Newly Discovered Tiny Fossil: Purgatorius
This shrew-sized mammal is recognized as the oldest known ancestor of all primates, including humans. Initially believed to be confined to northern North America, its range now extends hundreds of kilometers to the south. This week’s article in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, detailed in a recent paper, challenges conventional theories about the biogeography of early primates and suggests that their diversification occurred rapidly following the end-Cretaceous mass extinction.
Shortly after the Cretaceous mass extinction, the earliest known primates like Purgatorius McKivevelli adapted quickly, specializing in an omnivorous diet that included tree fruits and archaic ungulate mammals. Image credit: Andrei Atutin.
The origins and early biogeographical history of primates is a fascinating yet contentious subject. The oldest primates, Purgatorius, are small tree-dwelling mammals that first emerged in North America around 65.9 million years ago.
Previously, Purgatorius fossils were only found in northern regions such as Montana and Saskatchewan, creating an incomplete understanding of their evolutionary history.
Paleontologist Stephen Chester from the City University of New York and his colleagues describe the southernmost fossil of Purgatorius in their new paper.
The specimens were meticulously recovered from ancient sediments in the Coral Bluffs area of the Denver Basin in Colorado.
“This discovery fills a critical gap in our understanding of the geographic distribution and evolution of our earliest primate ancestors after the dinosaur extinction,” Dr. Chester stated.
The fossils analyzed by the team consist of small teeth that display a distinctive combination of features, indicating they may belong to an earlier, previously unidentified species of Purgatorius.
“The presence of these fossils in Colorado reveals that ancient primates likely originated in the north before expanding southward, rapidly diversifying post-end-Cretaceous mass extinction,” Chester explained.
While scientists previously believed Purgatorius was absent from southern regions during this period, new findings suggest that this assumption was primarily due to limited fossil sampling.
“Our results demonstrate that small fossils can easily be overlooked,” Dr. Chester remarked.
“More intensive searches, especially utilizing screen-cleaning techniques, will likely uncover numerous significant specimens.”
The study further questions long-held assumptions about the habitats of early primates.
“The ankle bone of Purgatorius suggested tree-dwelling characteristics, and we initially suspected its absence from southern Montana was due to extensive forest destruction following an asteroid impact 66 million years ago,” Chester noted.
“Yet, our paleobotanical colleagues indicate that plant recovery in North America was rapid, leading us to believe that Purgatorius likely existed further south—we just haven’t looked hard enough.”
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Stephen GB Chester et al. “Southernmost Origin of Purgatorius: Insights into the Biogeographic History and Diversification of the Oldest Primates.” Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, published online March 2, 2026. doi: 10.1080/02724634.2026.2614024
For years, the fossil record of pachycephalosaurs (dome-headed dinosaurs) has primarily consisted of fossilized skulls. In contrast, the postcranial remains of young pachycephalosaurs have remained largely unexplored. Recent paleontological findings have unveiled the youngest known example of a pachycephalosaur body, shedding light on how these fascinating dinosaurs grew and moved during their early months of life.
Reconstruction of the life of the pachycephalosaur individual CMNFV 22039 in a typical environment of the Upper Maastrichtian French Formation. Image credit: Caitlin Lindblad.
Paleontologist Brian Moore from Carleton University and his team noted that pachycephalosaurs predominantly comprised small, bipedal dinosaurs (ranging from 2 to 6 meters long) found in Asia and North America during the Santonian to Maastrichtian periods (85 to 66 million years ago).
This clade is particularly recognized for its unique frontal and parietal bones, which merge to create a bulbous dome on their skulls.
The cranial elements surrounding this dome are occasionally integrated into the structure, often featuring nodes, spikes, and other decorative traits.
Notably, the frontoparietal dome is the most resilient part of the pachycephalosaur skeleton (besides the teeth), resulting in a fossil record that heavily favors partial skull remains.
Consequently, much of the understanding regarding the ontogeny and phylogeny of pachycephalosaurs relies significantly on skull morphology.
The recently described pachycephalosaur specimen, cataloged as CMNFV 22039, dates back to roughly 67 million years ago during the Maastrichtian period of the Late Cretaceous.
This fossil was discovered in the French Formation, the youngest of the five Maastrichtian formations located in southern Saskatchewan, Canada.
Remarkably, this dinosaur was likely under a year old at the time of its death, marking it as the youngest known pachycephalosaur from fossil records.
“Despite its small size (estimated at just 90 centimeters or 3 feet), the skeleton displays several features characteristic of pachycephalosaurs,” the paleontologists confirmed.
These findings indicate that many traits used to identify adult pachycephalosaurs were present from a very young age.
Additionally, they provide insight into how juvenile pachycephalosaurs moved. In comparison to adults, the hindlimbs of juveniles were proportionately longer, suggesting that they had a more agile physique during their early development.
As the dinosaur matured, its body seemingly transitioned to the more robust proportions observed in adults, indicating a shift in physical capabilities as it increased in size and weight.
“The relatively long hind limbs of juveniles compared to those of adults imply a likely negative ontogenetic allometry in the hind limbs,” the researchers concluded.
The team’s findings are detailed in a paper published in the February 26th issue of the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
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Brian R.S. Moore et al. Posterior skull of ontogenetically youngest known pachycephalosaur (Dinosauria: Ornithischia). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, published online on February 26, 2026. doi: 10.1080/02724634.2026.2616325
Researchers in Brazil have unearthed a newly identified species of vertebrate sauropod dinosaur resembling those from Europe, hinting at an ancient migration route that once linked two continents, now divided by the Atlantic Ocean.
Artist’s impression of Dasosaurus tocantinensis. Image credit: TotalDino / CC BY 4.0.
This newly discovered dinosaur species lived approximately 120 million years ago during the Early Cretaceous period, a time when the world’s landmasses were consolidated within the southern supercontinent Gondwana.
Dubbed Dasosaurus tocantinensis, this dinosaur measured about 20 meters (66 feet) in length.
It belonged to the Somphospondyli clade, which includes titanosaur-like sauropods that thrived from the late Jurassic to the end of the Cretaceous period.
The partial skeleton of Dasosaurus tocantinensis was unearthed in the Itapecur Formation located in northeastern Brazil.
This dinosaur features distinct anatomical traits, such as elongated ridges and grooves on its caudal vertebrae, as well as a notably pronounced lateral bulge on its femur, characteristics not previously identified in any known species.
These unique features indicate that Dasosaurus tocantinensis lies outside the titanosaur lineage, a subgroup of sauropods that would later dominate the southern continents.
Interestingly, this new species appears most closely related to Galumbachitan morelensis, another sauropod that existed in present-day Spain around 122 million years ago.
The discovery not only catalogs a new species but also reinforces the idea that Early Cretaceous South America was not an isolated evolutionary niche.
Instead, it formed part of a vibrant network of land connections that facilitated dinosaur migrations between continents long before the Atlantic Ocean was fully formed.
“This finding expands the known diversity of Early Cretaceous sauropods in northern South America and underscores their biogeographical ties to Europe and other regions in northern Gondwana,” stated lead author Max Langer from the University of São Paulo and colleagues.
“Indeed, numerical biogeographical analyses suggest that a clade consisting of Dasosaurus tocantinensis and Galumbachitan morelensis originally arose in Europe, with their lineages migrating from Europe to South America through North Africa during the Valanginian (137 to 133 million years ago) and Aptian (121 to 113 million years ago) periods.”
The discovery of Dasosaurus tocantinensis was reported in a research paper published on February 12th in the Journal of Systematic Paleontology.
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Elver L. Mayer et al. (2026). A new European-like titanosaur from the Early Cretaceous of Brazil: Insights into the phylogeny, histology, and biogeography of Somphospondyli. Journal of Systematic Paleontology 24(1); doi: 10.1080/14772019.2025.2601579
When you envision the North Pole, you likely imagine a vast, icy wonderland devoid of life. Noise might be the last thing on your mind.
However, recent findings from a study published in npj Acoustics reveal that the underwater soundscape is far more expansive and diverse than we previously thought. This raises crucial questions about how to monitor and protect this unique environment.
Analyzing a decade’s worth of underwater sound data from Cambridge Bay in the Canadian Arctic, researchers discovered that climate change is accelerating ice loss, reshaping the region’s underwater soundscape—an alteration that could have serious ramifications for local wildlife.
“Climate change is more than tripling in the Arctic, which means ice is melting faster, melting earlier, and reforming later,” stated Dr. Philippe Blondel, the lead author of the study and a senior lecturer in the Department of Physics at the University of Bath, UK, in an interview with BBC Science Focus.
“As a result, the Arctic becomes more accessible for human activities. Navigation becomes easier for ships in an ice-free environment. A key finding from our research is that while ships generate noise, they are not the only contributors.”
The study identifies that not only large ships—often the focus of noise pollution regulations—but also other significant sources such as snowmobiles, aircraft, and smaller vessels contribute to underwater noise. Many of these smaller noise sources evade detection by satellite systems, leading to gaps in models that rely solely on vessel position data.
Vital Arctic species, including whales and seals, depend on sound for communication, navigation, finding food, and evading predators. With increasing underwater noise both in frequency and volume, these essential communication tools are increasingly compromised.
Whales rely on sound production and hearing for survival – Photo courtesy of Getty
Dr. Blondel likens the situation to standing next to a busy freeway. “You might only hear the ambient noise, but when a motorcycle rushes by, that high-frequency noise disrupts your ability to hear music.”
“When a large truck thunders past, it becomes nearly impossible to hear anything else.”
In a similar manner, one sound source could disrupt a whale trying to communicate with its calves, while another noise at a different frequency might drive the whale away from critical feeding areas.
However, the research team is not advocating for total silence in the Arctic. Instead, Blondel proposes that environmental policies should encompass a broader array of frequencies beyond the narrow “transport bands” typically measured in protection frameworks, such as the European Maritime Strategy Framework Directive.
He recommends establishing stricter shipping routes in the increasingly ice-free Arctic and implementing varying speed limits depending on wildlife presence, as potential strategies to mitigate harmful noise pollution.
Yet, enforcing such regulations poses challenges, as they would need to encompass everything from large vessels to smaller crafts, and the region is bordered by multiple nations.
“My primary goal was to demonstrate that when assessing the ocean’s soundscape, we need to consider all sound sources, not just large ships,” Blondel emphasized. “But my overarching aim is to establish some form of framework in the Arctic. We must devise effective noise guidelines before the situation worsens further.”
Paleontologists have discovered fossilized remains of one of the smallest sauropod dinosaurs from the Late Triassic period in southern Brazil. This remarkable find sheds light on early dinosaur development and physiology.
Massospondylus carinatus, a small sauropod dinosaur from the Early Jurassic of southern Africa. Image credit: Nobu Tamura, http://spinops.blogspot.com / Patty Jansen / Sci.News.
Dr. Luciano Artemio Real from the University of Sudoeste da Bahia and his team collected significant dinosaur material from the Cerro da Aremoa outcrop located in southern Brazil.
The Cerro da Aremoa outcrop serves as a crucial geological and zoological record within the Santa María Supersequence in central Rio Grande do Sul.
This recently recovered material dates to the Carnian period of the Late Triassic, approximately 237 to 227 million years ago.
The fossilized remains include small bones, each measuring less than 5.7 cm (2.2 inches), comprising parts of the humerus, metatarsals, nail phalanges, neural arch, and vertebral center.
A thorough phylogenetic and anatomical analysis positioned the specimen clearly within the basal sauropod clade.
“This specimen is a significant juvenile dinosaur,” noted the paleontologists.
“A combined analysis of its morphology, bone histology, and phylogenetic data indicates that it represents a basal sauropod from the Brazilian Triassic.”
Unlike later giant sauropods, this early version likely maintained a much smaller size during its developmental phases.
Notably, the bone microstructure exhibited signs of at least one complete growth interruption cycle, indicated by a line of growth arrest. This suggests that the dinosaur experienced a developmental pause early in its life, hinting at the potential for flexible growth strategies within early sauropods.
These findings may provide insights into the eventual gigantism characteristic of later sauropod species.
“These observed traits indicate that the individuals, still in development, have experienced their first growth arrest and are in the midst of a second cycle,” researchers commented.
“Our analyses suggest ontogenetic features typical of juvenile sauropods exhibiting a single growth arrest.”
“Our research unveils a new growth strategy in the early evolution of sauropods, illuminating the origins of small dinosaurs during the Triassic period.”
The full findings will appear in the April 2026 edition of the journal Paleo World.
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Leomir Santos Campos et al. 2026. A new small basal sauropod (Dinosauria: Saurischia) discovered from the Santa Maria supersequence in the Upper Triassic of southern Brazil. Paleo World 35 (2): 201064;doi: 10.1016/j.palwor.2025.201064
The recently discovered dark galaxy candidates, particularly Candidate Dark Galaxy-2 (CDG-2), are primarily composed of dark matter and emit minimal light. This intriguing object features four globular clusters and is part of the Perseus galaxy cluster. The identification of CDG-2 presents significant implications for astronomers’ understanding of galaxy formation and evolution within the cosmic web, offering fresh insights into dark matter—an elusive substance that significantly outweighs ordinary matter yet remains invisible.
CDG-2 (dashed red circle) showcases its dominance in dark matter with only a sparse scattering of stars. Image credit: NASA/ESA/Dayi Li, Toronto/Joseph DePasquale, STScI.
“In the expansive fabric of the universe, most galaxies emit brilliant light across cosmic time and space,” stated University of Toronto astronomer David Lee and his research team.
“However, a rare subset of galaxies remains mostly hidden: those with low surface brightness, primarily dominated by dark matter and containing only a sparse collection of faint stars.”
“Detecting dark galaxies of this nature poses significant challenges.”
Dr. Li and his collaborators employed advanced statistical techniques to uncover 10 previously known galaxies with low surface brightness, in addition to identifying two new dark galaxy candidates by analyzing concentrated groupings of globular clusters.
These clusters may reveal the existence of faint stellar populations that are not easily observed.
To validate one of the dark galaxy candidates, they utilized NASA/ESA’s Hubble Space Telescope, ESA’s Euclid Space Observatory, and the ground-based Subaru Telescope in Hawaii.
High-resolution images captured by Hubble unveil four globular clusters closely packed within the Perseus Cluster—a large galaxy cluster located approximately 240 million light-years away in the constellation Perseus.
Further follow-up surveys using Hubble, Euclid, and Subaru revealed a faint, diffuse glow surrounding the cluster, providing compelling evidence of the underlying galaxy.
“This marks the first detection of a galaxy identified solely through its globular cluster population,” remarked Dr. Lee.
“Under conservative assumptions, these four clusters represent the entirety of the CDG-2 globular cluster.”
Preliminary assessments indicate that CDG-2 possesses brightness equivalent to about 6 million Sun-like stars, with globular clusters constituting 16% of its visible content.
Remarkably, approximately 99% of its mass is believed to be dark matter, encompassing both visible and dark constituents.
