Understanding Nuclear Stability: Magic Numbers in Physics
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A pivotal set of numbers has served as the foundation of nuclear physics research for decades, revealing how they stem from the quantum interplay of nuclear particles and forces.
Nearly 80 years ago, physicist Maria Goeppert Mayer discovered that atomic nuclei exhibit remarkable stability when they contain specific numbers of protons and neutrons, such as 50 or 82. Subsequent research has reinforced the existence of these “magic numbers,” which characterize the most stable and abundant elements in the universe.
Goeppert Mayer’s contemporaries introduced the concept that protons and neutrons occupy discrete energy levels or shells. While this shell model persists in explaining numerous nuclear physics experiments by treating each nucleus particle as independent, modern quantum theory contends that these particles engage in strong interactions.
Yao Jianming and researchers from Sun Yat-sen University in China have reconciled this discrepancy, revealing how magic numbers originate from these interactions.
According to Yao, the shell model does not derive intricate details of particle interactions. Instead, he and his team approached their calculations from first principles, elucidating how particles interact, cling together, and the energy required to separate them.
Yao likens the two models to images captured at differing resolutions: “Historically, researchers either modeled the system at low resolution or explored nuclear structure at high resolution. We applied contemporary methods to bridge these models.”
The team initiated their analysis with a high-resolution perspective, then deliberately blurred it at each calculation stage, observing how particle structures evolved.
The researchers noted that the symmetry of a particle’s quantum state shifts across a mathematical bridge. By graphing these state equations, they produced shapes showcasing various symmetries at different resolutions. This transformation led to a nuclear structure where nuclei are most stable when particles correspond to magic numbers.
Jean-Paul Ebelin from the French Alternative Energy and Atomic Energy Commission emphasizes that this study offers a theoretical exploration akin to a mathematical microscope, effectively mirroring experimental observations. “Nature reveals a different facet depending on the observational resolution,” Ebelin notes.
The identified symmetry alterations correlate with effects noted in Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity, as Ebelin points out, enhancing our understanding of how magic numbers unify various elements of nuclear theory.
To date, researchers have validated their theoretical findings on a specific type of tin, known for its double magic property due to possessing 50 protons and 82 neutrons, along with several other nuclei. Looking ahead, Yao expresses intentions to extend their analysis to heavier and typically unstable nuclei, exploring how these are formed during supernova events and the collision of neutron stars.
For centuries, the greatest minds have pondered the concept of time, yet its absolute nature remains elusive.
While physics does not dictate that time must flow in a specific direction or define its essence, it is widely accepted that time is a tangible aspect of the universe.
The two cornerstone theories of modern physics, general relativity and quantum mechanics, perceive time in distinct ways. In relativity, time functions as one coordinate in conjunction with three spatial coordinates.
Einstein demonstrated the intricate relationship between these dimensions, revealing that the flow of time is relative, not absolute. This implies that as you move faster, time appears to slow down in comparison to someone who remains “stationary.”
Interestingly, photons traveling at light speed experience no passage of time; for them, everything occurs simultaneously.
On the other hand, quantum mechanics, which pertains to the macroscopic realm, views time as a fundamental parameter—a consistent and one-way flow from past to future, disconnected from spatial dimensions and entities (like particles).
This divergence creates a conflict between these two prominent theories and poses a challenge for physicists attempting to unify gravitational and quantum theories into a singular “grand unified theory.”
Crucially, neither general relativity nor quantum mechanics defines time as a “field,” a physical quantity that permeates space and can affect particle characteristics.
Each of the four fundamental force fields (gravity, electromagnetism, strong nuclear force, and weak nuclear force) involves the exchange of particles.
These particles can be viewed as carriers of force. In electromagnetism, the carrier is a photon, while strong interactions are mediated by particles known as “gluons.”
Gravity, too, is thought to be transmitted by hypothetical particles called “gravitons,” yet a complete quantum description of gravity remains elusive.
Scientists continue to struggle with the concept of time, which appears to lack tangible properties like discrete chunks – Credit: Oxygen via Getty
Other “fields” confer specific properties to particles. For instance, the Higgs field involves the transfer of Higgs bosons, endowing them with mass.
In the realm of physics, time—regardless of its true essence—differs fundamentally from a “field.” It is not a physical quantity (like charge or mass) and does not apply forces or dictate particle interactions.
Thus, in contemporary physics, time is not characterized by mediating particles as are the four fundamental forces. The notion of “time particles” does not hold relevance.
Remarkably, recent studies indicate that time might actually be an illusion. This intriguing theory emerges from quantum “entanglement,” wherein the quantum states of particles are interlinked, regardless of their spatial separation.
This article addresses a question posed by Brian Roche from Cork, Ireland: “Is it possible for a time particle to exist?”
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The asymmetry in the average temperature of the cosmic microwave background is inconsistent with the standard model of cosmology
ESA/Planck Collaboration
Cosmic anomalies have puzzled scientists for years, and recent examinations of data from various radio telescopes further complicate the understanding of their origins.
This peculiar fluctuation appears in the afterglow of the Big Bang, representing radiation that has journeyed toward us since the dawn of time, referred to as the cosmic microwave background (CMB). Physicists generally expect this radiation to be uniform in all directions; therefore, significant deviations are perplexing. Current measurements indicate a gradient in CMB temperatures, resulting in colder and hotter areas known as a dipole, as explained by Lucas Behme. His team at Bielefeld University in Germany utilized data from radio telescopes to delve deeply into these anomalies.
