Evidence of Ancient Human Butchery on Lehringen Elephant Bones
Image Credit: VOLKER_MINKUS
In the backroom of the distinguished Schöningen Research Museum in Germany, a collection of mismatched cardboard boxes reveals archaeological treasures. Discovered in Rehringen, a village located 150 kilometers away, these boxes hold invaluable artifacts.
In 1948, researchers uncovered 125,000-year-old bones from the Paleoloxodon antiquus species in the bed of an ancient lake at Rehringen. While elephant bones from this period are somewhat common, this particular find included a 2.3-meter-long spear lodged between the ribs, marking a significant archaeological milestone.
This yew spear, identified as the oldest complete spear ever discovered, provides powerful evidence suggesting that Neanderthals were skilled big game hunters rather than mere scavengers. However, this remarkable discovery faced challenges. Alexander Rosenbrock, a dedicated school principal and amateur archaeologist, led the excavation, but a series of complications arose during the retrieval of the bones.
After digging began, a portion of the bones was improperly extracted before Rosenbrock and his team could arrive. Some bones were even reported stolen, and without a camera, he struggled to document their positions accurately. This led to a lengthy seven-year legal battle over the remains. Ultimately, Rosenbrock secured rights to keep the artifacts in Verden, where they unfortunately faded into obscurity before his passing in the 1950s.
Over the following 75 years, doubts lingered regarding the circumstances surrounding Rehringen’s find. Were the spear and bones simply coincidentally located together? Despite two examinations, researchers initially found no clear signs of butchery on the elephant bones.
The 1948 Excavation of Rehringen
Credits: Archives of the Cultural Heritage Office of Lower Saxony
Fast forward to 2025, Ivo Verheijen, Schöningen’s resident bone expert, began a meticulous examination of the Rehringen findings.
“We were informed there were just a few boxes,” Verheijen explained. “Upon arrival at the museum to collect them, we discovered numerous boxes piled in the attic!”
The Schöningen Center, located merely 300 meters from an active archaeological excavation site, has been operational since the mid-1990s. This site is notably home to 10 spears, around 300,000 years old, along with the Clacton and Rehringen spears, forming part of a limited collection of discovered spears from the Paleolithic era.
In 2017, the Schöningen team further solidified their expertise when they discovered a complete elephant. As a result, Verheijen was well-versed in handling ancient elephant bones before teaming up with Rehringen.
As Verheijen rummaged through the boxes, he uncovered a freshwater shell along with an excavation label, which intriguingly turned out to be an old 50 million mark banknote from the post-World War I inflation period. “It’s fascinating to have such unique labels,” he remarked.
This initiative resembled a cold-case investigation for Verheijen and his team. Thankfully, the collection comprised not only bones of elephants and other species but also invaluable records of Rosenbrock’s pioneering work, preserved and shared by his daughter Waltraut Deibel-Rosenbrock after his passing.
Verheijen quickly deduced that the Lehringen elephant had been intentionally slaughtered. “I immediately identified some distinct cut marks,” he stated. “It’s astonishing that these were overlooked for so long.”
Evidence of Cut Marks on Elephant Bones
Image Credit: Ivo Verheijen
The elephant, likely a solitary male standing over 3.5 meters tall at shoulder height, may have also been over 30 years old. It is suspected that he had been slaughtered both externally and internally, with organs removed shortly after death. This implies that the elephant likely perished with the spear embedded in its side, making the proximity of the bones and weapon no mere coincidence.
Neanderthals utilized flint tools to extract what they could from the carcass, leaving behind the rest for scavengers. While some bones showed signs of butchering, remains of bears, beavers, and aurochs were also discovered, indicating that Neanderthals frequently hunted and processed animals in proximity to the lake.
Verheijen speculates that modern elephants tend to move toward water when injured. Thus, after sustaining an injury from a spear, the elephant probably made its way towards the lake. This suggests that multiple spears may have been involved, and the hunters pursued the wounded creature until it collapsed, potentially breaking one spear in the process. The investigation will continue as the team plans to re-examine the spear.
Even at this early stage, the project has painted a vivid picture of what could be one of the most detailed Neanderthal hunting scenes ever documented.
Verheijen is also working diligently to preserve the Rehringen bones for future display. “This site holds great importance in Neanderthal history in Germany,” he emphasizes. “For reasons unknown, it has been largely forgotten, and our goal is to restore its rightful recognition.”
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Astronomers utilizing ESO’s Very Large Telescope (VLT) and VLT Interferometer (VLTI) in Chile have made groundbreaking discoveries by directly observing two giant gas planets forming within a planet-forming disk around the star Whispit 2. This research offers one of the most detailed insights into planetary system formation to date, highlighted by distinctive gaps and rings of surrounding material, which suggest the likelihood of additional alien worlds in the vicinity.
Images captured by ESO’s Very Large Telescope illustrate a young planetary system orbiting the star WISPIT 2. Image credit: ESO / Lawlor and colleagues.
“WISPIT 2 represents our clearest glimpse into the early stages of planetary formation,” stated Dr. Chloe Lawler, a researcher from Galway University.
“This discovery enables us to study entire planetary systems, rather than just individual planets in isolation,” noted Dr. Christian Ginski, also associated with the University of Galway.
“Such observations are crucial for enhancing our understanding of how nascent planetary systems evolve into mature systems like our own,” he added.
The first protoplanet found in the WISPIT 2 system, designated WISPIT 2b, was identified last year and has a mass nearly five times that of Jupiter, orbiting at a distance approximately 60 times that between the Earth and the Sun.
“Discovering this new world in formation showcases the remarkable capabilities of our current astronomical instruments,” commented Dr. Richelle van Capelveen from the Leiden Observatory.
Subsequent observations detected additional objects near WISPIT 2, with measurements from the VLT and VLTI confirming their planetary nature.
The newly identified planet, WISPIT 2c, is located four times closer to its host star and is twice as massive as WISPIT 2b.
Both planets are gas giants, akin to the outer planets in our solar system.
To validate WISPIT 2c, astronomers employed the SPHERE instrument on the VLT, followed by VLTI’s GRAVITY+ instrument to confirm it as a planet.
“Our study leveraged recent enhancements to GRAVITY+, which were essential for detecting such a clear planet in proximity to its star,” stated Dr. Guillaume Bourdaro from the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics.
Both planets orbiting WISPIT 2 manifest in distinct gaps within the surrounding dust and gas disk, a phenomenon caused by each planet’s gravitational influence.
The material remaining around each gap forms unique dust rings within the disk composition.
In addition to the gaps hosting the two planets, at least one smaller gap exists further out in the WISPIT 2 disk.
“This narrower and shallower gap may indicate the presence of a third planet, possibly with a mass akin to Saturn,” Lawler speculated.
The findings are set to be detailed in an upcoming article in the Astrophysical Journal Letters.
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Chloe Lawler and colleagues. 2026. Direct spectroscopy confirmation of the young embedded protoplanet WISPIT 2c. APJL 1000, L38; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ae4b3b
Discover PicII-503: A Protostar in the Ancient Pictor II Dwarf Galaxy
This striking image of PicII-503 highlights a second-generation star with the lowest iron content ever recorded outside our Milky Way galaxy. Image credits: CTIO / NOIRLab / DOE / NSF / AURA / University of Alaska Anchorage TA Chancellor and NSF NOIRLab / M. Zamani and D. de Martin, NSF NOIRLab / Anirudh Chiti / Alex Drlica-Wagner.
“This marks the first definitive detection of element formation in protogalaxies,” stated Dr. Aniru Chitty, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Chicago, now at Stanford University.
“This discovery fills a crucial gap in understanding the origin of elements during the universe’s formative years.”
In the primordial epochs following the Big Bang, the cosmos was relatively simple, comprised almost entirely of hydrogen, helium, and lithium, giving rise to giant stars primarily formed by these elements.
More complex elements, like calcium and gold, were scarce since they had to be synthesized within stars themselves.
At the cores of these massive stars, nuclear fusion processes created increasingly heavier elements.
When these stars eventually exploded, they contributed to the formation of new stars, perpetuating this cycle until a diverse array of elements emerged, forming the universe we know today.
“To track elemental formation, we must search for stars with minimal heavy elements, as these accumulate over time,” explained University of Chicago astronomer Alexander Gee.
Using the Magellan Telescope at Las Campanas Observatory and ESO’s Very Large Telescope, astronomers identified a significant candidate star within the ultrafaint dwarf galaxy Pictor II.
This star, identified as PicIII-503, exhibits a remarkable structure, with an iron content approximately 1/100,000 times lower than that of our Sun.
This extraordinary finding not only generates excitement but also offers insights into the enigmatic origins of these early stars.
Consequently, since PicIII-503 remains within its original protogalaxy, astronomers have uncovered vital information regarding its formation theory, particularly related to the star’s explosive death.
“Upon the demise of a massive star, it possesses an ‘onion-skin’ structure: lighter elements like carbon reside in outer layers while heavier elements are found inside,” Gee noted.
“A weak explosion may only eject the outer layers, allowing the heavier inner materials to coalesce with neighboring gas and dust, which can form future generations of stars.”
“However, a vigorous explosion could propel these materials far beyond the small galaxies that existed during that era,” he added.
This exciting discovery provides context for the abundance of carbon-rich stars observed in our Milky Way, illuminating their origin, Dr. Chitty emphasized.
For more on the discovery of PicIII-503, refer to the research paper published in Nature Astronomy.
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A. Chitty et al. Enrichment by the first stars of relic dwarf galaxies. Nat Astron published online on March 16, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41550-026-02802-z
A groundbreaking discovery at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider (LHC) reveals a new, heavier proton-like particle composed of two charm quarks.
Protons and neutrons fall under the category of baryons, each containing three fundamental particles known as quarks, each with distinct “flavors.” For instance, a standard proton comprises two “up” quarks and one “down” quark.
Interestingly, heavier quarks, such as charm quarks, can also combine to create baryons, albeit these novel quark combinations are heavier and less stable, leading to shorter lifetimes before decaying into other particles.
In 2017, CERN’s LHCb experiment captured a glimpse of an exotic baryon named Xi.cc++, which consists of two charm quarks and one up quark, possessing a lifetime of just one trillionth of a second. Recently, physicists found its intriguing counterpart, Xicc+, which contains a down quark instead of an up quark, making it a heavier analog of the proton.
This latest discovery, characterized by a predicted lifetime six times shorter than that of Xicc++, posed significant detection challenges. It was confirmed only after substantial upgrades to the LHCb experiment enabled more sensitive particle searches, achieving a statistical significance exceeding 7 sigma—well above the 5 sigma threshold needed for a legitimate discovery.
“Uncovering the particle Xi.cc+ is not just remarkable—it’s a testament to the transformative power of the recent upgrades to the LHC,” stated Chris Parks from the University of Manchester, UK. “With just a one-year data sample, we’ve observed phenomena that eluded ten years of previous data gathering.”
The identification of this particle may enhance our understanding of the strong nuclear forces that bind quarks together while also affecting heavier quarks found in particles beyond protons and neutrons. This finding could resolve longstanding questions in particle physics.
In 2002, the SELEX experiment at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory encountered a particle resembling Xicc+, yet it had a significantly lower mass than predicted, with a confidence level of only 4.7 sigma. “Now that we’ve validated its existence and confirmed the mass aligns with our predictions, we have effectively addressed this particle mass issue,” Parks remarked.
“While this measurement is fascinating, the implications remain uncertain,” noted Juan Rojo at Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. “Quantum chromodynamics currently does not preclude the existence of this hadron, but we are still in the observation phase. The next five years could yield pivotal insights regarding how quark combinations impact particle mass,” Rojo added.
Astronomers have utilized spectral data from the Hobby-Eberly Telescope at McDonald Observatory to construct the most intricate 3D map of faint cosmic structures dating back 9 to 11 billion years, unveiling galaxies and intergalactic gas previously undetectable by telescopes.
A line intensity map showcasing the distribution of excited hydrogen in the universe approximately 10 billion years ago. The stars denote areas where HETDEX has identified galaxies. The inset simulates the structure after optimizing the data by reducing background noise. Image credit: Maja Lujan Niemeyer / Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics / HETDEX / Chris Byrohl / Stanford University.
“Studying the early Universe reveals how galaxies have evolved into their current forms and the role that intergalactic gas plays in this transformation,” stated Dr. Maya Lujan Niemeyer, an astronomer at the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics and Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, and a key member of the Hobby-Eberly Telescope’s Dark Energy Experiment (HETDEX).
“Many objects from this epoch are faint and challenging to observe due to their vast distances,” she continued.
