements.
Kate Bell, TUC’s assistant secretary, stated: “AI holds transformative potential, and if developed correctly, it can enhance productivity, benefiting workers.”
She further noted: “The alternative is grim. In unchecked and improper hands, the AI revolution might establish deepening inequality as jobs decline or vanish, with shareholders growing wealthier.”
Thylacines were once found throughout Australia and New Guinea
Robert Nickelsberg/Getty Images
The extinction of crucial genes over the millennia since humans arrived in Australia may have made the thylacine more prone to extinction.
The thylacine, also known as the Tasmanian tiger (Thylacinus cynocephalus), was the last remaining member of a marsupial family called Thylacinidae, which once thrived in Australia and New Guinea.
It became extinct on mainland Australia around 2000 years ago, primarily due to human hunting and competition with dingoes. After European settlers arrived in Tasmania, the animal was targeted by farmers and government bounties, leading to the last of its kind dying in 1936 at Hobart Zoo.
Nagarjun Vijay and Buddha Bhashan Gilish Salv from the Institute of Science and Education in Bhopal, India, grew fascinated by the Tasmanian tiger’s genome while studying that of the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris).
“We noticed some parallels between the extinction of thylacines and our own tiger,” Vijay notes. “There’s a significant push to protect Indian tigers.”
The duo theorized that hypercarnivores like the Bengal and Tasmanian tigers may have lost vital genes through their evolutionary journey in response to environmental shifts and emerging diseases.
They examined genetic data previously obtained from thylacine specimens and compared these to the genome of the Tasmanian devil, a close relative (Sarcophilus harrisii), along with other marsupials.
Unlike nearly all other marsupials, including the Tasmanian devil, the thylacine has lost at least four crucial genes: SAMD9L, HSD17B13, CUZD1, and VWA7.
Vijay found it surprising that this genetic loss did not occur after Tasmania’s populace was isolated due to rising sea levels roughly 10,000 years ago.
This genetic loss may have been beneficial under certain historical conditions, but can hinder species health by diminishing antiviral defense, metabolic functions, lactation, as well as increasing susceptibility to cancer and pancreatitis.
Thylacines lost SAMD9L, CUZD1, and VWA7 at least 6 million years ago, coinciding with a significant climatic transition when species sizes increased dramatically, resulting in an oversaturation of carnivores entirely dependent on meat.
“The overarching narrative is that much of the human influence, or artificial changes, has perpetually shaped the extinction of thylacines,” Vijay states. “We speculated that there would be lost genes linked to disease, and that’s exactly what we uncovered.”
Timothy Churchill from the University of New South Wales in Sydney emphasizes that climate change over the course of human history has indeed led to a drastic decrease in genetic diversity among thylacines. He believes that the genetic losses identified in the new study may have rendered the Tasmanian tigers more vulnerable to illnesses, though confirming this requires additional research.
“It’s one of those species that truly survived against the odds for an extended period in that niche,” Churchill explains. “But once dingo-like canids arrived, it was the beginning of the end on the mainland. Then, of course, after creating adversaries in Tasmania, it marked their doom.”
When Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD, it buried Pompeii under a meter of ash and pumice, effectively freezing the Roman city in time. However, a new study reveals that the story didn’t end there. Life persisted for centuries, emerging among the abandoned structures in significantly altered forms.
Recent findings from restoration efforts in the city’s southern quarter indicate that Pompeii was reoccupied shortly after the eruption and remained inhabited until at least the fifth century.
“Researchers and archaeologists have always been intrigued by the idea of people returning to Pompeii, but this was often overshadowed by a focus on the remarkably preserved artwork from before 79 AD,” said Gabriel Zuchtliegel, director of Pompeii Archaeological Park and lead author of the new study, in an interview with BBC Science Focus.
However, the resettlement was a shadow of Pompeii’s former self. “The reoccupation of Pompeii was not comparable to the city as it existed before AD 79,” Zuchtliegel stated.
“It resembled more of a slum—a highly unstable and unstructured settlement. As far as we know, there were no temples or public buildings.”
A collection of ceramic containers (amphorae), fragments, tiles, and marble repurposed by the inhabitants of this space after 79 AD – Credit: Archaeological Park in Pompeii
Families fashioned makeshift homes on the remaining upper floors of the buried buildings, while the lower levels (previously above ground) were transformed into hearths and caves, complete with ovens and small workshops.
But who chose to return to the devastated city? According to Zuchtliegel, these residents were likely those with limited options. “Certainly, they would have preferred to live elsewhere if possible, but some may not have had other resources.”
There was also an additional motivation: the opportunity to reclaim treasures buried beneath the ash. “A vast amount of wealth lay hidden underground, including metals, statues, coins, and marble,” Zuchtliegel noted.
“People may have initially returned to unearth the ruins of Pompeii… over time, vegetation would have reclaimed the land, creating a green and thriving landscape.”
This fragile community endured for centuries. Alongside the broader decline of the Western Roman Empire, it likely ceased to exist after another eruption in 472 AD. “There may have been general demographic declines, migration, and hardships related to the collapse of centralized governance,” Zuchtliegel explained.
“It’s astonishing to see how people endure and cope in such extreme circumstances.”
About our experts
Gabriel Zuchtliegel is the director of the Archaeological Parks in Pompeii. He studied Classical Archaeology at Humboldt University in Berlin and obtained his PhD from the University of Bonn.
Research conducted among English children has revealed a rise in exposure to pornography following the implementation of UK regulations intended to safeguard them online, with six-year-olds encountering it inadvertently.
Dame Rachel de Souza reported that the findings indicated an uptick in the number of young people encountering pornographic content before turning 18, even after the Online Safety Law came into effect.
Over a quarter (27%) admitted to having viewed porn online by the age of 11.
These results build on a similar survey carried out by the Children’s Commissioner in 2023, highlighting minimal progress despite newly instituted laws and commitments from government officials and tech companies.
She stated: “Violent pornography is readily accessible to children, often encountered accidentally via popular social media platforms, and has a profound impact on their behaviors and views.
“This report should signal a clear turning point. The fresh protections introduced in July by Ofcom, part of the Online Safety Act, present a genuine opportunity to prioritize child safety unequivocally in the online space.”
The findings stem from a representative national survey conducted in May with 1,010 children and young people aged 16-21, just prior to the implementation of the OFCOM child code in July.
The regulations set forth by Ofcom have brought significant changes designed to restrict access to pornographic websites for those under 18. Utilizing the same methodology and questions as in the 2023 survey ensures consistency:
A higher percentage of young people reported seeing porn before age 18 (70%) in 2025 compared to 2023 (64%).
More than a quarter (27%) acknowledged viewing porn online at age 11, with the average age of first exposure remaining at 13.
Vulnerable children, including those receiving free school lunches, children in social care, and those with special educational needs or disabilities, reported higher rates of exposure to online porn by age 11 compared to their peers.
Nearly half of the respondents (44%) agreed with the statement: “Girls might say no at first, but then they could be persuaded to have sex.” Further analysis showed that 54% of girls and 41% of boys who had viewed porn online resonated with this sentiment, in contrast to 46% of girls and 30% of boys who hadn’t.
A significant number of respondents indicated they encountered porn online accidentally rather than actively seeking it (35%). The rate of accidental exposure rose by 21 percentage points compared to 2023 (59% vs. 38%).
Social networking and media platforms constituted 80% of the primary sources of porn access for children, with X (formerly Twitter) being the most common portal, surpassing dedicated porn sites.
The disparity between the number of children viewing porn on X versus dedicated porn sites has widened (45% vs. 35% in 2025 compared to 41% vs. 37% in 2023).
Most respondents reported witnessing portrayals of actions which are illegal under existing pornography legislation or could be deemed illegal under forthcoming crimes and police bills.
Over half (58%) encountered pornographic content that depicted strangulation, with 44% observing sexual activity while individuals were asleep, and 36% witnessing instances where consent was not given or had been ignored.