Much of the normal matter that facilitates star formation may have been stripped away due to gravitational interactions with neighboring galaxies in the Perseus cluster.
“CDG-2 stands out as the most globular cluster-dominated galaxy and may be among the most dark matter-dominated galaxies ever discovered,” the astronomers concluded.
Read their research paper published in June 2025. Astrophysics Journal Letter.
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Dai (David) Lee et al. 2025. Dark galaxy candidate-2: Verification and analysis of nearly dark galaxies in the Perseus cluster. APJL 986, L18; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/adddab
NASA/ESA/CSA’s James Webb Space Telescope has made groundbreaking observations of a galaxy featuring gaseous “tentacles” within a galaxy cluster at a redshift of 1.156. This remarkable finding allows us to observe the universe as it was approximately 8.5 billion years ago.
This web image highlights the jellyfish galaxy COSMOS2020-635829, with dashed circles marking four out-of-plane sources in its tail. Image credit: Roberts et al., doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae3824.
“The jellyfish galaxy derives its name from the long, tentacle-like streams trailing behind it,” explained Dr. Ian Roberts of the University of Waterloo and his team.
“As it travels quickly through the hot, dense galaxy cluster, the gas within the cluster acts like a powerful wind, pushing the jellyfish galaxy’s gas backward and forming a visible trail.”
“This phenomenon is referred to as ram pressure stripping.”
The research team discovered a new jellyfish galaxy through deep-space data captured by the Webb Telescope.
Named COSMOS2020-635829, this galaxy resides in the COSMOS field, a well-explored area of the sky studied extensively by various telescopes.
“While sifting through vast amounts of data from this thoroughly investigated region, we aimed to uncover previously undocumented jellyfish galaxies,” Dr. Roberts noted.
“Early in our analysis, we stumbled upon a distant, uncharted jellyfish galaxy that piqued our interest.”
COSMOS2020-635829 exhibits a typical galactic disk coupled with bright blue nodes in its trajectory, indicative of very young stars.
The ages of these stars suggest they formed in gas trails stripped from their host galaxy, a behavior characteristic of jellyfish galaxies.
Insights from this study challenge established beliefs regarding the conditions in deep space during that era.
Scientists previously thought the galaxy cluster was still in formation and that ram pressure stripping was a rare occurrence.
Dr. Roberts and his co-authors identified three further discoveries that could reshape our understanding of the cosmos.
“The first discovery indicates that the cluster environment was already intense enough to strip galaxies away. Second, the cluster can significantly alter galaxy properties sooner than anticipated,” Roberts explained.
“Finally, these dynamics might play a crucial role in forming the populations of inactive galaxies we observe in today’s galaxy clusters.”
“These findings offer pivotal insight into the evolution of galaxies in the early universe.”
For more details on this discovery, check out the paper published in the Astrophysical Journal.
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Ian D. Roberts et al. 2026. JWST reveals candidate jellyfish galaxy at z = 1.156. APJ 998, 285; doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae3824
A remarkable discovery has identified a cold virus that infected a woman in London approximately 250 years ago, marking it as the oldest known human RNA virus.
Researchers, through advanced DNA sequencing techniques, have uncovered traces of various viruses in ancient human bones that date back as far as 50,000 years. However, many viruses, particularly rhinoviruses that are responsible for the common cold, contain RNA genomes, which are significantly more unstable than DNA and typically deteriorate within hours post-mortem.
RNA is also generated by our cells during the process of translating genetic code into proteins.
In recent years, scientists have successfully extended the recovery timelines for ancient RNA. Notably, a team managed to recover RNA from a woolly mammoth that lived 40,000 years ago.
“To date, much of the ancient RNA research has depended on well-preserved materials, such as permafrost samples or dried seeds, which restricts our understanding of historical human diseases,” remarks Erin Burnett of the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center in Seattle, Washington.
Since the early 1900s, numerous tissues in pathology collections have been preserved using formalin, a method that fortifies RNA against rapid degradation. Barnett and her team sought to explore pathology collections across Europe for older human specimens that might contain preserved RNA.
Within the Hunterian Museum of Anatomy at the University of Glasgow, researchers discovered lung tissue samples from two individuals preserved in alcohol rather than formalin. One sample belonged to a woman who passed away around the 1770s, while the other was from an unidentified individual who died in 1877. Both exhibited documented cases of severe respiratory illness.
The researchers aimed to extract both RNA and DNA from the lung tissue of these individuals. Barnett described the RNA extracted from both samples as “extremely fragmented,” with the majority of fragments measuring just 20 to 30 nucleotides in length.
“For context, RNA molecules in living cells typically exceed 1000 nucleotides,” she explains. “Thus, instead of working with long, complete chains, we meticulously pieced together data from many smaller fragments.”
Gradually, the scientists succeeded in reconstructing the entire RNA genome of a rhinovirus extracted from the 18th-century woman. They also detected signs indicating she was infected with bacteria responsible for respiratory ailments, including Pneumococcus, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis.
They compared the reconstructed ancient RNA viruses against a National Institutes of Health database featuring millions of viral genomes globally, including multiple rhinovirus strains.
This analysis revealed that the historic virus’s genome classified under the human rhinovirus A group, representing an extinct lineage most closely aligned with the modern genotype known as A19. “By comparing this with contemporary viruses, we deduce that the last time this historic virus and modern A19 shared a common ancestor was around the 1600s,” Barnett noted.
“The personal stories of these two individuals remain largely untold, and I hope this research brings them to recognition,” she expressed.
“This finding is significant as it demonstrates the potential to recover RNA from wet collections dated before the use of formalin,” said Love Darren at Stockholm University, Sweden.
“This marks the first step towards a surge of research into RNA viruses. Given that many RNA viruses evolve rapidly, studying them over centuries will yield vital insights into viral evolution,” he concluded.
A groundbreaking discovery has unveiled a new genus and species of small bipedal dinosaur from fossils found in Burgos, Spain.
Reconstruction of Foskeia pelendonum. Image credit: Martina Charnel.
Foskeia pelendonum thrived during the Early Cretaceous period, approximately 120 million years ago.
This newly identified species is part of the Rhabdodontomorpha, a group of ornithischian dinosaurs that existed primarily from the early to late Cretaceous period.
The diminutive dinosaur was roughly the size of a modern chicken, setting it apart from many of its larger ornithischian relatives.
“From the outset, we recognized the uniqueness of these bones due to their small size,” stated Dr. Fidel Torcida Fernández Baldor, a paleontologist at the Salas de los Infantes Dinosaur Museum.
“Remarkably, this study challenges established global theories regarding the evolution of ornithopod dinosaurs.”
“Miniaturization does not imply evolutionary simplicity. This skull is distinctive and highly specialized,” added Dr. Marcos Becerra from the National University of Córdoba.
“Foskeia pelendonum bridges a 70-million-year gap, serving as a small key to unlock a vast chapter of evolutionary history,” remarked Dr. Thierry Tortosa, a paleontologist at the Sainte-Victoire Nature Reserve.
“This is not a ‘mini’ iguanodon; it’s fundamentally different,” emphasized Dr. Tabata Zanesco Ferreira from the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro.
“Its anatomy is peculiar in a way that fundamentally alters the evolutionary tree,” said Dr. Penélope Cursado-Caballero from the University of La Laguna.
The fossilized remnants of at least five individuals of Foskeia pelendonum were excavated from the Vegaguete site in Burgos, Spain.
“This site is part of the Castrillo de la Reina Formation, located between Villanueva de Calazo and Salas de los Infantes,” the researchers noted.
Histological analysis confirmed that the largest specimen was a sexually mature adult.
“The microstructure of the bones suggests that at least one individual was an adult with a metabolic rate akin to that of small mammals and birds,” said Dr. Cohen Stein from Vrije Universiteit Bruxelles.
“Understanding growth and development is vital for comparing anatomical structures within Foskeia pelendonum and other species.”
“Juveniles often exhibit anatomical changes as they mature.”
Phylogenetic analysis indicates that Foskeia pelendonum is closely related to the Australian dinosaur Muttaburasaurus, extending the European clade Rhabdodontia.
“Our findings indicate that herbivorous dinosaurs comprise a natural group called Phytodinosauria,” stated Dr. Paul-Emile Dieudonné from the National University of Rio Negro.
“This hypothesis requires further examination with additional data.”
Despite its modest size, Foskeia pelendonum exhibits specialized dentition and postural changes during growth, adapting for rapid movement through dense vegetation.
“These fossils illustrate that significant evolutionary experiments occurred at both small and large body sizes,” Dieudonné concluded.
“The future of dinosaur research relies on recognizing the significance of small details.”
The discovery of Foskeia pelendonum is detailed in a research paper published in the journal Paleontology Papers.
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l-Emile Dieudonné et al. 2026. Foskeia pelendonum, a new rhabdodontomorph from the Early Cretaceous of Salas de los Infantes (Burgos Province, Spain), and a new lineage of ornithischian dinosaurs. Paleontology Papers 12 (1): e70057; doi: 10.1002/spp2.70057
Victor de Schwanberg/Science Photo Library/Getty Images
From the perspective of quantum physics, the universe may be fundamentally agnostic in some respects.
In quantum physics, every object, such as an electron, corresponds to a mathematical entity known as a wave function. This wave function encodes all details regarding an object’s quantum state. By combining the wave function with other equations, physicists can effectively predict the behavior of objects in experiments.
If we accept that the entire universe operates on quantum principles, then even larger entities, including the cosmos itself, must possess a wave function. This perspective has been supported by iconic physicists like Stephen Hawking.
However, researchers like Eddie Kemin Chen from the University of California, San Diego and Roderich Tumulka from the University of Tübingen in Germany, have demonstrated that complete knowledge of the universal wave function may be fundamentally unattainable.
“The cosmic wave function is like a cosmic secret that physics itself conspires to protect. We can predict a lot about how the universe behaves, yet we remain fundamentally unsure of its precise quantum state,” states Chen.
Previous studies assumed specific forms for the universal wave function based on theoretical models of the universe, overlooking the implications of experimental observations. Chen and Tumulka began with a more practical inquiry: Can observations help in identifying the correct wave function among those that reasonably describe our universe?
The researchers utilized mathematical outcomes from quantum statistical mechanics, which examines the properties of collections of quantum states. A significant factor in their calculations was the realization that the universal wave function depends on numerous parameters and exists in a high-dimensional abstract state.
Remarkably, upon completing their calculations, they found that universal quantum states are essentially agnostic.
“The measurements permissible by the rules of quantum mechanics provide very limited insight into the universe’s wave function. Determining the wave function of the universe with significant precision is impossible,” explains Tumulka.
Professor JB Manchak from the University of California, Irvine states that this research enhances our understanding of the limits of our best empirical methods, noting that we essentially have an equivalent to general relativity within the framework of quantum physics. He adds that this should not come as a surprise since quantum theory was not originally designed as a comprehensive theory of the universe.
“The wave function of a small system or the entire universe is a highly theoretical construct. Wave functions are meaningful not because they are observable, but because we employ them,” remarks Sheldon Goldstein from Rutgers University. He further explains that the inability to pinpoint a unique, accurate universal wave function from a limited range of candidates may not be problematic, as any of these functions could yield similar effects in future calculations.
Chen expresses hope to connect his and Tumulka’s research with the exploration of large-scale systems smaller than the universe itself, especially through techniques like shadow tomography, which aim to determine the quantum state of such systems. However, the philosophical consequences of their work are equally crucial. Tumulka emphasizes the need for caution against over-relying on positivist views that deem non-experimental statements as meaningless or unscientific. “Some truths are real, but cannot be measured,” he asserts.
This rationale might influence ongoing debates regarding the interpretation of quantum mechanics. According to Emily Adlam from Chapman University in California, the new findings advocate for incorporating more components into the interpretation of quantum equations, such as wave functions, emphasizing the relationship between quantum objects and individual observer perspectives, moving away from the assumption of a singular objective reality dictated by a single mathematical construct.
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A newly identified genus and species of titanosaurus, a colossal sauropod dinosaur from the Cretaceous period, has been uncovered from fossils in northern Patagonia, Argentina.
Reconstructing the life of Yenen Hassai. Image credit: Gabriel Rio.
Named Yenen Hassai, this new species roamed Earth approximately 83 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous period.
This ancient creature belongs to the Titanosauridae, a fascinating group of large, long-necked herbivorous dinosaurs that thrived on the Gondwana supercontinent.
“The head of Yenen Hassai was proportionately smaller compared to its massive body,” explained Dr. Leonardo Filippi, a paleontologist from CONICET and the Urquiza Municipal Museum in Argentina.
“This titanosaur measured between 10 to 12 meters (33 to 39 feet) in length and weighed approximately 8 to 10 tons.”
The fossil remains of Yenen Hassai were excavated from the Bajo de la Carpa Formation at a site known as Cerro Obero la Invernada in Neuquén, Patagonia, Argentina.
This material showcases one of the most complete titanosaur skeletons found in the region, preserving six cervical vertebrae, ten dorsal vertebrae with associated ribs, the sacrum, and the first caudal vertebra.
Alongside the holotype, researchers identified remains of at least two additional sauropods at the site, including a juvenile specimen and another adult titanosaur, which may belong to an unclassified species.
“Through phylogenetic analysis, Yenen Hassai is found to be closely related to Nalambuenatitan and Overosaurus, as a basal member of an unnamed clade of derived non-lithostrotians saltasaurids,” they noted.
“Evidence from the titanosaur fauna at Cerro Obero la Invernada indicates that species diversity was relatively high during the Santonian period, suggesting that at least two lineages, colossosaurs and saltasauroids, coexisted.”
“This discovery positions the Cerro Obero-La Invernada region as the area with the highest diversity of titanosaurs during the Santonian of the Neuquén Basin, offering crucial insights into the evolution of dinosaur fauna in this era.”
This significant finding is detailed in a recent article: research paper published in the Journal of Historical Biology on January 12, 2026.
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LS Filippi et al.Yenen Hassai: An Overview of Sauropod Titanosaurs Diversity from the Cerro Overo-La Invernada Region (Bajo de la Carpa Formation of the Santonian), Northern Patagonia, Argentina. Historical Biology published online January 12, 2026. doi: 10.1080/08912963.2025.2584707
Research on Zebra Finches’ Eyes Reveals Unique Mechanisms
Ger Bosma/Alamy
The anatomy of zebra finches’ eyes is distinct from known vertebrate tissues. Their retinas, responsible for light detection, utilize an unusual energy source by absorbing glucose instead of the typical oxygen.
This groundbreaking discovery addresses a 400-year-old question regarding avian eye physiology. Christian Damsgaard from Aarhus University in Denmark notes, “This is compelling evidence that certain neurons can operate without oxygen, notably in common garden birds.”
The retina sends light signals to the brain, demanding considerable energy supplied by oxygen and nutrients through blood vessels. However, the thick avascular retina in zebra finches raises the question of how these essential nerve cells sustain life.
