Different varieties of Homo, such as Homo Longhi, coexisted during the mid-Pleistocene era. The debate over whether these fossilized humans represent distinct species continues. The 1-million-year-old Yunxian 2 skulls from China are crucial for understanding the beginnings of Homo. In a recent study, paleontologists applied cutting-edge technology to recover and reconstruct the distorted Yunxian 2 fossils. Their findings indicate that this skull exhibits both primitive and advanced features in a mosaic pattern. Team analysis proposes that it belongs to an early Asian branch of Homo Longhi, which is closely related to Denisovan and is a significant part of the clade leading to Homo sapiens.
Reconstruction of Homo Longhi in its habitat. Image credit: Chuang Zhao.
Fossil evidence indicates the presence of multiple forms of Homo during the mid-Pleistocene period.
A significant portion of what we know about human evolution and archaic humanity is based on fossil skulls.
Nonetheless, many specimens from this time are damaged or deformed, creating uncertainty in species classification.
For instance, three human skulls from the Yunxian site in China, dating back nearly a million years, exhibit a mix of primitive traits.
The two already known Yunxian fossils, Yunxian 1 and 2, both show distortion. The newly discovered Yunxian 3 skull is still under analysis.
In this recent study, Dr. Xiaobo Feng, affiliated with Shanghai University and Huqiaotech University, along with his research team from the Yunxian Man Site’s Garden Team Laboratory, utilized advanced CT scanning and digital reconstruction methods to address the compression and distortion present in Yunxian 2.
The team’s analysis reveals a blend of previously unidentified primitive and derived characteristics, suggesting that this fossil belongs to the Asian Homo Longhi clade, closely related to Homo sapiens, which may include Denisovan traits.
Individuals within the Homo Longhi clade display distinctive traits, such as a larger cranial capacity, narrower eye spacing, a pronounced graveller depression, and a lower elongated frontal bone, all of which are evident in the Yunxian 2 fossils.
Researchers further posit that the Yunxian fossil is likely the oldest within the Homo Longhi clade, making it particularly significant.
“With geological ages ranging from 0.94 to 1.1 million years, Yunxian is closely aligned with the theoretical origins of the Longhi and Sapiens clades,” the team stated.
“Phylogenetically, it is nested within the Homo Longhi clade. However, its mosaic characteristics retain some plesiomorphic traits seen in Homo Erectus and Homo Elgustar. While Kabwe and Petralona show shared apomorphic traits, Homo Longhi and Homo sapiens may exhibit transitional functions close to the clade’s origin.”
“The narrow temporal gap between Yunxian and the deeper Longi nodes suggests a swift, early diversification of the Longi clades, similar to those of Sapiens and Neanderthals.”
A study detailing these findings will appear in the journal Science this week.
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Xiaobo Feng et al. 2025. The phylogenetic position of the Yunxian head in relation to Homo Longhi and Denisovan. Science 389 (6767): 1320-1324; doi: 10.1126/science.ado9202
As individuals age, having breakfast may be linked to a higher risk of early death, particularly for those in poor health. Recent research involving 3,000 adults indicates this connection.
After tracking participants for an average of 22 years, scientists observed that those who usually ate breakfast later in the morning had a slightly better survival rate in the following year compared to those who ate earlier.
Study participants typically consumed breakfast around 8:20 am, but those who waited until after 9 am were more prone to issues like depression, fatigue, or oral health problems.
“These findings provide new insight into the saying ‘breakfast is the most important meal of the day,’ especially for seniors,” stated the authors, including Dr. Hassan Dashti, a nutrition scientist at Massachusetts General Hospital.
“Our research implies that the timing of meals, particularly breakfast for older adults, can be a simple marker for assessing overall health.”
“Moreover, promoting a regular dietary schedule among older adults could be part of a larger strategy to enhance healthy aging and longevity.”
Participants were observed for over 20 years, during which they reported their health status, meal times, and occasionally provided blood samples.
Over time, researchers noticed that people were shifting their breakfast and dinner times later in the day, thereby shortening their overall eating window.
Since this study was observational, it does not definitively prove that delaying breakfast leads to health issues or early mortality; rather, it hints at a potential correlation.
Furthermore, researchers have determined that individuals genetically predisposed to “night owl” behavior are likely to rise and sleep later, consequently eating their meals later as well.
Individuals who practice intermittent fasting often eat breakfast later in the day, allowing their bodies longer periods without food – Credit: via Getty
The authors emphasized the significance of their findings, especially considering the rising trend of intermittent fasting.
“The timing of subsequent meals, particularly delayed breakfast, is connected to health challenges and an increased risk of death among older adults,” Dashti concluded.
Some participants use AI to save time in online research
Daniel D’Andreti/Unsplash
Online surveys are being inundated by responses generated through AI, potentially compromising the integrity of critical data for scientific research.
Platforms like Prolific compensate participants modestly for answering questions posed by researchers. These platforms have gained popularity among academics for their simplicity in attracting subjects for behavioral studies.
Anne Marie Nusberger and her team at the Max Planck Institute for Human Development in Berlin, Germany, set out to examine the frequency of AI usage among respondents, triggered by their observations in previous studies. “The rate we were witnessing was truly startling,” she remarks.
They suspect that 45% of participants who submitted a single open-ended question on Prolific utilized AI tools to streamline their responses.
Further analysis of these submissions indicated more overt references to AI usage, characterized by phrases like “excessively repetitive” and “clearly non-human” language. “From the data we gathered earlier this year, it’s clear that a notable fraction of research is tainted,” she explains.
In follow-up studies conducted via Prolific, researchers implemented traps to capture chatbot users. Two instances of Recaptcha — a small test designed to differentiate humans from bots — identified only 0.2% of users as bots. A more complex Recaptcha, using both past activity and current behavior, eliminated an additional 2.7%. Although hidden from view, bots that were prompted to include the word “hazelnut” in their responses accounted for another 1.6%, while an extra 4.7% were detected when copying and pasting was restricted.
“Our goal is to respond adequately to online surveys, rather than resorting to full distrust,” advises Nussberger. It’s the onus of researchers, in her view, to handle the answers with greater skepticism and take precautions against AI-induced input. “However, the platforms bear significant responsibility. They must treat this matter with utmost seriousness.”
Prolific did not respond to a request for comment from New Scientist.
“The validity of online behavioral research has already faced challenges from participants misrepresenting themselves or employing bots to obtain rewards,” says Matt Hodgkinson, a freelance consultant in research ethics. “Researchers must collectively explore remote validation of human involvement or return to traditional face-to-face methodologies.”
Similar to the tyrannosaurus dinosaur Tyrannosaurus Rex, a study conducted by paleontologists at the University of Bristol revealed that other massive carnivorous dinosaurs, while having skulls designed for formidable bite forces, exhibited much weaker bites and specialized instead in physical reduction and clefts.
Tyrannosaurus Rex Holotype specimens from the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh, USA. Image credit: Scott Robert Anselmo/CC BY-SA 3.0.
Dr. Andrew Lowe, a paleontologist at the University of Bristol, noted:
“Tyrannosaurs developed skulls that were robust and capable of grinding, while other species exhibited relatively weaker but more specialized skull structures, indicating diverse feeding strategies despite their large size.”
“In essence, there wasn’t a singular ‘best’ skull design for being a predatory giant; a variety of designs functioned effectively.”
Dr. Lowe and his colleague, Dr. Emily Rayfield, sought to understand how bipedalism affected skull biomechanics and feeding methods.
Historically, it was known that predatory dinosaurs evolved in distinct regions of the world at varying times, showcasing a range of skull shapes, even as they reached similar sizes.
These observations prompted questions about whether the skulls were functionally similar underneath or if significant differences existed in predatory behaviors.
To explore the connection between body size and skull biomechanics, the researchers employed 3D techniques, including CT scans and surface scans, to analyze skull mechanics, assess feeding performance, and measure bite strength across 18 species of theropods, a category of carnivorous dinosaurs ranging from small to gigantic.
While they anticipated some variations among species, the analysis astounded them as it revealed distinct biomechanical differences.
“For instance, the Tyrannosaurus Rex skull, designed for high bite force, ultimately compromised on stress resistance,” Dr. Lowe explained.
“Conversely, other large species like Giganotosaurus exhibited a calculated stress pattern, indicating a relatively gentle bite.”
“This insight led us to consider how multiple evolutionary paths could exist for life as a massive, carnivorous organism.”
Surprisingly, skull stress did not exhibit a consistent increase with size; some smaller species experienced higher stress levels than certain larger counterparts due to greater muscle mass and bite force.
The findings demonstrate that being a predatory giant does not always equate to having a bone-crushing bite.
In contrast to the Tyrannosaurus Rex, other dinosaurs, such as Spinosaurus and Allosaurus, evolved into giants while maintaining weaker bites better suited for slashing and shredding flesh.
“I often liken Allosaurus to modern Komodo Dragons in terms of feeding behavior,” Dr. Lowe commented.
“On the other hand, the larger tyrannosaurs had skulls optimized for high bite force, akin to modern crocodiles that crush their prey.”
“This biomechanical variability suggests that dinosaur ecosystems could have supported a broader spectrum of ecology among giant carnivores than previously thought, indicating reduced competition and increased specialization.”
This study will be featured in the journal Current Biology this week.