Further scrutiny revealed that only a minority of children expressed a desire for violent or extreme content, indicating it is being made available to them.
The report highlights concerns that, even under current regulations, children may circumvent restrictions by utilizing virtual private networks (VPNs), which remain legal in the UK.
The report advocates for online porn to adhere to the same standards as offline porn, prohibiting depictions of non-fatal violence. It also calls for the Ministry of Education to equip schools to effectively implement new curricula on relationships, health, and sex education.
Recently, it was announced that traffic to the UK’s leading porn sites has drastically decreased following the strengthening of age verification measures. According to data analytics firm Simarweb, the popular adult site Pornhub saw a decline of over 1 million visitors within just two weeks.
Pornhub and other major adult platforms initiated enhanced age verification checks on July 25 after acknowledging that online safety laws should complicate access to explicit materials for individuals under 18.
Simarweb compared the average daily user statistics of porn sites from August 1 to 9 against the average from July, revealing that Pornhub, the UK’s top adult content site, experienced a 47% dip in domestic traffic on July 24, the day before the new regulations came into effect.
A government spokesperson remarked, “Children are growing up immersed in a digital landscape bombarded with pornography and harmful content, which can have damaging effects on their lives. Online safety laws are addressing this issue.”
“To be clear: VPNs are legitimate tools for adults, and there are no intentions to ban them. However, platforms promoting loopholes like VPNs to children could face stringent enforcement and hefty fines. We mustn’t prioritize business interests over child safety.”
Astronomers captured a new high-resolution image of the planetary nebula NGC 6072 using two instruments on board the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope.
This Webb/Nircam image depicts NGC 6072, a planetary nebula located about 4,048 light years away in the constellation of Scorpius. Photo credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/STSCI.
NGC 6072 is situated approximately 1,241 parsecs (4,048 light years) away from the southern constellations of Scorpius.
Also known by designations such as ESO 389-15, HEN 2-148, and IRAS 16097-3606, this nebula has a dynamic age of about 10,000 years.
It was first discovered by British astronomer John Herschel on June 7, 1837.
“Since their discovery in the 1700s, astronomers have learned that planetary nebulae, the expanding shells of luminous gases expelled by dying stars, can take on various shapes and forms,” noted Webb astronomers.
“While most planetary nebulae are circular, elliptical, or bipolar, the new Webb image of NGC 6072 reveals a more complex structure.”
Images captured by Webb’s Nircam (near-infrared camera) suggest that NGC 6072 displays a multipolar configuration.
“This indicates there are multiple oval lobes being ejected from the center in various directions,” the astronomers explained.
“These outflows compress the surrounding gas into a disk-like structure.”
“This suggests the presence of at least two stars at the center of this nebula.”
“In particular, a companion star appears to be interacting with an aging star, drawing in some of its outer gas and dust layers.”
The central area of the nebula glows due to hot stars, reflected in the light blue hue characteristic of near-infrared light.
The dark orange regions, composed of gas and dust, create pockets and voids appearing dark blue.
This material likely forms when dense molecules shield themselves from the intense radiation emitted by the central star.
There may also be a temporal aspect; for thousands of years, rapid winds from the main star could have been blowing away the surrounding material as it loses mass.
This web/milli image highlights the planetary nebula NGC 6072. Image credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/STSCI.
The long wavelengths captured by Webb’s Miri (mid-infrared instrument) emphasize the dust, unveiling a star that astronomers believe resides at the center of the nebula.
“The image appears as a small pink dot,” remarked the researchers.
“The mid-infrared wavelengths also reveal a concentric ring expanding outward from the central region.
“This might indicate the presence of a secondary star at the heart of the nebula, obscured from direct observation.”
“This secondary star orbits the primary star, creating rings of material that spiral outward as the original star sheds mass over time.”
“The red regions captured by Nircam and the blue areas highlighted by Miri track cool molecular gases (likely molecular hydrogen), while the central region tracks hot ionized gases.”
Two extinct hominins, Australopithecus afarensis and Australopithecus africanus, exhibited much greater sexual dimorphism than chimpanzees and modern humans. According to Dr. Adam Gordon, a paleontologist at the University of Albany and Durham, Australopithecus afarensis displayed even higher levels of dimorphism.
Reconstructing the face of Australopithecus afarensis. Image credit: Cicero Moraes/CC by-sa 3.0.
The sexual size dimorphism is not just a mere physical trait; it indicates deeper behavioral and evolutionary strategies.
In line with sexual selection theory, the sexual size dimorphism seen in modern primates typically correlates with intense male-male competition and social structures, fostering a one-sided mating system where one or more large males dominate access to multiple females.
Conversely, low sexual dimorphism is characteristic of species that exhibit paired social structures with lower competition for mating opportunities.
Contemporary human populations show low to moderate sexual size dimorphism, with males generally being slightly larger than females on average, although there is considerable overlap between the sexes.
Fossil data is often incomplete, making it exceedingly difficult to ascertain the gender of ancient individuals.
To overcome this issue, Dr. Gordon utilized a geometric averaging method for estimating size from multiple skeletal elements, including the upper arm, femur, and tibia.
Resampling techniques were then employed to simulate thousands of comparisons between fossil hominins and living primates, ensuring that the statistical model accounted for the incomplete and varied nature of fossil samples.
A comparative framework was developed using data from contemporary gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans with known genders and complete skeletons.
Unlike earlier studies where ambiguous or inconclusive statistical results were interpreted as signs of similarity, Dr. Gordon’s approach unveiled clear and significant differences, even with relatively small fossil samples.
To eliminate the potential of body size changes in Australopithecus afarensis reflecting broader evolutionary trends rather than gender distinctions, Dr. Gordon also analyzed time series trends over a 300,000-year span from the Khadar Formation in Ethiopia.
His analysis indicated no significant size increase or decrease over time, suggesting that the observed variations were more likely due to differences between males and females.
“These were not minor differences,” Dr. Gordon stated.
“In the case of Australopithecus afarensis, males were significantly larger than females—possibly more so than the great living apes.”
“Both of these extinct hominin species displayed gender-specific size distinctions from modern humans, yet differed from extant ape species in this regard.”
Australopithecus africanus. Image credit: JM salas/cc by-sa 3.0.
Dr. Gordon’s previous research indicates that the elevated sexual size dimorphism seen in living primates may correlate with considerable resource stress. In situations where food is scarce, smaller, healthier females can better meet their metabolic needs and reproduce quicker than larger females, leading to offspring with smaller mothers and greater size disparities between males and females.
The pronounced sexual size dimorphism observed in both Australopithecus afarensis and Australopithecus africanus suggests a high level of male competition, akin to differences noted in chimpanzees and gorillas. However, the distinctions between the two fossil species could reflect varying intensities of sexual selection or resource stress in their environments (e.g., differences in the length of dry seasons that could affect female body size).
In any event, the high sexual size dimorphism of these fossil hominins starkly contrasts with the more balanced sizes seen in modern humans, offering insights into different models of early human existence.
The implications of these findings are significant. Australopithecus afarensis, which inhabited the Earth between 3.9 and 2.9 million years ago, is often viewed as very closely related to the direct ancestors of modern humans.
However, its pronounced sexual dimorphism suggests that early human social systems may have been much more hierarchical and competitive than previously believed.
On the contrary, Australopithecus africanus—which appears slightly later in the fossil record—exhibits less dimorphism compared to Australopithecus afarensis. This could represent different evolutionary branches within the human lineage or perhaps reflect various social behavioral stages in the development of hominins.
“We often categorize these early hominins together as a single group called Gracile Australopithecines, believed to have interacted with their physical and social environments in similar ways,” Dr. Gordon explained.
“While there is some truth to this, the significant differences in dimorphism between the two species indicate that these closely related hominins were under distinct selection pressures, unlike those affecting modern human pair bonds.”
The survey findings will be published in the American Journal of Biological Anthropology.