Böhme notes that while the presence of the CMB dipole isn’t surprising, its magnitude defies the expectations of our prevailing cosmological models. Radiation emitted from moving sources—and perceived by observers who are also in motion—appears warmer or colder due to the Doppler effect and other relativistic effects. Yet, the dipole observed is approximately ten times more intense than anticipated.
To analyze this discrepancy, Böhme and his colleagues examined data from six radio telescopes and meticulously narrowed their focus to the three most precise measurements. Böhme describes their method as dividing the sky into pixels to determine the number of radiation sources within each. Nevertheless, despite their exhaustive adjustments, the dipole mystery endured.
Dragan Huterer from the University of Michigan finds the team’s thorough analysis noteworthy. He emphasizes that this is crucial for establishing the dipole as an undeniable feature of the CMB. “This is a significant insight, indicating that we fundamentally misunderstand our spatial context within the universe, or that our most accurate theories fail to align with the evidence,” he states. However, Huterer also points out the challenges inherent in accurately measuring radio astronomical data, which may result in systematic errors.
Part of the difficulty lies in the faintness of the radio signals collected, Böhme explains. “We aim to measure extremely subtle phenomena. Fine-tuning this measurement is challenging,” he notes. Yet, this is not the only evidence supporting the existence of the dipole. Infrared radiation from quasars tends to reinforce the findings from radio wave measurements, and forthcoming telescopes may enhance precision in observations, potentially resolving some of the dipole’s enigmas.
Hyperreactive oxygen can form in mitochondria within our cells
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After many years, scientists are starting to understand how the chemical reactions in living cells and certain batteries produce odd and harmful forms of oxygen.
Oxygen molecules are not all the same. In some, the two highest energy electrons have opposing quantum spins, while in others, the spins are aligned. When they align, the molecule is termed “singlet oxygen.” This variant is highly reactive and can lead to harmful transformations in cellular proteins and fats, affecting some batteries too. Since the 1960s, chemists have sought to pinpoint when these perilous oxygen forms, which we normally appreciate as breathable, become problematic during chemical reactions. Stefan Freunberger from Austria and his research team at the Institute of Science and Technology have made significant progress in this area.
The team carried out various experiments starting with superoxide molecules. They studied the oxygen-dependent reactions utilized by mitochondria in energy production and its influence on the generation of both oxygen forms. While cells possess enzymes to facilitate this process, the team tested various “mediator” molecules, enabling them to observe a broader spectrum of reactions that could yield oxygen under varying energy conditions. They found that this specific energy requirement is crucial; it needs to be notably high for singlet oxygen to be produced.
“There has been considerable debate over whether singlet oxygen truly depends on the cellular environment for its formation. Up until now, this has not been clearly established,” remarked Freunberger.
Because mitochondria maintain elevated pH levels that limit their driving force, recent findings indicate that significant amounts of singlet oxygen are not generated within these cellular areas, effectively safeguarding them against damage.
Christopher McNeill from Eszürich, Switzerland, indicates that understanding singlet oxygen generation extends beyond biological implications. “Even if it forms, it can cause harm or react adversely with nearby elements,” he explains. The insights from this study could clarify certain battery types and may help elucidate why they occasionally degrade from the inside, McNeill notes.
The region of the ocean between Florida, Puerto Rico, and Bermuda became famous in the mid-20th century, largely due to reports about the unexplained disappearance of ships and aircraft.
One of the most notable events took place in 1945 when Flight 19, a formation of five US Navy bombers, vanished during a training exercise in this area. For many years, shipwrecks and downed planes were frequently linked to the triangle’s mysterious forces.
However, in 1975, Larry Cush published a book that debunked the legend, revealing that many reports about the triangle were either exaggerated, inaccurate, or unverified. He found that the frequency of incidents in this region is not significantly higher than in other parts of the ocean.
Despite this, a variety of theories have been put forth over the years. Some have speculated about the remnants of Atlantis’s technology. Others argued that the triangle might be a location where warp threads of space-time cause objects to be drawn into parallel universes.
The prevalence of hurricanes in the area could also have impacted earlier pilots and captains who lacked the technology to make accurate weather predictions.
Recent research indicates that converging storms can create rogue waves as high as 30 meters (nearly 100 feet), capable of sinking even large vessels. Laboratory simulations have confirmed that such waves can engulf a ship, though there is no evidence that these phenomena actually occur in the Bermuda Triangle.
Some assert that magnetic anomalies could mislead navigators, causing them to lose their course. While no such anomalies have been confirmed, in the early 20th century, the magnetic north rotated into alignment with the Bermuda Triangle, which could have led to navigation errors.
Interestingly, the US Coast Guard has not identified any specific hazards in the Bermuda Triangle. A survey conducted in 2013 indicates that the most perilous shipping routes do not include this area.
Despite the heavy air and sea traffic, as well as frequent hurricanes, the Bermuda Triangle has not seen an unusually high number of crashes or shipwrecks.
The enduring appeal of this legend can be attributed to more mundane factors. Early accounts of disappearances captured public imagination, drawing people toward mystery.
Once the myth took off, reports turned any shipwrecks into tales of the Bermuda Triangle’s mystical powers. The interest has likely diminished in recent years, as advances in technology allow for better tracking of ocean and air traffic.
This article addresses the question posed by Cardiff, Diane Johnston: “What happened in the Bermuda Triangle?”
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Deep within the shadowy oceans, a variety of curious and enigmatic creatures inhabit the depths, such as the frilled shark (Chlamydoselachus anguineus), which has been known for over a century, yet much of its lifestyle remains elusive.
We gain insight into their appearance through the occasional specimens caught in deep-sea fishing nets across the globe.