Damsgaard and his research team investigated zebra finches, or Teniopygia guttata, in the lab. By attaching oxygen sensors to their eyes, they discovered that the inner retinal layer does not receive oxygen.
“Oxygen enters through the back of the eye, but it cannot permeate the retina,” explains Damsgaard.
Analyzing metabolic gene activity in various retinal layers revealed frequent reliance on glycolysis in areas devoid of oxygen. Although this process is less efficient, it serves the retina’s energy needs.
“This method requires 15 times more glucose for equivalent energy output,” states Damsgaard. So, where does all this sugar come from?
The answer lies in the pecten, a structure of rake-shaped blood vessels found in avian eyes. Previously thought to transport oxygen, recent findings show that the pecten instead inundates the retina with glucose—four times what brain cells absorb—fueling its high-energy requirements.
According to Luke Tyrrell, researchers at the State University of New York at Plattsburgh are astonished that birds have evolved to depend on such a less efficient method for vision. “The avian retina is among the most energy-intensive tissues in the animal kingdom,” he adds.
This specialized, blood vessel-free retina may provide superior vision in birds, with the pecten sugar supply being a crucial evolutionary adaptation. An oxygen-independent retina could also contribute to their capabilities for high-altitude migratory flights.
For Pavel Niemec, findings from Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic, illustrate that evolution can yield counterintuitive solutions to physical challenges.
Damsgaard and his colleagues believe there may be future applications for modifying human cells to allow greater resilience under low-oxygen conditions, such as after a stroke.
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Astronomers utilizing ESO’s Very Large Telescope (VLT) have captured stunning shock waves surrounding the white dwarf star 1RXS J052832.5+283824 (commonly known as RXJ0528+2838). This extraordinary phenomenon challenges existing astrophysical models and has the potential to transform our understanding of stellar evolution.
Image credit: ESO / Iłkiewicz et al. showcasing the shockwave around the white dwarf RXJ0528+2838, captured by the MUSE instrument of ESO’s VLT.
Located approximately 730 light-years away in the constellation Auriga, RXJ0528+2838 orbits the center of the Milky Way, similar to our Sun and other stars.
According to Dr. Noel Castro-Segura from the University of Warwick, “As the white dwarf traverses space, it interacts with interstellar gas, causing a type of shock wave known as a bow shock, which resembles a wave building up in front of a moving ship.”
Interestingly, while bow shocks are typically produced by material expelled from the star, the mechanisms observed in RXJ0528+2838 remain unexplained.
RXJ0528+2838 is part of a binary system, with a sun-like companion star. In such systems, gas is often transferred to the white dwarf, creating an accretion disk. However, this disk appears absent, leading to questions about the source of the observed outflow and the surrounding nebula.
Dr. Simone Scaringi from Durham University expressed: “The fact that a seemingly quiet, diskless system could produce such an impressive nebula was a remarkable surprise.”
Astronomers initially identified an unusual nebula around RXJ0528+2838 through images captured by the Isaac Newton Telescope in Spain, prompting further investigation with the MUSE instrument at VLT.
The size and shape of the bow shock indicate that the white dwarf has been generating significant outflows for over 1,000 years.
Although the exact mechanism for such a prolonged outflow from a diskless white dwarf is still under investigation, scientists speculate that RXJ0528+2838 possesses a strong magnetic field, evidenced by MUSE data.
This magnetic field may funnel material directly from the companion star to the white dwarf, bypassing the formation of an accretion disk.
Dr. Christian Ikiewicz from the Nicolaus Copernicus Astronomical Center remarked, “Our findings indicate that diskless systems can still produce powerful outflows, revealing complex interactions that challenge traditional binary star models.”
While the detected magnetic field can sustain a bow shock for hundreds of years, it only partially accounts for the phenomena observed.
“We’ve uncovered something unprecedented and unexpectedly remarkable,” Dr. Scaringi noted.
For further reading on this groundbreaking discovery, refer to the published paper in the journal Nature Astronomy.
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K. Iwkiewicz et al. Persistent bow shock in a diskless magnetized accreting white dwarf. Nat Astron, published online on January 12, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02748-8
A groundbreaking study by a team of paleontologists from Mexico and the United States has unveiled a new species of bird-like dinosaur, Xenovenator Espinosai, notable for its exceptionally thick, dome-shaped skull. This unique adaptation suggests it may have engaged in headbutting behaviors during conflicts with its peers.
Reconstruction of the life of Xenovenator Espinosai. Image credit: Connor Ashbridge / CC BY 4.0.
This newly identified dinosaur species thrived during the late Cretaceous period, approximately 73 million years ago.
Xenovenator Espinosai is part of the Troodontidae family, which includes agile theropod dinosaurs closely related to modern birds.
The holotype and paratype specimens were uncovered during surface sampling in the Cerro del Pueblo Formation located in Coahuila state, northern Mexico, in the early 2000s.
While Troodontids are recognized for their larger brains and heightened sensory capabilities, this species distinguishes itself through an exceptionally thick skull roof.
The holotype specimen retains nearly the entire brain case, showcasing a strongly dome-shaped structure that reaches thicknesses of up to 1.2 cm.
CT scans reveal that the skull features a dense architecture with closely interlocked sutures and a rugged, textured exterior.
This structural resemblance to the reinforced skulls of dome-headed pachycephalosaurs highlights an evolutionary adaptation for intraspecific combat, particularly head-butting.
While display structures and combat weapons are common among many dinosaur species, detailed adaptations for fighting have yet to be recorded in non-avian maniraptoran theropods.
The paratype specimen of Xenovenator Espinosai shows less pronounced cranial thickening, which may indicate variability due to age or sex, suggesting that the most significant skull enhancements occurred later in development or were selective to one sex.
“The thickened, deformed skull of Xenovenator Espinosai is unparalleled among maniraptorans, with its precise function remaining unclear,” stated lead author Dr. Hector Rivera Silva from Museo del Desierto.
“Several traits that appear to serve no obvious survival advantage, such as cranial horns and crests, may be the result of sexual selection.”
“In contemporary mammals and birds, these attributes can be utilized for display or as weapons during courtship.”
“Considering our findings—skull thickening, cranial doming, and intricate sutures—it is likely that the domed skull of Xenovenator Espinosai was an adaptation for intraspecific combat,” they added.
This discovery marks the first documented case of a parabird exhibiting a specialized skull for combat among its species.
Interestingly, researchers noted that wrinkled frontal bones and similar features in the maxilla and nasal bones of troodontids may suggest widespread intraspecific fighting, with heightened intensity observed in Xenovenator Espinosai.
The phylogenetic analysis indicates that despite being part of a larger North American troodontid lineage, Xenovenator Espinosai’s distinctively thick, domed skull highlights its unique evolutionary niche within the group.
The recurrent evolution of intricate display features and weapons during the Cretaceous hints at the increasing importance of sexual selection in dinosaur evolution.
This finding enriches our understanding of the diversity among troodontid dinosaurs from southern Laramidia, offering rare insights into how even smaller, lighter theropods developed traits specialized for physical confrontation.
Researchers propose that related species like Xenovenator Robustus signify a distinct clade of heavily built troodontids endemic to the Southwest, emphasizing the uniqueness and diversity of southern Laramidian fauna.
“Sexual selection, encompassing adaptations for display and combat, was likely a pervasive phenomenon among dinosaurs during the Late Cretaceous period,” they concluded.
Hector E. Rivera-Silva et al. 2026. A troodontid theropod with a thick skull that lived in late Cretaceous Mexico. Diversity 18(1):38; doi: 10.3390/d18010038
Deep within Bolivia’s seasonally flooded savannah, a small olive-green songbird has eluded scientific classification for decades. After 60 years of misidentification, ornithologists have finally confirmed that this bird is not merely a regional variant within the genus Hylophilus. It represents a completely new species. This discovery adds to South America’s rich avian diversity and underscores the vast unknowns still present within even well-studied bird families.
Beni Greenlet (Hylophilus moxensis), January 10, 2024, in its habitat near San Ramon, Beni, Bolivia. Observe the pale brownish-gray pinnae, dark lore, the base of the dark commissures, the clefts across the crown and frontal area, and the dark iris. Image credit: Tini Wijpkema.
The newly identified species belongs to the Hylophilus genus, part of the Vireonidae family, which includes vireos, greenlets, and shrikes.
With the scientific name Hylophilus moxensis (common name: Beni Greenlet), this bird thrives in the wet scrublands of Bolivia’s Beni Savannah, an ecologically unique area also known as Llanos de Moxos.
“Morphological differences among many Hylophilus Greenlet species are subtle. Most display shades of green, gray, yellow, and brown,” explains Dr. Paul Van Els, an ornithologist at the National Museum of History in La Paz, Bolivia. He and his colleagues detailed their findings in a recent paper.
“For certain species, iris color is one of the most effective traits to differentiate them from similarly appearing relatives.”
By analyzing one mitochondrial and three nuclear genes, the research team clarified the uncertainty surrounding this population.
Results revealed that the Beni population is distinct from known species and is more closely related to Hylophilus poirotis and Hylophilus amaurocephalus, which diverged approximately 6.6 million years ago.
In contrast, the latter two species separated from one another about 3.5 million years ago.
Van Els and his team also conducted comprehensive analyses of facial plumage, eye color, and vocalizations.
Research indicates that the Hylophilus moxensis can be uniquely identified by the absence of black or brown markings behind the ears, a trait consistently found in closely related species, along with uniformly dark brown eyes and a distinctive vocal pattern.
In vocal studies, researchers observed that this species’ calls feature “V-shaped notes,” and their vocalizations include overtones reminiscent of female Hylophilus amaurocephalus calls—a unique combination not shared with either comparative species.
The discovery of Hylophilus moxensis contributes to a growing list of endemic species found in the Beni savannah.
While scientists currently do not regard this species as threatened with extinction, they caution that extensive agricultural burning poses significant threats to the region’s biodiversity.
“Recognizing Hylophilus moxensis should enhance conservation priorities in this area,” the authors noted.
“Rampant agricultural burning poses a serious risk to the region’s biodiversity.”
“Though we cannot accurately estimate the population size of Hylophilus moxensis, we do not currently consider it at risk of extinction, as there remains extensive suitable habitat.”
“However, the relatively low number of sightings might indicate issues beyond mere observer rarity, potentially reflecting a truly localized population.”
Rare Y Chromosome Discovery in Bloodstains at Crime Scene
Shutterstock/PeopleImages
Forensic investigations into the murder victim have revealed a fascinating case of Chimerism. This means her body harbored genetically distinct cells, resembling those from two different individuals.
The unidentified woman’s cellular composition displayed varying male and female cell ratios across tissues. The most plausible explanation is that she developed from one egg fertilized by two sperm—one carrying an X chromosome and the other a Y chromosome, according to biologists from New Scientist.
“This is an intriguing case, but not entirely unprecedented,” noted David Haig from Harvard University.
Visible signs of chimerism can be rare, though singer Taylor Mule has raised awareness about the condition. Often, genetic testing is the only way to identify it.
This was also true for the murder victim shot and killed in China, where blood analysis at the scene revealed the presence of a Y chromosome, prompting further investigation.
Subsequent tests showed the female (XX) to male (XY) cell ratios varied throughout her body. In one hair sample, the majority were XY cells, while the kidney revealed a balanced mix. The other tissues examined predominantly contained XX cells, albeit in varying amounts.
Typically, XX/XY chimerism is linked to ambiguous sexual characteristics. However, in this instance, the woman’s anatomy offered no indication of her condition, and she had a son—hinting that she may have been unaware of her chimerism.
One known mechanism for XX/XY chimerism formation is through the fusion of non-identical twins. Here, two separately fertilized eggs combine to form a single embryo.
Nevertheless, the X chromosome in the victim’s XY cells matched one of the X chromosomes found in the XX cells, indicating both could have originated from the same egg—thus excluding the fusion theory.
Initially, it was believed that one egg split into two eggs, each of which was fertilized to create two separate embryos that later fused. This theory has been challenged by Chinese forensic experts.
Michael Gabbett at Queensland University of Technology in Brisbane argues that this possibility is negated.
“When this type of chimera was first documented in humans, this was the prevailing theory. However, no one has been able to provide substantial evidence for it occurring in humans or other mammals,” Gabbett stated.
Instead, he proposes that one egg was fertilized by two sperm, leading to a triploid fertilized egg that ultimately divided into three. Two cells retained one set from the egg and one from sperm while the third likely contained two sperm sets, leading to its eventual demise.
This rare occurrence, termed “trigametic chimerism,” involves an egg and two sperm, a theory supported by Haig.
This phenomenon is exceedingly rare, and on occasion, the embryo can split, resulting in semi-identical twins and even chimerism. There are only two recorded cases of semi-identical twins, one of which Gabbett was involved in identifying.
For the murder victim, the chimeric cells were present throughout her body, and the Chinese research team asserts this is the first extensive examination of various organs in such cases of triplet chimerism.
Another form, microchimerism, is more prevalent than trigametic chimerism. It occurs when maternal cells invade the fetus or vice versa during pregnancy and can also happen when siblings exchange cells.
Archaeologists from the University of Tübingen and LMU Munich have unearthed the remnants of an ancient pottery workshop in an early Iron Age Dinka settlement on the Peshdar Plain, located in Iraq’s Kurdish Autonomous Region. This groundbreaking discovery enhances our understanding of craft specializations, technical traditions, and urban life, revealing a surprising level of socio-economic complexity in the region during that era.
A 3,000-year-old pottery workshop in Jirdi Bazaar, showcasing the walls and kiln. Image credit: Andrea Scutieri.
The Dinka settlement complex, encompassing Girdi Bazaar, Karati Dinka, and neighboring areas, was excavated as part of the Peshdar Plain project launched by LMU Munich archaeologists in 2015.
This initiative concentrated on the Iron Age of the Lower Zab headwaters, a historically underexplored region in the western Zagros.
Excavations have revealed previously unknown Iron Age ruins, featuring a diverse pottery assemblage and a pottery production workshop in the bustling Jirdi Bazaar.
The workshop included two updraft kilns and manufacturing tools dating back to approximately 1200 to 800 BC.
Dr. Silvia Amicone, an archaeologist at the University of Tübingen, remarked: “The workshop was so well-preserved that we could utilize various techniques to gain a comprehensive understanding of how potters operated in this region during the Iron Age.”
Archaeologists examined materials including raw clay, finished pottery, kiln lining, contents, and fuel remnants from the firing process.
Through mineralogical and microstructural analysis of clay and pottery samples, researchers identified the raw materials and manufacturing methods employed in pottery creation.
Findings indicate that while vessels from this settlement exhibited minor variations in shape and finish—possibly reflective of their specific functions—these differences were integrated into a modular and well-organized production framework, likely catering to both the Dinka settlement and the surrounding area, with the Gil-i-Bazaar workshop playing a pivotal role.
This conclusion is corroborated by extensive evidence of pottery production across the settlement complex, including potential kilns identified through geophysical analyses.