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Adam D. Gordon. 2025. Dimorphism of sexual size in Australopithecus africanus and A. afarensis in contrast to modern humans despite low power resampling analysis. American Journal of Biological Anthropology 187(3): E70093; doi: 10.1002/ajpa.70093
While computers have triumphed in chess, go, and poker, humans maintain an edge in competitive coding.
Recently, Polish coder and mind sports champion Przemysław Dębiak narrowly defeated OpenAI participants at the Atcoder World Tour Finals 2025 held in Tokyo. The elite coder, known online as Psyho, anticipates he might be the last to claim such an honorable title due to rapid technological advancements.
“That’s a distinct possibility,” said Psyho, 41, who previously worked at OpenAI before retiring five years ago. “I enjoy these competitions and acknowledge there’s this incredible entity that can challenge me more than I might expect.”
Psyho expresses a certain skepticism regarding his contribution to the decline of his profession.
“Before the competition, I tweeted, ‘Live by the sword, die by the sword,'” he reflected. “I was part of the AI development. Ultimately, I will be the one who loses in this match. For now, I emerged victorious.”
Polish programmer Przemysław Dębiak, alias Psyho. Photo: Provided by Przemysław Dębiak
The Atcoder Euristic Division featured 11 human competitors (invited based on global rankings) and a coding algorithm developed by OpenAI, which secured second place. OpenAI CEO Sam Altman congratulated the participants via Twitter.
The 10-hour competition entails solving intricate optimization challenges. Classic problems in this category include the traveling salesman problem, where participants must determine the shortest routes between multiple cities, visiting each only once. While these challenges are straightforward in concept, finding optimal solutions proves computationally complex. Consequently, ChatGPT is often used for generating boilerplate code, although its effectiveness on open-ended logic problems is regarded as noteworthy.
“Currently, humans excel at inference and tackling complex problems,” Psyho stated. However, humans are constrained by the pace at which they can code, while AI can rapidly explore countless minor adjustments.
“This model essentially allows for cloning a single person multiple times to work in parallel,” he elucidated. “While AI may not be the most intelligent option presently, it is certainly the fastest. In many cases, duplicating an average individual several times might yield better outcomes than relying on one exceptional individual.”
These findings emerge amid major tech companies like Meta and Microsoft increasingly adopting AI for software development. Dario Amodei, CEO of Anthropic, cautioned that AI could displace 20% of white-collar jobs in the upcoming 1 to 5 years, as reported in May.
“Today, nearly every profession faces this challenge,” Psyho commented. “Some individuals are now performing all white-collar tasks. Automation in manual labor, however, still lags a few years behind.”
Like many in the industry, Psyho expresses uncertainty about the implications of increasingly advanced AI models. “We have numerous issues,” he remarked. “Disinformation, social manipulation, and a lack of purpose among people. Historically, societal progress has been slow, but technological advancements are accelerating at an unprecedented pace.”
Recent studies indicate that a dog’s response to your preferred TV show can reveal much about your personality.
In a recent Nature study, researchers found that enthusiastic dogs tend to interpret what they see on TV as reality, whereas anxious dogs are more inclined to react to non-animal elements, like humans and vehicles.
According to Lane Montgomery, a graduate student from Auburn University who spearheaded the research, there was a single consensus among all dogs regarding one topic.
“Overall, dogs generally seem to enjoy television, particularly when it features other dogs and animals,” Montgomery said to BBC Science Focus.
However, a note of caution before curating dog video playlists for your beloved pet: nearly half of the 453 dogs analyzed reacted every time their on-screen counterparts barked or howled.
Interestingly, breed and gender did not appear to influence their reactions, with older dogs exhibiting similar caution to younger puppies.
Dogs have been enjoying television alongside humans for nearly a century. Today, there are even specialized channels and programs designed to enhance dogs’ lives while their owners are engaged elsewhere.
Despite this, there has been little scientific inquiry into how dogs respond to visual stimuli.
To fill this gap, Montgomery encouraged dog owners to complete a survey that documented their pets’ responses to various dogs, animals, humans, inanimate objects, and environmental effects appearing on TV.
Montgomery posits that more impulsive dogs are likely to chase objects appearing on the TV screen or look behind the TV to track their movement, indicating they perceive the visuals as real.
Research indicates that dogs engage with TV for an average of 14 minutes – Credits: Getty Images/Manabougaswara
Conversely, skittish dogs were more prone to react when they saw people on TV or heard doorbells.
This research focuses solely on interactions with the most common individuals, rather than assessing whether these interactions are positive or negative.
Nevertheless, the insights gathered could aid owners in targeting training to eliminate undesirable behaviors and better identify which shows might be stressing their pets.
“The primary aim of this study was to enhance our understanding of how dogs react to various TV programs, thereby increasing the effectiveness of television as a tool for dog enrichment,” Montgomery stated. “Understanding which types of shows captivate dogs can help dog TV programs improve their content according to what dogs are likely to enjoy.”
About our experts
Lane Montgomery is a doctoral candidate in the Cognitive and Behavioral Sciences Program at Auburn University, USA. Her research concentrates on canine behavior and cognition to enhance the welfare of companion dogs and the efficiency of working dogs.
The Pilbara Craton in Western Australia features rocks that date back 3.5 billion years.
Elizabeth Czitronyi / Alamy
Rocks from Australia reveal that tectonic plates were shifting as far back as 3.5 billion years ago, a breakthrough that alters our understanding of the onset of plate tectonics over subsequent hundreds of millions of years.
Currently, along with roughly eight major hard rock plates on Earth’s surface, several smaller plates are interacting with the softer rock layer beneath. When these plates’ edges grind against one another, it can lead to sudden geological upheavals, such as earthquakes, and gradual processes like mountain range formation.
However, there is disagreement among geologists regarding the configurations of these ancient plates and their movements. Some researchers claim to have found indications of tectonic activity as far back as 4 billion years ago when the planet was significantly hotter; others argue that more compelling evidence is noted after 3.2 billion years ago.
Much of this data derives from the chemical compositions of rocks, which suggest past movements. Despite this, records detailing the interactions of early plates remain scarce, which is regarded as critical evidence supporting plate tectonics.
Recently, Alec Brenner and his team from Yale University claim to have uncovered substantial evidence of relative plate movement dating back 3.5 billion years in the eastern Pilbara Craton of Western Australia. They traced the magnetic orientation of rocks aligned with Earth’s magnetic field, observing shifts similar to how a compass needle changes direction when the ground moves.
Brenner and colleagues initially dated the rock using radioisotope analysis, establishing that at certain times, the rock’s magnetism remained unchanged. By observing this magnetization shift, they demonstrated that the rock mass progressively moved at a rate of several centimeters each year. They compared these findings to similarly examined rocks in the Barberton Greenstone Belt in South Africa, which exhibited no such movement.
“This suggests that some type of plate boundary must exist between these two regions to accommodate that relative movement,” remarked Brenner during his presentation at the Goldschmidt Geochemical Conference in Prague, Czech Republic, on July 9.
“Approximately 3.8 billion years ago, the Pilbara plate transitioned from medium to high latitudes, eventually reaching proximity to Earth’s magnetic poles and, possibly millions of years later, to the latitude of Svalbard.”
“If two plates are moving relative to one another, there must be various dynamic interactions happening between them,” noted Robert Hazen from the Carnegie Institute of Science in Washington, DC. “It cannot be an isolated event.”
Nonetheless, multiple interpretations exist regarding the underlying causes of this movement, according to Hazen. The variability in plate movement rates adds to the confusion, and existing data could align with various theories regarding Earth’s interior structure at that time.
At the very least, this discovery indicates the presence of structural boundaries, according to Michael Brown from the University of Maryland. However, he argues that the nature of rock movement appears dissimilar to contemporary understanding of plate tectonics. “Essentially, the Pilbara plate moved to higher latitudes to prevent stagnation, which is atypical within any current plate structural model.”
Brown posits that this aligns with the theory suggesting the Earth’s crust consisted of numerous smaller plates propelled by a thermal mantle plume during that period. He believes the remnants of these small plates examined by Brenner and his team provide evidence of movement; however, due to their limited representation of the crust, they may not accurately reflect broader Earth movements.