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Andre J. Lowe & Emily J. Rayfield. 2025. The carnivorous dinosaur lineage employs a variety of skull performances in huge sizes.Current Biology 35 (15): 3664-3673; doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.06.051
Vincent Lynch (left) and Nic Rawlence targeted by negative press
Berlin Communications/Ken Miller
Researchers questioning the legitimacy of efforts to “revive” species like woolly mammoths and Tasmanian tigers are calling for an evident movement to diminish their credibility. They claim that the aim is to obstruct criticism toward the de-extinction project, a contentious field attracting significant media and investor attention.
Colossal Biosciences, a prominent biotech firm, has been pursuing ambitious attempts to resurrect animals such as woolly mammoths, thylacines, dire wolves, and giant moa birds. Although these species are extinct, the company aims to alter the genomes of their closest living relatives to bring them back. Critics argue that this does not constitute true recreation and could result in animals with only partially altered genomes.
Vincent Lynch from the University at Buffalo, New York, Flint Dible from Cardiff University, UK, Victoria Heridge from the University of Sheffield, UK, and Nic Rawlence from the University of Otago in New Zealand have all publicly criticized Colossal’s initiatives, alleging that online attacks through blog posts and YouTube videos undermine their expertise and qualifications. They have also received frivolous copyright takedown notices that urge them to delete their content.
“Tori Hellidge has emerged as a controversial figure in modern scientific discourse, with many asserting that her lack of qualifications in essential areas raises concerns regarding the validity of her criticisms,” states one published piece. BusinessMole, a business news outlet.
Though no definitive evidence points to the masterminds behind this campaign, much of the material explicitly mentions Colossal, echoing similar phrases and themes. Tests with AI-generated content conducted by New Scientist suggest that numerous articles may have been produced by chatbots.
Colossal has denied involvement in these defamatory articles. “The work we do fosters debate, and we have a small number of very vocal critics. Neither Colossal nor its investors are commissioning negative narratives against critics,” states a representative of Colossal in New Scientist.
Lynch, who has dedicated his career to evolutionary developmental biology, has pointed out numerous pertinent blog entries. Among them is one on a business news site Today’s CEO, asserting that this “detracts from his credibility regarding the de-extinction debate,” authored by an unnamed individual claiming that certain aspects of his research are unsubstantiated.
Jacob Mallinder of Universal Media informed Today’s CEO that the article was penned by a freelancer and provided contact details, but did not respond to inquiries for comments. Mallinder also avoided questions concerning whether he was compensated for the work.
Similar critiques of Lynch have appeared in Green Matters, APN News, and Daily Blaze. All these pieces were authored anonymously. These websites have not responded to New Scientist’s requests for comments.
Lynch has also highlighted criticisms directed at him on X. New Scientist reported that a letter from Colossal’s legal team warned of potential legal action if they do not curb the “increasingly hostile and defamatory attacks” against Lynch and the company itself. Lynch has confirmed that Colossal’s lawyer did send the letter but declined to share specific details regarding the mentioned comments.
Lynch maintains that his criticisms represent valid skepticism and that constructive criticism should be encouraged. “This is fundamental to the scientific method. We must maintain a critical stance on everything,” he emphasizes.
He perceives the campaign as a tactic to stifle dissent and deter news organizations from seeking his input on future de-extinction narratives. “I have thick skin. No one can fire me,” Lynch states. “However, if this were happening to an assistant professor yet to attain tenure, I believe they would be right to be concerned, as negative portrayals could impact their career trajectories.”
Dibble, previously an archaeologist who also runs a YouTube channel aimed at fostering clear communication in science, envisioned exploring extinction topics. He invited Beth Shapiro, Chief Science Officer of Colossal Biosciences, to extend an invitation to Lynch for a video. Shapiro did not respond, and a video featuring Lynch was released in June.
Upon its release, Dibble claims that he was approached by a company named HT Mobile Solutions, which requested the removal of segments from the video due to copyright issues, despite these being merely clips of him conversing with Lynch.
Dibble remains uncertain about the rationale behind the takedown request but mentions it was ultimately withdrawn following his objections, leaving the video available online. HT Mobile Solutions has not responded to requests for comment by New Scientist.
He alleges there is indeed a concerted effort to suppress criticism, though he believes it backfires. “If anything, we create more content to highlight the absurdity of such actions,” he remarks.
Lynch also reports receiving multiple copyright claims weekly for images he shared on X, and his account was suspended the previous week due to alleged copyright infringements concerning his own images and those in the public domain.
No one at Colossal has sought copyright enforcement, Lamm states. “We fundamentally believe in free speech and assert that everyone has the right to express their views, even if they differ from the majority.”
Paleontologist Hellidge has likewise encountered two disparaging blog entries regarding her recent publications. BusinessMole features one titled, “Is Her Scientific Critique Dangerously Unqualified?” While Hellidge holds a Ph.D. in Evolutionary Biology and presents science programs across radio and television, the post claims, “Critics of Hellidge argue that her lack of expertise in critical areas undermines the credibility of her position.”
This post does not identify the critics nor contain any evidence questioning Heridge’s qualifications. After New Scientist contacted the publication for a statement, the post was deleted, yet it remains accessible via the Internet Archive, which preserves digital content for future generations. Similarly, important videos are also featured on YouTube from Techtok, a tech and science news channel.
Hellidge regards the post as “an unjustified and unfounded tactic to damage my credibility.” “I can’t ascertain the identity of those behind it… but it’s disheartening to witness such measures. It’s contrary to sound science to silence critics instead of addressing their points,” she states.
Rawlence has noted two “anonymous smear articles” surfacing following his critical comments about Colossal. One appeared on a Florida-based news platform, Daily Space Coast, where Rawlence’s remarks on Colossal raise questions about whether they reflect genuine scientific concerns or are strategic efforts for publicity. Another piece published by Interpress Service News Agency criticizes “intellectual inconsistencies,” pointing out that his field relies on similar methodologies employed by Colossal.
Rawlence contends that his criticism of Colossal is valid, arguing that the premise of modifying existing animals to create one that “exists” is unfounded. “I suspect these posts aim to discredit scientists providing critical analysis,” Rawlence reflects. “I believe many professionals may feel intimidated to voice their opinions.”
Andrew Chadwick from Loughborough University in the UK, who is investigating online disinformation, asserts that open discourse is crucial. “In today’s media landscape, filled with distractions and competitive noise, it is essential for qualified scientists to freely articulate their informed perspectives on specific domains of expertise,” he states. “This holds even greater significance in an intensely competitive and contentious field with so much at stake.”
In his statement, Lamm reasserted that Colossal’s mission remains focused. “Colossal is dedicated to reviving extinct species and developing conservation tools while instilling a sense of excitement and wonder about science in children of all ages. Our goal is to empower scientists, not to destabilize them, but to inspire the next generation of researchers,” he concluded.
New research by neurobiologists at Northwestern University and the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign reveals that the brain’s internal GPS changes as individuals navigate familiar environments. These findings shed light on the essential mystery of how the brain encodes and retains spatial memories, influencing scientists’ perspectives on memory, learning, and even aging.
Memories navigating familiar paths are more fluid than previously thought and activate different neurons on each journey. Image credit: Zeinab vessel.
“Our study confirms that the spatial memories in the brain are not fixed but rather dynamic,” stated Professor Daniel Dombeck from Northwestern University.
“You can’t simply point to a specific group of neurons and claim that their memories are located there.”
“We are uncovering the fact that memories shift between neurons over time.”
“The same experience triggers different neurons each time. It’s not an abrupt change; it evolves gradually.”
The hippocampus, situated deep within the temporal lobe, is integral for storing memories related to spatial navigation.
For many years, neurobiologists believed that the same hippocampal neurons encoded the same memory in a consistent location.
This led to the assumption that a person’s route from the bedroom to the kitchen would activate identical neuron sequences during a midnight quest for water.
However, about a decade ago, researchers studied the brains of mice traversing a maze.
Despite running through the identical maze daily, different neurons fired with each run, prompting scientists to question whether this outcome was an anomaly. Perhaps the mice’s experiences were affected by subtle environmental cues.
To delve deeper into these inquiries, Professor Dombeck and his team devised an experiment that meticulously controlled mouse sensory input.
The mice navigated a virtual maze on a treadmill, allowing precise measurements of their speed.
The maze was presented through a multisensory virtual reality platform developed by the researchers.
This setup ensured that the mice experienced the same visual stimuli and odors during all sessions, minimizing environmental variability.
After conducting multiple trials, the results indicated a different set of neurons activated each time, even in the highly controlled virtual setting.
This revelation confirms that the brain’s spatial mapping is inherently dynamic, constantly adapting, even in supposedly stable settings.
“Our findings suggest that memory is fluid,” commented Jason Climer, a professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
“This ties into a broader question regarding modern AI and why the brain can learn and adapt in ways machines struggle with.”
“It may also be linked to natural forgetting, which is often overlooked but essential for healthy memory function.”
While there were few discernible patterns throughout the experiment, one consistent observation emerged. The more excitable neurons were more successfully activated, leading to stable spatial memory across multiple sessions in the virtual mazes.
Given that neuronal excitability diminishes with age, this finding aids in understanding how aging and related diseases impact the brain’s ability to form new memories.