The results suggest that pottery production was fundamental to the city’s configuration, with Gird-i Bazar being part of a network of workshops adhering to standardized production procedures.
“Our findings suggest that pottery was mainly fired at relatively low temperatures (below 900 degrees Celsius) under oxidizing conditions, utilizing simple updraft kilns with gradual heating rates and brief firing times,” the researchers stated.
“The variations in microstructural and mineralogical characteristics can be explained by different firing events conducted within a shared technological framework.”
“All types of vessels appear to have been ignited similarly, showcasing a consistent tradition of pyrotechnics.”
“Investigating pottery production in Dinka settlements provides a unique insight into the organization and innovative capabilities of early urban societies,” explained Professor Karla Pohlmann (Doshisha), Rector of the University of Tübingen.
“These discoveries illuminate how technological knowledge and community structures laid the groundwork for cultural evolution over 2,500 years ago.”
“Such research serves as a reminder that progress has always been a collective endeavor.”
For further insights, refer to this study. The survey’s results will be published on December 23rd in an archeology journal.
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Silvia Amicone et al. “Assembling the pieces of the puzzle: Integrating pottery and kiln analysis to reconstruct firework technology in Dinka settlements (Iraqi Kurdistan).” archeology journal, published online on December 23, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2025.106425
Uranus’ New Moon S/2025 U1 Discovered by James Webb Space Telescope
Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA/STScI/M. El Moutamid (SwRI)/M. Hedman (University of Idaho)
This year, astronomers have discovered over 100 previously unknown moons in our solar system. With many more potentially awaiting discovery, cataloging these moons could enhance our understanding of planet formation.
In March, Edward Ashton and his team at Taiwan’s Academia Sinica discovered 128 new moons around Saturn, raising the planet’s total to 274. The researchers utilized hours of images taken by the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope, stacking them to reveal dark objects previously undetectable.
Ashton’s team now holds the rights to name the newly discovered moons; however, due to the sheer number, many of Saturn’s moons lack unofficial names.
In August, a small, faint moon was identified in orbit around Uranus, increasing its total to 29. Mariam El Moutamid and researchers from the Southwest Research Institute in Colorado made this discovery using 10 long-exposure infrared images captured by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope.
The team has not disclosed potential names for the new moon, which is currently known by its tentative designation, S/2025 U1. Eventually, it will be named after characters from Shakespeare’s plays, following the tradition established in 1787 when Earth’s first two moons, Titania and Oberon, were discovered.
Nigel Mason from the University of Kent indicates that more moons are likely to be discovered in the solar system, particularly around Neptune and Uranus, but he believes that the largest have already been mapped.
“Everyone enjoys finding a new moon and contemplating what to name it,” says Mason. “It’s an exhilarating moment—it’s a legacy.”
The ongoing cataloging and measurement of nearby satellites will help scientists learn more about their formation, allowing us to update existing models of planet formation.
“Why are there so many? What caused it? How do you create 40, 50, or 60 moons of varying shapes and sizes?” Mason notes. “That’s what makes them fascinating. It’s truly astounding, revealing that our understanding of the entire planet formation process is not as solid as we once believed.”
Ornithologists have utilized camera traps to document a newly identified species of jewel bubbler in the lush karst forests of Papua New Guinea’s Southern Fold Mountains.
Camera trap images showcasing the holotype and two paratypes of Ptilorrhoa urrissia taken during a detailed 3-month sampling in a high-density array over 0.5 ha. The holotype (ac, marked ‘h’ in image a) and a paratype (a and d, marked ‘p’ in image a), an adult female and juvenile with female-type plumage, were photographed together on January 1, 2020. The shown image is from a sequence of 20 photos captured within 87 seconds. A putative adult male paratype (e) was photographed on March 8, 2020, from under 40 meters. Image credit: Woxvold et al., doi: 10.1111/ibi.70016.
The newly identified species falls under the genus Ptilorrhoa, known for small birds in the family Cinclosomatidae.
Commonly referred to as jewel bubblers, these unique birds are endemic to New Guinea.
According to Ian Wachsvold, an ornithologist with the Australian Museum Research Institute, “Jewel bubblers are a group of ground-dwelling, insectivorous passerines found exclusively in New Guinea and nearby land-bridge islands.”
“These birds are characterized by their plump bodies, short wings, black masks, and white throat or cheek patches, with many species having soft feathers adorned with blue or maroon markings.”
“Typically vocal but shy, they dwell deep within the forests, making them more often heard than seen.”
“Currently, there are four recognized species, with three found across much of New Guinea, differentiated mainly by their altitude – Ptilorrhoa caerulescens lives in lowland areas, while Ptilorrhoa castanonota resides in hills and low mountains; Ptilorrhoa leucosticta prefers dense forests.”
“The fourth species, the brown-headed jewel bubbler (Ptilorrhoa geislerorum), has been recorded in two geographically separated regions: the hills and lowlands of northeastern Papua New Guinea, and a recently discovered population presumed to be this species located far west of Yapen Island.”
In 2017, Dr. Wachsvold and Leo Regula from Lihir Gold Ltd. initiated a biennial camera trap monitoring program for ground-dwelling birds and mammals on the Igif Ridge (Uri [mount] Uricia in the local Fasu language), a limestone forested anticline situated on the southeastern fringe of the Agogo Mountains in the Southern Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea.
Throughout this research, distinctive, undescribed jewel bubblers were captured on camera.
“During over 1,800 camera days, we recorded 10 images of the bird across three sequences (trigger events) using two cameras set approximately 600 meters apart,” the researchers noted.
“In November 2018, we attempted to set up mist nets to capture these birds but were unsuccessful.”
“Camera trap surveillance was repeated in 2019, 2021, and 2024, accumulating a total of 94 photographs (22 sequences) and seven 30-second videos (4 sequences) featuring at least three to six birds, with 11 cameras monitoring an area of 16 hectares.”
Analysis of museum specimens alongside field photographic evidence confirms that the bird in question distinctly differs from other known Ptilorrhoa species.
Pyroroa urrissia),” they stated.
Pyroroa urrissia appears to be a resident species in the Yagif Ridge area, with birds photographed consistently over a span of ten consecutive months (June through March) across seven years.
The total number of newly detected species during the sampling period probably comprises fewer than ten birds.
“This species tends to be observed alone, in pairs, or in small family groups of three to four,” the researchers highlighted.
“Data indicates a similar social organization to other jewel bubblers worldwide. The Pyroroa urrissia duo is frequently photographed together, with most records (all but 3 sequences of one male) gathered from a 7 ha area; most likely indicating two breeding events involving a resident pair and their offspring.”
“We hypothesize that the Igif Ridge supports a fragmented population occupying an isolated low mountain lacking higher altitude support for Ptilorrhoa leucosticta,” they add.
“Potentially suitable habitats may be restricted to regions between Mt Bosabi and Mt Karimui in southern Papua New Guinea.”
To date, no songs have been distinctly attributed to any Ptilorrhoa species aside from Ptilorrhoa castanonota, although the team did encounter vocalizations on the Igif Ridge.
The new species appears to produce softer calls compared to other species such as Ptilorrhoa caerulescens and Ptilorrhoa castanonota, while showing behavioral similarities to Ptilorrhoa leucosticta.
“Jewel bubblers on the Igif Ridge are threatened by multiple factors,” scientists warn.
“Known native predators include at least three marsupials, such as the New Guinea quoll (Dasyrus albopuntatus), the woolly three-striped dasher (Myoichthys leucula), and certain Murexia species. Furthermore, the Papuan eagle (Harpyopsis novaeguineae), goshawk (Accipiter poliocephalus), and the great owl (Tito tenebricosa) prey on the ground, possibly targeting adult birds or their young.”
“Invasive predators represent an additional significant risk, especially for ground-nesting species like the jewel bubbler.”
“Domestic cats (Felis catus) have been photographed on Igif Ridge thrice in 2021 and 2024.”
“Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) are frequently spotted in the area, often accompanying hunters or loitering opportunistically.”
“Lastly, climate change poses a severe threat to tropical montane birds, particularly those like Pyroroa urrissia that have limited dispersal capabilities and no access to high-altitude environments on Igif Ridge.”
The findings of this significant discovery were published in a study in the journal Toki on November 26, 2025.
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Ian A. Wachsvold et al. A newly identified species of jewel bubbler (Cinclosomatidae: Ptilorrhoa) from Papua New Guinea’s Southern Fold Mountains. Toki, published online November 26, 2025. doi: 10.1111/ibi.70016
This rubbery material is a first for space observations and likely originated during the early formation of the solar system as Bennu’s parent asteroid heated up. Initially soft and pliable, it hardened into an ancient “space gum” made up of a polymer rich in nitrogen and oxygen. The presence of such complex molecules may have contributed essential chemical precursors for the emergence of life on Earth, making their discovery in Bennu’s pristine samples crucial for scientists studying the origins of life and the potential for life beyond our planet.
Electron micrograph of particles taken from a Bennu sample. Image credit: Sandford et al., doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02694-5.
Bennu’s parent asteroid originated from material in the solar nebula (the rotating cloud of gas and dust that formed our solar system) and was composed of various minerals and ice.
As the asteroid warmed from natural radiation, compounds known as carbamates were created through reactions involving ammonia and carbon dioxide.
Despite being water-soluble, carbamates can persist long enough to polymerize and interact with other molecules, forming larger, more complex chains that are water-resistant.
This indicates that the parent asteroid formed before it became a watery environment.
“With this unusual material, we may be observing one of the earliest transformations that occurred in this rock,” stated Dr. Scott Sandford, a researcher at NASA’s Ames Research Center.
“In this ancient asteroid, formed in the early epochs of our solar system, we are witnessing events close to the dawn of time.”
The study explored the properties of this gum-like substance from Bennu.
As more information was revealed, it became apparent that the material was deposited in layers over ice and mineral grains present on the asteroid.
This material was also flexible, resembling the texture of used gum or soft plastic.
During their analysis, researchers observed that this peculiar material could bend and create indentations when pressure was applied.
The object was translucent and became brittle upon radiation exposure, reminiscent of a lawn chair left outdoors for several seasons.
“Analyzing its chemical composition shows that it contains similar chemical groups found in polyurethane on Earth, thus making this Bennu material comparable to ‘space plastic’,” Dr. Sandford explained.
“However, the material from ancient asteroids goes beyond just being polyurethane, which is a structured polymer.”
“It has a more random assortment of connections, with varying elemental compositions for each particle.”
The team’s findings were published in the Journal on December 2, 2025, in Nature Astronomy.
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SA Sandford et al. Nitrogen- and oxygen-rich organic material indicates polymerization in preaqueous low-temperature chemistry in Bennu’s parent body. Nat Astron published online on December 2, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02694-5
It rhymes with Eeny, meeny, minnie, moo, catch a tiger by its toes. Yet even children realize counting rhymes like this are ineffective for making genuinely random choices. Remember when you first discovered you could influence the outcome by selecting your starting point carefully?
You might think flipping a coin or rolling a die is better, but proving these outcomes are random is a challenge. These methods are not genuinely random; knowing the precise conditions like positioning, trajectory, gravity, or friction lets you predict the results. True randomness is indeed elusive.
The exciting part is that randomness is an inherent aspect of the universe, evident in quantum mechanics. Quantum particles like electrons and photons choose paths based on pure randomness, with no discernible cause behind quantum events. The University of Colorado Randomness Beacon, affectionately known as Kirby, exploits this phenomenon. This year, it launched as the first publicly available source of traceable, verifiable true random numbers.
You might question who requires such high levels of randomness. After all, dice and coins have entertained us for millennia. However, some scenarios demand maximum randomness. “People don’t realize it, but without randomness, digital life lacks safety and fairness,” says Nemitali Azienka, a computer scientist from Nottingham Trent University in the UK. He explains that whenever you access a secure webpage or create a strong password, randomness plays a role. Even machine learning incorporates randomness in its training.
Randomness also supports democratic processes. For instance, in Chile, politicians face random audits, but those targeted often feel victimized. “Everyone claims it’s a witch hunt,” says Christer Shalm, one of the CURBy creators at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). When random beacons are used to derive numbers from genuinely random sources, such claims become much harder to substantiate.
Currently, the Chilean government relies on various factors, like seismic activity and a local radio station’s output, for randomness, but these aren’t entirely random either—after all, seismic events occur for specific reasons and the radio playlist is curated. Moreover, such methods lack full traceability as seismic data isn’t regularly accessible. This is where CURBy shines.
Quantum Randomness Generator
A decade ago, Schalm noted that the system was “held together by duct tape and hopes.” At that time, researchers had just begun to verify CURBy’s principles. Since then, they’ve worked to enhance the system’s speed, automation, and accessibility for all internet users.
Today, CURBy boasts a cutting-edge facility that handles thousands of requests daily. It may bolster democracy, enhance trust in justice systems, and even bring tranquility to family game nights. “CURBy embodies a practical, accessible quantum technology. This development excites me,” says Peter Brown, a physicist at the Polytechnic University of Paris.
“
People don’t realize it, but without randomness, your digital life isn’t secure. “
Generating genuinely random numbers is tricky. Apart from quantum methods, most number-generation mechanisms rely on some underlying processes, making true randomness rare in the universe. Computer games often utilize “pseudo-random numbers” to form secure passwords from a seeded number; knowing this seed and algorithm eliminates randomness in your passwords.
One could delve deeper and use “high entropy” randomness sources, like the unpredictable timing of radioactive decay in materials like cobalt-60 or strontium-90. While this constitutes a random quantum event, it’s difficult to make user-friendly, and proving the legitimacy of generated numbers is a challenge without an observer present.
Physicists entangle photons to generate random numbers (from left to right) Jasper Palfrey, Gautam Kavri, Christer Shalm
Rebecca Jacobson/NIST
While this creates a high-stakes game of Yahtzee, CURBy allows you to do away with the dangers associated with radiation. Instead, CURBy utilizes pairs of photons interconnected by a quantum phenomenon called quantum entanglement.
When two entities are entangled, they behave as if they were a single entity. This compelling occurrence happens when you measure one, and then similarly measure the other. The first measurement can influence the second, even if the quantum objects are far apart. It’s akin to rolling two dice such that one consistently results in six when the other is one.
This entanglement, which Albert Einstein famously referred to as “spooky action at a distance,” defies typical understanding. Neither object transmits any signals, yet they remain connected in this way. The exact mechanism remains a mystery.
At CURBy, entanglement appears in the measurement of a property called polarization. Entangled photon pairs are separated and sent through optical fibers to two different locations, 100 meters apart. Measurements of polarization occur in quick succession at both sites.
The results of these measurements are compared, revealing subtle correlations. Under “classical” conditions, this correlation has limitations; however, if it’s genuinely quantum and random, it allows for generating numbers outside those constraints. CURBy purifies this inherent randomness using a method called Trevisan extraction. It can handle around 250,000 polarization measurements per second, requiring approximately 15 million measurements for a single output—a string of 512 utterly random binary digits (bits) ready for use.