These sharks typically measure about 2 meters (6.5 feet) in length, with smooth, tube-like brown or gray bodies and dorsal fins positioned lower on their backs, close to the tail of their elongated form.
The most peculiar characteristic is found at the front end. The frilled shark possesses six prominent gill slits, exceeding the number found in most other sharks.
Indeed, there are five other known species in the frilled shark taxonomic order, Hexanchiformes, which include the Sixgill and Seven Gill sharks.
The name “frilled shark” derives from the unique ruffled edges of its gill slits, with the extended tips of the gill filaments visible.
The first pair of gill slits connects beneath the throat, resembling a lacy collar.
Moreover, their mouths are larger, akin to those of lizards, compared to typical sharks. Inside, they feature a series of three-pronged teeth resembling tiny tridents.
Studies of the stomach contents from rare specimens reveal that frilled sharks employ their three-pronged teeth to capture soft-bodied squid.
They are also reported to occasionally consume fish and other shark species. Unlike many sharks, pregnant female frilled sharks do not lay eggs; rather, the eggs hatch internally.
The newborn sharks begin life as embryos, attached to egg yolks, which serve as a nutritional source during their development.
Photos of the frilled shark (Chlamydoselachus anguineus) were taken in collaboration with the University of the Zoological Museum in Hamburg. – Photo credit: Aramie
One mystery that remains unsolved is the duration of their pregnancy. If other deep-sea sharks are indicative, it could take several years before a frilled shark pup emerges into the ocean.
Often mischaracterized as “living fossils,” frilled sharks garnered significant attention in 2022 after a viral video showcased rare footage of live frilled sharks in Japan, prompting news outlets worldwide to clarify misconceptions.
These creatures likely exist for decades.
However, it is indeed true that the oldest known fossils of frilled sharks date back to the late Cretaceous period, approximately 80 million years ago, displaying surprisingly little change through time.
The fossils indicate that the ancestors of frilled sharks exhibited similar deep-sea swimming behaviors.
This suggests that these unusual-looking sharks have been gracefully navigating the oceans with their snake-like bodies for millions of years, and although their young are rarely observed, they continue to thrive today.
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Trilobites were a varied group of ancient marine arthropods. While many inhabited the seabed, some took to more mobile lifestyles. Recent research has clarified the evolutionary lineage of a peculiar group of trilobites known as cyclopizids, named after the legendary one-eyed creature, Cyclops.
Cyclopygid Trilobite Symphysops Stevaninae. Image credit: Francisco J. López-Soriano & Joan Corbacho, https://www.elfosil.com via Bataleria.
Mirobiaceae was an ancient aquatic creature (arthropod) that existed from 521 million years ago (MA) until around 252 MA.
Approximately 21,000 species are known, representing numerous ecological niches. Most thrived on the seabed (benthic), while some ventured into the open ocean (pelagic).
Despite their diversity, our understanding of their comprehensive evolutionary history remains limited.
Strange groups of Ordovician trilobites (485-444 MA) are referred to as Cyclopizids. They possess 5-7 body (thoracic) segments, and the cephalon lacks typical spines.
The name Cyclopizid is derived from the mythical Greek cyclops, as their eyes evolved to merge into a single large visual surface, enhancing their field of vision.
Cyclopygids inhabited the deep, dark zones of the ocean (mesopelagic), swimming at the lower edge of the illuminated region, known as the Twilight Zone, where they actively hunted small organisms (zooplankton).
Some Cyclopygids, such as Pricyclopyge, may have swum upside down and featured bioluminescent structures on their third thoracic segment.
Recent research has elucidated the evolutionary history of the 47 cyclopygid genera through cladistic analysis, a method that categorizes organisms based on shared derived traits.
The family predominantly found in China, Tai Hungshaniidae, is connected to the Nileidae and Cyclopidiidae families. Illaenopsis is expected to be included.
As cyclopizids evolved, they adapted to a more transparent lifestyle, which included larger eyes shifting towards the edges of the thorax, a reduction in the number of thoracic segments, size decrease, and enhanced streamlining.
These cyclopizids, which occupy higher positions in the water column, usually reside closer to the coasts.
Mapping the depths they are interpreted to inhabit on our evolutionary trees reveals that cyclopizids positioned near the base tend to inhabit shallow waters.
Consequently, cyclopizids gradually transitioned into deeper waters, adapting more to a pelagic lifestyle.
This paper will be published in the journal Historical Biology.
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SJ Braddy, La Dale & H. Wang. 2025. Phylogenesis of cyclopide trilobites. Historical Biology. doi:10.1080/08912963.2025.2501330
When her school closed in March 2020, Baltimore English teacher Chimere Sweeney thought that once the US got the new SARS-COV-2 virus, she would return to her students. But “There was another plan in life,” she said when she quickly got Covid and never recovered.
Initially, Sweeney developed only muscle pain. By the second week she began having panic attacks, blurry vision, constipation and partial hearing loss. Half of her face freezes “like concrete.” She forgot her phone number and address and stuttered. Within a month of contracting, she lost 30 pounds.
“In two weeks, I was told I would be better,” said Sweeney, now 42. “But my two weeks didn't come.”
Almost five years later, she still suffers from severe whole body pain, insomnia, depression, painful rash and boiling, uncontrollable urination, short-term memory loss and irregular periods.
“I'm a healthy 37-year-old woman and I might have had to pop allergy pills many times, but I took 10-12 medications per day to control almost every system in my body,” Sweeney said.
The World Health Organization characterized Covid as a pandemic on March 11, 2020, so scientists don't fully understand why some people develop chronic diseases and disordered conditions after their first virus infection. The US may have come throughout the winter after the first pandemic without a massive surge in cases, but each infection is at risk of developing a long community. Some scientists are looking for a new type of clinical trial designed for the longest and most debilitating covid patients.