“Through a technique known as line intensity mapping, this innovative map enhances our understanding of these objects, adding complexity and depth to this crucial era of cosmic history.”
Although line intensity mapping is not a novel methodology, this is the first instance it has been employed to visualize Lyman alpha emissions with such exceptional precision across an extensive dataset.
The HETDEX project harnesses the capabilities of the Hobby-Eberly Telescope to catalog over 1 million luminous galaxies to decode the mysteries of dark energy.
What differentiates this project is its extensive measurement scope, equivalent to observing more than 2,000 full moons and amassing a colossal dataset of over 600 million spectra across an expansive area of the sky.
“We leverage only a fraction of our data—approximately 5%,” remarked Dr. Karl Gebhardt, principal investigator of HETDEX and an astronomer at the University of Texas at Austin.
“This leaves significant potential for future research utilizing the remaining data.”
“While HETDEX captures images of the entire sky, only a small subset of the collected data comprises sufficiently bright galaxies for our research,” noted Dr. Lujan Niemeyer.
“These galaxies are merely the beginning. In the vast expanses in between, lies an entire ocean of light awaiting discovery.”
To construct this groundbreaking map, astronomers employed a supercomputer at the Texas Advanced Computing Center to meticulously analyze approximately half a petabyte of HETDEX data.
Using the coordinates of luminous galaxies already detected by HETDEX, they inferred the positions of fainter galaxies and adjacent glowing gas.
Due to the gravitational forces that cause matter to cluster, the existence of one bright galaxy implies the presence of nearby celestial objects.
“This allows us to utilize known galaxy positions as reference points to ascertain distances to fainter celestial entities,” explained Dr. Eiichiro Komatsu, HETDEX scientist and astronomer at the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics.
“The resultant map emphasizes regions surrounding bright galaxies while providing intricate details of the areas in between.”
“Simulation models exist for this cosmic era, yet they remain hypothetical; they do not represent the actual universe.”
“We now possess a foundational understanding that allows us to verify whether the astrophysics underlying these simulations holds true.”
For more on these remarkable findings, published on March 3, 2026, in the Astrophysical Journal.
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Maya Lujan Niemeyer and others, 2026. Lyα intensity mapping in HETDEX: Galaxy-Lyα intensity cross-power spectrum. APJ 999, 177; doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae3a98
Have you ever wondered why fossilized marine life, including trilobites, crinoids, and brachiopods, can be found on the summit of Mount Everest? These astonishing discoveries provide significant insights into the history of our planet.
The presence of these fossils indicates the formation of the Himalayas approximately 50 million years ago, serving as vital evidence supporting the theory of plate tectonics.
Around 200 million years ago, when the supercontinent Pangea began to fragment, the Indian plate started its journey northward, ultimately colliding with the Asian continent.
This monumental geological event caused the Indian plate to collide with the Eurasian plate, elevating land that included remnants of the ancient Tethyan Sea floor.
The impact resulted in the creation of the Himalayan mountain range and the Tibetan Plateau, pushing marine fossils more than 8,000 meters (26,000 feet) above sea level.
This article answers the question posed by Sonia Carroll of Brighton: “Why are there marine fossils on the top of Mount Everest?”
For any inquiries, please contact us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or reach out via Facebook,Twitter, or Instagram(please include your name and location).
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For decades, triceratops and their relatives were known only through fossils. Now, groundbreaking research by Japanese paleontologists has mapped the soft tissue anatomy of these iconic horned dinosaurs, unveiling unexpected structures that may shed light on their ability to regulate body temperature and breathe effectively.
Triceratops‘ nasal cavity. Image credit: K. Sakane.
The ceratopsians, a group that includes the famous triceratops, represent one of the most diverse and successful dinosaur lineages of the Late Cretaceous period.
Their skulls are among the most intricate structures ever formed through vertebrate evolution, featuring a beak, distinctive horns, frills, an elongated snout, and a compact tooth row specifically adapted for processing tough vegetation.
Researchers have traditionally concentrated on the functionality of their cranial features—chiefly the horns, beaks, and frills—since these characteristics likely contributed to their ecological dominance on land.
In contrast, the evolutionary significance of the enlarged nasal region of these dinosaurs remains largely uncharted.
“Since my master’s studies, I have focused on the evolution of reptilian heads and noses,” said Dr. Seishiro Tada, a paleontologist affiliated with the University of Tokyo Museum.
“The triceratops possessed an unusually large and complex nose. While I knew the fundamental reptilian structure, I struggled to understand how the internal organs fit within it,” he remarked.
This curiosity led Dr. Tada deeper into the study of nasal anatomy, its functions, and its evolutionary implications.
In this recent study, Dr. Tada and his team meticulously examined various cranial specimens of the triceratops.
“Using advanced CT scan data, akin to our understanding of contemporary reptilian snout morphology, we discovered several unique attributes within the snout. This research presents the first comprehensive insight into the soft tissue anatomy of horned dinosaurs,” explained Dr. Tada.
“The nasal structures of triceratops exhibited atypical ‘wiring.’ In most reptiles, nerves and blood vessels navigate from the jaw to the nostrils. However, the shape of the triceratops skull reroutes these pathways through the nasal branches,” he added.
“Essentially, the soft tissue evolved to support their prominent noses. I noted this while assembling 3D-printed skull segments of triceratops like a jigsaw puzzle,” Dr. Tada continued.
The researchers identified specialized structures within the triceratops nasal cavity, known as respiratory turbinates. This anatomical feature is underrepresented in other dinosaurs but common in birds and mammals, descendants of modern-day dinosaurs.
These delicate, coiled nasal surfaces enhance the interaction between air and blood, facilitating temperature regulation through effective heat exchange.
While triceratops probably wasn’t entirely warm-blooded, the team believes these structures assisted in controlling temperature and humidity levels, crucial for managing the heat generated by their large skulls.
“Although we’re not entirely certain, we note that while most dinosaurs lack evidence of respiratory turbinates, some birds display similar ridges of these structures, and horned dinosaurs may exhibit analogous features in equivalent nasal locations,” Dr. Tada stated.
“This leads us to hypothesize that triceratops possessed respiratory turbinates akin to those found in birds.”
“Horned dinosaurs represent the last group in which we investigated head soft tissue, effectively completing the puzzle of dinosaur anatomy,” Dr. Tada concluded.
The team’s paper is published in the journal Anatomical Records.
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Seishiro Tada et al. Soft tissue anatomy of the nose in triceratops and other horned dinosaurs. Anatomical Records, published online on February 7, 2026. doi: 10.1002/ar.70150
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Planetary scientists have identified thousands of Small Oceanic Ridges (SMRs) across the Moon’s maria, indicating active tectonic movements that could influence the next era of space exploration. These SMRs are geologically young, dating between 50 million and 310 million years, and are widely distributed across the lunar surface.
Small Mare ridge in northeast Mare Imbrium, captured by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera. Image credit: NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University.
Both the Moon and Earth experience active crustal movements, yet the tectonic forces shaping each celestial body differ significantly.
The Earth’s crust is segmented into plates that converge, diverge, and slide against one another, creating vast mountain ranges, deep ocean trenches, and a ring of volcanoes surrounding the Pacific Ocean.
Conversely, although the Moon’s crust isn’t divided into plates, internal stresses generate distinctive landforms.
Among these are foliated scarps, which arise when compressive forces push materials along faults, forming ridges. These cliffs, visible in the lunar highlands, have formed within the last billion years, representing the most recent 20% of the Moon’s geological timeline.
In 2010, researcher Tom Watters from the Smithsonian Institution discovered that the Moon is gradually shrinking, leading to the development of these foliated cliffs.
However, the creation of foliated scarps does not account for all the recent contractional topography observed on the Moon.
A newly identified category of tectonic landform is the SMR, caused by similar forces to those that form foliated cliffs. While foliated cliffs exist at high altitudes, SMRs are exclusive to the Moon’s maria.
In the latest study, Dr. Watters and his team aimed to map the SMRs in the lunar maria and assess their correlation with recent tectonic activity.
“Since the Apollo missions, we’ve known that foliation is prevalent throughout the lunar highlands, but this study marks the first documentation of similar features across the lunar maria,” stated Dr. Cole Nipaver, also affiliated with the Smithsonian Institution.
“This research will enhance our understanding of recent lunar tectonism, providing deeper insights into the Moon’s interior, its thermal and seismic history, and the potential for future lunar earthquakes.”
The researchers compiled the first comprehensive catalog of SMRs on the Moon’s far side, identifying 1,114 new SMR segments, bringing the total known SMRs to 2,634.
They discovered that the average age of these SMRs is 124 million years, aligning with the average age of foliation stumps at 105 million years.
These findings suggest that, akin to foliated scarps, SMRs are some of the Moon’s youngest geological features.
Additionally, our analysis indicates that SMRs form due to the same types of faults as foliated scarps, and that the highland foliated scarps often transition into SMRs, suggesting a shared geological origin.
The new SMR data, alongside the high-altitude foliation scarps, provide a comprehensive view of the Moon’s recent crustal contraction activities.
“Our identification of the Moon’s young SMRs and understanding their formation contributes to the global perspective of a dynamically contracting Moon,” said Watters.
For further details, view the result published in Planetary Science Journal.
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C.A. Nye Paver et al. 2025. A new global perspective on recent tectonism in the lunar maria. Planetary Science Journal 6, 302; doi: 10.3847/PSJ/ae226a
The ancestors of Britain’s Bell Beaker people inhabited wetlands and heavily relied on fishing.
Sheila Terry/Science Photo Library
Analysis of ancient DNA has meticulously unveiled the origins of a fascinating group that emerged in Britain around 2400 B.C., nearly displacing the builders of Stonehenge within just a century.
This group is associated with the Bell Beaker culture, which emerged in Western Europe during the Early Bronze Age, named after the distinctive pots they left behind. While previously thought the culture stemmed from Portugal or Spain, recent research indicates that the people who populated Britain originated from the delta regions of Northwest Europe, across the North Sea. Remarkably, this resilient group maintained aspects of their hunter-gatherer lifestyle and ancestry for thousands of years, despite the spread of early farming communities across Europe.
David Reich and his team from Harvard University analyzed the genomes of 112 individuals who lived in present-day Netherlands, Belgium, and western Germany throughout the period of 8,500 to 1,700 BC.
“The Netherlands was once considered a mundane place, with every square inch traversed millions of times. Yet, it reveals itself as one of the most intriguing areas in Europe.”
The DNA sequenced in Reich’s lab indicates that this population emerged from the Rhine-Meuse delta, bordering the Netherlands and Belgium. This group derived from resourceful hunter-gatherer communities, thriving on fish, waterfowl, game birds, and diverse plant life found in the flooded wetlands surrounding these expansive rivers.
Originating in Anatolia, Neolithic farmers began to expand throughout Europe around 6500 BC, likely due to their agricultural advantage, allowing for larger family units compared to hunter-gatherers. This led to the near disappearance or significant dilution of hunter-gatherers’ genetic ancestry in regions where farmers settled.
However, research reveals that these wetlands served as zones where farmers’ genetic influx remained minimal for thousands of years. The dynamic, often flooded environments of rivers, swamps, dunes, and peat bogs posed significant challenges for early farmers, yet offered abundant opportunities for those adept at surviving in such terrains, as noted by Luc Amkreutz at the National Archaeological Museum in Leiden, Netherlands. “These hunter-gatherers charted their course from a position of strength.”
Genetic testing indicates that, despite their enduring hunter-gatherer lifestyle, the people of the wetlands engaged in gradual integration with farmers through intermarriage. While their Y chromosomes passed through male lineages, their mitochondrial DNA and X chromosomes displayed a steady influx of genetic contribution from farmers’ daughters. “This revelation was unexpected for us,” remarks Evelyn Altena of Leiden University Medical Center. “Without DNA, this knowledge would remain elusive.”
Reich posits that this interaction was likely peaceful, characterized by men remaining at homesteads while women migrated. Nonetheless, an aspect of conflict cannot be dismissed, although the extent of reciprocal exchange remains uncertain due to the preservation challenges of DNA from arid farmer regions.
Bell Beaker Pottery from Germany
Peter Endig/DPA Picture Alliance/Alamy
Archaeological findings indicate that, over time, these hunter-gatherers adopted pottery techniques, cultivated grains, and domesticated animals, yet they retained core aspects of their original way of life.
Then, circa 3000 BC, a nomadic group known as the Yamuna, or Yamnaya, began migrating west from the vast steppes of modern Ukraine and Russia. Their interactions with Eastern European farmers birthed the cord-shaped pottery culture characterized by decorative cord patterns. Although their descendants spread throughout much of Europe, they had minimal influence on the delta region.