Rolling the dice is never random
RLB Photography / Alamy Stock Pho
If you’re curious about the randomness of these bits, there’s an algorithm for that. For a string with 512 bits, each either a 0 or a 1, there are 2512 potential combinations. “The possibilities are immense,” Shalm remarks.
While all combinations are equally probable, Shalm and his team assessed the probability of specific bit strings appearing. Uniformity isn’t complete, yet it can be quite high. Consider aiming for an even road. If the incline is 1 in 10, it becomes a steep rise. Even a 1 in 100 slope or a 1 meter bump in a 100-meter stretch is noticeable. The randomness slope of CURBy is 1 in 184 quintillion, which is as random as one might need.
Proof of Randomness
CURBy’s standout feature isn’t just its randomness. The ability to trace the source and verify the randomness of the numbers is crucial. “Currently, there’s no reliable method for any random number generator,” Schalm asserts.
To ensure traceability, CURBy employs blockchain mathematics, known for securing digital assets like NFTs and cryptocurrencies. This method facilitates transparency about actions taken, timings, and the responsible parties in scenarios devoid of trust, linking everything back to the experiment’s original results.
However, the system’s accessibility is limited since the entire process involves multiple organizations. NIST forwards quantum data to facilities at the University of Colorado Boulder, which processes it, while an independent cryptographic service, the Distributed Randomness Beacon Daemon, adds its factors to extract genuine randomness from the measurements, generating the final uniform binary string.
“It’s like a chronological web,” observes Schalm. “No single entity has complete control over the random bits, allowing scrutiny for foul play or alterations.”
According to Brown, the integration of comprehensive physics with high-level security analysis is “quite remarkable.” He notes that quantum technologies are still emerging, with few complete products available. Yet will CURBy prove valuable? Absolutely, he argues, but there are situations where traceable randomness should be avoided. “You wouldn’t want to base your passwords on publicly accessible random sources,” he expounds.
Nonetheless, in contexts like jury selections, judge appointments, lottery outcomes, and random sampling in clinical trials, traceable randomness holds significant potential. Mathematician Artur Ekert from Oxford University expresses admiration too. The CURBy team’s melding of quantum and classical physics to produce innovative, accessible technology signals an exciting future.
Furthermore, CURBy is designed to adapt to future technologies, ensuring that genuine randomness embeds itself in our lives, promoting fairness and safety. It certainly surpasses a coin toss.
Researchers have successfully extracted and sequenced ancient RNA from the tissues of 10 woolly mammoths preserved in permafrost. One of these specimens is estimated to be 39,000 years old, making it the oldest ancient RNA sequence recorded to date.
Marmol Sanchez et al. Ancient RNA sequences identified in late Pleistocene woolly mammoth tissue. Image credit: Marmol Sanchez et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.10.025.
Investigating prehistoric genes and their activation is crucial for understanding the biology and evolution of extinct species.
For years, scientists have been piecing together the mammoth genome and their evolutionary history through DNA analysis.
However, RNA, which indicates active genes, has remained elusive until now.
“With RNA, we can provide direct evidence of which genes are ‘turned on’ and gain insights into the final moments of mammoths that lived during the last Ice Age,” stated Dr. Emilio Marmol, a researcher at the Globe Institute.
“This kind of information cannot be obtained from DNA alone.”
In this study, Dr. Marmol and colleagues analyzed permafrost-preserved tissue from 10 late Pleistocene woolly mammoths discovered in northeastern Siberia, spanning from the central Indigirka region to the Oyogos Yar coast and the New Siberian Islands.
“We accessed exceptionally well-preserved mammoth tissue excavated from the Siberian permafrost, expecting it to contain RNA molecules that had remained frozen over millennia,” Marmol mentioned.
“We have pushed the limits of DNA recovery for over a million years,” said Professor Rav Dalen from Stockholm University and the Center for Paleogenetics.
“Now we aimed to determine if RNA sequencing could go further back than prior research.”
Researchers successfully identified tissue-specific gene expression patterns in the muscular remains of Yuka, a 39,000-year-old juvenile mammoth.
There are over 20,000 protein-coding genes in the mammoth genome, but not all are actively expressed.
The detected RNA molecules relate to proteins crucial for muscle contraction and metabolic regulation under stress.
Researchers also discovered several RNA molecules that regulate gene activity in mammoth muscle samples.
“We found non-protein-coding RNAs, such as microRNAs, which were among our most intriguing discoveries,” Dr. Mark Friedlander from Stockholm University’s Wenner-Gren Institute remarked.
“The muscle-specific microRNAs identified in mammoth tissue provide concrete evidence of gene regulation occurring in real-time in ancient eras. This is a groundbreaking achievement.”
The identified microRNAs also enabled the authors to confirm their findings originated from mammoths.
“We found a rare mutation in a specific microRNA, providing evidence that it is of mammoth origin,” noted Dr. Bastian Flom from the Norwegian Arctic University Museum.
“We also uncovered novel genes solely based on RNA evidence, a feat not attempted before at such ancient sites.”
“RNA molecules can endure for much longer than previously assumed.”
“Our findings demonstrate that RNA can survive much longer than previously thought,” Professor Dalen added.
“This allows us to not only explore which genes are ‘turned on’ in various extinct creatures but also to sequence RNA viruses like influenza and coronaviruses that are preserved in Ice Age remains.”
These findings were published in the Journal of Cell on November 14, 2025.
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Emilio Marmol-Sanchez et al. Ancient RNA expression profiles from extinct woolly mammoths. Cell published online on November 14, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.10.025
Unexplained radiation surrounding the Milky Way may hint at dark matter’s composition
Trif/Shutterstock
A mysterious glow detected in the outer regions of the Milky Way may provide the first clues about the nature of dark matter, yet astronomers caution that it’s premature to draw any definitive conclusions.
Dark matter is theorized to account for 85% of the universe’s total mass, but scientists have struggled to identify the particles constituting it.
Among the potential candidates for dark matter are weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs). These elusive particles are notoriously hard to detect as they seldom interact with normal matter but are believed to occasionally self-annihilate, creating bursts of high-energy radiation in the form of gamma rays.
If dark matter is uniformly distributed across the galaxy as indicated by its gravitational effects, and if it consists of WIMPs, we should observe gamma rays as these particles self-annihilate. For over a decade, astronomers have been investigating whether the anomalously high gamma-ray emissions from the galactic center could signal this phenomenon, yet conclusive evidence remains elusive.
Now, Tomonori Toya, a professor at the University of Tokyo, claims he may have detected such a signal emanating from the Milky Way’s outer halo, utilizing 15 years’ worth of observations from NASA’s Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope.
Toya devised a model predicting the expected gamma-ray radiation in this region based on established sources like stars, cosmic rays, and vast bubbles of radiation identified above and below the Milky Way. Upon subtracting this known radiation from the total observed by Fermi, he found a residual gamma-ray glow with an energy level around 20 gigaelectronvolts.
This specific gamma-ray energy strongly aligns with the theoretically anticipated emissions from WIMPs’ self-annihilation, according to Toya. Although he admits it is too early to assert that these gamma-ray spikes are definitively due to dark matter, he describes the findings as “the most promising candidate for radiation from dark matter known to date.”
“Though the research began with the aim of identifying dark matter signals, I initially felt skeptical—like winning the lottery. When I first observed what seemed to be a signal, I approached it with caution,” says Totoni. “However, after thoroughly checking everything and confirming its accuracy, I was filled with excitement.”
“This represents a significant result worthy of further investigation, but firm conclusions cannot be drawn at this stage,” states Francesca Karoly from the French National Center for Scientific Research in Annecy. Accurately modeling all gamma-ray sources in the Milky Way, aside from dark matter, is quite complex, and Totoni has yet to deeply validate her models.
Silvia Manconi of France’s Sorbonne University asserts that the results need additional scrutiny, and more robust models are essential to establish whether the signals are genuine. Additionally, gamma-ray signals from other sources, like dwarf galaxies, are still unobserved and require thorough explanation, she mentions.
Many alternative radiation sources, including radio waves and neutrinos, will also need analysis to ensure the gamma rays aren’t being attributed to something else, says Anthony Brown from Durham University, UK. “Analyzing from just one perspective isn’t sufficient,” he states. “Dark matter necessitates an abundance of high-quality data.”
CERN and Mont Blanc: Exploring dark matter and frozen phenomena in Switzerland and France
Get ready to experience the wonders of CERN, the European center for particle physics, situated near the picturesque city of Geneva, where scientists operate the renowned Large Hadron Collider.
The remarkably long neck of Lijangosaurus johnschengensis. The research team, led by paleontologists from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, identified 42 cervical vertebrae at the site.
Reconstruction of nososaurs from approximately 240 million years ago showcases previously hidden diversity in southwestern China: Lijangosaurus johnschengensis (center), Nososaurus janjuanensis (top left), Nososaurus luopingensis (top right), Brevicaudosaurus janshanensis (bottom left), and Lariosaurus hongoensis (bottom right). Image credit: Kelai Li.
Lijangosaurus johnschengensis thrived in the mid-Triassic oceans between 247 and 241 million years ago.
Nososaurs could reach lengths of up to 7 meters (23 feet) and swam using four paddle-like limbs.
They possessed flat skulls with a network of slender conical teeth specialized for catching fish and squid.
“Sauropterygia emerged as a dominant marine reptile clade in the Early to Middle Triassic, maintaining its significance for approximately 180 million years within the Mesozoic marine ecosystem,” stated lead author Dr. Xiang Qinghua and colleagues.
“Early diverging sauropterygians include placodonts, pachysaurids, nososaurs, and early pistosaurs.”
“The iconic group known as plesiosaurs represents a clade that diverged later from pistosaurs within the suborder Pterosauria.”
“Nososauridae represents the systematic paleontological equivalent of nososaurids and encompasses more than just nososaurids (nososaurus and lariosaurus) as well as other nososaur species.”
“Although numerous species have been described, nososaurs show low diversity at the genus level and in anatomical morphology relative to other sauropterygian subgroups.”
“Typically, nososaurs are larger than pachypleurosaurs but smaller than pistosaurs, including plesiosaurs.”
The skull of Lijangosaurus johnschengensis was small, while its body extended over 2.5 meters (8 feet) in length.
It evolved an extraordinarily long neck with 42 cervical vertebrae, twice the number seen in most sauropterygians of its time.
“Plesiosaurs are generally recognized for their surprisingly long necks,” noted the paleontologists.
“Despite some late-diverging plesiosaur species exhibiting short necks, early plesiosaurs and their Triassic ancestors, early pistosaurs, featured impressively elongated necks with more than 30 cervical vertebrae, indicating a conformational lineage between early pistosaurs and plesiosaurs.”
“In line with this traditional understanding, we consider only necks with more than 30 cervical vertebrae as long or elongated necks in our research.”
“This distinctive feature of plesiosaurs is unmatched among secondary marine quadrupeds; in contrast, other leading marine animals like ichthyosaurs, thalatoids, mosasaurs, and cetaceans typically possess shorter necks and exhibit more fish-like traits.”
The fossilized skeleton of Lijangosaurus johnschengensis was unearthed in a previously unidentified Early Middle Triassic zone of the Beiya Formation in Yunnan Province, China, near the eastern Tibetan Plateau and northern Myanmar.
“This location differs from previously documented fossil-rich regions in southwestern China along the Yunnan-Guizhou border,” the researchers remarked.
Lijangosaurus johnschengensis marks the earliest known instance of a sauropterygian reptile with an exceptionally long neck featuring 42 cervical vertebrae.
“Our findings demonstrate that extreme cervical elongation, defined as possessing more than 30 cervical vertebrae, emerged in sauropterygians prior to the arrival of plesiosaurs and their pterosaur ancestors,” the scientists concluded.
“Moreover, Lijangosaurus johnschengensis shows a unique type of accessory facet joint differing from other reptiles, which is believed to reduce body undulation.”
“This discovery enhances our understanding of the variety of accessory facet joints in reptiles and underscores the high degree of spinal flexibility during the early evolution of sauropterygians.”
The team’s paper is published in the journal Communications Biology.
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W. Wang et al. 2025. The oldest long-necked sauropterygians, Lijangosaurus johnschengensis: Plasticity of vertebral evolution in sauropterygian marine reptiles. Communications Biology August 1551. doi: 10.1038/s42003-025-08911-1
Named Bakirib Waliza, this newly identified species is the first filter-feeding pterosaur documented to inhabit the tropics.
Artistic reconstruction of the filter-feeding pterosaur Bakirib Waliza in an Early Cretaceous Romualdo Formation environment. The spinosaurid dinosaur in the background represents a potential predator of Bakirib Waliza. Image credit: Julio Lacerda.
Bakirib Waliza thrived in the tropical latitudes of the Gondwana supercontinent during the Early Cretaceous, approximately 113 million years ago.
This ancient flying reptile belongs to the pterosaur group Pterosaurini, part of the clade Ctenochasmatidae.
“Ctenochasmatidae is a clade of pterosaurs that thrived from the Late Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous period,” stated Dr. Aline Ghirardi from the University Nordic of the Rio Grande and her colleagues.
“Recent findings have illuminated the diversity and ecological adaptations of this group, especially through analysis of new fossil specimens from various geographic areas and geological epochs.”
“These pterosaurs exhibit a remarkable evolutionary path, showcasing diverse morphological adaptations and extensive geographic distribution.”
“Recent revelations in China, South America, and Europe have significantly enhanced our understanding of their ecology, revealing the dynamic evolutionary history of this lineage.”
“Ctenochasmatids predominantly flourished from the Late Jurassic to the Barremian, but their numbers gradually waned towards the late Early Cretaceous,” the researchers noted.
“There remains limited knowledge about later species and how their lineages evolved and dispersed between Laurasia and Gondwana.”
The researchers suggested that Bakirib Waliza had an elongated jaw and dense, brush-like teeth, akin to the Ctenokasmatine pterosaurs like Pterodaustro, though the teeth’s cross-section and spacing differ significantly.
“Within the Ctenochasmatidae, the subfamily is recognized for its elongated snouts and numerous fine teeth, traits linked to a distinct feeding strategy,” the researchers stated.
“The evolutionary path of this group has been clarified by discoveries such as Riodactylus primus from the Late Jurassic of Liaoning Province, China, which indicates a significant ecological transition from fishing to filter-feeding within this clade.”
“Extreme examples can be noted in Pterodaustro ginazui, which features a lower jaw outfitted with 1,000 elongated, whisker-like teeth.”
“The extreme morphology of Pterodaustro illustrates a high degree of specialization for filter feeding.”
The two fossil specimens of Bakirib Waliza were uncovered in calcareous concretions within the Romualdo Formation in Brazil’s Araripe Basin.
This sedimentary matrix also contained remains of four fish, likely teleosts from the Early Cretaceous period, such as Thalias.