Long covid is known to be the cause Over 200 different symptoms There are no approved tests or recommended treatments in almost 12 organ systems, including those of the heart, lungs, kidneys, brain, eyes and skin. Research shows long covid It's more common for middle-aged people, especially women and those with weakened immune systems, but anyone who catches the virus can get it.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that there is one in every 20 adults in the United States, or about 14 million. Living with a long covid. Other data shows that 5.8 million children It may be affected by the condition as well. However, experts say these numbers are likely to be underestimated as there is no official surveillance system in place.
Billion Dollar Research Initiative Called Recover Started by the National Institutes of Health, finding the causes and potential treatments of covid, I've reached that promisesays scientists and patient advocates.
Meanwhile, experts fear that extreme cuts in federal spending by the Trump administration could be possible It undermines long Covid's research effortswhich could further delay the discovery of treatment. Last month, President Donald Trump ended his secretary as a health and welfare secretary Advisory Committee on Long Covid.
This indefinite dye microscope image, available to the US National Institutes of Health in February 2020, shows the novel coronavirus SARS-COV-2, shown in yellow, emerges from the cell surface and is cultured in laboratory culture.niaid-rml via AP file
W. Medical Director, UT Health Austin. Dr. Michael Broad Post-Covid-19 Program In Texas, “We build boats while we're at the sea and we're trying to understand together. [with patients] …But we need to build on the progress we have already made. ”
“We are not offering answers that are worthy of the public health crisis we are facing,” he said.
Causes of long covids
SARS-COV-2, which causes Covid, is not the only virus that causes prolonged symptoms. Another condition called myalgia encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) shares many similarities with the long community; Caused by infection Among other things, Epstein Barr, influenza, and water cell-zoster virus.
Brode said Covid is unique because it is more likely to cause chronic disease than other pathogens. It has not yet been determined why it could lead to long-term symptoms. Experts have come to several theories so far.
One idea is that Virus remains hidden in different tissues Broad said after the infection subsided. These viral particles continue to thrust and stimulate the immune system in ways that cause long covid symptoms.
Another potential cause is Reactivation of other virusessitting in a dormant state of people's bodies, such as EBV and HIV.
Dr. Igor Coralnik, co-director of Northwest Medicine's Comprehensive COVID-19 Centre, said Covid could also trick the immune system into producing antibodies that attack people's own healthy organs and tissues.
Some evidence shows covid It affects the inner layer of blood vesselswhich leads to the formation of small clots and helps explain the symptoms, such as irregular heartbeat and heart failure, that some long-term community patients experience, Koralnik said.
It is unclear whether one or a combination of these factors will cause long covid, experts say. But the evidence suggests that they are all linked to an increase in inflammation in the body, Coralnik said, it's yours The risk of long covid increases with each covid infection.
“It's like a river that's over a dam,” Coralnik said. “The more episodes of Covid, the higher the river levels will go to where it is overflowing, and there will be a long flood of COVID symptoms.”
Diagnosis of long covids can be complicated
There are diagnostic tools to check for long covid symptoms, such as MRI scans for heart abnormalities. There are no tests that can diagnose the condition Or distinguish it from similar diseases, the CDC says.
As a result, people need to stay away from work, school or other responsibilities and endure numerous clinical tests and scans that are not only expensive, but also stressful and time-consuming. This is a broad exclusion process that prevents people from getting the help they need, Broad said.
Eye, intestine, and immune system clue
The current challenge is to find one or more biomarkers of genes, proteins, or other substances associated with a particular condition that will help diagnose long covid.
a Recover your research Released last year, routine lab tests, including 25 standard blood and urine tests, showed little difference in biomarkers, with or without previous symbiotic infections. Researchers concluded that these tests may not be useful in the diagnosis of long-term COVID.
Koralnik and his team recently discovered that people with long covids are reducing blood flow in small blood vessels in the retina. This reduced flow is thought to reduce blood circulation in and around the brain, and the small organelles called mitochondria, which convert oxygen into energy, are described as “toxic.”
This theory can explain why many people with long covid experience cognitive problems, fatigue and exercise intolerance, Coralnik said. Overall, the findings published in the Journal of Imaging in February are The retina can become a long covid biomarker.
Other studies suggest that biomarkers may be present in the gut and immune system, but Brode noted that these early findings are based on small groups of people and should be considered in salt grains.
As useful as diagnostic tests, experts say that for those with prolonged symptoms, some experts should not slow scientists in searching for long covid treatments.
Julia Moore Vogel, senior program director at Scripps Research, and Patient-led research cooperation Regarding long covid, he said that other conditions like migraines do not have reliable biomarkers or tests to confirm the diagnosis. Several drugs have been approved To handle it.
“I think we'll get there,” said Vogel, a long-distance runner before developing the long-time Covid in 2020. “But I personally don't think it should contain anything.”
Unfortunate advances in long covid treatments
The Food and Drug Administration has not approved treatments, particularly for long covids. Experts are not sure if they'll get it anytime soon.
“When I first got sick, I was OK, I had to survive for just three to five years. At least, I think I have options as I have decent symptom management trial data. But we've made little progress in treatment,” Vogel said. “There are currently promising research beginning, but it's not close to the amount that should be burdened by the disease.”
Most clinical trials test whether medications used to treat other conditions are useful for long-term COVID. For example, researchers at the University of British Columbia Low-dose naltrexone – Approved drugs for opioid and alcohol use disorders. The drug is thought to have anti-inflammatory and pain relief properties and is used off-label in people with fibromyalgia and ME/CFS, making it potential as a long-term symbiotic treatment.