Brenner’s team also discovered indications that the Earth’s magnetic field underwent reversals around 3.46 billion years ago. Unlike today’s magnetic field reversals, which occur every million years, these ancient magnetic shifts seemed to happen much more frequently, over spans of tens of millions of years. This could imply a fundamentally different set of energies and mechanisms at play, as noted by Brenner.
Hazen emphasized that the scarcity of magnetic data leads to ongoing debates about the state of Earth’s magnetic field during that era of its evolution. “I believe this discovery raises the bar significantly,” he asserts. “It represents a vital breakthrough in understanding early magnetic reversals, shedding light on the core’s geomechanics in ways previously unexplored.”
Every spring, billions of Bogong moths (Agrotis infusa) migrate from their breeding grounds in southeastern Australia, covering distances of up to 1,000 km to reach previously unvisited locations.
The Bogong Moth utilizes stellar cues and Earth’s magnetic fields to develop a precise navigation system for long-distance night travel. Image credits: Lucinda Gibson & Ken Walker, Museum Victoria / CC by 3.0.
“While we already knew that certain birds and humans can navigate by stars, this is the first evidence showing that insects can do the same,” noted Professor Eric Warrant from the Australian National University and the University of South Australia.
“Bogong moths are remarkably precise navigators. They use stellar patterns as compasses, adjusting their course according to seasonal changes and the time of night.”
“Each spring, billions of Bogong moths emerge from their breeding sites in southeastern Australia, traveling up to 1,000 km to specific caves and rocky outcrops in the Australian Alps.”
“The moths remain dormant in cool, dark shelters throughout the summer and then return in autumn to breed and die.”
Researchers utilized advanced flight simulators and recorded brain activity in a controlled, magnetically neutral environment to study the moths’ navigation under various conditions.
Even without the natural starry sky or magnetic fields, the moths consistently flew in the correct seasonal direction.
They reversed their flight path when the night sky was rotated by 180 degrees, but became disoriented when the stars were jumbled.
“This demonstrates they aren’t merely flying toward the brightest light or relying on simple visual indicators,” Professor Warrant remarked.
“They interpret specific patterns in the night sky to establish their geographical bearings, similar to migratory birds.”
Remarkably, when the stars were obscured by clouds, the moths relied solely on Earth’s magnetic field for navigation.
This dual navigational system guarantees reliable orientation in diverse conditions.
Professor Warrant and his team explored the neurological basis of this behavior and discovered specialized neurons in the moths’ brains that respond to star patterns.
These neurons, located in regions responsible for navigation and steering, are most active when the moth faces south.
“This directional tuning indicates that the Bogong moth’s brain encodes celestial information in an exceptionally sophisticated manner,” added Professor Warrant.
“This discovery exemplifies the complex navigational capabilities inherent in the brains of small insects.”
The findings could have implications for robotics, drone navigation, and conservation strategies for species threatened by habitat destruction or climate change.
Bogong moth populations have dramatically declined in recent years, prompting their listing as vulnerable.
This research underscores the necessity of protecting their migratory paths and the dark skies they depend on.
“This insight isn’t merely academic; it illustrates how animals perceive their surroundings,” Professor Warrant stated.
“The night sky has guided human explorers for millennia, and now we understand it also guides moths.”
This study was published this week in the journal Nature.
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D. Drayer et al. Bogong Moths utilize a star compass for long-distance navigation at night. Nature Published online on June 18th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09135-3
Polar ecosystems are bolstered and enriched by birds that nest there seasonally, serving as keystone members of these ecosystems. Despite the significant ecological role of polar birds, the origins of high-center nests remain unclear due to limited fossil evidence. A recent study conducted by paleontologists explored an extensive collection of bird fossils from the late Cretaceous Purine Cream Formation in Alaska.
Illustration of Cretaceous birds alongside other dinosaurs from the same period. Image credit: Gabriel Ugueto.
“Birds have existed for 150 million years,” stated Lauren Wilson, a doctoral candidate at Princeton University.
“For a significant portion of that time, they constructed nests in the Arctic.”
In their research, Wilson and colleagues studied the bones and teeth of fossilized birds from the Alaska Prune Creek Formation, dating back 73 million years.
They identified various bird types, including land birds, seagull-like birds, and diving birds that bear similarities to some modern ducks and geese, all of which were nesting in the Arctic while dinosaurs roamed the same territory.
Before this research, the earliest known evidence of breeding birds in the Arctic or Antarctic was approximately 47 million years ago, following the asteroid impact that wiped out 75% of Earth’s species.
“This will extend the timeline by 25-30 million years for records of birds breeding in the polar regions,” remarked Dr. Pat Druckenmiller, director of the University of Alaska Museum.
“The Arctic is recognized as a modern nursery for birds.”
“Finding bird bones from the Cretaceous period is exceptionally rare,” Wilson noted.
“Discovering baby bird bones is almost unheard of, making these fossils particularly significant.”
“We conducted extensive mapping of Alaska for fossil birds—it wasn’t on anyone’s radar,” added Dr. Druckenmiller.
“Now, we are one of the premier locations in the country for bird fossils from the dinosaur age.”
“Given the richness of this information, these small bones and teeth offer exceptional insights into the fauna from that era.”
It remains uncertain whether these newly discovered specimens are the earliest recognized members of Neornithes, a category that encompasses all modern birds.
Some of the newly unearthed bones exhibit skeletal characteristics exclusive to this group. Additionally, like contemporary birds, some did not possess true teeth.
“If they belong to a modern bird lineage, they would represent the oldest fossils ever found,” explained Dr. Druckenmiller.
“Currently, the oldest such fossils are about 69 million years old.”
“However, establishing that requires the discovery of a partial or complete skeleton.”
Survey results I will be featured this week in the journal Science.
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Lauren N. Wilson et al. 2025. Evidence of bird nesting in the Arctic dates back to the Cretaceous period. Science 388 (6750): 974-978; doi: 10.1126/science.adt5189
And has Ted been sharing ideas ever since?Ted – an abbreviation for Technology, Entertainment, Design – is a non-profit media organization based in the U.S. that hosts its annual conference…
Yes, and they offer motivational online talks. With the powerful tagline “Ideas change everything.”
So, what about them? They are concise.
A lecture? Above all? Historically speaking.
How brief are they? Just 6 minutes.
Who do you refer to? That’s Elif Shafaq.
Turkish and British authors? She’s a novelist, essayist, public speaker, and activist. She spoke at the Hay Festival in Wales.
What did she say? When she first delivered a Ted Talk, she was allowed 19 minutes, but after a decade, the limit was reduced to a strict 13.
Why? That’s what she asked Ted.
And what did Ted reply? According to Shafaq, Ted responded:
How did that make her feel? “It’s disheartening. We can’t engage for more than a few minutes,” she noted, pointing out that we live “in the age of hyperinformation.”
Is it too much to handle? Exactly. “We’re unable to process so much information,” she added. “In the long run, we may lose compassion, leading to fatigue, decreased morale, and paralysis.”
My goodness, sounds severe. Is it true our attention spans have diminished? The absence of longitudinal studies means we can’t be certain, but the public appears to believe so.
Do tell me more. But let’s continue along that line. Research fromKing’s College London in 2022 found that 49% of individuals think their attention spans are decreasing, while 50% say they can’t stop checking their phones…
Probably young people. Not just them; it’s also a challenge for middle-aged individuals. Moreover, 50% believe the typical adult attention span today is merely 8 seconds.
Sorry, what were we discussing again? The short attention span.
Oh yes, I figured as much. But how about books? Are they getting shorter too? Interestingly, a 2015 survey suggested books are now 25% longer than they were 15 years ago.
I can relate, but something is changing. Nonetheless, this year’s longlist for the international booker prize features eight books with fewer than 200 pages.
What about movies? Surely they’re getting longer? The simple answer is: No. A slightly longer explanation: likely due to marketing strategies, as studios aim to increase ticket sales.