Excavations revealed a skeleton from this era that bore the Yamnaya Y chromosome alongside pots, some evidently used for cooking fish. This exemplifies how wetland inhabitants creatively integrated foreign objects into their traditional practices, though overall, very few people bore steppe ancestry.
The dynamics shifted with the arrival of the Bell Beaker culture around 2500 BC. This group, characterized by a hybrid of steppe and farmer ancestry, introduced steppe genes into the DNA of the wetland peoples while retaining notable portions of both hunter-gatherer and early farmer genetics, approximately 13 to 18 percent. They may have begun to fade into history from that point onwards, yet the saga was far from over.
Human remains analyzed from Oostwoud, Netherlands
North Holland Archaeological Depository (CC by 4.0)
Recent studies reveal that those who arrived in Britain around 2400 BC bore an almost identical genetic mixture of Bell Beaker and wetland community ancestry. Within a century, they were largely or entirely replaced by Neolithic farmers who constructed Stonehenge. “Our model shows that at least 90 percent, and up to 100 percent, of original ancestry has vanished from Britain,” observes Reich.
It remains uncertain if this transition commenced with the influx of the Bell Beaker culture or if other groups preceded them. Before their arrival, Britons commonly cremated their deceased, resulting in minimal DNA preservation.
Regardless, the extent of change was “so dramatic that it defies belief,” according to Reich. The rapid populace replacement has captured archaeologists’ attention since its initial suggestion in a 2018 study. Reich theorizes that a plague-like disease, possibly affecting individuals in continental Europe, may have played a role. Conversely, the native population in the UK might have been more susceptible to such ailments.
Team members contend that religious fervor likely did not influence the transition, as indicated by Harry Fockens from Leiden University. “Monuments like Stonehenge and Avebury continued to see use and expansion even after their creators disappeared.”
Michael Parker Pearson from University College London is intrigued by the ways in which the new inhabitants adopted British monument styles, like henges and stone circles, whilst simultaneously introducing new lifestyles, including different pottery and clothing styles.
The Bell Beakers also introduced metalworking to Britain, with certain gold ornaments discovered in Beaker tombs in England bearing striking similarities to those found in Belgium.
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Technological advancements in Africa and Western Europe during the late Middle Pleistocene highlight the intricate behaviors of hominin groups. Contrarily, East Asian human technology has long been perceived as lacking innovation. Recent archaeological findings at the Xigou site in Henan province, China, reveal remarkable evidence of technological innovations dating back between 160,000 and 72,000 years, illustrating over 90,000 years of sophisticated technological behavior through detailed technological, typological, and functional analyses.
Artist’s restoration of the Nishimizo utensil holder. Image credit: Hulk Yuan, IVPP.
“For decades, researchers have posited that, while Africa and Western Europe exhibited significant technological growth, East Asians relied on simpler and more traditional stone tool techniques,” noted Dr. Shisia Yang from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology.
In recent findings, Dr. Yang and colleagues reveal that, during a time when numerous large-brained hominins coexisted in China, the hominins in this region displayed far greater inventiveness and adaptability than previously assumed, including species such as Homolonghi, Homo juruensis, and potentially Homo sapiens.
“The discovery at Xigou challenges the notion that early human populations in China were inherently conservative over time,” emphasized Professor Michael Petraglia from Griffith University.
“In-depth analyses indicate that the early inhabitants utilized advanced stone tool-making techniques to create small flakes and multifunctional tools,” he added.
Notably, the site revealed handled stone tools, marking the earliest known evidence of composite tools in East Asia.
These tools, which integrated stone components with handles and shafts, demonstrate exceptional planning, skilled craftsmanship, and knowledge of how to enhance tool functionality.
“Their existence underscores the behavioral flexibility and ingenuity of the Nishigou hominids,” Dr. Jiang Ping Yue, also affiliated with the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, remarked.
The geological formations at Xigou, spanning 90,000 years, align with accumulating evidence of increasing hominin diversity across China.
Findings from Xujiaba and Lingjing confirm the presence of a large-brained hominin, Homo juruensis, providing a biological foundation for the behavioral complexity observed in the Xigou population.
“The advanced technological strategies evidenced in the stone tools likely played a crucial role in aiding humans to adapt to the fluctuating environments typical of East Asia over 90,000 years,” stated Professor Petraglia.
The discoveries at Xigou have transformed our understanding of human evolution in East Asia, revealing that early populations possessed cognitive and technological competencies comparable to their African and European counterparts.
“Emerging evidence from Xigou and other archaeological sites indicates that early Chinese technology featured prepared core methods, innovative retouching techniques, and substantial cutting tools, suggesting a more intricate and advanced technological landscape than previously acknowledged,” Dr. Yang concluded.
The research team’s paper is published in the latest edition of Nature Communications.
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JP. Yue et al. 2026. Technological Innovation and Patterned Technology in Central China from Approximately 160,000 to 72,000 Years Ago. Nat Commun 17,615; doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-67601-y
A groundbreaking research team from the University of Wisconsin-Madison has successfully reverse-engineered a primitive nitrogen-fixing enzyme. This discovery sheds light on how life thrived before the Earth was transformed by oxygen and establishes reliable chemical markers for detecting extraterrestrial life.
Resurrection and characterization of an ancestral nitrogenase. Image credit: Rucker et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-67423-y.
Led by Professor Betül Kaçar, the research focuses on an essential enzyme known as nitrogenase, which plays a pivotal role in converting atmospheric nitrogen into bioavailable forms.
“We selected an enzyme that significantly influences life on Earth and investigated its evolutionary history,” Professor Kaçar stated.
“Without nitrogenase, the existence of modern life as we know it would be impossible.”
Traditionally, scientists have depended on geological evidence to reconstruct Earth’s historical life.
However, significant fossils and rock samples are scarce and often require fortuitous discovery.
Professor Kaçar and his team view synthetic biology as a valuable tool to bridge these gaps, allowing them to construct specific ancient enzyme reconstructions, insert these into microorganisms, and study them in contemporary lab settings.
“The Earth of 3 billion years ago was vastly different from the world we recognize today,” remarked Dr. Holly Rucker.
“Before the Great Oxidation Event, the atmosphere was rich in carbon dioxide and methane, and life predominantly consisted of anaerobic microorganisms.”
“Understanding how these microorganisms accessed vital nutrients like nitrogen enhances our comprehension of how life persisted and evolved before oxygen-dependent organisms began to alter the planet.”
“Though fossilized enzymes are unavailable for study, these enzymes can leave discernible isotopic traces, measurable in rock samples.”
“Much of the prior research assumed ancient enzymes produced isotopic signatures akin to modern enzymes,” added Dr. Rucker.
“This holds true for nitrogenase; the isotopic traces we observe from ancient times correspond with modern signatures, providing deeper insights into the enzyme itself.”
The researchers discovered that ancient nitrogenase enzymes, despite having different DNA sequences, maintain the same mechanisms for isotopic signatures observed in the rock record.
“As astrobiologists, our understanding of Earth helps us comprehend the potential for life elsewhere in the universe,” Professor Kaçar emphasized.
“The quest for life begins right here on our 4-billion-year-old planet.”
“To grasp future possibilities and life beyond our planet, we must first understand our own history.”
The results were published today in the online journal Nature Communications, accessible here.
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Rucker et al. 2026. The revived nitrogenase reproduces the standard N isotope biosignature spanning two billion years. Nat Commun 17,616; doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-67423-y
While the internet buzzed with diss tracks, explored high-profile jewelry heists, and followed love bus journeys, groundbreaking scientific advancements quietly transformed our world.
For better or worse, here are the top 7 game-changing events and breakthroughs of 2025. (Spoiler: Katy Perry’s space journey isn’t on this list).
1. Introducing the World’s Fastest Supercomputer
In January, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California unveiled the world’s fastest supercomputer, El Capitan. This marvel became the third computer ever to achieve exascale computing speeds, boasting a peak performance of 2.79 exaFLOPS (equivalent to 2.79 quintillion floating-point operations per second). El Capitan will be pivotal in organizing the United States’ nuclear arsenal and exploring advanced nuclear designs. Its construction, which began in May 2023, cost around $600 million.
2. Significant Planetary Changes
According to a recent study, 2024 marked the first year on record when global average temperatures soared to 1.6°C (2.8°F) above pre-industrial levels. This troubling statistic emerged nearly a decade after 195 nations signed the Paris Climate Agreement, committing to limit global temperature rise to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
In June, scientists reported that ocean acidification has surpassed tolerable limits for Earth, marking the seventh of nine “planetary boundaries” crossed since 2009. Exceeding all nine could result in severe environmental collapse.
Ocean acidification, often termed “marine osteoporosis,” weakens the calcareous structures of marine species like crabs and corals. – Photo credit: Getty
3. Groundbreaking HIV Research
In May, researchers from Melbourne, Australia, made a significant breakthrough in the quest for an HIV cure by unveiling a method to extract the virus from human cells. This landmark discovery addressed a major challenge in HIV treatment, where the virus hides within white blood cells, awaiting reactivation.
Utilizing advanced mRNA technology, the researchers achieved what was once considered impossible. Approximately 40 million people globally live with HIV, requiring ongoing medication to suppress the virus and prevent infection. Researchers believe these insights may also pave the way for treatments of other diseases linked to white blood cells, including cancer. Learn more about this breakthrough.
4. Evidence of Life on Mars
In September, NASA’s acting administrator, Sean Duffy, declared that a detailed analysis of unique “leopard spot” patterns in Martian rocks revealed compelling evidence of past life on Mars. Discovered by NASA’s Perseverance spacecraft in July 2024 in Jezero Crater, the rock is estimated to be about 3.5 billion years old.
Scientists theorize that these distinctive patterns may result from ancient Martian microbes. Perseverance has preserved the rock fragments, which will eventually be returned to Earth for in-depth examination.
Initial discovery of the rock in 2024 gave us a unique chance to study its intriguing markings. – Credit: NASA
5. Observable Neutrino Scattering
After 50 years of research, July brought a thrilling observation: the detection of coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scattering (CEvNS). This phenomenon, first proposed in 1974, involves neutrinos scattering coherently against nuclei within a nuclear reactor, yielding small nuclear recoils.
Scientist describe measuring CEvNS as akin to tracking a ping-pong ball’s trajectory after bouncing it off a moving car. The Swiss detector has captured CEvNS events with unprecedented clarity, potentially heralding a new era of neutrino detectors with applications in discovering new forces and particles that interact solely with neutrinos. Explore this groundbreaking research.
6. First Human Fetus Video
September also witnessed a historic moment as scientists successfully captured video footage of a human fetus implanting in an artificial womb for the first time. The visual documentation provides unique insights into critical stages of human development.
Since implantation failures account for 60% of miscarriages, the researchers aim for these images to enhance our understanding of the process, potentially improving natural conception and IVF outcomes.
Video footage of implantation in mouse embryos (left) and human embryos (right).
7. The Universe’s Expansion Slows
Research published in March confirmed that while the universe is indeed expanding, its rate of acceleration appears to be gradually slowing. In June, findings from the Supernova Cosmology Project provided further evidence supporting this theory. Explore the data and implications.
If the universe’s expansion slows, profound implications for our understanding of particle physics may arise. Scientists could be compelled to revisit established models, with potential consequences such as a dramatic “big crunch” scenario, where expansion reverses and the universe collapses back on itself.
The groundbreaking discovery in 2010 of a 40,000-year-old finger bone led to the identification of the Denisovans, an archaic human species, named after the Siberian cave where it was found. Recently, DNA analysis from a 146,000-year-old skull unearthed in China has shed light on their appearance. Findings indicate that Denisovans had facial structures akin to modern humans, yet featured unique traits such as pronounced eyebrow ridges.