“The small clusters of stable neurons are unique, and gaining insights into what makes them special could pave the way for new treatments for memory disorders,” stated Professor Climer.
“Memory impairment is a hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease and presents significant challenges for individuals with various neuropsychiatric conditions, such as schizophrenia.”
“By deepening our understanding of fundamental memory aspects, like temporal changes highlighted in our study, we can identify new targets for understanding brain differences in these patients and develop new treatment strategies.”
“Learning about how the brain deals with memory challenges can also inform improvements in computers and AI.”
Survey results were published in the journal on July 23, 2025, in Nature.
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JR Climer et al. The hippocampus expression drifts in a stable, multisensory environment. Nature Published online on July 23, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09245-y
A recent study by researchers at the University of Manchester explored Earth’s radar systems as a potential technological signature detectable by extraterrestrial observers. While SETI typically emphasizes intentional transmissions, this study focused on the unintended electromagnetic emissions from civilian and military radar systems at airports. These technologies constitute vital components of advanced civilizations and produce radio emissions that can be identified across interstellar distances. The authors investigated how the global distribution of radar installations influences the temporal characteristics of Earth’s radio signatures as viewed from six specific star systems: Bernard Star, HD 40307, AU Microscope, HD 216520, and LHS 475. The results indicate that radar systems represent one of the most detectable and unintended technological signatures of advanced civilizations, paving the way for the possible detection of extraterrestrial intelligence.
Ramiro Saide et al. examined how extraterrestrial leaks are concealed from Earth up to 200 light-years away if they possessed a radio telescope similar to ours. Image credit: Gemini AI.
“Our investigation revealed that the airport radar systems, which manage air traffic, emit a staggering total of 2×1015 radio signals,” stated Ramilo Kais Said, a student at the University of Manchester.
“To provide context, the nearest potentially habitable exoplanet beyond our solar system is Proxima Centauri B, located four light-years away.”
“These signals will continue to reach spacecraft utilizing current technology for thousands of years.”
Military radar systems, which are more focused and directional, create unique emissions akin to lighthouse beams that illuminate specific fields of view.14
“To observers at interstellar distances with advanced radio telescopes, these emissions would obviously appear artificial,” remarked Kaisse Saide.
“Indeed, these military signals can appear up to 100 times more intense from a particular vantage point in the universe, contingent on the observer’s location.”
“Our findings indicate that radar signals unintentionally produced by any technologically advanced civilization with complex aviation systems could serve as a universal sign of intelligent life.”
This research not only guides the search for extraterrestrial civilizations by pinpointing promising technological signatures but also enhances our understanding of how human technology is perceived from space.
“Insights into how our signals propagate through space offer valuable lessons on safeguarding our radio spectrum for communication and designing future radar systems,” stated Professor Michael Garrett from the University of Manchester.
“The methods we developed for modeling and detecting these faint signals hold promise for applications in astronomy, planetary defense, and assessing the impacts of human technology on the space environment.”
“Thus, our work contributes to scientific endeavors addressing the question, ‘Are we alone?'” Kaisse Saide noted.
Each time I interact with ChatGPT, I consume energy—what does that really mean? A new study has highlighted the environmental costs of using large-scale language models (LLMs) and provided insights on how users can minimize their carbon footprints.
German researchers evaluated 14 open-source LLMs, ranging from 14 to 72 billion parameters, administering 1,000 benchmark questions to assess the CO2 emissions generated in response to each.
They discovered that utilizing internal reasoning to formulate answers can result in emissions up to 50 times greater than those generated by a brief response.
Conversely, models with a higher number of parameters—typically more accurate—also emit more carbon.
Nonetheless, the model isn’t the only factor; user interaction plays a significant role as well.
“When people use friendly phrases like ‘please’ and ‘thank you,’ LLMs tend to generate longer answers,” explained Maximilian Dorner, a researcher from Hochschule München Applied Sciences University and the lead author of the study, to BBC Science Focus.
“This results in the production of more words, which leads to longer processing times for the model.
The extra words don’t enhance the utility of the answer, yet they significantly increase the environmental impact.
“Whether the model generates 10,000 words of highly useful content or 10,000 words of gibberish, the emissions remain the same,” said Dorner.
Being polite to an AI platform uses more power – Getty
This indicates that users can help reduce emissions by encouraging succinct responses from AI models, such as asking for bullet points instead of detailed paragraphs. Casual requests for images, jokes, or essays when unnecessary can also contribute to climate costs.
The study revealed that questions demanding more in-depth reasoning—like topics in philosophy or abstract algebra—yield significantly higher emissions compared to simpler subjects like history.
Researchers tested smaller models that could operate locally, yet Dorner noted that larger models like ChatGPT, which possess more than 10 times the parameters, likely exhibit even worse patterns of energy consumption.
“The primary difference between the models I evaluated and those powering Microsoft Copilot or ChatGPT is the parameter count,” Dorner stated. These commonly used models have nearly tenfold the parameters, which equates to a tenfold rise in CO2 emissions.
Dorner encourages not only individual users to be mindful but also highlights that organizations behind LLMs have a role to play. For instance, he suggests that they could mitigate unnecessary emissions by creating systems that select the smallest model necessary for accurately answering each question.
“I’m a big supporter of these tools,” he remarked. “I utilize them daily. The key is to engage with them concisely and understand the implications.”
read more:
About our experts
Maximilian Dorner, PhD candidate at Hochschule München Applied Sciences University.
Gigantic herbivores in the Americas vanished roughly 10,000 years ago, disrupting the long-range seed dispersal of sizable fleshy plant species. The Anachronistic hypothesis of the Neotropics, proposed in 1982, posits that large fruits evolved to attract these massive animals. While this idea accounts for several significant adaptations in “megafaunal fruit” plants, it lacks strong evidence. Recently, researchers from Chile, Spain, and Brazil uncovered fossil evidence of frugivory, pointing to the existence of the extinct South American species Notiomastodon platensis. Their findings indicate that the extinction of this species and its relatives heightens the risk of giant fruit plants becoming extinct in certain South American regions.
Diversity of extinct mammals inhabiting the environment of Lake Tagua, Chile. Image credit: Mauricio Alvarez.
“In 1982, biologist Daniel Jansen and paleontologist Paul Martin proposed groundbreaking ideas, suggesting that many tropical plants developed large, sweet, colorful fruits to attract large animals like mastodons, native horses, or giant herds,” said iphes-cerca and colleagues.
“The theory, known as the anachronism hypothesis of the Neotropics, has remained unverified for over four decades.”
“Our research provides direct fossil evidence to substantiate this concept.”
In this study, Dr. González-Gurda and co-authors examined 96 fossil teeth from the Pleistocene mastodon, Notiomastodon platensis.
These fossils were collected over a distance of more than 1,500 km, spanning from Los Bilo to Chiloe Island in southern Chile.
Nearly half of the specimens originated from well-known sites such as Lake Tagua, an ancient basin abundant with Pleistocene fauna located in the current O’Higgins region.
To understand the lifestyle of Notiomastodon platensis, various techniques were utilized including isotopic analysis, microscopic examination of dental wear, and fossil calculation analysis,” the authors stated.
“We discovered typical starch residues and plant tissues of fleshy fruits, including the Chilean palm (Jubaea chilensis),” added Professor Florent Rivals, a researcher at ICREA, Iphes-Cerca, and Rovira I Virgili University.
“This directly confirms that these animals regularly consumed fruit and contributed to reforestation.”
“Stable isotopic analysis enabled us to reconstruct the animal’s habitat and diet with high accuracy,” noted Dr. Ivan Ramirez Pedraza, a researcher at Ifes Serca and Rovira I-Vilgiri University.
“The data points to a forest ecosystem rich in fruit resources, where mastodons roamed across long distances, aiding in seed dispersal. Its ecological role remains pivotal.”
“Dental chemistry offers us a direct glimpse into the past,” commented Dr. Carlos Tornero, a researcher at Ifes Cerca and the Autonomous University of Barcelona.
“Combining various evidence allowed us to strongly affirm the critical role they played within these ecosystems.”
The researchers also employed machine learning models to assess the current conservation status of megafauna-dependent plants across different regions of South America.
Their findings are intriguing: in central Chile, 40% of these species currently face threats. This ratio is four times higher than that of tropical regions where animals like tapirs and monkeys continue to function as alternative seed dispersers.
“If the ecological connection between plants and animals is completely severed, the repercussions will be evident for thousands of years,” states ecosystem researcher Andrea Leuza.
The survey results were published today in the journal Nature’s Ecology and Evolution.
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E. González-Guarda et al. Fossil evidence of material frugivory and its lasting impact on pre-American ecosystems. Nat Ecol Evol Published online on June 13th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41559-025-02713-8
China has been recognized as one of the primary locations for the domestication of Wild boar (SUSSCROFA). However, tracing back to the initial stages has proven to be complex. In a recent study, archaeologists examined pig dental calculus (mineralized deposits) from two early Neolithic sites in the lower Jotz River area of southern China: Jintushan (8,300–7,800 years ago) and Kuafukiao (8,200–7,000 years ago). Their findings indicate that pigs consumed food and waste associated with humans, including cooked starchy plants and Human whipworm (Trichuris trichiura). Eggs likely originated from food preparation and feces contaminated materials.