Wait, so it seems our attention is waning while films are getting longer? Very astute. Someone should address this in a Ted Talk.
Say: “Can I make a difference in just 13 minutes?”
Significant amber deposits found in northern Japan may have been propelled from the forest into the sea by tsunamis occurring between 116 million and 114 million years ago during the early Cretaceous period. This is according to a recent study conducted by geological surveys at Japan and Chuo University.
Amber deposits from Sichuan Quarry in Hokkaido, northern Japan. Image credit: Kubota et al. , doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-96498-2.
Identifying traces of ancient tsunamis can be challenging, as the powerful waves tend to reshape coastlines. The sediment left behind often resembles deposits created by other high-energy events, like storms.
Nevertheless, amber, which originates on land and is then transported to the sea, acts as a historical record of tsunami occurrences, illuminating the physical processes influencing sediment movement during these events.
“A tsunami is a destructive ocean wave primarily caused by significant changes in submarine or coastal crust, as well as impacts from asteroids,” explains Dr. Aya Kubota, a researcher at geological surveys at Japan and Chuo University.
“They have been extensively studied during the Holocene (the last 11,700 years) due to their relevance in disaster prevention.”
“Aside from asteroid sediments, accurately identifying ancient tsunamis before major vegetation growth is extremely difficult for two key reasons.”
“First, coastal tsunami deposits are easily eroded in their dynamic environments. Second, well-defined criteria for identifying tsunami deposits have not been established, as they can be difficult to differentiate from other high-energy coastal events, such as cyclones.”
In their research, Dr. Kubota and colleagues examined amber-rich silica deposits from the Shiko River Quarry in northern Hokkaido, which formed during the early Cretaceous period around 115 million years ago.
Using fluorescence imaging, the authors discovered that the amber samples exhibited clear deformation in what is known as the flame structure. This occurs when the amber is still pliable at the time of deposition, allowing it to change shape before solidifying.
This suggests that a substantial quantity of amber was swiftly transported from land into the open ocean due to the backwash from one or more tsunamis, experiencing minimal exposure to air.
The amber then settled at the seabed, becoming covered with a layer of silt, which helped to preserve it.
“Other terrestrial sediments carried into open water could be instrumental in studying significant ancient catastrophic events, such as tsunamis,” the researchers concluded.
Their study was published in the journal Scientific Reports on May 15th.
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A. Kubota et al. 2025. Amber, a deep-sea sediment from the Cretaceous period, reveals a massive tsunami. Sci Rep 15, 14298; doi:10.1038/s41598-025-96498-2
A 2023 study by Professor Haino Falk and his team at Ladbou University revealed that not just black holes, but all cosmic entities can “evaporate” through a mechanism akin to Hawking radiation. Following the publication, the researchers were inundated with inquiries regarding the duration of this process. Their latest findings estimate that the universe’s conclusion is approximately 1078 years away. If only radiation, similar to Hawking radiation, is taken into account, the timeline shortens to just a few years. This represents the time required for a white dwarf—the most stable astronomical object—to collapse through a Hawking-like radiation process. Previous research, which overlooked this effect, had estimated the lifespan of white dwarfs to be around 101100 years.
An artistic depiction of neutron stars undergoing gradual ‘evaporation’ through Hawking-like radiation. Image credits: Daniëlle Futselaar/Artsource.nl.
“Thus, the ultimate conclusion of the universe will arrive significantly sooner than anticipated; however, rest assured, it will still take an incredibly long time,” noted Professor Falk.
In 1975, physicist Stephen Hawking proposed that particles and radiation could escape black holes, challenging the conventional framework of relativity.
Near the edge of a black hole, two transient particles emerge; one gets drawn into the black hole while the other successfully escapes.
A notable outcome of Hawking radiation is the gradual disintegration of black holes into particles and radiation.
This finding stands in opposition to Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity.
Professor Falk and his co-authors determined that the process of Hawking radiation applies to various objects with theoretically significant gravitational fields.
Their further calculations indicated that the “evaporation time” for an object is contingent entirely upon its density.
Surprisingly, neutron stars and stellar black holes have an identical decay time of 1067 years.
This result was unexpected, given that black holes possess a more intense gravitational field.
“However, black holes lack a surface,” remarked Dr. Michael Wandrack, a postdoctoral researcher at Radboud University.
“They reabsorb parts of their own radiation, which inhibits the process.”
“We also explored how long it would take for humans and the moon to evaporate via Hawking-like radiation: about 1090 years,” the researcher added.
“Naturally, other mechanisms could lead to faster disappearance for humans and the moon.”
“This research exemplifies an exciting interdisciplinary collaboration, merging astrophysics, quantum physics, and mathematics to yield new insights,” stated Professor Walter Van Suisilecom from Radboud University.
“By pursuing these inquiries and examining extreme scenarios, we aim to enhance our understanding of the theory. Hopefully, one day, we will unravel the enigma surrounding Hawking radiation.”
As the saying goes, you can’t brush aside the truth, but you can examine it closely—and you definitely should.
Medical professionals have long recognized that the state of our toilets offers valuable insights into our overall health. This wisdom also applies to how frequently we use them.
Discovering the Goldilocks Zone of Bowel Movements
Last year, a team of researchers found a connection between the frequency of bowel movements and long-term health outcomes.
They studied 1,400 healthy adults, excluding those with certain conditions and medications that could alter their stool.
The researchers categorized bowel movement frequency into four groups: constipation (one or two movements per week), low normal (three to six movements per week), high normal (one to three movements per day), and diarrhea.
According to the Bristol Stool Chart—or perhaps suspicious cupcakes—your stool should neither be too hard nor too soft. – Illustration: Lynn Bremner
Within this scale, the team identified a sort of Goldilocks zone.
Ideal bowel movements fall within a high normal range, according to Professor Shawn Gibbons, one of the study’s authors from the Institute of Systems Biology.
“Going every other day is reasonable. Ideally, twice a day is within a safe range,” he explains. “Some people take pride in it; they make a point to go at 10 a.m. every day.”
What Our Stool Reveals About Gut Health
Gibbons’ fascination with our collective bowel habits stems from the increasing understanding of the microorganisms inhabiting our gut.
“Transit time or intestinal motility is a crucial factor in this ecosystem,” he notes.
As stool moves through the intestine, microorganisms utilize available dietary fiber, fermenting it into beneficial fatty acids.
However, if the stool lingers too long, these microorganisms switch to protein, leading to toxin release into the bloodstream.
“Accumulations of toxins, like indoxyl sulfate and trimethylamine, are associated with chronic kidney and cardiovascular diseases,” Gibbons warns.
The average individual produces 3,500-3,800 kilograms (7,700-8,400 pounds) of stool in their lifetime. – Photo credit: Getty
Regular bowel movements lead to similar yet subtly different biological processes.
“Individuals with diarrhea often show elevated levels of systemic inflammation, such as C-reactive protein,” he clarifies. “I noticed a stress marker in the liver that ended up in the bloodstream.”
Of course, there are natural variations in how often people experience bowel movements. Most people recognize when their patterns change, but many healthcare providers aren’t overly concerned.
Gibbons states that the general consensus among clinicians is that unless changes are extreme, treatment may not be necessary.
“However, we argue that variations might be worth investigating,” he says. “Aiming for a consistent schedule of once a day or every other day is important. Deviating from this pattern can raise potential risk factors for chronic illnesses and aging.”
Examining Stool Texture and Consistency
Another way to evaluate your stool is by observing its characteristics. The Bristol Stool Scale serves as a visual guide to assessing stool health and can be quite revealing.
Developed in 1997 as a diagnostic tool, the scale categorizes stool into seven types—from small, hard pellets to watery diarrhea.
In addition to frequency, we should also seek a healthy balance in terms of shape and consistency. A smooth, sausage-like stool that passes easily is considered ideal.
It’s also necessary to notice the effort involved during bowel movements. Stool should not feel like a strenuous ordeal, nor should it feel like it’s happening all at once.