Other drugs Barishinibapproved for treating rheumatoid arthritis and acute charlation, and Temelimabuexperimental drugs often administered to people with multiple sclerosis have also been investigated as potential long covid treatments.
Instead of a particular treatment, people with long covids must balance rest and activity in a strategy called pacing and undergo physical and cognitive behavioral therapy for further support. Many people will often rely on several drugs, including antiviral Paxlovid, to treat symptoms.
But realistically, “we may not actually have one silver bullet treatment,” says Alison Cohen, an epidemiologist at the University of California, San Francisco, who coexisted for three years for a long time. Cohen said that long covid will take a “multi-faceted approach” to take a “multi-faceted approach” in a very diverse way.
What will you do in the future for recovery?
As long as SARS-COV-2 continues to spread, everyone is at risk of a long Covid, Cohen said. And now, evidence shows that recovery from the condition is rare. A survey released last month found it Only about 6% of people with long covid recover According to Cohen, two years later. Covid vaccinations were associated with better long-term recovery, especially among those who won booster shots.
People who improve are experiencing many “ups and downs,” Coralnik said. “You need to expect a lot of collisions on the road.”
“Living with a long Covid is tiring,” Cohen said. “So for everyone who doesn't live with it, it's important to think about what we can do to support those who have them.”
In the meantime, clinical trials must be designed to accommodate and include the patients they intend, Vogel said. Many people are tied to their homes and beds and cannot travel due to the risk of multiple in-person visits or flare-ups of symptoms, she added. “There are too many things you can't know until you put them on the table,” she said.
Although we don't know when a long community community finally gets the answers and security they need, Vogel keeps her head high.
“We know we can do that. We are confident that a well-designed and well-tested exam will at least improve the quality of life. “But I can't think of any other way. I can't accept that this is for my life.”
Stonehenge, an ancient temple in southern England built around 5,000 years ago, remains a mysterious site with no written explanation of its purpose. Modern analysis has shown that the massive stones were transported from distant quarries to the site.
The structure is aligned with the sun during the summer and winter solstices, but the significance of this alignment remains unclear. There is speculation about whether it was also aligned with the moon, a remarkable achievement for a society that did not have advanced technology.
On June 21, 2024, a team of experts aims to investigate if the moon was an integral part of Stonehenge’s design during a rare lunar event.
Professor Michael Parker Pearson, an expert in British prehistory, believes that if Stonehenge is connected to this event, it would show a profound understanding of celestial movements by its builders.
The lunar major standstill, occurring every 18.6 years, involves the moon reaching extreme positions in the night sky, similar to the sun’s solstices. Stonehenge’s alignment with these lunar cycles is a topic of ongoing research by experts.
The study of Stonehenge’s connection to the lunar standstill involves academics from multiple universities and aims to shed light on the role of the moon in the construction of this ancient site.
About our experts
Mike Parker Pearson: A Professor of British Late Prehistory at UCL with extensive experience in archaeology and heritage preservation.
Clive Ruggles: An Emeritus Professor of Archaeoastronomy known for his work on astronomy and World Heritage sites.
Amanda Chadburn: An archaeologist and historic environment advisor contributing to research on Stonehenge and its lunar connections.
When you’re trying to solve one of the biggest puzzles in cosmology, you need to triple-check your homework. The mystery, called the Hubble tension, is that the universe is currently expanding faster than astronomers expect based on the initial conditions of the universe and our current understanding of its evolution. Astronomers using the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope and many other telescopes are constantly discovering numbers that don’t match predictions based on observations from ESA’s Planck mission. Does this discrepancy require new physics to resolve, or is it a result of measurement errors between the two different methods used to determine the rate of expansion of space?
NGC 5468 is an image of a galaxy located approximately 142 million light-years away in the constellation Virgo, combining data from Hubble and Webb. Image credit: NASA / ESA / CSA / STScI / A. Riess, JHU & STScI.
One of the scientific justifications for building Hubble was to use its observational capabilities to provide accurate values for the rate of expansion of the universe.
Before Hubble’s launch in 1990, ground-based telescope observations were subject to large uncertainties. Depending on what we infer from the expansion rate, the age of the universe could be between 10 and 20 billion years old.
Over the past 34 years, Hubble has reduced this measurement to less than 1% accuracy, dividing the difference by an age value of 13.8 billion years.
This was achieved by improving the so-called “cosmic distance ladder” by measuring important milepost markers known as Cepheid variable stars.
However, the Hubble value does not match other measurements that suggest the universe expanded faster after the Big Bang.
These observations were made by mapping the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation by ESA’s Planck satellite.
A simple solution to this dilemma would be that the Hubble observations are wrong as a result of some inaccuracy creeping into the measurements of the deep space yardstick.
Then the James Webb Space Telescope came along, allowing astronomers to cross-check Hubble’s results.
Webb’s infrared observations of Cepheids were consistent with Hubble’s optical data.
Webb confirmed that Hubble’s keen observations were correct all along and dispelled any lingering doubts about Hubble’s measurements.
The bottom line is that the Hubble tension between what’s happening in the nearby universe and the expansion of the early universe remains a perplexing puzzle for cosmologists.
“There may be something woven into the fabric of the universe that we don’t yet understand,” the astronomers said.
“Do we need new physics to resolve this contradiction? Or is it the result of measurement errors between the two different methods used to determine the rate of expansion of space?”
Hubble and Webb are now working together to make the final measurements, making it even more likely that something else, not measurement error, is influencing the rate of expansion.