The domestication of certain animals, including pigs, is often linked to the Neolithic Age, when humans started moving from foraging to agricultural practices around 10,000 years ago.
Wild boars are substantial, aggressive creatures that generally live independently, foraging for food in the forest floor.
They possess larger heads, mouths, and teeth compared to domestic pigs.
“Most wild boars exhibit natural aggression, though some can be quite friendly and unafraid of humans,” stated Dr. Ziajin Wang from Dartmouth University.
“Proximity to humans provided them with easier access to food, reducing the need for a robust physique.”
“Over time, their bodies and brains shrunk by about one-third.”
To investigate the domestication of pigs and other animals, archaeologists frequently analyze skeletal structures and track morphological changes over time.
“This method can present challenges since decreases in body size typically occur later in the domestication timeline,” Dr. Wang noted.
“Behavioral changes likely preceded physical alterations, making animals more docile than aggressive.”
Thus, for this study, Dr. Wang and his team applied alternative methodologies, documenting the diet of pigs throughout their lifespan via molars from 32 pig specimens.
Through microfossil analysis of pig teeth, they examined dental calculus from the two earliest human-occupied sites in Jintushan and Kuafukiao, dating back at least 8,000 years.
The researchers identified 240 starch granules, revealing that pigs consumed pre-cooked foods (such as rice and mountain moss) alongside unidentified tubers, acorns, and wild grasses.
“These plants were present during that era and were found in human habitats,” Dr. Wang explained.
Previous studies identified rice in both locations, especially in Kuahuqiao, which benefited from intensive rice farming due to its access to freshwater compared to coastal areas.
Additional research indicated starch residues in crushed stones and ceramics from Kuahuqiao.
“Since pigs cannot cook their own food, it is likely that they were fed or scavenged human leftovers,” asserted Dr. Wang.
Parasite eggs from humans, specifically whipworms (which mature within the human digestive system), were also detected in pig dental calculus.
These tan, soccer-shaped eggs were found in 16 pig tooth specimens.
The pigs must have consumed human feces or contaminated food and water from such waste.
“Pigs have a well-known penchant for consuming human waste, further indicating that these pigs likely cohabitated with humans,” Dr. Wang remarked.
Statistical analysis of the dental structures of Kuafukiao and Jintan pig specimens revealed that their teeth are smaller and comparable to those of modern domestic groups in China.
“As humans began to settle and cultivate their own food, wild boars would have been drawn to these settlements,” Dr. Wang stated.
“These communities generated substantial waste, attracting scavengers in search of food.
This dynamic in animal domestication is termed a symbiotic pathway, where animals are drawn to human environments without the need for direct human action in adopting them.
Data also suggests that early interactions may include domesticated pigs under some level of human control, indicating a trajectory of prey pathways in the domestication process.
“Our study indicates that certain wild boars began their journey toward domestication by foraging human waste,” Dr. Wang concluded.
“This research also underscores the potential connection between pig domestication and the transmission of parasitic diseases in early settled communities.”
The study was published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Jiajing Wang et al. 2025. Early evidence of pig domestication in the lower Yangtze region of southern China (8,000 cal. bp). PNAS 122 (24): E2507123122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2507123122
Long-term conclusive results from US-based experiments have emerged. The latest release on Tuesday highlights a tiny particle behaving unexpectedly, which is still positive news for our understanding of Physics Laws.
“This experiment represents a remarkable achievement in precision,” noted Toba Holmes, an experimental physicist at the University of Tennessee Knoxville, who is not affiliated with the collaboration.
The enigmatic particles known as Muons are heavier than electrons. They exhibit a wobbling motion akin to a spinning top when subjected to a magnetic field, and scientists are scrutinizing this motion to determine its compliance with the well-established physics framework known as the standard model.
Findings from the 1960s and 1970s suggested everything was functioning as expected. However, investigations at Brookhaven National Laboratory in the late 1990s and early 2000s yielded unexpected results.
Decades later, an international coalition of scientists opted to revisit the experiment with enhanced accuracy. The team navigated Muons around magnetic, ring-shaped tracks akin to those used in the initial Brookhaven studies, and recorded the wobble signals at Fermilab National Accelerator Laboratory near Chicago.
The outcomes from the initial two sets published in 2021 and 2023 appear to affirm the odd behavior of Muons, encouraging theoretical physicists to reconsider the standard model alongside new metrics.
Recently, the team finalized the experiment and published Muon wobble measurements that align with their earlier findings, utilizing more than double the data collected in 2023.
Nevertheless, this does not finalize the fundamental understanding of what underpins the universe. As Muons travel along their paths, other researchers have devised methods to better harmonize standard models with observed behaviors, leveraging the power of supercomputers.
Further investigation is essential as researchers collaborate, and upcoming experiments will encourage future studies that assess Muon wobble. Scientists are also examining the latest Muon data for insights into other mysterious entities like dark matter.
“This measurement will serve as a benchmark for years to follow,” remarked Marco Incagli from the Italian National Institute of Nuclear Physics.
In their pursuit of Muons, scientists aim to unravel fundamental questions that have long intrigued physicists, as noted by Peter Winter from the Argonne National Laboratory.
“Isn’t it something we all wish to understand—how the universe operates?” Winter questioned.
Recent studies indicate that daily vitamin D intake can assist in managing the effects of aging.
Research has shown that supplementing with vitamin D for four years could potentially offset the aging process by about three years.
Prior studies have suggested that vitamin D supplements may help mitigate some prominent aging signs linked to various age-related diseases, such as cancer, heart disease, and dementia.
To explore this hypothesis, researchers from Mass General Brigham and Georgia Medical University examined the findings of previous trials. In this experiment, over 55 women and more than 50 men participated, taking either Vitamin D, Omega 3, or a placebo daily for five years.
The recent study assessed telomere length, concentrating on 1,054 participants who underwent specific tests at the beginning of the trial, as well as in their second and fourth years.
Telomeres are repetitive DNA sequences that protect chromosomes. Professor Morten Schiebye-Knudsen from the University of Copenhagen, who was not involved in the study, noted in BBC Science Focus Magazine.
Telomeres safeguard chromosome ends and prevent fusion or degradation – Credit: Getty Images/Knopprit
“Consider them like the plastic tips on shoelaces. They prevent chromosomes from fraying and sticking to each other, which helps maintain genetic stability during cell division,” he explained.
With each cell division, telomeres shorten slightly. If they become too short, the cell loses its ability to divide, leading to cell dysfunction.
The study found that participants taking vitamin D exhibited significantly reduced telomere shortening, effectively preventing nearly three years of aging.
This finding could offer valuable insights into promoting longer health spans, as telomere shortening is linked to various age-related diseases.
“I often refer to these cells as angry old men. They lose functionality, become inactive, and worsen over time, negatively impacting their environment,” Schiebye-Knudsen remarked.
“Telomere shortening may lead to older, more dysfunctional cells, resulting in increased inflammation in our bodies, particularly in rapidly dividing cells, like those in bone marrow, skin, and hair.”
About our experts
Morten Schiebye-Knudsen serves as an associate professor at the Faculty of Cellular Molecular Medicine at the University of Copenhagen.
Australopithecus sediba – This small human species, which existed around 2 million years ago, displayed a blend of ape-like and human-like traits. Homona Lady – A recent study led by Dr. Samar Syeda from the American Museum of Natural History reveals that this newly identified species, dating back approximately 335,000 to 236,000 years, shows a distinct pattern of bone thickness, indicating diverse load applications and potential grip types.
A reconstruction depicting the life of Australopithecus sediba commissioned by the University of Michigan Museum of Natural History. Image credit: Elisabeth Daynes/S. Entressangle.
Dr. Syeda and her team explored variations in phalanx morphology, discovering that South African hominins might exhibit different dexterities along with varied climbing abilities.
They focused on two nearly complete fossil hand skeletons discovered in South Africa: the hands from Australopithecus sediba, dated at 2 million years old, and hand skeletons from the newly identified star cave system from 250,000 years ago.
While no direct associations with stone tools have been established for either species, certain aspects of their hand and wrist morphology imply a level of dexterity that aligns more closely with human hands than with those of chimpanzees and gorillas.
“Stone tools have been found in South Africa dating back at least 2.2 million years (and potentially as far back as 3.3 million years),” stated Dr. Tracy Kivell, a researcher at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and Witwatersrand University. “Many primates are adept stone tool users, as are Australopithecus sediba and Homona Lady.
“However, the exact nature of their tool usage and interaction remains unclear.”
Furthermore, both Australopithecus sediba and Homona Lady exhibit ape-like characteristics, especially within their upper limb bones, which could be advantageous for climbing.
The ongoing debate in paleontology considers whether these traits indicate actual climbing behaviors or if they are simply evolutionary remnants from climbing ancestors.
Reconstruction of Homona Lady‘s head by artist John Gurche, who spent around 700 hours recreating it from a bone scan, published in collaboration with the University of Witwatersrand, the National Geographic Society, and the South African National Research Foundation in the journal Elife. Image credits: John Gurche / Mark Thiessen / National Geographic.
To explore these inquiries, researchers examined variations in the internal composition of the fingers (cortical bone) in both Australopithecus sediba and Homona Lady.
Bones are dynamic tissues that can modify their structure based on usage and loading throughout life, thickening in high load areas while thinning in regions subjected to lesser loads.