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<img class="Image" alt="Anglo-Saxon Burial Site" width="1350" height="826" src="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134223/SEI_274338500.jpg" srcset="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134223/SEI_274338500.jpg?width=300 300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134223/SEI_274338500.jpg?width=400 400w" sizes="(min-width: 1288px) 837px, (min-width: 1024px) calc(57.5vw + 55px), (min-width: 415px) calc(100vw - 40px), calc(70vw + 74px)" loading="lazy" data-image-context="Article" data-image-id="2506940" data-caption="A woman and baby buried at an Anglo-Saxon cemetery in Scremby, UK" data-credit="Dr. Hugh Willmott, University of Sheffield"/>
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<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Title">Anglo-Saxon Burial in Scremby</p>
<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Credit">Dr. Hugh Willmott, University of Sheffield</p>
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<p>This poignant image reveals a tragic story: the woman buried in this Anglo-Saxon cemetery was likely in childbirth when she passed away. Dating back to the 5th or 6th century, she was interred in elaborate attire. Discovered by metal detectors in 2018, the excavation of the Screnby cemetery is now providing essential insights into ancient burial practices. Current research at the University of Sheffield aims to analyze the skeletal remains, seeking hormonal evidence of pregnancy at the time of death.</p>
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<img class="Image" alt="Ancient Hunter's Toolkit" width="1350" height="900" src="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134522/SEI_266340196.jpg" srcset="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134522/SEI_266340196.jpg?width=300 300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134522/SEI_266340196.jpg?width=400 400w" sizes="(min-width: 1288px) 837px, (min-width: 1024px) calc(57.5vw + 55px), (min-width: 415px) calc(100vw - 40px), calc(70vw + 74px)" loading="lazy" data-image-context="Article" data-image-id="2506941" data-caption="An ancient hunter's toolkit" data-credit="Martin Novák"/>
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<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Title">Ancient Hunter's Toolkit</p>
<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Credit">Martin Novák</p>
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<p>This intriguing pile of sand and stones represents an ancient toolkit once stored in a leather bag, left behind at a hunting campsite in the Pavlovske Vrchy Hills of the Czech Republic around 30,000 years ago. It comprises an array of tools, from spear and arrow tips to utensils for processing meat and wood. Some tools were refurbished from older artifacts, suggesting they were intended for extended expeditions in resource-scarce environments.</p>
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<img class="Image" alt="Ancient Human Remains" width="1350" height="900" src="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134545/SEI_265721265.jpg" srcset="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134545/SEI_265721265.jpg?width=300 300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134545/SEI_265721265.jpg?width=400 400w" sizes="(min-width: 1288px) 837px, (min-width: 1024px) calc(57.5vw + 55px), (min-width: 415px) calc(100vw - 40px), calc(70vw + 74px)" loading="lazy" data-image-context="Article" data-image-id="2506943" data-caption="The remains of a man excavated from Huiyaotian in Guangxi, China, dated to more than 9,000 years ago" data-credit="Yousuke Kaifu and Hirofumi Matsumura"/>
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<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Title">9000-Year-Old Human Remains</p>
<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Credit">Yousuke Kaifu, Hirofumi Matsumura</p>
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<p>Wouldn’t you want to support your family even after passing? This thought may inspire practices reminiscent of contemporary Indonesian customs, where mummified bodies are preserved in a crouched posture. Archaeological findings in southern China suggest that such practices might have been prevalent as far back as 9,000 years ago. Recent studies indicate that the slow smoking and mummification of bodies could have been common in Southeast Asia up until around 4,000 years ago.</p>
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<img class="Image" alt="Organic glass in skull" width="1350" height="900" src="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/05101506/SEI_241673209.jpg" srcset="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/05101506/SEI_241673209.jpg?width=300 300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/05101506/SEI_241673209.jpg?width=400 400w" sizes="(min-width: 1288px) 837px, (min-width: 1024px) calc(57.5vw + 55px), (min-width: 415px) calc(100vw - 40px), calc(70vw + 74px)" loading="lazy" data-image-context="Article" data-image-id="2507245" data-caption="A fragment of organic glass found inside the skull of a man in Herculaneum" data-credit="Pier Paolo Petrone"/>
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<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Title">Organic Glass in Skull</p>
<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Credit">Pier Paolo Petrone</p>
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<p>This seemingly abstract artifact is actually the brain of a man from Herculaneum, who lived during the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius roughly 2,000 years ago. The brain was heated to 500 degrees Celsius and then rapidly cooled into a glass-like state. Despite the explosive incident, some parts remain remarkably preserved, revealing a network of brain cells.</p>
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<img class="Image" alt="Ancient mummified hand" width="1350" height="901" src="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134549/SEI_274338457.jpg" srcset="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134549/SEI_274338457.jpg?width=300 300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134549/SEI_274338457.jpg?width=400 400w" sizes="(min-width: 1288px) 837px, (min-width: 1024px) calc(57.5vw + 55px), (min-width: 415px) calc(100vw - 40px), calc(70vw + 74px)" loading="lazy" data-image-context="Article" data-image-id="2506944" data-caption="A 1200-year-old mummified hand featuring tattoos" data-credit="Michael Pittman and Thomas G Kaye"/>
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<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Title">1200-Year-Old Mummified Hand</p>
<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Credit">Michael Pittman and Thomas G. Kaye</p>
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<p>The striking mummified hand belonged to the Chancay civilization of Peru, dating back approximately 1,200 years. Discovered in 1981 in Peru's Huaura Valley, the hand showcases intricate tattoo designs, which are characteristic of Chancay mummies. Recent studies using laser-stimulated fluorescence have brought new insights into these tattoo details, though some researchers have raised concerns about the accuracy of these findings.</p>
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<img class="Image SpecialArticleUnit__Image" alt="New Scientist logo" width="2541" height="2560" src="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/26111852/shutterstock_1188286003-scaled.jpg" srcset="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/26111852/shutterstock_1188286003-scaled.jpg?width=300 300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/26111852/shutterstock_1188286003-scaled.jpg?width=375 375w" sizes="(min-width: 1277px) 375px, (min-width: 1040px) 26.36vw, 99.44vw" loading="lazy" data-image-context="Special Article Unit" data-caption="" data-credit="Shutterstock"/>
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<h3 class="SpecialArticleUnit__Heading">Discover Archaeology and Paleontology</h3>
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<p>New Scientist regularly reports on remarkable archaeological sites worldwide that have reshaped our understanding of species and the origins of civilization. Come and explore these treasures too!</p>
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This year brought many revelations about our ancient human relatives
WHPics / Alamy
This is an excerpt from Our Human Story, a newsletter about the revolution in archaeology. Sign up to receive it in your inbox every month.
If we try to summarize all the new fossils, methods, and ideas emerging from the study of human evolution in 2025, we might still be here in 2027. This year has been packed with developments, and I doubt it’s feasible for one individual to digest everything without isolating themselves from other distractions. This is particularly true in human evolution, which is a decentralized field. Unlike particle physicists, who often unite in teams for large-scale experiments, paleoanthropologists scatter in diverse directions.
There are two ways this year-long endeavor can falter. One risk is getting overwhelmed by an insurmountable amount of research, rendering it indecipherable. The other is simplifying the information to the point where it becomes incorrect.
With that in mind, here are three key points I want to clarify as we head into 2025. First, there have been remarkable discoveries about the Denisovans, reshaping our understanding of this mysterious group and challenging some of our previous assumptions. Second, we’ve seen a variety of new discoveries and ideas regarding how our distant ancestors created and utilized tools. Finally, we must consider the broader picture: how and why our species diverged so significantly from other primates.
The Denisovan Flood
Hebei Geography University
This year marks 15 years since we first learned about the Denisovans, an ancient group of humans that inhabited East Asia tens of thousands of years ago. My fascination with them has persisted, and this year, I was excited to witness a surge of discoveries that broadened our knowledge of their habitats and identities.
Denisovans were initially identified primarily through molecular evidence. The first fossil discovered was a small finger bone from Denisova Cave in Siberia, which defied identification based solely on its morphology, but DNA was collected in 2010. Genetic analyses revealed that Denisovans were closely related to Neanderthals, who lived in Europe and Asia, and that they interbred with modern humans. Currently, populations in Southeast Asia, particularly Papua New Guinea and the Philippines, possess the highest concentration of Denisovan DNA.
Since then, researchers have been on the hunt for additional Denisovan remains, though this endeavor has progressed slowly. Until 2019, the second identified example was a jawbone excavated from Baisiya Karst Cave in Xianghe, located on the Tibetan Plateau. Over the next five years, several more fossils were tentatively attributed to Denisovans, notable for their large size and pronounced teeth compared to modern humans.
Then came 2025, which brought numerous exciting findings. In April, Denisovans were confirmed in Taiwan, when a jawbone dredged from the Penghu Strait in 2008 was finally identified using preserved proteins. This discovery significantly extends the known range of Denisovans to the southeast, aligning with where their genetic markers remain today.
In June, the first Denisovan facial features emerged. A skull discovered in Harbin, northern China, was described in 2021 and designated as a new species, named Homolonghi. Initially presumed to belong to Denisovans due to its large size, proteins extracted by Qiaomei Fu and her team from the bone and mitochondrial DNA from dental plaque confirmed its Denisovan origins.
So far, these findings align well with genetic evidence indicating that Denisovans roamed extensively across Asia. They also contribute to a coherent image of Denisovans as a larger species.
However, two additional discoveries in 2025 were surprising. In September, a crushed skull thought to belong to an early Denisovan was reconstructed in Unzen, China, dating back approximately 1 million years. This finding suggests that Denisovans existed as a distinct group much earlier than previously believed, indicating that their common ancestor with Neanderthals, known as Ancestor X, must have lived over a million years ago. If confirmed, it implies a longer evolutionary history for all three groups than previously thought.
Just a month ago, geneticists released a second high-quality Denisovan genome extracted from a 200,000-year-old tooth found in Denisova Cave. Notably, this genome is distinctly different from the first genome described recently, as well as from modern Denisovan DNA.
This indicates the existence of at least three groups of Denisovans: early ones, later ones, and those that hybridized with modern humans—this latter group remains a total archaeological enigma.
As our understanding of Denisovans deepens, their history appears much longer and more diverse than initially assumed. In particular, Denisovan populations that interbred with modern humans remain elusive.
For the past 15 years, Denisovans have captivated my interest. Despite their widespread presence across continents for hundreds of thousands of years, only a handful of remains have been documented.
Fortunately, I have a penchant for mysteries. Because this puzzle won’t be solved anytime soon.
Tool Manufacturing
TW Plummer, JS Oliver, EM Finestone, Houma Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project
Creating and using tools is one of humanity’s most critical functions. This ability isn’t unique to our species, as many other animals also use and even make tools. Primatologist Jane Goodall, who passed away this year, famously demonstrated that chimpanzees can manufacture tools. However, humans have significantly elevated this skill, producing a more diverse array of tools that are often more complex and essential to our survival than those of any other animal.
As we delve deeper into the fossil record, we’re discovering that the practice of tool-making dates back further than previously thought. In March, I reported on excavations in Tanzania revealing that an unidentified ancient human was consistently creating bone tools 1.5 million years ago, well over a million years before bone tools were believed to become commonplace. Similarly, while it was previously thought that humans began crafting artifacts from ivory 50,000 years ago, this year, a 400,000-year-old flake from a mammoth tusk was discovered in Ukraine.
Even older stone tools have surfaced, likely due in part to their greater preservation potential. Crude tools have been identified from 3.3 million years ago at Lomekwi, Kenya. Last month in Our Human Story, I mentioned excavations in another part of Kenya demonstrating that ancient humans consistently produced a specific type of Oldowan tools between 2.75 million and 2.44 million years ago, indicating that tool-making was already a habitual practice.
Often, tools are found without associated bones, making it challenging to determine their makers’ identities. It’s tempting to assume that most tools belong to our genus, Homo, or perhaps to Australopithecus, our more distant ancestors. However, increasing evidence suggests that Paranthropus—a hominin with a small brain and large teeth, which thrived in Africa for hundreds of thousands of years—could also have made tools, at least simple ones like the Oldowans.
Two years ago, Oldowan tools were discovered alongside Paranthropus teeth in Kenya—admittedly not definitive evidence, but strongly suggestive. This year, a fossil of Paranthropus revealed that its hand exhibited a combination of gorilla-like strength and impressive dexterity, indicating capable precision gripping essential for tool-making.
How did these ancients conceive of their tools? One possibility, suggested by Metin Eren and others this year, is that they didn’t consciously create them. Instead, tool-like stones form naturally under various conditions, such as frost cracking rocks or elephants trampling them. Early humans may have utilized these “natural stones,” knowledge of which eventually led to their replication.
As humans continued to develop increasingly complex tools, the cognitive demands of creating them likely escalated, potentially facilitating the emergence of language as we needed to communicate how to make and use these advanced tools. This year’s research explored aspects like the difficulty of learning various skills, whether close observation is necessary, or if mere exposure suffices. The findings suggest two significant changes in cultural transmission that may correlate with technological advancements.
Like most aspects of evolution, tool-making appears to have gradually evolved from our primate predecessors, reshaping our cognitive capabilities in the process.