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Emphasizing a Healthy Lifestyle
If you find yourself consistently outside these Goldilocks zones, researchers suggest several strategies.
Gibbons and his colleagues discovered that individuals who fall into the beneficial higher frequency category tend to lead healthier lifestyles.
“They consume more fruits and vegetables, are more physically active, and tend to hydrate better,” he mentions. “These three factors can make a significant difference.”
He also recommends exploring new health trends. “Consider taking dietary fiber supplements or incorporating flaxseed and chia seeds into your meals. These can be quite beneficial.”
Be wary of certain wellness trends as well. Popular weight loss medications like Wegovy and Ozempic may offer multiple health benefits, but Gibbons cautions that they can slow intestinal transit time, potentially affecting frequency.
“High-protein diets can also pose risks due to the byproducts generated from protein fermentation. There is considerable evidence suggesting links to type 2 diabetes, particularly in younger individuals.”
So the next time you find yourself on the throne, consider it your personal health assessment.
Meet Our Experts
Professor Shawn Gibbons is an associate professor at the Institute of Systems Biology and leads the Gibbons Lab, which focuses on microbiology, ecology, and medicine. He earned his PhD in Biophysics from the University of Chicago in 2015. His expertise lies in microbial ecology, evolution, complex adaptive systems, bioinformatics, and the human microbiota.
Heart failure affects over 60 million people worldwide, where the heart is unable to properly pump blood due to a weak or stiff heart. Typical causes include coronary heart disease, hypertension, and obesity. However, new research published in the journal heart shows that hearing loss is also linked to an increased risk of heart failure.
Heart failure doesn’t mean the heart stops working completely, but rather needs extra support to function. The study, which evaluated data from over 160,000 people from the UK biobank, found that individuals with hearing loss had a higher risk of developing heart failure over a 5-year follow-up period compared to those with normal hearing.
The study also revealed that individuals with inadequate hearing had a 15% higher risk, while those with inadequate hearing had a 28% higher risk of heart failure. Higher scores on the Audio Reception Threshold test were also associated with a higher risk of heart failure. These findings suggest that hearing health should be considered in cardiovascular risk assessment and prevention strategies.
According to the World Health Organization, 25% of people over 60 suffer from varying levels of hearing loss.
Research suggests that untreated hearing loss can lead to social isolation, psychological distress, and neurosis, all of which increase the risk of heart failure. The study authors also point out biological links between hearing loss and heart problems, emphasizing the importance of addressing hearing health in cardiovascular risk management.
Overall, while hearing loss may be considered a normal part of aging, it may actually indicate underlying issues that can impact heart health. It’s essential to consider hearing health in relation to overall cardiovascular health to reduce the risk of heart failure.
Paleontologists looked at the teeth Teleoce’s major – Found in an extinct species of nasal bacteria that lived in North America from 17.5 million to 5 million years ago. Ash falling fossil bed Nebraska, USA. Here, over 100 Teleoce’s major The individual in a single hole died and was buried in ashes from the eruption of Yellowstone’s superintendent.
The flock of Teleotheras Sister. Image credit: Jay Matternes/Smithsonian Museum.
Since discovering the rhinoceros at Nebraska’s Ashwood Fossil Bed State Park in 1971, researchers have wondered what attracted so many animals in the same location.
Did they converge from afar? Perhaps they sought shelter from natural disasters that unfolded volcanic eruptions with those asphyxiation ash?
“We found out they weren’t moving much,” said Clark Ward, a researcher at the University of Minnesota.
“We found no evidence of seasonal migration or disaster response.”
Ward and colleagues looked at the ratio of strontium, oxygen and carbon isotopes Teleoce’s major Teeth tracking long, operating animal movements across the landscape.
“By studying the carbon of animals, we can reconstruct the carbon of our environment and understand what kind of vegetation lived there,” Ward said.
“You can use it to reconstruct how wet and dry the environment is.”
“And strontium tells us where the animals are forged because isotopic ratios are associated with soil and supporting bedrock.”
Teleoce’s major It was a one-horned rhino with a barrel-shaped body and sturdy hippo-like legs. Like hippos, they ate grass.
And, like hippos, researchers believe that these rhinoceros have spent a lot of time in and around the water.
Due to their vast size, they had few predators during the Miocene era.
However, their calves would have been vulnerable to predators like hyenas, known as bone-breaking dogs.
In fact, some of the specimens found on the Nebraska site have evidence that the scavenger removed some of the bodies after its death. And ancient trucks from a 45 kg (100 pound) dog are found there.
The giant Yellowstone volcano has erupted many times over the past 12 million years.
“The ashes from the eruption traveled 1,127 km (700 miles) in what is now Nebraska, where they piled up in snow, like snow,” Ward said.
“But the ashes that were blown by the wind continued to fall into Nebraska, long after the first eruption.”
“The ashes would have covered everything: grass, leaves, water.”
“Reconstructing how we equip the ancient landscapes that have disappeared provides an important context for understanding their paleoecology and sociality, and the environment in which they lived,” the scientists concluded.
Their paper Published in the journal Scientific Report.
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CT Word et al. 2025. Enamel carbon, oxygen and strontium isotopes reveal limited mobility in extinct rhinoceros in Ashford Fossil Bed, Nebraska, USA. Sci Rep 15, 11651; doi:10.1038/s41598-025-94263-z
While Proxima Centauri’s flaring activity is well known to astronomers using visible wavelengths, new observations on Atacama’s massive millimeter/sub-millimeter arrays (ALMAs) highlight the extreme activity of stars at radio and millimeter wavelengths.
The concept of violent star flare artists from Proxima Centauri. Image credit: S. Dagnello, nrao/aui/nsf.
Proxima Centauri is a red star, about 4.24 light years away from the constellation of Centaurus.
Discovered in 1915 by Scottish astronomer Robert Innes, the star is invisible to the naked eye.
Its average luminosity is very low, very small compared to other stars, only about one eighth of the mass of the sun.
Proxima Centauri is also known as the Alpha Centauri C, as it is actually part of the Triple Star system.
The separation of the stars from their larger companions, Alpha Centauri A and B, is about 0.2 light-years, equivalent to 400 times the orbit of Neptune.
Proxima Centauri hosts the terrestrial exoplanet Proxima B in a habitable zone of 0.0485 Au.
The stars are well-established as highly active stars and are the primary targets for investigating the effects of star activity on the habitability of planets orbiting Red War.
In the new study, astronomer Kiana Burton at the University of Colorado and astronomer Meredith McGregor at Johns Hopkins University, and colleagues used archival data and new Alma observations to study millimeter-wavelength flare activity.
The small size and strong magnetic field of the Proxima Centauri show that its entire internal structure is convection (unlike the sun, which has both convective and non-reliable layers).
The magnetic field will twist and develop tension, and eventually snap, sending energy and particle flow outwards to what is observed as flares.
“Our solar activity does not remove the Earth’s atmosphere and instead creates beautiful auroras because it has a thick atmosphere and a strong magnetic field to protect the planets,” Dr. McGregor said.
“But we know that Proxima Centauri’s flares are much stronger and there are rocky planets in their habitable zones.”
“What are these flares doing to their atmosphere? Are there any large fluxes of radiation and particles that are chemically altered or perhaps completely eroding at the atmosphere?”
This study represents the first multi-wavelength study using millimeter observations to reveal a new appearance in flare physics.
A total of 463 flare events were reported with 50 hours of ALMA observations using both the full 12-meter array and the 7-M Atacama Compact Array (ACA).twenty four On 1027 ERG, and a short period of 3-16 seconds.
“When you see the flare with Alma, you see electromagnetic radiation, that is, light of various wavelengths,” Dr. McGregor said.
“But this radio-wavelength flaring also gives us a way to track the properties of those particles and understand what is free from the stars.”
To this end, astronomers characterized the stars (so-called flare frequency distribution) and mapped the number of flares as a function of energy.