Dr. Adam Rees, a physicist at Johns Hopkins University and leader of the SH0ES (Dark Energy Equation of State Supernova “This is a very real and interesting possibility.” ) Team.
As a cross-check, the first Webb observations in 2023 confirmed that Hubble’s measurements of the expanding universe were accurate.
But in hopes of softening the Hubble tension, some scientists have speculated that invisible measurement errors may grow and become visible as we look deeper into the universe.
In particular, star crowding can systematically affect measurements of the brightness of more distant stars.
The SH0ES team obtained additional observations by Webb of an object that is a Cepheid variable star, an important cosmic milepost marker. This can now be correlated with Hubble data.
“We now have the entire range observed by Hubble and can rule out measurement errors as a cause of the Hubble tension with very high confidence,” Dr. Rees said.
The team’s first few Webb observations in 2023 succeeded in showing that Hubble is on the right track in firmly establishing the fidelity of the first rung of the so-called cosmic distance ladder.
Astronomers use different methods to measure relative distances in space, depending on the object they are observing.
These techniques are collectively known as the space distance ladder. Each stage or measurement technique relies on previous steps for calibration.
But some astronomers believe that the cosmic distance ladder could become unstable as we move outward along the second rung, as Cepheid measurements become less accurate with distance. suggested.
Such inaccuracies can occur because the Cepheid’s light can mix with the light of neighboring stars. This effect can become more pronounced at greater distances, as stars become denser in the sky and harder to distinguish from each other.
The observational challenge is that past Hubble images of these more distant Cepheid variable stars show that as the distance between us and our host galaxy grows ever greater, they appear to overlap more closely with their neighbors. Therefore, this effect needs to be carefully considered.
Intervening dust makes reliable measurements in visible light even more difficult.
The web cuts through the dust, naturally isolating the Cepheid cluster from its neighboring stars. The reason is that its view is clearer at infrared wavelengths than the Hubble Cluster.
“Combining Webb and Hubble gives us the best of both worlds. We find that the reliability of Hubble measurements remains as we climb further along the cosmic distance ladder,” Dr. Rees said.
The new Webb observations include five host galaxies consisting of eight type Ia supernovae containing a total of 1,000 Cepheids, and are located 130 million light-years away, the most distant galaxy in which Cepheids have been sufficiently measured. NGC 5468 is also reached in the distance.
“This spans the entire range measured by Hubble, so we’ve reached the end of the second rung of the cosmic distance ladder,” said Dr. Gagandeep Anand, an astronomer at the Space Telescope Science Institute. Told.
of the team paper Published in Astrophysics Journal Letter.
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Adam G. Reese other. 2024. JWST observations refute unrecognized crowding of Cepheid photometry as an explanation for the Hubble tension with 8σ confidence. APJL 962, L17; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ad1ddd
The brown and white giant panda is a mutant with a unique coat color found only in the world. Qinling Mountains Chinese.
Kizai is the only brown panda living in captivity. Image credit: Ailie HM / CC BY-SA 4.0 Certificate.
“Variation in fur color has considerable adaptive and cultural value in mammals,” said study lead author Dengfeng Guan, Ph.D., from the Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and colleagues.
“This property is directly determined by the ratio of eumelanin to pheomelanin and the density and distribution of melanosomes within the hair.”
“These factors are under complex control by hundreds of genes that influence different aspects of melanogenesis, including melanocyte proliferation and migration, melanin synthesis, and melanosome biogenesis and translocation.”
Giant panda (Airuropoda melanoruca) is one of the most charismatic flagship breeds, distinguished by its striking black and white coat.
However, the discovery brown panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca qinlingensis) This photograph, taken in the Qinling Mountains of China's Shaanxi province, challenges the conventional wisdom that color photographs of pandas are never possible.
Recognized as a subspecies of the giant panda, this brown panda is extremely rare and is definitely designated as a national treasure.
Since the first brown panda was discovered in 1985, 11 records have been reported by official news or private communications, seven of which have been confirmed by photographs or physical objects. Three cases were from Buping County, two from Yang County, one from Taibai County, and one from Taibai County. Zhou Zhi.
All brown pandas are found only in the Qinling Mountains, indicating that they are endemic to this region.
“The first recorded brown panda, a female named Dan Dan, was rescued from Foping Nature Reserve to Xi'an Zoo in 1985,” the biologists explained.
“She then mated with the black panda Wang Wang and gave birth to a male black panda named Qing Qing in captivity.”
“Dan Dan passed away in 2000 and Chin Chin also died in 2006, leaving no descendants.”
“In 2009, Qi Zhai, a male brown panda cub, was rescued from Fo Ping Nature Reserve and is currently the only brown panda living in captivity.”
Dr. Guan and co-authors established two family trios related to the brown panda Qi Zai and sequenced their genomes.
They analyzed ecological and genetic data obtained from a long-term study of wild giant pandas in Fo Ping Nature Reserve.
Additionally, we investigated the cellular mechanisms underlying brown fur color based on microscopy and transmission electron microscopy analyses.
They are candidate mutations, viz. base 2 The gene is thought to be the most likely genetic basis for brown pandas.
They verified this deletion through sequencing an additional cohort of 192 black pandas and CRISPR-Cas9 knockout mice.
Their findings will not only provide insight into the genetic basis of coat color variation in brown pandas and wild animals, but will also guide the scientific breeding of rare brown pandas.
“The extremely small number of brown pandas and the nature of the frameshift deletion mutation suggest that this mutation may be a neutral or weakly deleterious mutation,” the authors said.