Big Picture
Alexandra Morton Hayward
Now let’s address the age-old question of how and why humans evolved so distinctly, and which traits truly set us apart. This topic is always challenging to navigate for three main reasons.
First, human uniqueness is multifaceted and often contradictory. Social scientist Jonathan R. Goodman suggested in July that evolution has forged humans to embody both “Machiavellian” traits—planning and betraying one another—and “natural socialist” instincts driven by strong social norms against murder and theft. Claims that humans are inherently generous or instinctively cruel tend to oversimplify the matter excessively.
Second, our perceptions of what makes us unique are shaped by the societies in which we exist. For instance, many cultures remain predominantly male-focused, leading our historical narratives to center around men. While the feminist movement is working to amend this imbalance, progress remains slow. Laura Spinney’s article on prehistoric women suggested that “throughout prehistory, women were rulers, warriors, hunters, and shamans,” a viewpoint made viable only through dedicated research.
Third, reconstructing the thought processes of ancient people as they adopted certain behaviors is inherently difficult, if not impossible. Why did early humans bury their dead and enact funerary rituals? How were dogs and other animals domesticated? What choices shaped ancient humans’ paths toward change?
Still, I want to spotlight two intriguing ideas surrounding the evolution of the human brain and intelligence. One concerns the role of placental hormones that developing babies are exposed to in the womb. Preliminary evidence suggests these hormones may contribute to brain growth, equipping us with the neural capacity to navigate our unusually complex social environments.
Another compelling possibility proposes that the genetic changes associated with our increased intelligence may have also led to vulnerabilities to mental illness. In October, Christa Leste-Laser reported that genetic mutations linked to intelligence emerged in our distant ancestors, followed by mutations associated with mental disorders.
This notion has intrigued me for years, rooted in the observation that wild animals, including our close relatives like chimpanzees, do not appear to suffer from serious mental illnesses such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Perhaps our brains operate at the edge of our neural capabilities. Like a finely-tuned sports car, we can excel but are also prone to breakdowns. While still a hypothesis, this concept is difficult to shake off.
Oh, one more point. Although we often shy away from discussing methodological advancements, as readers generally prefer results, we made an exception in May. Alexandra Morton Hayward and her colleagues at the University of Oxford developed a method to extract proteins from ancient brains and potentially other soft tissues. Though such tissues are rarer in the fossil record compared to bones and teeth, some remain preserved and may offer a wealth of information. The first results could be available next year.
Paleontologists from the Institute of Paleontology of the Polish Academy of Sciences and the Autonomous University of Barcelona have identified a new species within the genus Turtle, known as Manuria. This discovery is based on fossilized remains found in the Czech Republic.
Life restoration of Manulia morula. Image credit: Rudolf Hima.
Manulia morula thrived in the wetlands of what is now the Czech Republic during the early Miocene epoch, roughly 20 to 17 million years ago.
This species is recognized as the oldest member of Manuria, which currently exists solely in Southeast Asia and comprises four extinct species along with two living ones: Manulia Emmis and the impressed turtle (Manulia Impreza).
“Tortoise paleontologist Dr. Milan Kraust from the Institute of Paleontology of the Polish Academy of Sciences remarked, ‘Turtles of the family Testudinidae are a clade highly specialized for terrestrial environments, predominantly inhabiting semi-arid conditions.’
“Members of the Testudinidae family, with carapace lengths ranging from 35 to 75 cm (14 to 30 inches), are categorized as medium to large-sized turtles, while those exceeding 75 cm are classified as giant-sized turtles.”
“Extant species of the Testudinidae can be divided into three main groups: gophers and Manuria (which appears as a basal genus or continuous branch), geokerona clade, and test duna clade, with the latter two forming the subfamily Testudininae.”
The fossil remains of Manulia morula include parts of the carapace and plastron, along with numerous unidentified shell fragments, which were uncovered at the Arnikov I fossil site in the Most Basin of Bohemia.
The length of the turtle’s shell is estimated to have been around 50 cm (20 inches).
“The Anikov I area has long been recognized as a region where wetlands featuring flooded rivers and shallow lakes have been documented,” the paleontologists stated.
“The wetland habitat near the coast was also inferred from the abundance of juvenile crocodiles and potentially the presence of Coristodere.”
“However, based on research findings regarding this genus, Manuria suggests a humid forest of evergreen broad-leaved trees situated near water, characterized by a rainy season and a distinct drier, cooler season, reminiscent of the current Kaeng Krachan National Park in Thailand.”
The discovery of Manulia morula broadens the paleobiogeographical distribution of this genus, Manuria, extending its range from Asia into the heart of Europe.
“According to our findings, the genus Manuria originated in Europe just prior to the Miocene climate optimum, subsequently spreading to Asia, where it continues to thrive today,” the researchers elaborated.
These findings were published on October 3, 2025, in the Swiss Journal of Paleontology.
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M. Kraust et al. 2025. Manulia morula sp. Nov.: An ancient large turtle from a Miocene swamp in Anikov, Czech Republic. Swiss Journal of Paleontology 144, 63; doi: 10.1186/s13358-025-00400-6
Brian Johnson slows or even reverses his body’s aging for more than six hours a day
Agaton Strom/Redux/Eyevine
After completing his 6.5-hour morning routine, Brian Johnson connects to Zoom on a preset 15-minute phone call, a restriction his team describes as part of his “crazy” schedule.
The tech billionaire has emerged as a pioneer of longevity while standing against the concrete walls of his California residence. With a helmet-like headset, wires trailing from the screen, and a black T-shirt that reads “Don’t Die,” his appearance evokes a blend of a luxurious Bali villa and a sleek Apple-designed VR store.
This article is part of a special issue focused on achieving a healthier and happier year. Click here for more details.
While the concept of immortality has fascinated humans for millennia, few have pursued it with the determination that Johnson does. His headset is part of an experiment designed to enhance cognitive function, utilizing specific brain region stimulation via infrared rays. He has committed to a 10-minute daily use of the device over the past two weeks to evaluate its impact on his cognition.
Johnson’s remaining 6 hours and 20 minutes are dedicated to his daily longevity protocol, which includes focused breathing exercises, temperature measurement, hair growth serum application, strength and balance training, a 20-minute sauna session, and treatments like red light therapy and hypoxia therapy. His diet consists of ground nuts, seeds, blueberries, extra virgin olive oil, pomegranate extract, cocoa, collagen, pea and hemp protein, cinnamon, omega-3, omega-6, grape seed extract, macadamia milk, and more. “All this is to turn back the clock [using data and science].”
“People often hear this and think ‘It’s crazy,'” he remarks. “The best way to view it is to see me as a professional rejuvenating athlete—an Olympic athlete, but for longevity.”
Now 48, Johnson embarked on his longevity quest following a series of midlife events: the end of his marriage and the sale of his mobile payment company, which provided him with millions to fund his endeavors.
Project Blueprint
He announced the launch of Project Blueprint in 2021—a mission aimed at measuring organs and reversing biological ages to the “maximum.” He also operates a startup, Blueprint, which markets supplements, blood tests, and other products, facing multiple controversies. Johnson asserts that his bone density ranks in the top 0.2% and his cardiovascular fitness exceeds that of 85% of 20-year-olds, combined with fertility metrics reflecting that of a 20-year-old.
Among his fellow tech billionaires, engaging in extreme and often unproven methods to pursue longevity is not unusual. However, with a strict eating schedule that includes a last meal at 11 a.m., Johnson stands out as the most radical participant in the longevity race, supported by a team of 30 specialists in various fields. “We’re seeking expertise across all domains… brain, mind, protein patterns,” he explains. “This project is experimental and playful.”
Rapamycin Testing
“Very experimental” aptly describes Johnson’s regimen, which may incorporate medications like rapamycin—initially administered as an immunosuppressant post-organ transplant. While animal studies reveal promising results, he ceased taking it last year due to side effects and subsequently discovered a study indicating rapamycin could accelerate aging in humans.
Does he fear experimenting with interventions lacking robust scientific backing?
“I flip that notion,” Johnson replies. “Many people view my experiments as risky, yet they indulge in fast food, late nights, and alcohol, which pose greater risks than my lifestyle. I maintain a healthy diet, ample sleep, and consistent exercise, minimizing my overall risk.”
Some scientists appreciate Johnson’s self-experimentation, while others challenge his terminology. Richard Shiou, Director of Aging Research at King’s College London, notes that some aging-related “biomarkers” can be reversed, including blood metrics, lung volume, lipid profiles, and inflammation markers. However, he argues that this does not equate to suggesting that a person possesses the metabolism of a 25-year-old at 40, given the absence of comprehensive datasets illustrating average biomarkers by age. Longevity clinics providing such tests often rely on limited datasets, according to SIOW. “The numbers may sound appealing for marketing, but they lack clinical sense.”
Conversely, Johnson’s research team maintains that he accurately knows his organ’s biological age through rigorous testing and monitoring, employing methods like MRI scans, ultrasound, blood tests, and genetic assessments (e.g., epigenetic clocks). While these findings are reported via X, they’ve yet to undergo peer-review.
Notably, SIOW appreciates Johnson’s willingness to self-experiment in ways typically not feasible in clinical trials due to ethical constraints.
Optimal Tips for Achieving a Century
Despite his tech innovations, Johnson’s fundamental advice for anyone aspiring to reach 100 is surprisingly straightforward. “Lower your resting heart rate before bed,” he suggests, as it impacts sleep quality, which in turn affects exercise, nutrition, and overall health, creating a positive feedback loop.
To achieve a reduced resting heart rate, he advises refraining from eating four hours prior to bedtime, engaging in calming activities such as reading, walking, meditating, and avoiding screens for an hour before sleep. Additionally, he cautions against stimulants like caffeine. “The most significant is anxiety. Just thinking about being angry, worried, or fixated can elevate your heart rate by 5-25 beats per minute,” he adds.
Johnson practices what he preaches, yet the longevity he aims for may be less about years and more about enhancing quality of existence.
When asked about his lifespan expectations based on current biomarkers, he responds, “The average lifespan isn’t my focus.” Part of his “not die” initiative includes uploading his consciousness to an AI model, allowing him to exist beyond a quantifiable timeframe. “This is the first instance of genuine immortality. Indeed, we can train human models. The advancements we’re witnessing in AI are astonishing, outpacing the 40-50 years I might have left.”
Sirius Binary Star System Captured with a Neurotype Camera
Satyapreet Singh, Chetan Singh Thakur, Nirupam Roy, Indian Institute of Science, India
Neurotype cameras, designed to emulate human vision, offer significant benefits for astronomers by enabling the capture of both bright and dim celestial objects in a single frame. This allows for tracking swift-moving entities without the risk of motion blur.
Unlike conventional digital cameras that sample a grid of pixels multiple times per second, recording data for each pixel each time, neurotype cameras, or event cameras, function quite differently. Each pixel is activated only if there’s a change in brightness at that specific location. If the brightness remains constant, no new data is saved, resembling how the human eye processes visual information.
This innovative approach presents various benefits. By recording only changing pixels, less data is generated while maintaining a much higher frame rate. Furthermore, these cameras measure light on a logarithmic scale, enabling the detection of fainter objects next to brighter ones that may saturate conventional camera images.
To investigate the potential of this technology for astronomical applications, Chetan Singh Thakur and his team at the Indian Institute of Science in Bengaluru mounted a neurotype camera on a 1.3-meter telescope at the Aliyabatta Observatory in Uttarkhand, India.
Sirius A is approximately 10,000 times brighter than Sirius B, making it challenging to capture both in a single image using traditional sensors, as noted by Mark Norris from the University of Central Lancashire, UK, who was not part of the study.
According to Singh Thakur, neurotype cameras excel at tracking fast-moving objects due to their high frame rates. “For high-speed objects, you can capture their movement without blur, unlike conventional cameras,” he explains.
Telescopes typically utilize multiple sensors that can be swapped as needed. Norris points out that a neurotype camera could serve as an additional tool for viewing scenarios where both very bright and very faint objects need to be observed concurrently, or for quickly moving targets like the recently identified interstellar object 3i/Atlas.
Traditionally, to follow fast-moving objects, astronomers would need to pan the telescope. However, neurotype cameras can accurately track the movement of these objects precisely while maintaining background details and resolving their locations.
“Do you want to know the brightness of an object or its location? In quantum mechanics, you can’t ascertain both at the same instant,” Norris states. “This technology offers a potential method to achieve both simultaneously.”
While neurotype cameras provide unique advantages, they may not replace all sensor applications. Their resolution is typically lower than that of charge-coupled devices (CCDs), which are commonly used in digital cameras, achieving an efficiency of about 78% compared to the 95% efficiency of CCDs. This disparity makes traditional sensors more effective at capturing dim objects near their detection limits.