Typically, the gradient of this distribution tends to follow the power law function. More frequent (lower energy) flares occur more frequently, but larger, more energy flares do not occur regularly.
Proxima Centauri experiences so many flares, researchers have detected many flares within each energy range.
Furthermore, they were able to quantify the asymmetry of the highest energy flares of stars, explaining how the attenuation phase of the flare is much longer than the initial burst phase.
Radio and millimeter wavelength observations help to constrain the energy associated with these flares and their associated particles.
“Millimeter flares look much more frequent,” Dr. McGregor said.
“It’s a different power law than what you see at optical wavelengths.”
“Looking only at the optical wavelengths is missing important information.”
“The Alma is the only millimeter interferometer that is sensitive enough to these measurements.”
Team’s Survey results It was published in Astrophysical Journal.
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Kiana Burton et al. 2025. Proxima Centauri Campaign – First constraint on millimeter flare rate from Alma. APJ 982, 43; doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ada5f2
Teams of astronomers from Taiwan, Canada, the US, and France observe and bring in 128 additional moons orbiting gas giant Saturn The total number of confirmed months has reached 274. International Astronomy confirmed its discovery on March 11, 2025.
This image from Webb's Nircam Instrument shows some of Saturn, Rings and Moons. Image credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/STSCI/M. Tiscareno, Seti Institute/M. Hedman, University of Idaho/M. Elmutamide, Cornell University/M. Shorterter, SETI Institute/L. Fletcher, University of Leicester/H. Hammel, AURA/J. DEPASQUALE, STSCI.
Dr. Edward Ashton, a postdoctoral researcher at the Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics at Academia Cynthia, and his colleagues used the Canadian French Hawaii Television Scope (CFHT) to repeatedly monitor the sky around Saturn between 2019 and 2021, combining multiple images with details to enhance the astronomical object.
This first run produced 62 months. And there are even more other objects that were not available at that time.
“I revisited the same empty fields for the third consecutive month in 2023, knowing that these are probably moons and are likely waiting more to be discovered,” Dr. Ashton said.
“Of course, we found 128 new moons. I don’t think Jupiter will catch up based on our predictions.”
All 128 new moons are irregular moons, objects photographed by host planets in the history of the solar system.
“These moons are several kilometers in size and could be all fragments of the originally captured moon that have been broken by violent collisions with other Saturn’s moons and passing comets.”
“The mystery within Saturn’s irregular lunar system was a key motivation for the latest search. Given the small numbers compared to the larger moons, it is possible that there has been a collision somewhere within the Saturn system within the last 100 million years.”
“If not, these moons would have now collided with each other and been blown away by the blacksmith.
In fact, most of the newly discovered moons are located near the Mundirfari subgroup of Saturn’s moon, and may be the location of the collision, taking into account its size, number, and orbital concentration.
“Our carefully planned, multi-year campaign has brought us a new moon jackpot that tells us about the evolution of Saturn’s irregular natural satellite populations,” Dr. Ashton said.
“I don’t think using current technology is much better than what’s already done for the moons around Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.”
A new study has provided the first definitive evidence that fast radio bursts can originate from the magnetosphere, the highly magnetic environment immediately surrounding very compact objects.
Artist's impression of a neutron star. Image credit: Sci.News.
Fast radio bursts (FRBs) are short, brilliant bursts of radio waves that originate primarily from extragalactic distances.
These phenomena release as much energy in one millisecond as the sun does in 10,000 years, but the physics that cause them are unknown.
Theories range from a highly magnetized neutron star exploded by a stream of gas near a supermassive black hole to proposals whose outburst characteristics match the signature of technology developed by an advanced civilization.
MIT astronomer Kenzie Nimmo and colleagues focused on the event, dubbed FRB 20221022A, in a new study.
This burst was first detected by the Canadian Hydrogen Intensity Mapping Experiment (CHIME) in 2022.
The event occurred in a galaxy about 200 million light years away and lasted about 2 milliseconds.
New research suggests that FRB 20221022A emerged from a region extremely close to the rotating neutron star, up to 10,000 km away.
At such close distances, the burst could have originated from the neutron star's magnetosphere, a highly magnetic region immediately surrounding the microstar.
“In a neutron star environment like this, the magnetic field is actually at the limit of what the universe can produce,” Dr. Nimmo said.
“There has been a lot of discussion about whether this bright radio emission can leak out of that extreme plasma.”
“Atoms cannot exist around these highly magnetic neutron stars, also known as magnetars. They are simply torn apart by the magnetic field,” added astronomer Kiyoshi Masui of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
“What's interesting here is that we found that the energy stored in magnetic fields gets twisted and rearranged near the source of the magnetic field and is emitted as radio waves visible on the far side of the universe.”
The spiral arm of Messier 83, one of the most prominent spiral galaxies in the night sky, exhibits a high rate of star formation, with six supernovae observed, according to astronomers at NSF’s NOIRLab.
This DECam image shows the spiral galaxy Messier 83. Image credits: CTIO / NOIRLab / DOE / NSF / AURA / TA Chancellor, University of Alaska Anchorage & NSF NOIRLab / D. de Martin, NSF NOIRLab / M. Zamani, NSF NOIRLab.
Messier 83 is located approximately 15 million light-years away in the southern constellation Hydra.
The galaxy, also known as the Southern Pinwheel Galaxy, M83, NGC 5236, LEDA 48082, and UGCA 366, has a diameter of about 50,000 light-years, making it about twice smaller than the Milky Way.
With an apparent magnitude of 7.5, it is one of the brightest spiral galaxies in the night sky. May is the best month to observe with binoculars.
Messier 83 is oriented almost completely face-on from Earth, meaning astronomers can observe its spiral structure in great detail.
This galaxy is a prominent member of a group of galaxies known as the Centaurus A/M83 group, which also counts dusty NGC 5128 and irregular galaxy NGC 5253 as members.
It was discovered on February 23, 1752 by French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille.
“Between 1750 and 1754, the French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille studied the night sky with the purpose of determining distances to planets,” NOIRLab astronomers said.
“During this period, he observed and cataloged 10,000 stars and identified 42 nebular objects, including Messier 83, which he discovered during an expedition to the Cape of Good Hope in 1752.”
“In 1781, Charles Messier added it to his famous catalog and described it as a ‘starless nebula’, reflecting the limited knowledge of galaxies at the time.”
“It wasn’t until the 20th century, thanks to the work of Edwin Hubble, that astronomers realized that objects like Messier 83 were actually in another galaxy far outside the Milky Way.”
New images of Messier 83 dark energy camera (DECam), mounted on NSF’s Victor M. Blanco 4-meter telescope at the Cerro Tororo Inter-American Observatory, a program of the NSF NOIRLab.
“This image shows Messier 83’s distinct spiral arms filled with clouds of pink hydrogen gas where new stars are forming,” the astronomers said.
“Interspersed between these pink regions are bright blue clusters of hot young stars whose ultraviolet radiation has blown away the surrounding gas.”
“At the center of the galaxy, a yellow central bulge is made up of old stars, and weak bars connect spiral arms through the center, funneling gas from the outer regions toward the center.”
“DECam’s high sensitivity captures Messier 83’s extended halo and the countless more distant galaxies in the background.”
“Just as Messier 83 is filled with millions of newly formed stars, this galaxy is also home to many dying stars,” they added.
“Over the past century, astronomers have witnessed a total of six stellar explosions called supernovae in Messier 83. Only two other galaxies can match this number.”
In 2006, astronomers discovered a mysterious feature at the center of Messier 83.
“At the center of this galaxy, we discovered a never-before-seen concentration of mass similar to a secondary nucleus, likely the remains of another galaxy being consumed by Messier 83 in an ongoing collision. , likely the same collision that caused the starburst activity,’ the researchers said.
“The two nuclei, which likely contain the black hole, are expected to coalesce into a single nucleus in another 60 million years.”