“Pterosaurs and fish were preserved in wackestone deposits, known for their abundant oriented ostracods and foraminifera, typical of other Romualdo Formation deposits,” the scientists remarked.
“The presence of densely packed, semi-articulated, fragmented pterosaur bones (mainly in subparallel orientation) alongside similarly arranged fish schools suggests that this collection is a regurgitalite—a mass of indigestible material expelled from a predator’s mouth.”
Bakirib Waliza possessed a mosaic of traits found in both its South American and European relatives.
“Its distinctive anatomical features, especially the highly elongated jaws and densely packed dentition with elongated teeth, tooth crowns that are nearly quadrangular in cross-section, along with acrodont-like tooth implants in both jaws, provide new insights into the evolutionary trajectory of filter-feeding pterosaurs,” the authors noted.
“The exceptional preservation of this specimen within the regurgitalite, alongside a fully intact fish, offers scarce direct evidence of trophic interactions in the Early Cretaceous Araripe paleoecosystem.”
“This finding not only bridges a paleobiogeographic gap in Ctenochasmatinae distribution but also emphasizes the significance of understudied and long-held museum specimens in uncovering important evolutionary and paleoecological insights.”
“Evidence is accumulating that the Araripe Basin acted as a crucial window into Early Cretaceous biodiversity, ecological intricacies, and continental-scale faunal interactions.”
The research team’s paper was published in the journal on November 10, 2025, in Scientific Reports.
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RV Pegas et al. 2025. Regurgitalites reveal a new filter-feeding pterosaur of the Santana group. Scientific Reports 15, 37336; doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-22983-3
The skin and muscles of Yuka’s left front leg are remarkably intact.
love darren
The oldest known RNA has been obtained from a woolly mammoth preserved in Siberian permafrost for close to 40,000 years.
This specimen, named Yuka and found in 2010, is regarded as the best-preserved woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) identified to date. Initially believed to be a young female that perished between the ages of 6 and 8—likely due to an attack by a cave lion.
Researchers have successfully extracted DNA from various woolly mammoths, including some over a million years old. Advances in genome reconstruction have sparked hopes of potentially reviving this species through genetic engineering.
DNA carries the genetic blueprint for protein production in animals. When a specific gene is activated, the code is transcribed into another molecule known as RNA, which is far less stable than DNA and typically breaks down within hours after death.
The oldest RNA previously retrieved was from a wolf preserved in Siberian permafrost over 14,000 years ago. Recently, love darren from Stockholm University has extracted nearly three times the RNA amount from Yuka’s leg than had been recorded before.
The research team employed techniques similar to those used to extract RNA from contemporary samples, fine-tuning them to target smaller and older molecules.
“Yuka is exceptionally well preserved,” remarks Darren. “The specimen likely experienced deep freezing and prolonged burial in permafrost, evidenced by the preservation of both muscle tissue and wool-like fur. This significantly boosts the chance of RNA preservation.”
However, Yuka’s temporary thawing during transport from northeastern Siberia to Yakutsk posed a challenge. “We assumed that any truly ancient RNA still present in the sample would have degraded into smaller fragments,” says Darren.
The team exercised extreme caution to prevent sample deterioration and avoid contamination. “We utilized liquid nitrogen for grinding, along with sterile materials, filtered air, protective clothing, and controlled lab conditions to eliminate modern contamination in sequencing data,” he explains.
RNA sequencing reveals which genes were active at the time of the animal’s death. In the RNA extracted from Yuka’s muscle and skin, the researchers identified signs of gene activity associated with muscle metabolism and cellular stress, aligning with the hypothesis of Yuka’s death resulting from a cave lion’s attack.
A surprising finding was that a combination of DNA and RNA analysis led the research team to conclude that Yuka was actually male. “I’ve anticipated something like this for a long time,” shares Darren. “Even though Yuka is remarkably preserved for being 40,000 years old, it’s not entirely intact, making it difficult to determine an organism’s morphological sex.”
Researchers also probed for RNA viruses such as influenza and coronaviruses but found no significant results. “Yet I believe we will see future studies on Ice Age RNA viruses,” Darren mentions. “For instance, we possess some Pleistocene bird carcasses that would be intriguing to investigate concerning avian influenza.”
Darren, a scientific advisor to Colossal Biosciences, the company claiming to have revived the dire wolf earlier this year, stated that the RNA sequences retrieved in this study do not directly contribute to the revival of the mammoth. However, the study may offer valuable insights into genes responsible for certain traits. “In the future, mammoth RNA profiles might uncover how specific traits, such as wool, were genetically regulated in these animals.”
Merlin Crossley, a researcher at the University of New South Wales in Sydney, noted that while acquiring such ancient RNA is an impressive feat, it doesn’t reveal much about mammoth ecology. “It’s akin to maneuvering a light airplane under the Sydney Harbor Bridge,” he explained. “It’s a remarkable technical accomplishment, but we gain little insight from it.”
Crossley believes that while older RNA samples may be unearthed in the future, the limits of RNA’s longevity are close at hand. Given the rarity of specimens like Yuka’s, he concludes that it’s unlikely that additional mammoths will yield significant information.
Dinosaur hunting in Mongolia’s Gobi desert
Join an exciting and unique expedition to uncover dinosaur fossils in the expansive wilderness of the Gobi Desert, renowned as one of the world’s premier sites for paleontological discoveries.
Taingraqaskus Bellator inhabited the area now known as Brazil during the Triassic period around 240 million years ago.
This ancient predator measured about 2.4 m (8 ft) in length and weighed approximately 60 kg.
The back of this species featured bony plates called osteoderms, a characteristic also seen in modern crocodilians.
Utilizing their long necks and agile movements, these predators quickly captured prey with swift, precise actions, employing their slender jaws filled with sharply curved teeth to secure their catch and prevent escape.
Dr. Rodrigo Temp Muller, a paleontologist at the Federal University of Santa Maria, stated, “This creature was an active predator, but despite its considerable size, it was not the largest hunter within its ecosystem, which included giants reaching up to 7 meters (23 feet) long.”
Taingraqaskus Bellator was part of the pseudostia — ancestors of modern crocodiles and alligators.
According to Dr. Temp-Müller, “Pseudostia were a diverse group capable of tackling tough prey, along with smaller hunters adept at catching swift animals.”
“It may resemble a dinosaur, yet Taingraqaskus Bellator does not belong to that classification.”
“One of the most evident distinctions from dinosaurs lies in its pelvic structure, where the hip and femoral joints exhibit significantly different characteristics.”
“The discovery of Taingraqaskus Bellator highlights the intricate ecosystem of the time, showcasing various pseudospecies with distinct sizes and hunting methods filling specific ecological roles.”
“This find uncovers crucial phases in life’s history that predate the arrival of dinosaurs.”
A partial skeleton of Taingraqaskus Bellator was located in Dona Francisca, southern Brazil, in May 2025, with its lower jaw, spinal column, and pelvic girdle preserved.
Although the limbs were not found, experts speculate that, like its relatives, it moved on all fours.
“The discovery of Taingraqaskus Bellator provides further evidence of an ancient link between Brazil and Africa during the Triassic period, a time when the continents were fused into the supercontinent Pangea,” said Dr. Temp Muller.
“Despite the variety of pseudonesters, some lineages are extremely rare in the fossil record, leading to a limited understanding of them.”
“The fossils underwent meticulous preparation in the lab, carefully removing surrounding rock.”
“Upon revealing the anatomical details, it became apparent that the specimen represented a previously unknown species, which was incredibly exciting for us.”
“We found a species closely related to a predator, Mandasucus Tanyauchen, discovered in Tanzania.”
“This link between South American and African fauna can be contextualized within Triassic paleogeography.”
“During this period, continents were still connected, allowing life to disperse freely across regions that are now separated by oceans.”
“Consequently, the Brazilian and African faunas share numerous commonalities, reflecting intertwined evolutionary and ecological narratives.”
Taingraqaskus Bellator would have thrived in the same environment where the first dinosaurs arose, in areas adjacent to vast arid deserts.
“Our findings indicate that southern Brazil’s reptiles had already developed diverse communities adapted to various survival strategies.”
“Moreover, this discovery unveils that such diversity is not an isolated phenomenon.”
This research is detailed in the following article: paper published in Journal of Systematic Paleontology.
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Rodrigo Temp Muller and others. Osteology, taxonomy, and phylogenetic relationships of a new pseudoarchosaur from the Middle Triassic of southern Brazil. Journal of Systematic Paleontology, published online on November 12, 2025. doi: 10.1080/14772019.2025.2573750
Scientists in Australia have discovered a new species of native bee featuring tiny, devilish horns, leading to its whimsically infernal name, Lucifer.
The species is called megachile lucifer. It was identified in 2019 during research on endangered wildflowers in Western Australia’s Goldfields, as reported in a recent study published Monday in the Journal of Hymenoptera Research.
The lead author of the study, Kit Prendergast, who is also a part-time researcher at Curtin University, explained that the female bee earned its name due to its uniquely upturned horns.
“While crafting a description for the new species, I was watching the Netflix series lucifer,” Prendergast mentioned in a statement on Tuesday. “The name felt just right.”
This species was discovered by scientists researching endangered wildflowers. Kit S. Prendergast; Joshua W. Campbell
Following DNA analysis revealed that this species does not correspond with any known bees in current databases, marking it as the first new member of its group to be described in over two decades, according to researchers.
Researchers hypothesize that the approximately 0.9-millimeter-long horns could be used for accessing flowers, competing for resources, or protecting nests, although their precise function remains uncertain. Male bees of this species lack horns.
Prendergast emphasized the significance of studying native bee species, noting that new species may be endangered due to threats such as habitat disruption and climate change.
“If we are unaware of which native bees exist and the plants they rely on, we risk losing both before realizing their importance,” she stated.
Reports indicate that Australia is home to around 2,000 native bee species, with over 300 yet to be scientifically named and described, according to CSIRO, Australia’s National Science Agency.
Tobias Smith, a honey bee researcher from the University of Queensland, mentioned in an email to NBC News on Tuesday that Australia’s native honey bees are “understudied and data-scarce,” resulting in insufficient knowledge about the conservation status of “nearly every species.”
Smith, who did not participate in the study, noted that Australian authorities need “stronger policies” to safeguard native bees from habitat loss, inadequate fire protection, and the heightened threat of large-scale fires.
Smith encouraged Australians to “venture out and seek out our native bees and appreciate their presence.”
Artist’s rendition of a Population III star that existed 100 million years after the Big Bang
Noir Lab/NSF/AURA/J. da Silva/Space Engine/M. Zamani
We may have finally observed the first generation of stars. After decades of searching for these pristine giants, known as Population III stars, astronomers have found their most promising candidate yet.
Population III stars are anticipated to be markedly distinct from today’s stars, or Population I stars. They are believed to have formed from pure hydrogen and helium gases before supernovae and powerful stellar winds dispersed heavier elements across the universe. These stars are also predicted to be larger and hotter than modern counterparts.
That’s precisely the case, according to Eli Visbal. Researchers from the University of Toledo in Ohio made this discovery through a detailed examination of prior James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) observations of a distant galaxy known as LAP1-B. With a redshift of 6.6, this galaxy is visible approximately 800 million years after the Big Bang. Its discovery was facilitated by the magnification of its light due to gravitational lensing by nearby galaxy clusters.
“There’s likely much more to discover in the universe, but we can only see it illuminated by this expanding star cluster,” Visbal noted. When his team estimated how many Population III clusters could exist at this redshift, they figured there should be only one—exactly what they observed. “Our abundance calculations aligned perfectly with those of the previous research team,” he added.
Another advantage of LAP1-B is that it contains only enough stars to comprise several thousand times the mass of the Sun. In contrast, other Population III galaxy candidates usually have significantly larger stellar masses, which do not align with simulations of Population III cluster formation. “This is the most robust candidate we’ve encountered,” says Visbal.
Most Population III stars are thought to have existed and perished between about 100 million and 400 million years after the Big Bang, at which point there were enough heavy elements in the universe to create stars similar to those we observe today. “This object meets many criteria, but I remain somewhat skeptical because these stars emerge later in the timeline, and there may be other viable explanations,” remarks Ralph Cressen from the University of Heidelberg, Germany. “Discovering Population III clusters would be fascinating, but statistically, this would surely be an anomaly.”
However, primordial pockets of hydrogen and helium could linger longer, potentially leading to the formation of Population III stars, as Visbal suggested.
“LAP-B1 is a particularly intriguing candidate, but we are still far from the clear and undeniable indications we would need for definite identification of Population III,” comments Roberto Maiorino at Cambridge University. “[For these to truly be Population III stars] it requires an extremely fortunate combination of factors, each of which is quite rare on its own, and even rarer when they occur together. Further observations and in-depth simulations are essential to ascertain whether LAP1-B represents the first detection of these enigmatic stars.
Understanding Population III stars is crucial, as they offer insights into the formation of the universe’s first heavy elements. “They reveal how the universe’s chemistry evolved from being solely hydrogen and helium to the diverse range of chemicals, life, and entities that exist today,” Visbal states. The stars of Population III were the pioneering building blocks of the complexity encompassing us now.
Fossil brain box and partial skull roof Carnegie Museum of Natural History. This specimen underwent reevaluation and was reclassified, resulting in the establishment of a new genus and species of sauropod dinosaur from the Dicraeosauridae family: athena bellmani.
Holotype brain case of athena bellmani. Image credit: Whitlock et al., doi: 10.26879/1550.
The dinosaur athena bellmani inhabited what is now Utah, USA, during the Late Jurassic Period, approximately 151 to 150 million years ago.
This specimen, designated Carnegie Museum (CM) Specimen 26552, was first discovered in 1913 in the Morrison Formation at the Carnegie Quarry in Dinosaur National Monument.
So far, the specimens have been assigned to a genus of sauropod dinosaurs known as diplodocus.
Dr. John Whitlock, a researcher at Mount Aloysius College and the Carnegie Museum of Natural History, commented, “The Carnegie Museum of Natural History contains some of the most significant specimens for understanding the cranial anatomy of diplodocoid sauropods.”
“One specimen, CM 26552, is frequently overlooked in favor of a more complete skull; however, it holds immense historical significance as it provided the foundation for modern descriptions of brain case anatomy in the diplodocus genus.”
“In view of new discoveries since its initial description in 1978, we are reassessing the anatomical and taxonomic relationships of this specimen.”
The new analysis indicates that CM 26552’s characteristics align more closely with another group of sauropods, the Dicraeosauridae.
“CM 26552 showcases mosaic features that distinctly separate it from other known North American dicraeosaur species,” the paleontologists noted.
“Based on this evidence, we are assigning CM 26552 to a new genus: athena, with the specific name bellmani.”
Research has also revealed that athena bellmani is closely related to dicraeosaurids like Swasea.
The researchers stated, “Considering CM 26552 as a new species of Dicraeosaurina enhances our understanding of this family’s diversity in the Morrison Formation and North America broadly, thus enriching the historically underrepresented sauropod diversity of this region.”