From a global perspective, the early Jurassic was characterized by the steady division of the Supercontinent Pangaea and associated climate change that produced alternating greenhouses and ice house conditions.
These paleoenvironmental changes coincided with radiation in various reptile groups. Plesiosauria.
The early Jurassic fossil records of the Plesiosaurus are particularly diverse, with members of Plesiosauroidea, Pliosauridae and Rhomaleosauridae being represented by numerous species in Europe, particularly in Germany and the UK.
3 m long skeleton Plesioptery Wildi It provides new clues about the evolution and geographical distribution of early Jurassic Precio Sources.
Fossils that were 180 million years ago posidonienschiefer layer Near Holtzmadden in southern Germany.
The specimen, called MH 7, is one of the most complete and distinct plesioaurus skeletons found in the region.
“Unlike the fishy scallions and marine crocodile parents who dominate the fossil record of this formation, Pleciosaurus is relatively rare,” said Miguel Marx, a paleontologist at Lund University and his colleagues.
“Therefore, new discoveries offer rare glimpses into the biodiversity of these long-necked marine reptiles.”
“MH 7 represents someone who refines this type of known trait and refines its validity as a clear taxa.”
Phylogenetic analysis shows that Plesioptery Wildi It is a close-related early potential plesiosaualoid Franconiasaurus Brevispinus.
“This finding suggests a progressive evolutionary transition to more derived cryptocrizids in the late Jurassic period,” the paleontologist said.
“It supports the idea that Prisiosaurus species may have been regionally different in the Epicontoninent Seas of early Jurassic Europe, reinforcing the pattern of paleobiogeographic segregation.”
“The Holtzmadden specimen gives us an unprecedented view Plesioptery Wildi At a more mature stage of development, we can refine our understanding of this species and its place in the evolution of plesiosaurus,” said Dr. Marx.
“It also suggests that different plesiosaurus communities may have evolved in different regions of the European sea during the early Jurassic region.”
“Our research reinforces the Pleciosoaurus already evolves specialized adaptations and distinct regional lineages much faster than we believed,” added Dr. Sven Sachs, a researcher at the Naturkunde Museum Bielefeld.
“This has important implications for understanding how marine reptiles responded to changes in the Jurassic ocean environment.”
M. Marx et al. 2025. New specimen of Plesioptery Wildi We reveal the diversification and possible uniqueness of Cryptocrizia precursors in the early European Jurassic Plecioaurauro assembly. Peerj 13:E18960; doi:10.7717/peerj.18960
Teams of astronomers from Taiwan, Canada, the US, and France observe and bring in 128 additional moons orbiting gas giant Saturn The total number of confirmed months has reached 274. International Astronomy confirmed its discovery on March 11, 2025.
This image from Webb's Nircam Instrument shows some of Saturn, Rings and Moons. Image credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/STSCI/M. Tiscareno, Seti Institute/M. Hedman, University of Idaho/M. Elmutamide, Cornell University/M. Shorterter, SETI Institute/L. Fletcher, University of Leicester/H. Hammel, AURA/J. DEPASQUALE, STSCI.
Dr. Edward Ashton, a postdoctoral researcher at the Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics at Academia Cynthia, and his colleagues used the Canadian French Hawaii Television Scope (CFHT) to repeatedly monitor the sky around Saturn between 2019 and 2021, combining multiple images with details to enhance the astronomical object.
This first run produced 62 months. And there are even more other objects that were not available at that time.
“I revisited the same empty fields for the third consecutive month in 2023, knowing that these are probably moons and are likely waiting more to be discovered,” Dr. Ashton said.
“Of course, we found 128 new moons. I don’t think Jupiter will catch up based on our predictions.”
All 128 new moons are irregular moons, objects photographed by host planets in the history of the solar system.
“These moons are several kilometers in size and could be all fragments of the originally captured moon that have been broken by violent collisions with other Saturn’s moons and passing comets.”
“The mystery within Saturn’s irregular lunar system was a key motivation for the latest search. Given the small numbers compared to the larger moons, it is possible that there has been a collision somewhere within the Saturn system within the last 100 million years.”
“If not, these moons would have now collided with each other and been blown away by the blacksmith.
In fact, most of the newly discovered moons are located near the Mundirfari subgroup of Saturn’s moon, and may be the location of the collision, taking into account its size, number, and orbital concentration.
“Our carefully planned, multi-year campaign has brought us a new moon jackpot that tells us about the evolution of Saturn’s irregular natural satellite populations,” Dr. Ashton said.
“I don’t think using current technology is much better than what’s already done for the moons around Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.”
When her school closed in March 2020, Baltimore English teacher Chimere Sweeney thought that once the US got the new SARS-COV-2 virus, she would return to her students. But “There was another plan in life,” she said when she quickly got Covid and never recovered.
Initially, Sweeney developed only muscle pain. By the second week she began having panic attacks, blurry vision, constipation and partial hearing loss. Half of her face freezes “like concrete.” She forgot her phone number and address and stuttered. Within a month of contracting, she lost 30 pounds.
“In two weeks, I was told I would be better,” said Sweeney, now 42. “But my two weeks didn't come.”
Almost five years later, she still suffers from severe whole body pain, insomnia, depression, painful rash and boiling, uncontrollable urination, short-term memory loss and irregular periods.
“I'm a healthy 37-year-old woman and I might have had to pop allergy pills many times, but I took 10-12 medications per day to control almost every system in my body,” Sweeney said.
The World Health Organization characterized Covid as a pandemic on March 11, 2020, so scientists don't fully understand why some people develop chronic diseases and disordered conditions after their first virus infection. The US may have come throughout the winter after the first pandemic without a massive surge in cases, but each infection is at risk of developing a long community. Some scientists are looking for a new type of clinical trial designed for the longest and most debilitating covid patients.
Long covid is known to be the cause Over 200 different symptoms There are no approved tests or recommended treatments in almost 12 organ systems, including those of the heart, lungs, kidneys, brain, eyes and skin. Research shows long covid It's more common for middle-aged people, especially women and those with weakened immune systems, but anyone who catches the virus can get it.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that there is one in every 20 adults in the United States, or about 14 million. Living with a long covid. Other data shows that 5.8 million children It may be affected by the condition as well. However, experts say these numbers are likely to be underestimated as there is no official surveillance system in place.
Billion Dollar Research Initiative Called Recover Started by the National Institutes of Health, finding the causes and potential treatments of covid, I've reached that promisesays scientists and patient advocates.
Meanwhile, experts fear that extreme cuts in federal spending by the Trump administration could be possible It undermines long Covid's research effortswhich could further delay the discovery of treatment. Last month, President Donald Trump ended his secretary as a health and welfare secretary Advisory Committee on Long Covid.
This indefinite dye microscope image, available to the US National Institutes of Health in February 2020, shows the novel coronavirus SARS-COV-2, shown in yellow, emerges from the cell surface and is cultured in laboratory culture.niaid-rml via AP file
W. Medical Director, UT Health Austin. Dr. Michael Broad Post-Covid-19 Program In Texas, “We build boats while we're at the sea and we're trying to understand together. [with patients] …But we need to build on the progress we have already made. ”
“We are not offering answers that are worthy of the public health crisis we are facing,” he said.
Causes of long covids
SARS-COV-2, which causes Covid, is not the only virus that causes prolonged symptoms. Another condition called myalgia encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) shares many similarities with the long community; Caused by infection Among other things, Epstein Barr, influenza, and water cell-zoster virus.
Brode said Covid is unique because it is more likely to cause chronic disease than other pathogens. It has not yet been determined why it could lead to long-term symptoms. Experts have come to several theories so far.
One idea is that Virus remains hidden in different tissues Broad said after the infection subsided. These viral particles continue to thrust and stimulate the immune system in ways that cause long covid symptoms.
Another potential cause is Reactivation of other virusessitting in a dormant state of people's bodies, such as EBV and HIV.
Dr. Igor Coralnik, co-director of Northwest Medicine's Comprehensive COVID-19 Centre, said Covid could also trick the immune system into producing antibodies that attack people's own healthy organs and tissues.
Some evidence shows covid It affects the inner layer of blood vesselswhich leads to the formation of small clots and helps explain the symptoms, such as irregular heartbeat and heart failure, that some long-term community patients experience, Koralnik said.
It is unclear whether one or a combination of these factors will cause long covid, experts say. But the evidence suggests that they are all linked to an increase in inflammation in the body, Coralnik said, it's yours The risk of long covid increases with each covid infection.
“It's like a river that's over a dam,” Coralnik said. “The more episodes of Covid, the higher the river levels will go to where it is overflowing, and there will be a long flood of COVID symptoms.”
Diagnosis of long covids can be complicated
There are diagnostic tools to check for long covid symptoms, such as MRI scans for heart abnormalities. There are no tests that can diagnose the condition Or distinguish it from similar diseases, the CDC says.
As a result, people need to stay away from work, school or other responsibilities and endure numerous clinical tests and scans that are not only expensive, but also stressful and time-consuming. This is a broad exclusion process that prevents people from getting the help they need, Broad said.
Eye, intestine, and immune system clue
The current challenge is to find one or more biomarkers of genes, proteins, or other substances associated with a particular condition that will help diagnose long covid.
a Recover your research Released last year, routine lab tests, including 25 standard blood and urine tests, showed little difference in biomarkers, with or without previous symbiotic infections. Researchers concluded that these tests may not be useful in the diagnosis of long-term COVID.
Koralnik and his team recently discovered that people with long covids are reducing blood flow in small blood vessels in the retina. This reduced flow is thought to reduce blood circulation in and around the brain, and the small organelles called mitochondria, which convert oxygen into energy, are described as “toxic.”
This theory can explain why many people with long covid experience cognitive problems, fatigue and exercise intolerance, Coralnik said. Overall, the findings published in the Journal of Imaging in February are The retina can become a long covid biomarker.
Other studies suggest that biomarkers may be present in the gut and immune system, but Brode noted that these early findings are based on small groups of people and should be considered in salt grains.
As useful as diagnostic tests, experts say that for those with prolonged symptoms, some experts should not slow scientists in searching for long covid treatments.
Julia Moore Vogel, senior program director at Scripps Research, and Patient-led research cooperation Regarding long covid, he said that other conditions like migraines do not have reliable biomarkers or tests to confirm the diagnosis. Several drugs have been approved To handle it.
“I think we'll get there,” said Vogel, a long-distance runner before developing the long-time Covid in 2020. “But I personally don't think it should contain anything.”
Unfortunate advances in long covid treatments
The Food and Drug Administration has not approved treatments, particularly for long covids. Experts are not sure if they'll get it anytime soon.
“When I first got sick, I was OK, I had to survive for just three to five years. At least, I think I have options as I have decent symptom management trial data. But we've made little progress in treatment,” Vogel said. “There are currently promising research beginning, but it's not close to the amount that should be burdened by the disease.”
Most clinical trials test whether medications used to treat other conditions are useful for long-term COVID. For example, researchers at the University of British Columbia Low-dose naltrexone – Approved drugs for opioid and alcohol use disorders. The drug is thought to have anti-inflammatory and pain relief properties and is used off-label in people with fibromyalgia and ME/CFS, making it potential as a long-term symbiotic treatment.
Other drugs Barishinibapproved for treating rheumatoid arthritis and acute charlation, and Temelimabuexperimental drugs often administered to people with multiple sclerosis have also been investigated as potential long covid treatments.
Instead of a particular treatment, people with long covids must balance rest and activity in a strategy called pacing and undergo physical and cognitive behavioral therapy for further support. Many people will often rely on several drugs, including antiviral Paxlovid, to treat symptoms.
But realistically, “we may not actually have one silver bullet treatment,” says Alison Cohen, an epidemiologist at the University of California, San Francisco, who coexisted for three years for a long time. Cohen said that long covid will take a “multi-faceted approach” to take a “multi-faceted approach” in a very diverse way.
What will you do in the future for recovery?
As long as SARS-COV-2 continues to spread, everyone is at risk of a long Covid, Cohen said. And now, evidence shows that recovery from the condition is rare. A survey released last month found it Only about 6% of people with long covid recover According to Cohen, two years later. Covid vaccinations were associated with better long-term recovery, especially among those who won booster shots.
People who improve are experiencing many “ups and downs,” Coralnik said. “You need to expect a lot of collisions on the road.”
“Living with a long Covid is tiring,” Cohen said. “So for everyone who doesn't live with it, it's important to think about what we can do to support those who have them.”