Several groups of carnivorous dinosaurs – Tyrannosaurus, Spinosaurus, and their members Velociraptor The family crept into the Bexhill-on-Sea region of present-day East Sussex, England, about 135 million years ago (early Cretaceous period), according to new research.
Early Cretaceous floodplain in southeastern England, 135 million years ago. A spinosaur (center) takes over the carcass of an ornithopod, tormenting smaller tyrannosaurs (left) and dromaeosaurs (bottom right). Image credit: Anthony Hutchings.
Dr Chris Barker, a palaeontologist at the University of Southampton, said: “Carnivorous dinosaurs are rare in the Cretaceous deposits of southern England.”
“Normally it is the Isle of Wight dinosaurs that attract our attention. Little is known about the older Cretaceous specimens recovered from mainland sites.”
In this study, Barker and his colleagues examined assemblages of theropod teeth taken from animals. Wadhurst Clay Formationmainly collected from the Ashdown Brickworks area near Bexhill, East Sussex.
Theropod teeth are complex and vary in size, shape, and serrated edge anatomy.
The authors used several techniques to analyze the fossils, including phylogenetic methods, discriminant methods, and machine learning methods.
“Dinosaur teeth are durable fossils and are typically preserved more frequently than bones, so they are often important when you want to rebuild ecosystem diversity,” Dr. Barker said. .
“There are rigorous methods that help identify teeth with high accuracy.”
“Our findings suggest the presence of spinosaurs, medium-sized tyrannosaurs, and small dromaeosaurs. Velociraptor-There are some theropods in these deposits. ”
A theropod tooth excavated from the Wadhurst Clay Formation. Scale bar – 10 mm. Image credit: Barker others., doi: 10.1002/spp2.1604.
The discovery of Tyrannosaurus is particularly noteworthy. This is because this group has not been previously identified in sediments of this age and region.
These tyrannosaurs would have been about one-third the size of their more famous cousins. tyrannosaurus rexand likely hunted small dinosaurs and other reptiles in floodplain habitats.
“Assigning isolated teeth to a group of theropods can be difficult, especially since many traits evolve independently between different lineages,” says Dr. Lucy Handford. Student at York University.
“Therefore, we employed a variety of methods to refine our findings, leading to a more reliable classification.”
“It is very likely that further discoveries will be made by re-evaluating the theropod teeth elsewhere in the museum.”
Dr Darren Naish, a palaeontologist at the University of Southampton, said: 'Southern England has an extremely good record of Cretaceous dinosaurs, and the various sedimentary layers here are among the world's best in terms of geological age and the fossil content they contain. It's also unique.”
“These East Sussex dinosaurs are older, more mysterious, and less well known than the better-known Cretaceous deposits of the Isle of Wight.”
“We've been hoping to find out for decades which groups of theropods lived here, so the new study's conclusions are really interesting.”
of findings appear in the diary paleontology papers.
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Chris T. Barker others. 2024. Theropod dinosaur diversity of Lower Wealden, England: analysis of the tooth-based fauna of the Wadhurst Clay Formation (Lower Cretaceous: Valanginian) through phylogenetic, discriminant, and machine learning methods. paleontology papers 10 (6): e1604;doi: 10.1002/spp2.1604
Ancient footprints discovered in Kenya belong to two different species of human relatives who walked on the same ground at the same time, a study has found.
This coat of arms is thought to belong to the species Homo erectus and Paranthropus boisei.
This discovery raised questions about what kind of relationship and interaction the two species had.
A newly discovered set of footprints in Kenya provides the first evidence that two different species of ancient human relatives walked on the same ground at the same time 1.5 million years ago.
Researchers involved in the discovery say the footprints belong to the species Homo erectus and Paranthropus boisei, and were left within hours to days of each other, meaning that when the two crossed paths, reveals new mysteries about what happened.
According to research on this discovery, Published in Science on Thursdaythe footprints were buried in dry mud near a lake in northern Kenya, and were buried in deposits of prominent fossil sites. By analyzing the print shapes and strike patterns, the researchers found that the two sets were different. They concluded that the best explanation was that two different species left the footprints.
This research advances anthropologists and paleontologists’ understanding that ancient human relatives likely interacted and coexisted. This also raises the question of what kind of relationship these species had.
“We think these individuals, the two species that were there, were probably aware that there were members of another species nearby. They saw each other and thought each other was a member of another species. “This raises the question of what that interaction was,” said Kevin Hatala, an associate professor of biology at Chatham University and lead author of the study. “Were they competitors? Were they totally okay with each other there?”
Previously discovered fossil skeletons of Homo erectus and Paranthropus boisei indicated that both species lived in the area at some point, but the new discovery provides evidence of a direct duplication.
Research team members excavate to reveal footprints. Neil T. Roach / Harvard University
It also shows that the two species walked on two legs in very different ways.
Although both Homo erectus and Paranthropus boisei are related to humans, they have very different characteristics and their fates in the human evolutionary tree took very different paths.
Homo erectus had an anatomy similar to humans from the neck down. This species may have used stone tools and cooked over fire. Its members probably had a varied diet that included meat.
The species eventually spread to Asia, Indonesia, and other regions, and survived for more than a million years after the newly discovered footprints were made.It last appeared in the fossil record just over 100,000 years ago..
“Many have considered themselves to be as good candidates as our direct ancestors,” Hatala said. “They seem to be a very successful species.”
Paranthropus boisei, on the other hand, featured a smaller brain, huge masticatory muscles, and large molar teeth. William Harcourt Smith, an associate professor of anthropology at Lehman College who was not involved in the study, said the species eats difficult-to-eat foods like hard nuts or grinds hard, poor-quality foods like shrubs. It is highly likely that they evolved in this way.
This species did not persist on Earth as long as Homo erectus.
“They probably went extinct not very long after that, within the next few hundred thousand years,” Hatala said, referring to the time of the footprints. He added that no one knows exactly what happened, but it’s possible that environmental changes may have restricted the animal’s specialized diet.
The footprints were first discovered in 2021 at a site called Koobi Fora while researchers were excavating other fossils. This location has become a fossil hotspot. The uplifted rocks expose older sedimentary layers on the surface, giving researchers access to the bones of ancient humans and other animals.
The following year, researchers unearthed about a dozen footprints that appeared to be walking in a line, and later discovered other footprints running at right angles.
“We think these footprints were created in the mud of this lakeshore environment. Something happened that brought sediment on top of it. It could have been deposited by a small flood or by rising water levels. “It’s possible that something was brought in and the footprints were formed and quickly buried,” Hatala said.
The muddy footprints were not trampled by other animals and showed no signs of cracking before being buried in the sand. Researchers said that means they were separated from each other within hours or days.
“The sediment protected them, prevented them from cracking, and allowed them to remain in the geological record,” Hatala said.
He and his co-authors believe that the two species may have been able to coexist in this region because their diets were very different. It is possible that they competed for resources and were in a hostile relationship. This species appears to have lived in the same area for hundreds of thousands of years.
Harcourt Smith, a research paleontologist at the American Museum of Natural History, said the researchers’ analysis was sound and the site was unique.
“I want to emphasize how unusual it is that a site like this exists, how special it is, and the great opportunity we have to find out more,” he said.
Broadly speaking, over the past seven million years of evolution, it has become increasingly clear that different ancient human species interacted in different habitats, Harcourt-Smith added. The evolutionary path to modern humans is full of side branches and species, such as Paranthropus boisei, which represent evolutionary dead ends.
“Human evolution is complex and messy, and there are many experiments being done. It’s not a straight line,” he said.
Over the past few decades, scientists have developed genetic and archaeological evidence showing that: Humans, Denisovans, and Neanderthals overlapped and sometimes interbred. Although the new study does not mention interbreeding, it does provide a clearer picture that even older species overlapped and had more interactions than previously understood.
The researchers completed their work at the Koobi Fora site, photographing and recording the footprints in a variety of ways before concealing them for future generations, said Craig, another author of the research paper.・Mr. Feibel said.
“The footprints need to be carefully refilled with non-damaging sediment to prevent erosion,” he says.
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