The findings have been published in an online journal this month: Old Trogia Electronica.
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John A. Whitlock et al. 2025. athena bellmani, a new species of dicraeosaur sauropod discovered from Dinosaur National Monument in Utah, USA. Old Trogia Electronica 28 (3): a50; doi: 10.26879/1550
IAfter five consecutive years attempting to steer clear of spending £80 for a stroll around the local park to admire the extravagant Halloween decorations or securing tickets for a wet day at a pumpkin farm in Scotland, I resolved to do something different this Halloween with the kids. We opted for a virtual pumpkin festival.
ghost town pumpkin festival. This game was born during the 2020 pandemic when developer Adam Robinson Yu’s local pumpkin festival was canceled. (Yu also crafted the charming “A Short Hike.”) Each year, the event has returned briefly, letting players take the form of cute ghosts to explore a whimsical micro-world brimming with player-made pumpkins. Each iteration has brought little enhancements, with the 2024 updates featuring a haunted house escape room that took my kids and me quite some time to solve. This year also introduced a movie theater showcasing spooky silent films in vacant rooms.
As you traverse the festival, you’ll encounter other players floating around as traditional sheet ghosts, often adorned with charming hats. Pumpkins populate every corner, from the benches outside a skeleton-themed barn to the corridors of the haunted house. True to form, many designs reflect game themes. Among smiling faces and cat silhouettes against a lunar backdrop created by children, we noticed tributes to Hollow Knight and a meticulous recreation of Majora’s Mask from the spookiest installment of the Zelda franchise.
The advantages of a virtual Halloween festival are numerous. You won’t fall prey to overpriced £8 watery hot chocolate or subpar food van fries. You have the freedom to carve as many virtual pumpkins as your heart desires, and if you make a mistake, you can simply erase it. Plus, it’s no problem if your 6-year-old refuses to don a coat. We were pleasantly surprised by how enjoyable the Ghost Town Pumpkin Festival turned out to be. In addition to the obvious allure of a nerve-wracking hedge maze and a tractor ride through a barn decorated with both cute and cheesy creepy elements, there are countless hidden gems (and collectible pin badges) I stumbled upon during an hour of solo exploration.
Take, for instance, the movie theater. When exiting, I attempted to open the bathroom door only to find it locked. A key was hidden behind the popcorn counter. There was an intriguing code posted on a bulletin board by the bathroom door. Once we cracked that, we discovered another key in one of the stalls and a “restricted access” door beside the theater screen. The compelling little horror game hiding behind that door was too intense for the kids and, honestly, even for me. (Luckily, you can disable all the frightening elements through a menu featuring options like turning off fake blood splatters and swapping out scary images for pictures of dogs.)
The Ghost Town Pumpkin Festival runs until a week after Halloween and can be downloaded below. itch.io Pay as you wish. We highly recommend lingering after your pumpkin carving to explore more.
This newfound species of crocodile existed in what is now Egypt roughly 80 million years ago during the late Cretaceous period.
Dubbed Wasdiskus Kassabi, it belongs to the Dirosauridae family. This group of crocodilians is known for its diverse skull morphology and broad distribution from the Late Cretaceous to the Paleogene.
“In contrast to modern crocodiles, dirosaurs flourished in coastal and marine habitats, characterized by elongated snouts and thin, needle-like teeth optimal for capturing slippery prey like fish and turtles,” stated paleontologist Sara Saber from Assiut University and her colleagues.
“Their notable survival and dispersal following the extinction of the dinosaurs is vital for understanding how reptiles adapted and diversified during the collapse of global ecosystems.”
Wasdiskus Kassabi was estimated to be 3.5 to 4 meters in length, featuring a lengthy snout and sharp, tall teeth.
“What sets it apart from other dirosaurids is its four teeth at the front of the snout versus the primitive five, nostrils placed at the top of the snout for surface breathing, and a notable notch at the snout’s tip where the jaws converge,” Saber added.
“These characteristics suggest that the dirosaurids’ bite was a gradual adaptation, representing a significant milestone in their evolutionary journey.”
Two partial skulls and three partial jaws of Wasdiskus Kassabi were discovered in the Kharga and Baris oases within Egypt’s Western Desert.
“Apart from its unique features, Wasdiskus Kassabi significantly contributes to our understanding of the origins of the dyrosaurid family,” Dr. Saber remarked.
“This new species extends the timeline for the African origin of dirosaurids and suggests their diversification may have begun earlier than previously thought, potentially during the early Coniacian-Santonian period (approximately 87 to 83 million years ago) rather than the Maastrichtian period (around 72 to 66 million years ago) as had been traditionally assumed.”
“This discovery highlights Africa as the evolutionary cradle of dirosaurids, from which subsequent lineages spread worldwide and have consistently been positioned in our phylogenetic analyses.” Wasdiskus Kassabi “is the ancestor of the dirosaurid lineage,” noted Belal Salem, a researcher affiliated with Mansoura University, Ohio University, and Benha University.
“The significance of Wasdiskus Kassabi lies not only in its revelations about the evolutionary history of this remarkable crocodilian group but also in the reminder that Egypt’s Western Desert still holds treasures that guard the mysteries of Earth’s ancient past.”
The findings are detailed in a study published today in the Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society.
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Sarah Saber et al. 2025. Early dirosaurids (Wasdiskus Kassabi) discoveries from the Campanian of Egypt illuminate the origin and biogeography of dirosaurids. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 205 (2): zlaf134; doi: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaf134
For much of my life, I had a strong aversion to exercise. Each time I tried a new fitness plan, I succumbed to monotony and laziness. My gym membership gathered dust, and my home workout equipment lay unused. The only time I managed to maintain a consistent workout routine was with a personal trainer, but at hundreds of dollars an hour in my area, that wasn’t a sustainable option.
For the past three years, I have been using Future Fitness, which has proven to be the next best alternative. This app and membership connects you with actual trainers who personalize your workout regimen and keep you accountable just like an in-person trainer would. While it costs $199/month, which isn’t cheap, it’s the only fitness app that has truly worked for me, making it worth the investment. Here’s why:
Get Into Gear
I first noticed Future Fitness on my Instagram feed early in the pandemic, promoting a free trial. Having gained a bit of weight from inactivity, I figured it was worth a shot. The app prompted me with questions about my goals and fitness habits, then allowed me to select a coach from several available options.
Photo: Provided by Future Fitness
During a preliminary FaceTime call with my chosen coach, we explored my overall fitness aspirations, preferred training schedule, any existing injuries, and the equipment I had access to at home. I’ve gathered a list of the gear I’ve utilized thus far: a yoga mat, resistance bands, two sets of dumbbells, two kettlebells, a suspension trainer, and a Peloton bike. Future coaches can work with whatever equipment you possess, even if you have none.
There is one exception; you will likely need a smartwatch. While it’s not strictly necessary, having one significantly enhances your experience with the app. The smartwatch syncs with the Future app, allowing you and your coach to monitor key details such as your heart rate during workouts and daily activity levels. The watch counts your repetitions for specific exercises, like bicep curls and deadlifts, in addition to tracking spontaneous activities such as extended hikes. I used my Apple Watch, but Future is also compatible with selected Google Wear OS watches.
Hit the Weights
Photo: Provided by Future Fitness
After our initial consultation, my coach began sending me workout routines via the app, complete with video demonstrations and pre-recorded tips for maintaining proper form. Alongside these strength training sessions, my Future coach can incorporate additional exercises throughout the week if desired. For instance, on days without strength training, I was directed to use my Peloton bike.
Each workout routine typically consists of a quick warm-up, a series of varied exercises, followed by a cool-down. The videos demonstrate how to execute each movement with multiple camera angles and explicit instructions. Strangely enough, I found this clinical method more appealing than the overly enthusiastic styles of many YouTube personalities or loud Peloton music.
However, not everything is straightforward. Initially, some workouts proved to be overly challenging. An in-person trainer could adjust my routine on the fly, but I had to adapt on my own in this case. Thankfully, after reaching out to my coach, she offered alternative exercises (like knee push-ups instead of standard ones) and encouraged me to listen to my body’s needs.
Photo: Provided by Future Fitness
My coach excels at keeping me accountable. Each morning, she messages me to remind me of that day’s workout. My Apple Watch transmits my workout information to her, ensuring transparency. If I take a rest day, she prompts me to refocus. After reviewing my workout stats, she messages me to congratulate me on my efforts and asks for my feedback. This ongoing dialogue with my coach is a significant factor in my ability to adhere to my fitness routine.
I paused my Future Fitness membership due to financial constraints, but I am currently several months into reinvigorating my subscription, and I feel fantastic. My joints ache less, I have more energy throughout the day, and my overall mental well-being has improved. These days, I work out five days a week, up from three initially. It seems I don’t actually dislike exercise after all.
Future Fitness for $199/month
Nicole Lee is a technology journalist with over 20 years of experience covering consumer electronics, social media, kitchen technology, and more. She has also made media appearances on broadcast television and public radio. Outside of work, her passions include baseball, improv comedy, and tabletop role-playing games.
A new genus and species of pachycephalosaur dinosaur has been identified by paleontologists from five fossil specimens found in the Late Cretaceous Two Medicine Formation in Montana, USA.
Reconstructing the life of Brontothorus harmony. Image credit: Connor Ashbridge / CC BY 4.0.
This newly identified dinosaur roamed North America during the late Cretaceous period, approximately 75 million years ago.
Named Brontothorus harmony, this ancient herbivore measured around 3 meters (10 feet) in length.
It is classified within the Pachycephalosauridae, a family of bipedal, dome-headed dinosaurs belonging to the ornithischian clade Pachycephalosauria.
“Pachycephalosaurs are a unique ornithischian clade characterized by distinct morphological features,” stated paleontologist D. Carey Woodruff, Ph.D., from the Philip Patricia Frost Museum of Science and the Museum of the Rocky Mountains, along with colleagues.
“These traits include bipedalism, heterodentary dentition, ossification of the caudal muscular septum, as well as the distinctive thickened frontoparietal dome and decorated skull.”
“Most pachycephalosaurid species are primarily known from cranial remains, making the anatomy, functional morphology, and phylogenetic significance of the frontoparietal dome particularly intriguing for paleontologists.”
“This clade is exclusively identified from Late Cretaceous Asia and western North America, with the latter showcasing a more diverse assemblage of pachycephalosaur species.”
“The oldest North American species is the Santonian variant, Acrotorus odeti, and this group evidently diversified during the middle to late Campanian period, resulting in a wealth of presently recognized species.”
A total of 5 specimens attributed to Brontothorus harmony were unearthed in the Two Medicine Formation located in Glacier County, Montana.
“This new species represents the first pachycephalosaur discovered from the Two Medicine Formation,” the paleontologists noted.
The notable dome structure of Brontothorus harmony positions it as the third largest pachycephalosaur in North America.
“Phylogenetic analyses indicate that this new species is significantly distinct from both Stegoceras and Pachycephalosaurus,” the researchers remarked.
“Thus, this species is not closely related to Stegoceras or Pachycephalosaurus.”
“This discovery not only enhances our understanding of the morphology and diversity of pachycephalosaurs but also highlights that this clade included relatively large species sizes during the early Middle Campanian.”
The finding of Brontothorus harmony is detailed in a paper published on October 9, 2025, in the Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society.
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D. Cary Woodruff et al. 2025. The first pachycephalosaurs from the Late Cretaceous Two Medicine Formation: Influence of the Western Interior Seaway on the evolution of North American pachycephalosaurs. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 205 (2): zlaf087; doi: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaf087
New genus and species of theropod dinosaur named Antebi Sukuri Longs has been reported by a team of researchers from the National University of San Juan, the Bernardino Rivadavia Museum of Natural Sciences, the University of Birmingham, CONICET, and CIGEOBIO.
Reconstruction of Antebi Sukuri Longs. Image credit: Jorge Blanco.
Antebi Sukuri Longs inhabited the Earth during the Carnian period of the late Triassic, approximately 231 to 226 million years ago.
This dinosaur measured about 1.2 meters (4 feet) in length and weighed around 8 to 9 kilograms.
The species represents an early-diverging theropod outside the Neoheteropod group, with functional traits previously believed to be exclusive to that classification surprisingly derived.
“This is among the oldest and most primitive dinosaurs yet discovered,” stated Dr. Ricardo Martinez from San Juan National University and his team.
“The early diversification of dinosaurs triggered significant ecological transformations in terrestrial ecosystems, culminating in the dominance of dinosaurs in tetrapod populations by the Triassic-Jurassic boundary 201 million years ago.”
“Therefore, investigating the early diversification of dinosaurs is crucial for understanding the formation of Mesozoic populations.”
“Nonetheless, the absence of stratigraphically continuous fossil data in different geological formations, where the oldest known dinosaurs (dating from 233 to 227 million years ago) are found, has hindered our comprehension of this early diversification.”
Paleontologists uncovered fossilized remains of Antebi Sukuri Longs—including a partial skeleton and skull—discovered in 2014 within the Izquiguarasto formation in northwestern Argentina.
“Few locations in the world offer such ancient and well-preserved fossils,” Martinez remarked.
“One notable site is the Santa María Formation in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, and the other is the Izquiguarasto Formation.”
Antebi Sukuri Longs thrived around 2 million years after Earth’s formation in a warm, arid savannah, experiencing episodes from the Carnian rainy season.
“We demonstrate that dinosaur diversity and abundance in the Iskigualast Formation were greater than previously acknowledged, particularly among smaller herbivores (under 30 kg) and medium-sized predators (30 kg to 200 kg),” the researchers stated.
“This diversification took place in Iskigualast during a transition to semi-arid conditions, but a return to wetter conditions created a gap in the dinosaur record beginning around 229 million years ago.”
“Only 15 million years later, during the mid-Norian period, the abundance and diversity of dinosaurs in the basin rebounded, this time characterized by larger-bodied species.”
“Our findings suggest that early dinosaur diversification was interrupted by climate-induced faunal replacement, at least in southwestern Pangea.”
A paper detailing this discovery was published in this week’s edition of Nature Ecology and Evolution.
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RN Martinez et al. Carnian theropods with unexpectedly derived features during the initial radiation of dinosaurs. Nat Ecol Evol published online October 14, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41559-025-02868-4
WThe temperatures are plummeting, and we all crave a bit more comfort. For some, it’s about getting a plush bed with a fresh memory foam mattress topper or an ergonomic office chair. For others, it’s a chic waterproof hooded scarf to style your wet hair, or a hair dryer that’s ready to return to action.
And for some of you, that might just mean a fringe party skirt and a cheese box arriving in the mail. Who are we to judge? These are your top picks for the month.
When Jane Hoskin, an insomnia sufferer and filter reviewer, experimented with the best (and odd) sleep aids, she didn’t expect a simple sub-£10 eye mask to afford her a solid 9-hour slumber. “The best masks truly obstruct all light without feeling flat or too tight on your eyes,” she shares, calling MyHalos her “ideal match.”