In the meantime, clinical trials must be designed to accommodate and include the patients they intend, Vogel said. Many people are tied to their homes and beds and cannot travel due to the risk of multiple in-person visits or flare-ups of symptoms, she added. “There are too many things you can't know until you put them on the table,” she said.
Although we don't know when a long community community finally gets the answers and security they need, Vogel keeps her head high.
“We know we can do that. We are confident that a well-designed and well-tested exam will at least improve the quality of life. “But I can't think of any other way. I can't accept that this is for my life.”
New research suggests that Mars once was the perfect holiday destination (if they were willing to overlook radiation exposure or lack of food sources), but also had the right conditions for alien life. why? The discovery of ancient sandy beaches on the red planet suggests that once a large liquid ocean spread across the north of the planet.
“Looking back at the places where the earliest life on Earth developed, it was in the interaction between the ocean and the land, which paints a picture of an ancient habitable environment that can embrace the conditions for microbial life,” he said. Benjamin Cardenasassistant professor of geology at Penn State University in the United States and co-author of the study.
Four billion years ago, these beaches would have been the best variety. The waves are softly wrapped sandy and immersed in the sun.
“We found evidence of a lack of wind, waves and sand. It’s a proper vacation style beach,” says Cardenas, whose research was published. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (pnas).
To find this, researchers used a probe up to 80m (260 feet) below the Mars surface in a region of North Mars called the Utopian Plain, using radar imaging, using a probe up to 80m (260 feet) below the Mars surface.
We discovered 76 hidden structures at depths of 10-35m (33-115ft). Sadly, this turned out to be not a mysterious alien infrastructure (we can dream of it), but rather a sedimentary deposit similar to what is found around the Earth’s coastline.
3.6 billion years ago, the ocean may have covered almost half of the red planet. The Orange Star shows where China’s Roberzouron began its exploration. Meanwhile, the Yellow Star is where NASA’s patient rover landed. Both arrived on Mars in 2021. -Image credit: Robert Citron
The structure, thickness and length of Martian sediments showed that they were not formed by the melting of rivers, winds, lava or ice, but rather by stable ancient seas. In fact, they were roughly the same as 21 people on Earth, including the Bay of Bengal.
Specifically, a formation called “foreshore sediments” is formed by the tide and wind that descends the slope towards the ocean at a 15° angle and carries sediments like sand and gravel.
“This quickly stood out to us because it suggested there were waves, meaning there was a dynamic interface between air and water,” Cardenas said. This interaction, which also took place in the early history of the Earth, is important for the beginning of life.
The discovery suggests that Mars had a warm, humid climate for tens of millions of years.
“We tend to think of Mars as a static snapshot of the planet, but it was evolving. The rivers were flowing, the sediment was moving, the land was built and eroding,” Cardenas said.
“This type of sedimentary geology tells us how the landscape looks, how they evolved, and, importantly, helps us identify where we want to look for our past life.”
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Recently, archaeologists uncovered the ancient city of Pompeii, preserved under volcanic ash for around 2,000 years.
The discovery of a massive private bathhouse, believed to be the largest in the city, by an international team of experts has shed new light on Pompeii’s reputation for innovation and wealth.
The baths included hot and cold rooms, intricate artworks, a large pool, and the capacity for up to 30 people, along with workers on site.
Within a small room, the remains of two individuals – a male slave and a high-status woman – were found.
Dr. Sophie Hay, an archaeologist working at the excavation site, stated, “This site truly brings the past to life, revealing the stark disparities in Roman lifestyles within these ruins.”
One of the excavation sites discovered during the work – Credit: BBC / Lion TV
In addition to the baths, a complete block of Pompeii was unveiled, featuring a grand house with direct access to a laundry, bakery, and bathhouse, all likely belonging to wealthy politician Aulus Rustius Verus.
The direct connection between the bathhouse and the house suggests it was a venue for private gatherings, a luxury reserved for the affluent in Pompeii.
Skeleton discovered next to set of coins during excavation – Credit: BBC/Lion TV
The discovery also revealed advanced technological features in the city, like a boiler room with a system of pipes distributing water from the road, highlighting Pompeii’s engineering progress.
The contrast between the affluent luxuries of the bathhouse and the toil of slaves in the boiler room is a poignant reminder of social inequality in Roman society.
These earrings discovered during excavations are thought to belong to wealthy individuals – Credit: BBC/Lion TV
The bodies of two individuals in a room exemplify this inequality, with valuable items found with the high-status woman but signs of labor on the young man’s body, suggesting different social statuses. The woman likely perished in the volcanic eruption, while the man died from a collapsing wall.
Despite nearing the end of the excavation, the possibility of further discoveries remains open as the team delves deeper into the site.
For more insights, tune in to BBC Two’s documentary, “Pompeii: New excavations – House of Treasures,” airing on Monday, January 20th at 9pm.
The spiral arm of Messier 83, one of the most prominent spiral galaxies in the night sky, exhibits a high rate of star formation, with six supernovae observed, according to astronomers at NSF’s NOIRLab.
This DECam image shows the spiral galaxy Messier 83. Image credits: CTIO / NOIRLab / DOE / NSF / AURA / TA Chancellor, University of Alaska Anchorage & NSF NOIRLab / D. de Martin, NSF NOIRLab / M. Zamani, NSF NOIRLab.
Messier 83 is located approximately 15 million light-years away in the southern constellation Hydra.
The galaxy, also known as the Southern Pinwheel Galaxy, M83, NGC 5236, LEDA 48082, and UGCA 366, has a diameter of about 50,000 light-years, making it about twice smaller than the Milky Way.
With an apparent magnitude of 7.5, it is one of the brightest spiral galaxies in the night sky. May is the best month to observe with binoculars.
Messier 83 is oriented almost completely face-on from Earth, meaning astronomers can observe its spiral structure in great detail.
This galaxy is a prominent member of a group of galaxies known as the Centaurus A/M83 group, which also counts dusty NGC 5128 and irregular galaxy NGC 5253 as members.
It was discovered on February 23, 1752 by French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille.
“Between 1750 and 1754, the French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille studied the night sky with the purpose of determining distances to planets,” NOIRLab astronomers said.
“During this period, he observed and cataloged 10,000 stars and identified 42 nebular objects, including Messier 83, which he discovered during an expedition to the Cape of Good Hope in 1752.”
“In 1781, Charles Messier added it to his famous catalog and described it as a ‘starless nebula’, reflecting the limited knowledge of galaxies at the time.”
“It wasn’t until the 20th century, thanks to the work of Edwin Hubble, that astronomers realized that objects like Messier 83 were actually in another galaxy far outside the Milky Way.”
New images of Messier 83 dark energy camera (DECam), mounted on NSF’s Victor M. Blanco 4-meter telescope at the Cerro Tororo Inter-American Observatory, a program of the NSF NOIRLab.
“This image shows Messier 83’s distinct spiral arms filled with clouds of pink hydrogen gas where new stars are forming,” the astronomers said.
“Interspersed between these pink regions are bright blue clusters of hot young stars whose ultraviolet radiation has blown away the surrounding gas.”
“At the center of the galaxy, a yellow central bulge is made up of old stars, and weak bars connect spiral arms through the center, funneling gas from the outer regions toward the center.”
“DECam’s high sensitivity captures Messier 83’s extended halo and the countless more distant galaxies in the background.”
“Just as Messier 83 is filled with millions of newly formed stars, this galaxy is also home to many dying stars,” they added.
“Over the past century, astronomers have witnessed a total of six stellar explosions called supernovae in Messier 83. Only two other galaxies can match this number.”
In 2006, astronomers discovered a mysterious feature at the center of Messier 83.
“At the center of this galaxy, we discovered a never-before-seen concentration of mass similar to a secondary nucleus, likely the remains of another galaxy being consumed by Messier 83 in an ongoing collision. , likely the same collision that caused the starburst activity,’ the researchers said.
“The two nuclei, which likely contain the black hole, are expected to coalesce into a single nucleus in another 60 million years.”
Drone footage of a gray whale captured off the coast of Oregon over a seven-year period reveals new details about how the giant marine mammal finds and eats its food.
The findings, described in two studies published this summer, include that gray whales use different swimming techniques to gather food depending on their size and age, and that larger whales are able to swim more easily in the water. It includes a high chance of spitting out a “bubble explosion” to stay in place.
“Until this study, we thought all whales exhibited this behavior,” said Clara Byrd, lead author of both studies and a research scientist at Oregon State University's Marine Mammal Research Institute. said. “No one thought there was a pattern to who behaved in what way.”
Bird's research also found that whales use different predation techniques depending on the depth at which they forage and the habitat of their prey. Such information could inform future conservation efforts, she said, as it provides insight into the types of habitats that need to be protected to maintain whales' access to food.
“While we are not currently actively seeking to protect specific habitats, future concerns include the possibility that whales of different ages may not all be using the same habitats. “It's very important to know,” Bird said. “It will help us manage them in the future.”
Drone footage of gray Wales shows them standing on their heads and exploding bubbles. oregon state university
Whales eat amphipod crustaceans, such as small shrimp and earthworms. These creatures suck up water and sediment from the ocean floor where they live and use their whiskers to filter and consume food. Gray whales are usually observed alone or in small groups, but large groups can sometimes be seen on feeding and breeding grounds.
Bird and her team conducted a survey off the coast of Newport. During their seven-year voyage, the group used drones to track and record individual whales. They used identification markers such as scars, spots, and tail shapes to identify specific whales.
The research team tracked 78 gray whales in a total of 160 sightings from 2016 to 2022. In drone footage, young, small whales were observed often swimming sideways or facing forward, opening and closing their mouths in an attempt to find and ingest food. . Older, larger whales, on the other hand, tended to dive and then stay in place with their heads down, in what scientists describe as a “handstand technique.”
As whales grow larger, the probability of such headstands increases, but the probability of forward swimming tactics decreases, the study found. Water depth and habitat type, including rocky, sandy, and coral reefs, also influenced the whales' approach.
Drone images show a gray whale using a sidestroke technique to forage for food. oregon state university
Bird believes the switch in technique is due to the maturation of the whale's muscles and its level of strength and coordination.
Her team's second study was published Published in Ecology and Evolution In August, we explained how older, larger whales emit air through their blowholes to stay underwater as they forage.
These “bubble explosions” can reduce the whale's buoyancy and help it sink. Larger whales have a greater need for this because their lungs hold more air, contain more fat, and are easier to float.
The discovery was based on observations of 75 whales. On average, the bubble explosions occurred 27 seconds after the whale dove took off in search of food, and most were observed while the whales were doing a handstand. The older and larger the whale, the more likely such an explosion will occur.
“Combining size and individual-level behavior in this way is a really interesting part of this study,” Bird said.
Susan Parks, a biology professor at Syracuse University who has published research on whale eating habits but was not involved in the new study, said documenting the diversity among whale species is important for scientists. said that it helps avoid inaccurate generalizations.
“When working on conservation efforts and protecting endangered species, it's really important to understand that there can be large variations in behavior,” Parks said. “So you can't just stop at a single observation.”
The park also highlighted the potential drones have for collecting detailed data about whales.
“There is so much we don’t know about whale behavior,” she said, adding that the study “uses drone footage to essentially monitor whale behavior to help explain how whales make a living.” “It gave us a completely different perspective on the details of what's going on,” he added.
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has recently published a detailed report titled Current status of global climate in 2023, which synthesizes the latest scientific knowledge on climate change from the past year.
This report contains significant findings that shed light on the impact of human-induced climate change on the Earth. If you’re overwhelmed by the idea of reading through lengthy UN reports, fear not! We have highlighted some of the most fascinating and surprising discoveries for you.
1. Switzerland has lost 10 percent of its glaciers in the past two years
Glaciers are vital ecosystems formed when snow solidifies into ice in cold mountain regions. They flow slowly downhill, shaping the landscape as they move. Glaciers play a crucial role in the ecosystem by melting in the summer and nourishing rivers, providing essential water resources globally.
According to the WMO report, the unprecedented glacier loss in 2022-2023, primarily in North America and Europe, marks a record decline. Switzerland, in particular, has witnessed a distressing scenario with a 10 percent reduction in glacier volume over the past two years.
“The planet is warming, and the ice is melting, but seeing parts of the Alps lose 10 percent of their glacier volume in just two years is astonishing,” stated Professor Jonathan Bamber, Director of the Bristol Glaciology Center.
2. On any given day in 2023, a third of the oceans experienced a heatwave.
The record-breaking sea surface temperatures in Florida are just one example of ocean warming trends. The report highlights that a significant portion of the Earth’s stored energy since 1971 resides in the oceans, leading to increased heat content.