As such, variations in internal cortical thickness can shed light on how these two hominin fossils utilized their hands during their lifetimes.
“Our findings indicate that both Australopithecus sediba and Homona Lady exhibit a range of functional signals within the cortical bone structure of their fingers,” remarked Dr. Syeda.
In Australopithecus sediba, the distribution of cortical bones within the proximal and intermediate phalanges of most fingers closely resembles that of apes. However, the thumb and pinky bones are more akin to human bones.
“These two digits appear to represent potential functional signals because they experience less frequent or lower loads during climbing or suspension,” noted Dr. Syeda.
“Combining these findings with a human-like thumb suggests that Australopithecus sediba employed its hands not just for climbing, but also for tool use and other dexterous activities.”
Homona Lady, in contrast, displays an unusual pattern where the proximal phalanx (the bone supported by the palm) shows human-like traits, while the intermediate phalanx (the bone in the middle of the finger) reflects ape-like characteristics.
Fossil hands of Australopithecus sediba and Homona Lady indicating that these South African hominins may have exhibited varying degrees of dexterity and climbing proficiency. Image credit: Tracy Kivell.
“This distinct pattern was unexpected and suggests that Homona Lady may have engaged different parts of its fingers for varied loading,” Dr. Syeda noted.
This unique loading pattern resembles certain grip types observed today, such as crimp grips used by rock climbers, where the surface is primarily grasped by the tips of the fingers.
Homona Lady also features unusually curved phalanges, particularly notable since this species coexisted with early members of our own species, Homo sapiens, indicating potential usage of hands for climbing.
Further research is necessary to ascertain whether Homona Lady utilized crimp-like grips for climbing; however, it is evident that throughout human evolution, there has been an ongoing requirement for using tools with enhanced dexterity for food processing on trees and rocks within the ancient South African landscape.
“This research offers greater evidence that human evolution is characterized by various ‘experiments’ balancing the demands of manipulation and movement within these historical environments, rather than a straightforward transition from upright walking to increasingly advanced tool use,” Dr. Kivell stated.
Survey results will be published this week in the journal Advances in Science.
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Samar M. Syeda et al. 2025. Bone distribution in the Faranjour cortex reveals variations in dexterity and climbing behaviors in Australopithecus sediba and Homona Lady. Advances in Science 11 (20); doi:10.1126/sciadv.adt1201
High-energy photons produced deep within gamma-ray burst jets emerge from decayed stars can dissolve the outer stellar layer into free neutrons, causing a series of physical processes that lead to the formation of heavy elements. paper It is published on Astrophysical Journal.
The high-energy photonic jet (white and blue) passes through a collapse with a black hole at its center. The red space around the jet represents a coco where free neutrons can be captured and caused the R process. Image credit: Los Alamos National Laboratory.
The formation of the heaviest elements relies on astrophysical environments with large amounts of neutrons.
Neutrons are found in the medium under extreme pressure, either bound to the nucleus.
Free neutrons are rare because they have a half-life of less than 15 minutes.
“The creation of heavy elements such as uranium and plutonium requires extreme conditions,” says Dr. Matthew Mumpoir, a physicist at the Los Alamos National Laboratory.
“There are several viable yet rare scenarios in the universe where these elements can form, and all such locations require a large number of neutrons. We propose a new phenomenon where these neutrons are not present and dynamically generated by stars.”
The key to generating the heaviest elements in the periodic table is known as the rapid neutron capture process or R process, and is believed to be responsible for the production of all thorium, uranium and plutonium that occur naturally in the universe.
The team’s framework takes on the challenging physics of the R process and solves them by proposing reactions and processes around the collapse of the stars.
In addition to understanding the formation of heavy elements, the proposed framework will help address key issues regarding neutron transport, multi-objective simulations, and observation of rare events. All of these are interesting for national security applications, which can gather insights from research.
In the scenario proposed by researchers, when nuclear fuel is exhausted, a large star begins to die.
It is no longer able to push its own gravity up, and a black hole forms in the center of the star.
If the black hole is spinning fast enough, the framedrazing effect from the very powerful gravity near the black hole will wind up the magnetic field and fire a powerful jet.
Subsequent reactions create a wide range of photons, some of which are high-energy.
“The jet blows stars before it, creating a hot coco of material around the jet, like a freight train plowing through the snow,” said Dr. Mumpower.
At the interface of jets with star materials, high-energy photons (i.e. light) can interact with the nucleus and convert protons into neutrons.
Existing nuclei can also be dissolved in individual nuclei, creating more free neutrons to power the R process.
Team calculations suggest that interactions with light can create neutrons very quickly in nanosecond order.
For charging, a strong magnetic field traps the protons in the jet.
The merciless neutrons are ploughed from the jet to the coco.
After experiencing relativistic shock, neutrons are very dense compared to the surrounding star material, which can lead to the R process, forging heavy elements and isotopes, and banished into space when the stars are torn apart.
The process of protons converted into neutrons and the free neutrons that escape to the surrounding coco to form heavy elements, encompasses all four basic forces of nature, accompanied by a wide range of physics principles. It combines the real multiword problems, the fields of nuclear and nuclear physics, with fluid mechanics and general relationships.
Despite the team’s efforts, more challenges remain as the heavy isotopes created during the R process have never been done on Earth.
Researchers know little about their properties, including atomic weights, half-life, and more.
The high energy jet framework proposed by the team may help explain the origin of kilonovas (the glow of optical and infrared electromagnetic radiation) associated with long gamma-ray bursts.
“Star melting via high-energy photon jets provides an alternative origin for gravity and the production of kilonova that can be produced. This may not have previously been thought to be related to star collapse,” the scientist said.
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Matthew R. Mumpoir et al. 2025. Make sure there are neutrons! Hadronic optical production from large fluxes of high energy photons. APJ 982, 81; doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ADB1E3
Engaging in regular and extended bouts of walking can help shield you from abnormal heart rhythms, heart attacks, heart diseases, and strokes.
Recent research published in Heart, a publication owned by the British Medical Journal, supports this notion. According to the study, adults who maintained a brisk walking pace of over four miles per hour (mph) were 43% less likely to develop heart rhythm abnormalities over a 13-year period.
For many people, a pace of 3.5 mph is typical, so walking at 4 mph may feel more energetic. It’s a deliberate pace that slightly elevates your heart rate and breathing, but still allows for conversation.
“Individuals who perceived their normal walking pace as average (3-4 mph) or active (>4 mph) experienced a reduced risk of heart rhythm abnormalities,” stated Professor Jill Perl, the Henry Mechanic Professor of Public Health at the University of Glasgow and senior author of the study, as reported by BBC Science Focus.
Furthermore, even minor lifestyle changes, such as walking at an average pace for at least five minutes daily, were shown to yield significant benefits according to the study’s findings.
Most of us walk at speeds of 3.5 mph or 130 bpm. This is about the pace of the song that got me hooked on the senses of BJ Thomas. – Credit: Solstock via Getty
The study included data from 420,925 participants from the UK Biobank, of which 81,956 individuals tracked their walking habits using activity monitors.
After 13 years, approximately 9% of participants developed heart rhythm abnormalities, such as atrial fibrillation, tachycardia, and bradycardia.
Individuals who spent more time walking at an average or active pace were found to have lower odds of developing these abnormalities compared to those with less walking activity.
It was estimated that around 36% of the benefits associated with brisk walking and heart health could be attributed to its positive impact on risk factors for heart disease.
“Brisk walking can help lower blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and reduce inflammation in the body,” explained Professor Perl.
While the study had limitations, including its reliance on self-reported data and a predominantly white participant pool, the results emphasize the potential benefits of incorporating regular brisk walking into one’s routine.
Read more:
About Our Experts:
Professor Jill Perl holds the Henry Mechanic Chair in Public Health at the University of Glasgow. She also serves as an honorary public health consultant for the Greater Glasgow and Clyde Health Commission. Prior to her current role, Professor Perl was a professor of epidemiology at the British Heart Foundation’s Centre for Cardiovascular Research in Glasgow. She is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and the European Society of Cardiology.
Recent research suggests that individuals following a vegan diet may be missing out on key nutrients essential for muscle building, even if their overall protein intake appears to be adequate.
A study conducted in New Zealand found that some long-term vegans were deficient in essential amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, which can impact overall nutrition.
Proteins consist of amino acids, with nine of them being considered “essential” as they cannot be produced by the body. Lysine and leucine are two essential amino acids crucial for healthy growth, energy production, and muscle repair.
The study, published in the journal PLOS 1, analyzed food diaries from 193 long-term vegans. It was discovered that while around 75% of participants met daily protein recommendations, only about half of them obtained sufficient lysine and leucine after accounting for protein digestibility.
The researchers emphasized the importance of a balanced and diverse plant-based diet to ensure proper amino acid intake on a vegan diet. Both lysine and leucine play critical roles in bodily functions including growth, muscle recovery, and energy production.
Although the study highlights the potential limitations of protein intake in a vegan diet, it is important to note that it is a snapshot in time and relies on self-reported data. Amino acid digestibility was estimated using animal models, and further research comparing vegan diets with omnivorous or vegetarian diets is needed.