If you’re astonished to find an advent calendar among your favorite products for September, it seems the beauty advent calendar craze has evaded you. People shell out extensively for a selection of these products, which promise significant savings on their contents. Your top choice is, unsurprisingly, the “shockingly affordable” W7 calendar. Reviewer Sarah Matthews noted that the included items “stand shoulder to shoulder with some of the industry’s finest,” albeit they are mostly miniatures.
Office Chair Upgrade
Slouching Task 1
£289 on Slouch
If you’re still working from home on a dining chair, it’s time for a change. Your work chair needs to be as supportive and comfy as your most-used pieces of furniture, like your mattress.
Reviewer Stuart Andrews spends extended hours at his desk, and he was the right person to evaluate the best office chairs. The Slouching Task 1 emerged as his top choice, providing him “everything you desire from a work chair.”
Eco-Friendly Scourers
Non-Kilo Scourers
£13.47 on eBay£3.75 on Amazon
Cotton scourers serve as an excellent way to cut down on plastic waste in your kitchen. “These are amazing for cleaning,” says Maggie, a filter reader and Sustainable Swaps guide. “They’re not packed with food like typical sponge scourers, and I toss them in the wash weekly to keep them fresh.”
Chic Rain Cover
Waterproof Hooded Scarf
£39.15 on Etsy
Looking stylish in the rain can be challenging. However, our fashion writer, Charlotte Gornoll, has crafted the ultimate guide to staying fashionable in wet weather. Your top styling tip was this waterproof hooded scarf. “If your jacket lacks a hood, why not complement it?” Charlotte suggested, likening it to “the late Queen Elizabeth’s stylish touch.”
Letterbox Cheese Board
Perfect British Cheese Board
£10 at Butlers
Of all the gifts that fit through a letterbox, is there anything better than a quality cheese board? A standout from our guide features three exquisite cheeses (Blacksticks Blue, Button Mill, Sunday Best) accompanied by track-reading figure relish and Peter’s yard crackers.
Top Budget Hair Dryer
Babyliss Hydro-Fusion
£60 on Look Fantastic£31.99 on Amazon
“In my years of reviewing beauty products, upgrading my hair dryer brought the most significant change to my routine,” stated Sarah Matthews in his guide to the finest hair dryers. “Modern hair dryers have changed the game.” Sarah’s favored budget option, Babyliss Hydro Fusion, is “sturdy and powerful,” and is currently priced at £31.99 on Amazon.
Mattress Toppers
Panda Bamboo Topper, Double
£139.95 for Panda
“A mattress topper is like the cheese slice on a burger,” wrote reviewer Jane Hoskin. “While not essential, it can be a game changer, particularly if your mattress feels worn out.” Jane found the Panda bamboo topper to be the coolest option in her mattress topper tests despite being memory foam based. Clearly, many of you were drawn to the idea of “not feeling your restless partner’s movements.”
Party Skirt
Fringe Detail Mini
£50 on M&S
“This M&S skirt is an absolute winner,” noted Jess Cartner Morley in the style essentials for September. “I mean, look at it. All the tassels, perfectly cheeky (short but not too short), in chic off-white colors.” Clearly, many shared this sentiment, as this stylish party skirt emerged as a favorite.
Quick Clothing Steamer
Russell Hobbs Steam Genie
£28 at John Lewis
“I determined to be an ironed-clothes kind of woman,” writes Kate McCusker in the Green to the Grand Style Guide for All Ages. “Yet, I’m still waiting for that transformation, so I rely on this steamer in the morning to prevent my clothes from looking like I just rolled out of bed.” It appears many filter readers are still on that journey.
Ceramic Frying Pan
Procook Elite Tri-Ply
£48 on Procook
Trendy kitchen gadgets come and go, yet a dependable frying pan remains an essential kitchen item. We look for durability, easy cleaning, and hopefully no harmful chemical coatings. Is that too much to wish for? Dale Berning Sawa examined twelve premier frying pans under rigorous conditions. Your top pick was this Procook ceramic frying pan, praised for its impressive quality and reasonable price.
MP3 Player – Seriously
Snowsky Echo Mini
£66.99 on eBay
If you thought you’d stepped into a time machine upon seeing the advent calendar, wait until you come across an MP3 player (especially one with a cassette tape design). Yet, digital audio players are staging a comeback, appealing to those who want to unplug from streaming services while taking control of their music. This economical pick from the sub-brand Snowsky offers a “nostalgic vibe” while Alan Martin noted in his review, “delivers a much richer sound compared to other budget gadgets I’ve tested.”
Paleontologists have identified a new species, Eurhinosaurus—a genus of Longirostrin Ikchosaurus from Europe, notable for its remarkable overbite found in Bavaria, southern Germany.
“Iktiosauria is a varied group of reptiles excellently adapted to marine environments, thriving from the early Triassic to the early Cretaceous,” stated Dr. Gael Spicher, a researcher at the Jurassica Museum, Fribourg University, and Reinish Friedrich Willells-un Universetita Bonn and Kokog.
“Fishes show morphological traits like fin-modified limbs, elongated snouts, deep bisexual spines, and developed caudal fins, confirming their complete adaptation to aquatic life.”
“Uoshima had a widespread distribution during its existence.”
“Particularly, southern Germany is renowned for its rich fossil record of Uoshima from the Lower Jurassic, specifically the Posidonianscifer formation, which has yielded thousands of specimens.”
“In these Lower Jurassic ichthyosaurs, Eurhinosaurus is a relatively scarce creature,” they noted.
“Its paleogeographical range is confined to modern-day Europe, with fossil records from Germany, the UK, France, Luxembourg, and Switzerland.”
“This genus is distinguished by its unique, elongated, slender snout with pronounced overbites, resulting from significantly shorter mandibles compared to the upper jaw (over 60%).”
The newly identified species Eurhinosaurus exhibits a typical maxillary extension characteristic of its genus.
It has been named Eurhinosaurus Mistelgauensis, which existed during the Jurassic period approximately 180 million years ago.
Three specimens of the new species were unearthed at the Mistelgau Clay Pit, part of the Jurensismismergel Formation in southwestern Bailos in northern Bavaria, Germany.
“The fossil includes two nearly complete skeletons and a partial snout, preserved in three dimensions in a semi-articulated state, showcasing elements from multiple angles,” explained the paleontologist.
“Their preservation is exceptional, displaying bones in three dimensions, which is a remarkable find and highlights the significance of documenting such specimens.”
According to the author, these specimens belong to the Eurhinosaurus genus.
“The well-preserved fossils from Mistelgau offer invaluable insights into Eurhinosaurus and significantly enhance our understanding of this historically important Uoshima,” they concluded.
Survey results were published this week in the journal Fossil Record.
____
Ge Spicher et al. 2025. New Eurhinosaurus (Ichthyosauria) species from the Lower Jurassic (Toarcian) in Mistelgau (Bavaria, southern Germany). Fossil Record 28(2): 249-291; doi: 10.3897/fr.28.154203
Archaeologists have unearthed two Neanderthal track sites across various regions in Europe. At Monte Clerigo, approximately 78,000 years ago, three distinct trackways illustrate how Neanderthals traversed the dune landscape. This behavior implies advanced route planning, as the dune environment may have been conducive for ambush hunting and stalking prey. Additionally, a solitary footprint found at the Praia do Telheiro site indicates the presence of Neanderthals in the Dune Ecosystem 82,000 years ago.
Following guidance, a reconfiguration scenario for Monte Clérigo TrackSite generated by AI tools. Image credit: JM Galán/ai.
“Footprints provide a snapshot of a specific moment, capturing events such as group movements, tracking, and interactions with particular landscapes.”
“The footprints reveal how Neanderthals utilized their environment, exploring coastal areas, forests, sand dunes, and riverbanks.
Neanderthal footprints have been identified at two distinct locations.
At Monte Clerrigo, five tracks and 26 footprints were left by both adults and children over a year old on the steep slopes of coastal sand dunes.
At Praia do Telheiro, isolated footprints were found, likely made by teenagers or adult women, alongside bird tracks typical for coastal and rocky environments.
“The quantity, size, and arrangement of footprints enable us to deduce the minimum number of individuals present, their age ranges (children, adolescents, adults), and even the specific activities (like a hunting party),” noted the researcher.
“Child and baby footprints, which seldom separate from archaeological traces, are identifiable due to their smaller size, offering insights into their social structure.”
“These footprints provide a unique perspective on daily life, serving as a snapshot from tens of thousands of years ago.”
A general view of the main truck site with the human trackway on the north cliffs of Monte Crerigo Beach, Portugal. Image credit: de Carvalho et al. , doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-06089-4.
The analyzed footprints reveal exercise strategies adapted to the landscape, suggesting planned routes, proximity to living areas, potential hunting activities, and coexistence with other species.
For instance, one track shows evidence of interactions with human footprints alongside newly formed deer tracks, supporting theories of pursuit or ambush tactics in the dune environment.
The findings confirm that Neanderthals primarily consumed deer, horses, and marine resources, exhibiting a varied dietary strategy.
“The consistent presence of these mammalian species underscores their role as reliable food sources, regardless of the varying environments occupied by Neanderthals,” stated the scientists.
“Additionally, the Neanderthal diet also included species from nearby coastal habitats, showing an extensive foraging strategy that utilized local biodiversity.”
The team’s research paper was published on July 3rd in Scientific Reports.
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Cn de Carvalho et al. 2025. The Neanderthal coast and the first Portuguese human track site. Sci Rep 15, 23785; doi:10.1038/s41598-025-06089-4
Ahmed Boug et al. 2025/Saudi Arabia’s National Center for Wildlife
Recent findings report the discovery of seven cheetah mummies, dating back thousands of years, in caves located in Saudi Arabia.
The cheetah (acinonyx jubatus) populations have seen drastic reductions due to habitat destruction, hunting, and the wildlife trade, leading to their disappearance from the Arabian Peninsula several decades ago. Ahmed Boug and his associates at the National Wildlife Centre in Riyadh revealed details about these seven mummified cheetahs along with 54 skeletal sites found in the Lauga Cave Network in northern Saudi Arabia during the years 2022 and 2023.
The mummies, preserved through a unique process that inhibits decomposition, date back approximately 4,000 to 100 years.
“These discoveries are incredibly significant,” states Anne Schmidt Künzel from the Cheetah Conservation Fund in Namibia. “While the mummification of Negrids isn’t wholly unexpected, this marks a groundbreaking and important find.”
“The stable temperature and low humidity in the cave environment likely aided the mummification process,” the researchers noted.
The reason for the cheetahs’ presence in the cave remains a mystery, as these animals typically do not utilize caves as dens or for storing carcasses. At the time of investigation, none of the five caves revealed any water supply.
Many of the remains were located in caves accessible solely via sinkholes, leading Schmidt Künzel to propose that the cheetahs may have fallen and become trapped. Additionally, remains of other animals including insects, wolves, striped hyenas, gazelles, and red foxes were also discovered here.
Upon examining 20 complete cheetah skulls, researchers found that six belonged to adults, while the rest were from individuals aged between 6 and 24 months. There were also nine cub skeletons located in the primary cave. The abundance of young cheetahs indicates that adult females might have used the cave for collective protection, according to Schmidt Künzel.
Camera traps set up during the investigation indicated that wolves were also using these caves. “This implies that during the cheetah’s lifespan, they may have frequented several, if not all, of these caves, enabling them to enter intentionally,” Schmidt Künzel added.
While there is only one species of cheetah, it is divided into four genetically distinct subspecies. The Southeast African cheetah (acinonyx jubatus jubatus) is the most populous, while the Northeast African cheetah (acinonyx jubatus soemmeringii) and Northwest African cheetah (acinonyx jubatus heck) exist in smaller, fragmented groups. The Asian cheetah (acinonyx jubatus venaticus), meanwhile, has very few remaining members in Iran.
Boug and his team sequenced the genomes of three sets of artifacts. Their research indicated that the mummified individuals are most closely related to the Asian subspecies, currently found in that region.
Schmidt-Künzel emphasizes that this work supports the notion that all cheetah subspecies can adapt to similar arid conditions, making it feasible to reintroduce them to the area through selective breeding of African subspecies.
Conservation and Rewilding in Central Apennines: Italy
A visit to Italy’s central Apennine region offers an enticing introduction to the concept and practice of rewilding.
Paleontologists have discovered a new species of extinct crocodile-like creature from fossilized remains found in southwest Montana, USA.
Impressions of the artist Thikarisuchus Xenodentes. Image credits: Dane Johnson/Rockies Museum.
The newly identified species existed at the edge of the ancient western inland sea around 95 million years ago, during the late Cretaceous period.
It has been named Thikarisuchus Xenodentes, a type of neostian.
“Measurements indicate it was less than 60 cm (2 feet) from nose to tail tip,” stated David Barilisio, a professor at Montana State University. “If it had grown fully, it could have reached about 90 cm (3 feet) or more, but still much smaller than most members of the Neosuchia clade to which it belongs.”
“This clade includes modern crocodiles and their closest extinct relatives, most of which are semi-aquatic or marine carnivorous animals with simple cone-shaped teeth.”
In contrast, Thikarisuchus Xenodentes likely lived on land and possibly fed on plants, insects, and small animals, possessing a variety of tooth shapes.
“Its unique anatomy indicates it is part of a newly identified family of crocodile-like creatures endemic to the Cretaceous in North America.”
The fossilized remains of Thikarisuchus Xenodentes—including its limbs, vertebrae, jaw, and a skull measuring 50 mm—were discovered in the US Forest Service Black Reef Formation near Dillon, Montana, in the summer of 2021.
“We previously found dinosaurs in the Black Reef Formation, making this the second known vertebrate species discovered in this layer,” remarked Harrison Allen, a doctoral student at Stony Brook University.
Paleontologists found the bones of Thikarisuchus Xenodentes in a densely packed arrangement consistent with the fossils of other living creatures found in the dens of the Black Reef Formation and nearby Wayan Formation in Idaho.
“This supports the idea that Thikarisuchus Xenodentes was preserved in dens and that fossils from these layers are biased toward those found in such environments,” they noted.
The specimen also suggested connections to a newly established family group, wannchampsidae, and a related group identified in Eurasia, known as the Atopasauriaceae.
Both families were small, globally adaptive, and exhibited specific skull and dental characteristics shared with more distantly related groups from the Cretaceous period in Africa and South America.
“We propose that shared environmental conditions and prey availability led to convergent evolution between these two distantly related groups during the same timeframe.
“The vast majority of alligatorid diversity belongs to the past, including fully marine crocodiles, entirely terrestrial crocodiles, herbivorous, omnivorous species, and those with unique shells.”
“This discovery surprised me and motivated my interest in this specific field of paleontology.”
A paper detailing the findings is published in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
____
Harrison Allen et al. 2025. The impact of newly discovered small heterodonneostians and heterodonneostians in southwestern Montana’s Black Leaf Formation on paleoecology. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology in press; doi: 10.1080/02724634.025.2542185
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