In 2023, ocean warming reached its highest level on record, with ocean heat content at a depth of 2,000 meters peaking. This trend is expected to persist for centuries, if not millennia.
As ocean temperatures rise, water expands and contributes to sea level rise. Ocean heatwaves are becoming more frequent, with marine heatwave coverage averaging 32 percent in 2023, compared to 23 percent in 2016.
3. The cost of inaction on climate change could be staggering.
Addressing climate change and adapting to its costs will require substantial investments. The WMO estimates that annual climate finance investments need to increase more than sixfold to limit temperature rise to 1.5°C, amounting to nearly $9 trillion by 2030 and an additional $10 trillion by 2050.
However, the report emphasizes that the cost of inaction would far exceed these figures. Failing to take action between 2025 and 2100 could incur a massive cost of $1,266 trillion.
The cost of inaction on climate change will exceed $1,000 trillion by 2100. – Image courtesy of Getty
Dr. David Lippin stressed the urgency of taking action, citing the report’s warning that inaction on climate change is more costly than proactive measures.
“The time to act is now, and the need for action is urgent,” emphasized Dr. Lippin, a professor at the School of Environmental Geography at York University.
4. Antarctic winter sea ice was 1 million km2 below the previous record
The vulnerable polar regions experienced unprecedented changes in Antarctica this year. The report revealed that Antarctic sea ice extent hit a record low in February.
While Antarctic sea ice typically peaks around September, it reached a record low this year, falling up to 1 million km2 below any previous level recorded – equivalent to the combined area of France and Spain.
Senior Researcher at the National Center for Atmospheric Science, Dr. Till Kuhlbrodt, described the findings as alarming, reflecting extreme climate and weather conditions unprecedented in modern records.
Despite these challenges, Professor Tina van de Flierdt, Head of Geosciences and Engineering at Imperial College London, emphasized the importance of immediate action to mitigate the loss of the West Antarctic ice sheet and reduce global emissions.
About our experts
Jonathan Bamber: A physicist specializing in Earth Observation data, particularly on the cryosphere. With over 200 peer-reviewed publications, he is recognized as a leading researcher in his field.
David Lippin: Senior Lecturer in Physical Geography at the University of York, focusing on glacier dynamics and ice sheet research using advanced techniques.
Till Kuhlbrodt: Senior Research Fellow at the University of Reading, leading models to support climate change mitigation efforts. His recent work on sea temperature extremes was published in the American Weather Society Bulletin.
Tina van de Flierdt: Dean of the School of Geosciences and Engineering at Imperial College London, with research interests in paleoceanography, paleoclimate, and Antarctic ice sheet dynamics.
New insights from the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope overturn theories about how black holes shape the universe, reversing the classical theory that black holes formed after the first stars and galaxies appeared. It challenges our understanding. In fact, black holes may have accelerated the birth of new stars during the universe's first 50 million years.
This artist's impression shows the evolution of the universe, starting with the Big Bang on the left and continuing with the emergence of the Cosmic Microwave Background. The formation of the first stars ends the Dark Ages of the universe, followed by the formation of galaxies. Image credit: M. Weiss / Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
“We know that these monster black holes exist in the centers of galaxies near the Milky Way, but now the big surprise is that they were also present at the beginning of the universe, and that they were like building blocks or seeds of early galaxies. It was something,” he said. Professor Joseph Silk, an astronomer at Johns Hopkins University and the Sorbonne Institute of Astrophysics;
“They've really enhanced everything, including giant amplifiers for star formation. This completely overturns what we previously thought was possible, and how galaxies form. It has the potential to completely shake up our understanding of what happens.”
“The distant galaxies observed by Webb in the early universe appear much brighter than scientists expected, revealing an unusually large number of young stars and supermassive black holes.”
“Conventional wisdom holds that black holes formed after the collapse of supermassive stars, and that galaxies formed after the first stars illuminated the dark early universe.”
But the team's analysis suggests that for the first 100 million years, black holes and galaxies coexisted, influencing each other's fate.
“We argue that the outflow of the black hole crushed the gas clouds and turned them into stars, greatly accelerating the rate of star formation,” Professor Silk said.
“Otherwise, it's very difficult to understand where these bright galaxies came from, because they are typically smaller in the early Universe. Why on earth did they become stars so quickly? Do I need to create one?”
“A black hole is a region of space where gravity is so strong that not even light can escape its attraction.”
“Thanks to this force, they generate powerful magnetic fields that cause violent storms, eject turbulent plasma, and ultimately act like giant particle accelerators.”
“This process may be why Webb's detectors found more black holes and brighter galaxies than scientists expected.”
“We can't fully see these ferocious winds and jets so far away, but we know they must exist because many black holes have been seen in the early universe. I am.”
“The huge wind blowing from the black hole crushes nearby gas clouds, turning them into stars.”
“This is the missing link that explains why these first galaxies are much brighter than we expected.”
According to the research team, there were two stages of the young universe.
In the first stage, star formation was accelerated by high-velocity outflow from the black hole, while in the second stage, the outflow slowed down.
“Hundreds of millions of years after the Big Bang, a supermassive black hole magnetic storm caused gas clouds to collapse and new stars to form at a rate far exceeding that observed in normal galaxies billions of years later,” Professor Silk said. Ta.
“These powerful outflows moved into energy conservation states, reducing the amount of gas available to form stars within the galaxy, thus slowing star formation.”
“We originally thought that galaxies formed when giant gas clouds collapsed,” Professor Silk said.
“The big surprise was that there was a seed in the middle of that cloud, a large black hole, that helped rapidly turn the inside of that cloud into a star at a much faster rate than we expected. So the first galaxies are incredibly bright.”
of study Published in Astrophysics Journal Letter.
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joseph silk other. 2024. Which came first, a supermassive black hole or a galaxy? Insights from JWST. APJL 961, L39; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ad1bf0
Researchers at the University of Nottingham have discovered an important role for diligent proteins in plant roots, regulating water and nutrient uptake by controlling the endothelial lignin barrier. This discovery has important implications for the development of drought-tolerant crops that require fewer resources. The researchers also emphasized the importance of this discovery in adapting agriculture to changing climate conditions and ensuring future food security.
Researchers have identified the role of proteins that seal plant roots and control the uptake of nutrients and water from the soil. This breakthrough could lead to the development of climate-resilient crops that require less water and less chemical fertilizers.
researchers University of Nottingham We have identified a new component of the plant root lignin barrier and a specific function of diligent proteins (DPs) located in the root endodermis that control water and nutrient uptake. Their research results are science.
Root function and endothelium
Plant roots function by absorbing mineral nutrients and water from the soil and controlling the proper balance within the plant. This control is carried out by a specialized layer of root tissue called the endothelium.
The endodermis contains a barrier to solute and water movement made of lignin, the same substance found in wood. This impermeable barrier blocks uncontrolled movement of substances into the roots by forming a tight seal between cells. This seal ensures that the only route for nutrients and water to enter the roots is through the endothelial cells. This gives the cells complete control over what enters and exits the plant through the roots.
Role of Diligent Protein
This study identified a new component of the lignin deposition machinery, focusing on the function of diligent proteins (DPs) present in the root endothelium. These proteins act in conjunction with other described root control components to direct and organize the correct deposition of lignin into the endothelium, ensuring that the plant receives an optimal balance of nutrients from the soil. will do so.
Dr Gabriel Castrillo, from the School of Biological Sciences at the University of Nottingham, one of the study’s leaders, said: They can be future-proofed to secure future food supplies. This study shows how plant roots regulate water and nutrient uptake through DP-regulated lignin deposition. Without these proteins, proper root sealing is not completed and the nutritional balance within the plant is compromised. This knowledge can be used to engineer plants to grow with less water and chemical fertilizers. ”
Reference: “Diligent protein complexes direct lignin polymerization and construction of root diffusion barriers” Yi-Qun Gao, Jin-Quan Huang, Guilhem Reyt, Tao Song, Ashley Love, David Tiemessen,
Pei-Ying Xue, Written by Wen-Kai Wu, Michael W. George, Xiao Ya
Chen, Dai Ying Chao, Gabriel Castrillo, David E. Salt, October 26, 2023. science. DOI: 10.1126/science.adi5032
Researchers have made significant progress in understanding neuromuscular diseases by developing a two-dimensional neuromuscular junction model using pluripotent stem cells. This model enables high-throughput drug screening and complements previously developed three-dimensional organoids. (Artist’s concept) Credit: SciTechDaily.com
Scientists have developed a groundbreaking two-dimensional model to study neuromuscular diseases. This has enabled efficient drug testing and improved our understanding of diseases such as spinal muscular atrophy and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
Researchers have so far identified about 800 different neuromuscular diseases. These conditions are caused by problems with how muscle cells, motor neurons, and peripheral cells interact. These diseases, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and spinal muscular atrophy, can cause muscle weakness, paralysis, and even death.
“These diseases are very complex and the causes of dysfunction are diverse,” said Dr. Mina Gouti, head of the Max Delbrück Center’s Developmental Stem Cell Modeling and Disease Laboratory. The problem could be in the neurons, the muscle cells, or the connections between the two. “To better understand the causes and find effective treatments, we need human-specific cell culture models that allow us to study how motor neurons in the spinal cord interact with muscle cells.”
Innovative research using organoids
Researchers working with Gouti had already developed a three-dimensional neuromuscular organoid (NMO) system. “One of our goals is to use our cultures for large-scale drug testing,” Gouti says. “Three-dimensional organoids are so large that they cannot be cultured for long periods of time in the 96-well culture dishes we use to conduct high-throughput drug screening studies.”
Human self-assembling 2D neuromuscular junction model. Immunofluorescence analysis of the whole dish shows myocytes (magenta) organized into bundles surrounded by spinal neurons (cyan). Credit: Alessia Urzi, Max Delbrück Center
For this type of screening, an international team led by Gouti has now developed a self-organizing neuromuscular junction model using pluripotent stem cells. The model includes neurons, muscle cells, and chemicals. synapse It is called the neuromuscular junction, which is necessary for two types of cells to interact. The researchers have now published their findings in the journal. nature communications.
“The 2D self-assembled neuromuscular junction model allows us to perform high-throughput drug screening for various neuromuscular diseases and study the most promising candidates in patient-specific organoids,” says Gouti. .
2D neuromuscular model development
To establish a 2D self-organizing neuromuscular junction model, the researchers first needed to understand how motor neurons and muscle cells develop in the embryo. Although Minas’ team does not conduct embryo research themselves, they use a variety of human stem cell lines and induced pluripotent stem cell lines (iPSCs), which are allowed for research purposes under strict guidelines.
“We tested several hypotheses. We found that the cell type required for functional neuromuscular connections is derived from neuromesodermal progenitor cells,” says doctoral student and author of the paper. says lead author Alessia Urzi.
Urji discovered the right combination of signaling molecules that allow human stem cells to mature into functional motor neurons and muscle cells, and the necessary connections between them. “It was very exciting to see muscle cells contracting under the microscope,” Urji says. “That was a clear sign that we were on the right path.”
Another observation was that upon differentiation, cells organized into regions containing muscle cells and nerve cells, rather like a mosaic.
Optogenetic advances in neuromuscular research
Myocytes grown in culture dishes contract spontaneously as a result of their connections with neurons, but without any meaningful rhythm. Urji and Guti wanted to solve it. In collaboration with researchers at the Charité University of Berlin, they used optogenetics to activate motor neurons. Neurons activated by the flash of light fire and contract muscle cells in synchrony, causing them to move in a way that mimics the physiological conditions of an organism.
Modeling and testing for spinal muscular atrophy
To test the effectiveness of the model, Professor Urji used human iPSCs taken from patients with spinal muscular atrophy. Spinal muscular atrophy is a serious neuromuscular disease that affects children during their first year of life. Neuromuscular cultures generated from patient-specific induced pluripotent stem cells showed severe problems with muscle contraction similar to the patient’s disease state.
For Gooty, 2D and 3D cultures are important tools to study neuromuscular diseases in more detail and test more efficient and personalized treatment options. As a next step, Gouti and her team hope to conduct high-throughput drug screens to identify new treatments for patients with spinal muscular atrophy and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. “We want to start by using new drug combinations to see if we can achieve more successful outcomes to improve the lives of patients with complex neuromuscular diseases. ” says Gooty.
Reference: “Efficient Generation of Self-Assembling Neuromuscular Junction Models from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells,” Alessia Urzi et al., December 19, 2023. Nature Communications. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43781-3
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