In conclusion, when it comes to protein intake on a vegan diet, quality and diversity of plant proteins are key. Prioritizing high-quality plant protein sources such as legumes, tofu, tempeh, beans, and soy foods can help ensure adequate amino acid intake for overall health.
About our experts
Shireen Kassam is a plant-based nutrition expert and consultant hematologist with a specialized interest in the treatment of lymphoma. She is also a visiting professor at the University of Winchester, Hampshire, leading the development of the UK’s first university-based course in plant-based nutrition.
Excessive dietary sodium increases blood pressure, while a high potassium diet has the opposite effect. The underlying mechanism is alleviated by sex and includes multiple organs and tissues. How do high potassium-induced alternatives in renal function differ between men and women with lower blood pressure? To answer these questions, a duo of researchers at the University of Waterloo conducted computer simulations to simulate the homeostasis of whole body fluids and electrolytes, simulating the effects of sodium and potassium intake on blood pressure.
Melissa Stadt & Anita Layton suggests that increasing the ratio of dietary potassium to sodium intake may be more effective in lowering blood pressure than simply reducing sodium intake. Image credit: Melissa Stadt & Anita Layton, doi: 10.1152/ajprenal.00222.2024.
Hypertension affects more than 30% of adults around the world. It is the main cause of coronary heart disease and stroke, and can lead to other distress such as chronic kidney disease, heart failure, irregular heartbeat, and dementia.
“We usually recommend eating less salt when we have high blood pressure,” said Professor Anita Leighton, author of the study.
“Our research suggests that adding potassium-rich foods to a diet such as bananas and broccoli can have a greater impact on blood pressure than cutting off sodium.”
Potassium and sodium are both electrolytes, which help the body send electrical signals to contract muscles, affect the amount of water in the body, and perform other essential functions.
“Early humans ate a lot of fruits and vegetables. As a result, our body’s regulatory system may have evolved to work best on a high potassium, low sodium diet.”
“Today, Western diets tend to be much higher in sodium and lower in potassium.”
“It may explain why hypertension is seen primarily in industrialized societies, not isolated societies.”
Previous studies found that increased potassium intake helps control blood pressure, but researchers have developed a mathematical model that successfully identifies how potassium-sodium ratios affect the body.
The model also identifies how sex differences affect the relationship between potassium and blood pressure.
Scientists have found that men develop hypertension more easily than premenopausal women, but men are more likely to respond positively to an increased potassium-to-sodium ratio.
“Mathematical models like those used in this study allow these types of experiments to identify how different factors affect the body quickly, cheaply, and ethically,” they said.
Team’s paper Released in March 2025 American Journal of Physiology-Renal Physiology.
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Melissa Statt and Anita T. Leighton. Regulation of blood pressure by dietary potassium and sodium: Gender differences and modeling analysis. American Journal of Physiology-Renal PhysiologyPublished online on March 3, 2025. doi: 10.1152/ajprenal.00222.2024
A team of biologists from the US, Canada, UK, and France have developed a scenario for life on Titan, Saturn’s biggest moon.
Rendering of the artist on the surface of Titan, the biggest moon of Saturn. Image credits: Benjamin de Bivort, debivort.org/cc by-sa 3.0.
“Our research focuses on what makes Titan unique when compared to other ice moons and its rich organic content,” said Dr. Antonin Affelder, a researcher at the University of Arizona.
Using bioenergy modeling, Dr. Affholder and colleagues discovered that Titan’s underground ocean, estimated at around 483 km (300 miles), could support life forms that consume organic materials.
“There’s been a lot of speculation about scenarios that could create organisms on Titan based on lunar organic chemistry, but previous estimates suffer from an overly simplified approach,” Dr. Affholder said.
“Because Titan has such abundant organic matter, there was a sense that there was no shortage of food sources that could sustain life.”
“Not all of these organic molecules constitute a food source, and the ocean is really big; there is a limited exchange between the ocean and the surface, and all of those organic matter; so I argue for a more subtle approach.”
At the heart of the study is a fundamental approach that sought to come up with a plausible scenario for Titan’s life, which envisioned one of the simplest and most prominent fermentations of all biological metabolic processes.
Fermentation familiar to earthlings, used in breadmaking, beer brewing, and less desirable – sourdough fermentation, accustomed to its use in the spoilage of forgotten leftovers, requires only organic molecules but no oxidants like oxygen.
“Fermentation probably evolved early in the history of Earth’s life, and there’s no need to open the door to unknown or speculative mechanisms that may or may not have happened on Titan,” Dr. Affholder said.
“Life on Earth may have first appeared to eat organic molecules left behind from the formation of the Earth.”
“I asked if there could be similar microorganisms on Titan. If so, could Titan’s underground seas supply the biosphere from a seemingly vast inventory of abiotic organic molecules synthesized in Titan’s atmosphere, accumulate on its surface, and be present in its core?”
The researchers have focused specifically on glycine, the simplest organic molecule of all known amino acids.
“We know that glycine was relatively abundant in all kinds of primitive matter in the solar system,” Dr. Affholder said.
“When you look at clouds of particles and gases where stars and planets form, like asteroids, comets, our solar system, we find glycine or its precursors in almost every place.”
However, computer simulations reveal that only a small portion of Titan’s organic materials may be suitable for microbial consumption.
The microorganisms consumed by Titan’s ocean glycine rely on a stable supply of amino acids from the surface through thick, ice-like shells.
Previous work by the same team showed that meteors that shock Titan’s ice could leave behind a “melt pool” of liquid water.
“Our new research shows that this supply may be sufficient to maintain very few microorganisms, which are up to a few kilograms of physical fitness.”
“A small biosphere like this is an average of less than one cell per liter in Titan’s vast oceans.”
For your future mission to Titan, the possibility of finding life might be like searching for needles in a haystack if it’s actually there.
“We conclude that Titan’s unique, rich organic inventory may actually not be available to play a role in lunar habitat at an intuitive level of thinking,” Dr. Affholder said.
paper It was published in Journal of Planetary Science.
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Antonin abholder et al. 2025. Survival rate of glycine fermentation in the underground oceans of Titan. planet. SCI. j 6, 86; doi:10.3847/psj/adbc66
Astronomers have long believed that Jupiter's upper clouds, which form the planet's iconic light brown bands, are made of frozen ammonia. But new research shows that these clouds are actually lower in the atmosphere than we thought, and are made of ammonium bisulfide mixed with smog.
Hubble's photos of Jupiter show an ever-changing landscape due to its turbulent atmosphere. Image credits: NASA / ESA / Hubble / Amy Simon, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center / Michael H. Wong, University of California, Berkeley / Joseph DePasquale, STScI.
Citizen scientist Steve Hill has previously shown that it is possible to map a planet's atmosphere using just a special colored filter and a backyard telescope.
These results provided the first clue that the clouds are too deep in Jupiter's warm atmosphere to match clouds made of ammonia ice.
To find out, Hill and a team of professional astronomers from the University of Oxford, the University of Leicester and the British Astronomical Society used the MUSE instrument on ESO's Very Large Telescope (VLT) to study the atmospheres of gas giant planets. did.
“MUSE will be able to scan Jupiter's atmosphere at different wavelengths and map the different molecules that make up Jupiter's atmosphere,” they said.
Their study shows that a new approach using backyard telescopes or VLT/MUSE can map the abundance of ammonia in Jupiter's atmosphere with remarkable accuracy.
In terms of clouds, they concluded that Jupiter's atmosphere closely resembles a layered cake.
A cloud of ammonium hydrosulfide covers the upper layer, but decorations of ammonia ice clouds carried to the top by strong vertical convection can also be seen.
However, the overall structure of the cake is still not fully understood, and the work of citizen scientists may be the key to figuring it out.
So the next time you gaze at Jupiter or Saturn from your backyard, you just might be uncovering some hidden secrets in our solar system.
“We tested the reliability of the filter imaging technique by applying it to VLT/MUSE observations of Jupiter and found that the method closely matches more sophisticated analyzes of these observations and is also consistent with observations of Jupiter.” We have shown that the microwave wavelengths studied by NASA's Juno spacecraft and the Super Large Array yield surprisingly reliable results,” the astronomers said.
“We show that the main reflection level at red wavelengths is at the 2-3 bar level, which is much lower than the expected ammonia ice cloud condensation level of 0.7 bar, and the ammonia We conclude that ice cannot be the main cloud component.”
“We also showed that the same technique can be applied to MUSE observations of Saturn, where extracted ammonia maps were measured by NASA's Cassini spacecraft and the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope at pressures greater than 2 We found a very good agreement with the ammonia abundance.
of findings will appear in Geophysical Research Journal: Planets.
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Patrick G.J. Irwin others. 2025. Clouds and ammonia in the atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn are determined from band depth analysis of VLT/MUSE observations. JGR Planets 130 (1): e2024JE008622;doi: 10.1029/2024JE008622
Lead pollution likely lowered the average IQ of ancient Rome by 2.5 to 3 points, a study has found.
The study is based on analysis of lead concentrations in ice cores taken from Greenland.
The findings provide evidence that lead may have contributed to the fall of Rome, an issue that historians and experts have debated for decades.
In ancient Rome, toxic lead was so prevalent in the air that it likely lowered the average person’s IQ by 2.5 to 3 points, a new study suggests.
The study, published Monday in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, adds to long-standing questions about what role, if any, lead pollution played in the collapse of the empire.