“Remarkably, the two brown pandas (Qi Zai and Dan Dan) are showing normal growth and reproduction; base 2 The knockout mice were viable, fertile, and had no obvious physical abnormalities, indicating that this mutation had no apparent negative impact on the physical fitness of these mice. ”
“However, other physiological effects of this mutation on brown pandas remain unclear. base 2 It is known to be involved in the Alzheimer's disease pathway. ”
“Given the small population size of Qinling giant pandas, weak deleterious mutations may be corrected by genetic drift effects.”
“Further studies on brown pandas and knockout mouse models will therefore provide valuable insight into the functional consequences of this mutation.”
“For a rare coat color mutant of the giant panda that has great scientific and ornamental value, our findings will provide guidance for the scientific breeding of brown pandas.”
of study Published online this week Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Dengfeng Guan other. 2024. Color photography: homozygous 25 bp deletion base 2 Giant pandas can have brown and white coats. PNAS 121 (11): e2317430121; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2317430121
researchers Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory We discovered two distantly related model plants. Arabidopsis And tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum), very different control systems can be used to control the exact same gene. Incredibly, scientists have linked this behavior to extreme genetic modifications that occurred over the course of 125 million years of evolution.
Function of CLV3 in Arabidopsis And in tomato, the cis-regulatory sequences are conserved despite extreme divergence.Image credit: Shiren other., doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1011174.
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory scientist Daniel Siren and his colleagues used genome editing to create more than 70 mutant strains of tomato and Arabidopsis plants.
The researchers then analyzed how each mutation affected plant growth and development.
when DNA is stored CLV3 Check-in has mutated too much and the fruit has grown explosively.
“CLV3 It helps in the normal development of plants,” Dr. Shiren said.
“If the switch hadn't been turned on at exactly the right time, the plant would have looked completely different.”
“None of the fruits are huge and ideal. You have to balance growth and yield.”
“If you only have two giant tomatoes on a plant, is that as beneficial as a reduced yield?”
“There are no easy solutions. When you try to improve something, you always end up sacrificing something.”
In the case of tomatoes, mutations occur near the beginning, but not at the end. CLV3 Genetics had a dramatic effect on fruit size.
for Arabidopsisthe regions surrounding both parts of the gene had to be destroyed.
This suggests that something happened over the past 125 million years that caused plants to evolve differently. What exactly happened remains a mystery.
“We can't go back to our common ancestors because they no longer exist,” Dr. Siren says.
“So it's hard to say what the original conditions were and how they were mixed together.”
“The simplest explanation is that there is a regulatory element that is conserved to some degree, and that is being changed in a subtle way. That's a little unexpected.”
“What is certain is that gene regulation is not uniform across plant species.”
“Uncovering these genetic differences could help make crop genome engineering more predictable.”
“And that would be a huge win not only for science, but also for farmers and plant breeders around the world.”
The odd radio sphere (ORC), a type of extragalactic astronomical source discovered in 2019, is actually a shell formed by galactic winds spilling from massive supernovae, according to a new study.
ASKAP radio continuum image (contours) of ORC 1 superimposed on the DES tricolor composite image. Two galaxies of interest: 'C' is near the center of ORC 1, and 'S' coincides with the southern radio peak. Image credit: Norris otherarXiv: 2006.14805.
The first three ORCs were discovered during the Cosmic Evolution Map pilot survey using the Australian Square Kilometer Array Pathfinder (ASKAP) telescope.
A fourth ORC, called ORC4, was discovered in archival data taken with the Giant Meterwave radio telescope, and additional ORCs were discovered in subsequent ASKAP and MeerKAT data.
These sources are huge, hundreds of kiloparsecs across, with one kiloparsec equal to 3,260 light-years.
Multiple theories have been proposed to explain its origin, including planetary nebulae and black hole mergers, but it was not possible to distinguish between the theories based on radio data alone.
Intrigued, Professor Alison Coyle of the University of California, San Diego, and colleagues thought that the radio rings could have originated from the later stages of the starburst galaxies they were studying.
Until then, ORCs had only been observed by radio emission, and no optical data were available.
Astronomers observed ORC 4 using the Integrating Field Spectrometer at W.M. Keck Observatory on Mauna Kea, Hawaii, and found that it contained a huge amount of high-brightness, much more than is seen in the average galaxy. A heated compressed gas was revealed.
With more questions than answers, the team set to work doing some detective work.
Using optical and infrared imaging data, they determined that the stars in the ORC 4 galaxy are about 6 billion years old.
“This galaxy experienced an explosion of star formation that ended about a billion years ago,” Professor Coyle said.
The authors also ran a series of numerical computer simulations to recreate the size and properties of the massive radio ring containing large amounts of shocked cold gas in the central galaxy.
Simulations show that the outflowing galactic winds will continue to blow for 200 million years before stopping.
When the winds stopped, forward shocks continued to push hot gas out of the galaxy, forming a radio ring, while reverse shocks caused cooler gas to fall into the galaxy.
The simulation ran for 750 million years. This is within ORC 4's estimated stellar age of 1 billion years.
“For this to work, you need a high mass egress rate, which means you're releasing a lot of material very quickly,” Professor Coyle says.
“And the surrounding gas just outside the galaxy has to be low density, otherwise the shock stalls. Those are the two key factors.”
“We found that the galaxies we have studied have high rates of mass outflow. Although rare, they do exist. This points to ORC originating from some type of outflow galactic wind. I really think so.”
Outflow winds not only help astronomers understand ORCs, but ORCs also help astronomers understand outflow winds.
“ORC provides a way to 'see' the wind through radio data and spectroscopy,” Professor Coyle said.