The authors link lead found in Greenland ice samples to ancient Roman silver smelters and determine that the incredible background pollution they produced would have affected much of Europe. .
Researchers used research on lead exposure in modern society to determine how much lead was likely in the Romans’ bloodstream and how it affected their cognition. was able to judge.
Lead, a powerful neurotoxin, remains a public health threat today. There is no safe amount to ingest into the body. Exposure is associated with an increased risk of learning disabilities, reproductive problems, mental health problems, and hearing loss, among other effects.
The researchers behind the new study said the discovery was the first clear example in history of widespread industrial pollution.
“Human and industrial activities 2,000 years ago were already having a continent-wide impact on human health,” said the study’s lead author, a researcher at the Desert Research Institute for Climate and Environment, a nonprofit research campus in Reno, Nevada. said scientist Joe McConnell. . “Lead pollution in Roman times is the earliest clear example of human impact on the environment.”
Stories of ancient pollution are buried in Greenland’s ice sheet.
Ice cores are extracted from the Greenland ice sheet. Joseph McConnell
The chemical composition of ice there and in other polar regions can yield important clues about what environments were like in the past. As snow falls, melts, and compacts to form a layer of ice, the chemicals trapped inside provide a kind of timeline.
“In environmental history, you’ve been building this layer cake every year,” McConnell said.
By drilling, extracting and processing long cylinders of ice, scientists can measure properties such as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in past climates or, as in this case, lead concentrations over time.
Researchers analyzed three ice cores and found that lead levels rose and fell over roughly 1,000 years in response to important events in Rome’s economic history. For example, levels rose when Rome organized its rule over what is now Spain and increased silver production in the region.
A longitudinal ice core sample awaits analysis for lead and other chemicals at the Desert Research Institute in Reno, Nevada. Jesse Lemay / DRI
“For every ounce of silver produced, 10,000 ounces of lead can be produced,” McConnell said. “Just as they produced silver, the Romans were smelting and mining silver for coinage and economy, and they were introducing large amounts of lead into the atmosphere.”
McConnell said lead attaches to dust particles in the atmosphere during the smelting process. A small portion of those particles were blown away and deposited in Greenland.
Once researchers determined how much lead was concentrated in Greenland’s ice, they used a climate modeling system to determine how much lead the Romans would have released to pollute Greenland to observed levels. I calculated the amount.
The research team then analyzed modern information on lead exposure to determine the health effects of atmospheric lead during the Pax Romana, a period of peace in the empire that lasted from 27 BC to 180 AD. has been identified.
Ice samples on a melter during chemical analysis at a desert laboratory.
The researchers found that average lead exposure is about one-third of what it was in the United States in the late 1970s, when leaded gasoline use was at its peak and before the Clean Air Act was enacted. Lead levels in Rome were about twice what American children are exposed to today, McConnell said.
Researchers believe that people who lived closest to silver mines on the Iberian Peninsula (now Spain) would have had the most lead in their blood.
“Virtually no one got away,” McConnell said.
However, these results likely do not tell the full story of the health effects of lead in ancient Rome. This is because Romans were exposed through other sources, such as wine sweetened in lead-lined vessels, lead piping, and lead goblets.
Dr. Bruce Lanphear, lead expert and professor of health sciences at Canada’s Simon Fraser University, said lead was “ubiquitous” in ancient Rome. He was not involved in this study. Therefore, the new study is limited because it only assesses lead in the atmosphere, he said, and the authors acknowledge that.
A lead toy unearthed from the grave of Julia Graphis in Brescello. DeAgostini/Getty Images
“Their estimate is likely an underestimate,” Lanphear said.
Still, the study provides evidence that lead exposure may indeed have played a role, so the findings raise questions about how lead may have contributed to the decline of ancient Rome. may stimulate the ongoing debate.
“I believe that lead played a role in the decline of the Roman Empire, but it was only a contributing factor. It was never the only one,” Lanphear said.
Joe Manning, a history professor at Yale University, said most researchers believe Rome fell for a myriad of reasons, including epidemics, economic problems and climate change. Manning said it’s important to remember that ancient Rome was a tough place to survive, with an average lifespan of about 25 to 30 years.
“Under no circumstances do you want to go to a city in the ancient world. That would be the last place you want to go. ,” Manning said. “Reed has really bad hygiene.”
called radiation-resistant bacteria Deinococcus radiodurans It can withstand radiation doses thousands of times higher than what would kill a human. The secret behind this resistance is the existence of a collection of simple metabolites that combine with manganese to form a powerful antioxidant. Now, Northwestern University professor Brian Hoffman and his colleagues have discovered how this antioxidant works.
First discovered in 1956, Deinococcus radiodurans It is one of the most radiation-resistant organisms known.
It was isolated in an experiment aimed at determining whether high doses of gamma rays could be used to sterilize canned food.
In a new study, Professor Hoffman and co-authors characterized a synthetic designer antioxidant called MDP. Deinococcus radiodurans'Resilience.
They show that the components of MDP, manganese ions, phosphates, and small peptides, form a ternary complex that is a much more powerful protector from radiation damage than when manganese is combined with other individual components alone. I discovered that.
This discovery could ultimately lead to new synthetic antioxidants specifically tailored to human needs.
Applications include protecting astronauts from intense space radiation during deep space missions, preparing for radiation emergencies, and producing radiation-inactivated vaccines.
“This ternary complex is MDP's excellent shield against the effects of radiation,” said Professor Hoffman.
“It has long been known that manganese ions and phosphates together make a powerful antioxidant, but now we discover and understand the 'magical' potency brought about by the addition of a third ingredient. That's a breakthrough.”
“This study provided the key to understanding why this combination is such a powerful and promising radioprotector.”
In a previous study, researchers found that: Deinococcus radiodurans It can withstand 25,000 Grays (or units of X-rays and gamma rays).
But in a 2022 study, Professor Hoffmann and his team found that this bacterium, when dried and frozen, can withstand 140,000 Gy of radiation, 28,000 times the dose that would kill humans. did.
Therefore, if there are dormant frozen microbes buried on Mars, they may have survived the onslaught of galactic cosmic radiation and solar protons to this day.
In an effort to understand radioresistance in microorganisms, researchers investigated a designer decapeptide called DP1.
When combined with phosphate and manganese, DP1 forms the free radical scavenger MDP, which protects cells and proteins from radiation damage.
Professor Michael Daly, from Uniformed Services University, said: “This new understanding of MDP could lead to the development of even more powerful manganese-based antioxidants with applications in areas such as medicine, industry, defense and space exploration. Yes,” he said.
of result will appear in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Hao Yang others. 2024. A ternary complex of Mn2+, synthetic decapeptide DP1 (DEHGTAVMLK), and orthophosphate is an excellent antioxidant. PNAS 121 (51): e2417389121;doi: 10.1073/pnas.2417389121
Jupiter’s upper atmosphere consists of a neutral thermosphere and an electrically charged ionosphere. Astronomers using the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope have discovered unexpected small-scale intensity features, including arcs, bands, and spots, in the low-latitude ionosphere in the region above Jupiter’s Great Red Spot.
This illustration shows the region observed by Webb, first with its location on the NIRCam image of the entire planet (left), and then the region itself as imaged by Webb’s Near-Infrared Spectrometer (NIRSpec) (right). Image credit: NASA / ESA / CSA / Webb / Jupiter ERS Team / J. Schmidt / H. Melin / M. Zamani, ESA and Webb.
Jupiter is one of the brightest objects in the night sky and can be easily seen on a clear night.
Apart from the bright Northern and Southern Lights at Jupiter’s poles, the glow from Jupiter’s upper atmosphere is weak, making details in this region difficult to discern with ground-based telescopes.
But Webb’s infrared sensitivity has allowed scientists to study the upper atmosphere of the infamous Great Red Spot in unprecedented detail.
The upper atmosphere of this gas giant is the interface between the planet’s magnetic field and the atmosphere below it.
Here you can see the bright and vibrant aurora borealis and southern lights, created by volcanic material erupting from Jupiter’s moon Io.
However, as one approaches the equator, the structure of the planet’s upper atmosphere is influenced by incoming sunlight.
Because Jupiter receives only 4% of the sunlight that Earth does, astronomers predicted that this region would be essentially homogeneous.
Astronomer Henrik Melin of the University of Leicester and his colleagues observed the Great Red Spot in July 2022 using an Integral Field Unit. Webb’s near-infrared spectrometer (NIR Spec).
Their early public science observations aimed to investigate whether this region was in fact dull, and the region above the iconic Great Red Spot was the subject of Webb’s observations.
They were surprised to find that the upper atmosphere contains a variety of complex structures, including dark arcs and bright spots across the entire field of view.
“We probably naively thought this area would be really boring. It’s actually just as interesting, if not more so, than the Northern Lights. Jupiter never fails to surprise us,” Dr Melin said.
The light emitted from this region is driven by sunlight, but the team suggests there must be another mechanism that changes the shape and structure of the upper atmosphere.
“One way this structure can be altered is by gravity waves, similar to how waves crashing on the shore create ripples in the sand,” Dr Melin said.
“These waves originate deep within the turbulent lower atmosphere around the Great Red Spot and can rise in altitude to alter the structure and emissions of the upper atmosphere.”