“This will help us determine how common extreme outflow winds from galaxies are and what the life cycle of winds is like.”
“These can also help us learn more about galaxy evolution. Do all giant galaxies go through an ORC phase?”
“Do spiral galaxies become elliptical when they stop forming stars? I think there's a lot we can learn about and from the ORC.”
Princeton researchers have found that the M87* black hole emits energy outward, contributing to the formation of a giant jet. This discovery challenges traditional views about black holes and may be further tested with advanced telescopes. This new understanding opens up new avenues in comprehending black hole dynamics, though the source of the jet’s power is not definitively explained. This research was conducted with the support of the Princeton Gravity Initiative, a Taplin Fellowship, the National Science Foundation (grant 2307888), and a Simons Foundation Investigator Award.
The findings were published in the Astrophysical Journal on November 14, 2023. The research was spearheaded by Princeton astrophysicists including Andrew Chael, Alexandru Lupsasca, George N. Wong, and Eliot Quataert. With origins in Einstein’s theory of relativity, the researchers made intricate observations involving the black hole and its magnetic field to decipher the direction of energy flow. The researchers found that energy near the event horizon of black hole M87* is pushing outward rather than inward. They also verified the prediction that black holes lose rotational energy.
The researchers have concluded that while it is very likely that the black hole is powering the jet, it cannot be proven conclusively. Furthermore, the team has not conclusively shown that the black hole’s rotation “really powers the extragalactic jet.” Though the energy levels shown in their model were consistent with what a jet would require, they could not rule out the possibility that the jet could be powered by spinning plasma outside the black hole. Nevertheless, it is expected that the next generationEvent Horizon Telescope will further explore and confirm these findings.
The research team was also awarded the 2024 New Horizons Prize in Physics from the Breakthrough Prize Foundation for their black hole research. The research was also supported by a Taplin Fellowship, the National Science Foundation, a Simons Foundation Investigator Award as well as by the Princeton Gravity Initiative.
Researchers have used AI to uncover new insights into dislocations in polycrystalline materials, challenging existing scientific models and paving the way for improved material performance in electronics and solar cells. Credit: SciTechDaily.com
scientists of Nagoya University A Japanese research team is conducting research to understand tiny defects called dislocations in polycrystalline materials, materials widely used in information devices, solar cells, electronic devices, etc., that can reduce device efficiency. A new method was discovered using artificial intelligence.The research results were published in a magazine advanced materials.
Challenge of polycrystalline materials
Almost all devices we use in modern life contain polycrystalline components. From smartphones to computers to car metals and ceramics. Nevertheless, polycrystalline materials are difficult to utilize due to their complex structures. In addition to its composition, the performance of polycrystalline materials is affected by its complex microstructure, dislocations, and impurities.
A major problem when using polycrystals in industry is the formation of small crystal defects caused by stress and temperature changes. These are known as dislocations and can disrupt the regular arrangement of atoms in the lattice, affecting electrical conduction and overall performance. Understanding the formation of these dislocations is important to reduce the likelihood of failure in devices using polycrystalline materials.
Researchers used 3D models created by AI to understand complex polycrystalline materials used in everyday electronics.Credit: Kenta Yamakoshi
AI-powered discovery
A research team led by Professor Noritaka Usa of Nagoya University and consisting of Lecturer Tatsuya Yokoi, Associate Professor Hiroaki Kudo, and other collaborators is using new AI to investigate polycrystalline silicon, which is widely used in solar panels. We analyzed image data of a material called . AI created his 3D model in virtual space and helped the team identify areas where dislocation clusters were affecting the material’s performance.
After identifying regions of dislocation clusters, the researchers used electron microscopy and theoretical calculations to understand how these regions formed. They revealed the stress distribution within the crystal lattice and discovered a step-like structure at the boundaries between grains. These structures are thought to induce dislocations during crystal growth. “We discovered a special nanostructure in the crystal that is related to dislocations in the polycrystalline structure,” Professor Usami said.
Impact on crystal growth science
In addition to practical implications, this study may also have important implications for the science of crystal growth and deformation. The Hasen-Alexander-Smino (HAS) model is an influential theoretical framework used to understand the behavior of dislocations in materials. However, Professor Usami believes that he has discovered a dislocation that was missed by the Hasen-Alexander-Kakuno model.
New insights into the arrangement of atoms
Another surprise soon followed, as when the team calculated the arrangement of atoms within these structures, they discovered unexpectedly large tensile bond strains along the edges of the stepped structures that caused the creation of dislocations. .
Usami explains: “As experts who have been doing this research for years, we were surprised and excited to finally see evidence of the presence of dislocations in these structures. This suggests that we can control the formation of
Conclusions and implications for the future
“By extracting and analyzing, nanoscale “By combining experiment, theory, and AI, polycrystalline materials informatics has made it possible for the first time to elucidate phenomena in complex polycrystalline materials,” Usami continued. “This research is expected to shed light on the path towards establishing universal guidelines for high-performance materials and contribute to the creation of innovative polycrystalline materials. It extends beyond batteries to everything from ceramics to solar cells. semiconductor. Polycrystalline materials are widely used in society, and improving their performance has the potential to bring about social change. ”
Reference: “Polycrystalline informatics for polycrystalline silicon to elucidate the microscopic root cause of dislocation generation” Kenta Yamagoe, Yutaka Ohno, Kentaro Kutsukake, Takuto Kojima, Tatsuya Yokoi, Hideto Yoshida, Hiroyuki Tanaka, Liu Kin, Hiroaki Kudo, Noritaka Usa, December 2, 2023 advanced materials. DOI: 10.1002/adma.202308599
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