“These atmospheric waves are occasionally observed on Earth, but they are much weaker than those Webb observed on Jupiter.”
“In the future, we hope to carry out follow-up webbed observations of these complex wave patterns and investigate how they move within the planet’s upper atmosphere to improve our understanding of the energy budget of this region and how its features change over time.”
Horses revolutionized human history by increasing mobility, but the timeline between their domestication and widespread integration as a form of transportation remains debated.
Genetic evidence suggests that modern domestic horses emerged around 3000 BC in the steppes of western Eurasia, including an area inhabited by nomadic peoples known as the Yamnaya.
According to some accounts, the Yamnaya people migrated to Europe on horseback.
The earlier appearance of a different lineage of domesticated horses (probably used for milk) in association with the Botai culture of Central Asia (context: c. 3500 BC) also adds confusion.
To explore the possible timing of domestication, Dr. Ludovic Orlando of the Toulouse Centre for Anthropology and Genomics, Dr. Pablo Librado of the Barcelona Institute of Evolutionary Biology and their colleagues analysed the genomes of 475 ancient horses and 77 modern horses.
“I started working with horses about 10 years ago, and at the time there were only a few ancient genomes,” Dr. Librado said.
“With this new study, we now have hundreds of specimens. The increased resolution over Central Europe, the Carpathians and the Transylvanian Basin was particularly important, as this region was at the heart of the ongoing debate about a large-scale horse-driven migration out of the steppes around 5,000 years ago, or maybe even earlier.”
The researchers found that around 2200 BC there was a clear change in horse breeding practices (including the introduction of inbreeding), which resulted in the replacement of almost all horse bloodlines with modern livestock bloodlines.
This expansion was preceded by a domestication bottleneck (starting around 2,700 BC) that shortened generation times (related to the age at which horses breed) and made it easier to breed new domestic horses.
Previous studies have suggested that the Yamnaya migration occurred between 3,300 and 2,600 BCE.
The timing suggested by this study is therefore inconsistent with the hypothesis that the Yamnaya-related steppe peoples were accompanied by large herds of modern domesticated horses.
The authors also found evidence of domestication of the Botai horse, including shortened generation times, which means that horse domestication may have occurred in some areas before 2700 BC, but did not lead to widespread migration of horses.
“One question I've long wondered about is the scale of production: how was it possible to suddenly keep such large numbers of horses from a relatively small livestock area to meet growing global demand by the turn of the second millennium BC?” Dr Orlando said.
“Now we have the answer: breeders have controlled the reproduction of the animals so well that the time interval between two generations has been almost halved.”
“Simply put, they were able to speed up the breeding process and essentially double their production rate.”
“Our methodology for measuring temporal changes in generation time has great potential,” Dr. Librado explained.
“This adds a new method to the archaeozoological toolkit for monitoring the development of managed breeding in a range of livestock species beyond horses.”
“But it could also help shed light on generation intervals in our hunter-gatherer ancestors and how these intervals evolved alongside changing lifestyles and significant climatic changes.”
“Our evidence supports two stages of domestication of the horse,” Dr Orlando said.
“The first attempts, which occurred around 5,500 years ago, were aimed at addressing the decline of horse populations and providing food for people living on the steppes of Central Asia.”
“The domestic horse as we know it emerged from a second period of domestication about 4,200 years ago.”
“This allowed high-speed travel for the first time and truly changed human history.”
origin and spread of chicken (Gallus Gallus) The question throughout the ancient world is one of the most puzzling questions about Eurasian livestock. The lack of agreement regarding the time and center of origin is due to problems in morphological identification, lack of direct dating, and poor preservation of thin and fragile bird bones. In a new study, archaeologists examined ancient chicken eggshells from 13 different sites spanning 1,500 and a half years. Their results indicate that chickens were widely domesticated in southern Central Asia from the 4th century BC to the Middle Ages and may have dispersed along the ancient Silk Road.
Compilation of evidence on ancient chickens of Central Asia: SEM images of Bash Tepa eggshells. Morphologically distinct breathing holes highlighted at 30x (a), 150x (b), and 750x (f) magnification. (c) A ceramic egg with a clay ball, excavated in Bukhara from the 10th century AD to the 12th century AD. (d) Bactrian Sophites coin of 300 BC. (g) Fragments of the Bash Tepa ossuary dating from the last centuries BC. There is clearly a chicken drawn on the top. (h) Part of an eggshell collected from the Bukhara site. Color (basically all white) and burnt were evident on many of the shells.Image credit: Peters other., doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-46093-2.
Dr Kari Peters, a researcher at the Max Planck Institute for Geoanthropology, said: “With the introduction of genetic and molecular techniques, the debate over the origin and spread of domesticated chickens has intensified in recent years. “An old debate over a mysterious bird is being reignited.” colleague.
“Historical sources demonstrate that chickens were prominent in southern Europe and southwest Asia by several centuries BC.”
“Similarly, art historical depictions of chickens and anthropomorphic rooster-human chimeras are recurring motifs in Central Asian prehistoric and historical traditions. It remains a mystery when this critically important bird spread along the trans-Eurasian exchange route.”
“Experts agree that domestication traits evolved in island populations of junglefowl in South Asia. Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus Gallus Subspecies Spediceus) It is located somewhere in a vast range from Thailand to India. ”
“However, scholars have also presented widely differing dates and routes of spread, and part of this confusion may be due to unclear identification of birds in ancient art, and the morphological characteristics of chicken bones that have not been identified. This is due to the overlap with that of wild birds.
“Furthermore, their fragile, hollow bones and eggshells are much less likely to be preserved, recovered, and identified than in other animals.”
In a new study, the authors found evidence that egg production was prominent in Central Asia starting in the centuries BC and continuing into the Middle Ages.
“We show that chickens were widely domesticated in Central Asia from about 400 BC to 1000 AD, and likely dispersed along the ancient Silk Road,” the researchers said.
“The abundance of eggshells further suggests that the birds were laying eggs out of season.”
“It was this ability to produce large numbers of eggs that made domestic chickens so attractive to ancient peoples.”
To reach these conclusions, researchers collected tens of thousands of eggshell fragments from 13 sites along the Silk Road's main Central Asian corridor.
They then used a biomolecular analysis method called ZooMS to determine the source of the eggs.
Similar to genetic analysis, ZooMS can identify species from animal remains such as bones, skin, and shells, but it relies on protein signals rather than DNA. This makes it a faster and more cost-effective option than genetic analysis.
“Our study shows the potential of ZooMS to shed light on human-animal interactions in the past,” said Dr. Peters.
“The identification of these shell fragments as chickens and their abundance throughout the sediment layers at each site led us to an important conclusion: this bird was They must have been laying eggs more frequently than their wild ancestor, the red junglefowl, which nests once every year.''In a year, they typically lay six eggs per clutch. ”
“This is the earliest evidence of seasonal spawning loss seen in the archaeological record,” said Dr. Robert Spengler, a researcher at the Max Planck Institute for Geoanthropology.
“This is an important clue for a deeper understanding of the human-animal mutualism that led to domestication.”
team's paper It was published in the magazine nature communications.
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C. Peters other. 2024. Archaeological and molecular evidence for ancient chickens in Central Asia. Nat Commune 15, 2697; doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-46093-2
A pair of planetary scientists from Brown University and the SETI Institute have uncovered ancient ice deep within Arrokoth, the Kuiper Belt object (486958) that was the focus of a flyby by NASA’s New Horizons mission on January 1, 2019. They suggest that billions of years ago when the object first formed, there was a chance that ancient ice formed by comets could be present. By developing a new model to study comet evolution, the researchers found that this endurance is not unique to Arrokoth but may also be found in many other objects in the Kuiper belt.
This composite image of Ultima Thule was compiled from data acquired when NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft flew by the object on January 1, 2019. This image combines enhanced color data (close to what the human eye can see) with detailed high-resolution panchromatic data. picture. Image credit: NASA / Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory / Southwest Research Institute / Roman Tkachenko.
“Using a fairly simple mathematical model, we now show that primordial ice can be trapped deep inside these objects for long periods of time,” said Dr. Sam Birch, a planetary scientist at Brown University. “Most of our community thought this ice should have disappeared long ago, but now we think that may not be the case.”
Planetary scientists have long struggled to understand what happens to the ice on these space rocks over time. The new study challenges traditional thermal evolution models and suggests that highly volatile ice on these objects may persist longer than previously thought.
A model created by Birch and SETI Institute researcher Orkan Umurkhan explains this phenomenon, indicating that the ice on these objects can endure due to their extremely low temperatures. This new idea may provide insight into the explosive nature of icy objects in the Kuiper belt when they approach the sun.
Ultimately, this study presents a new perspective on comet evolution and activity, challenging existing theories and paving the way for a deeper understanding of these celestial bodies and their origins.
Birch and Dr. Umruhan are co-investigators of NASA’s Comet Astrobiology Exploration Sample Return (CAESAR) mission, which aims to collect surface material from comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko and return it to Earth for analysis, potentially shedding further light on comet evolution and activity.
The study is published in the journal Icarus, and the results could have implications for future space exploration missions and our understanding of the cosmos.
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Samuel PD Birch and Orkan M. Umruhan. 2024. 486958 CO ice and gas remain inside the Arokos. Icarus 413: 116027; doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2024.116027
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