Unique Childbirth Method Among Golden Lion Tamarins
Credit: Edwin Giesbers/naturepl.com
Childbirth poses significant challenges across the primate family, notably for humans. Recent research into primate anatomy reveals that many species contend with narrow pelvises that hinder birthing larger-headed infants. This issue dates back to the earliest primates over 50 million years ago.
Traditionally, it was believed that the unique birthing challenges faced by humans emerged from evolution, particularly following the adoption of bipedal locomotion, which constrained pelvic width. As human brains evolved larger, so did infant head sizes, creating a mismatch with pelvis dimensions that couldn’t sufficiently accommodate safe delivery.
Earlier studies suggested that other primates had it easier. Anthropologist Adolf Schulz’s influential research in the 1940s claimed that infants in most primate species fit comfortably within the maternal pelvis.
However, Schulz’s analysis may have contained errors, according to Nicole Torres Tamayo at University College London. “The flaw lay in applying human pelvic measurements across all primate species,” she explains.
Schulz identified certain anatomical landmarks on the human pelvis, hypothesizing they could correspond to those in other primates. However, the human pelvis is uniquely shaped. His landmarks inaccurately defined an inclined plane above the actual birth canal, leading to an overestimation of its size.
In a groundbreaking re-examination, Torres-Tamayo and her research team analyzed the birth canals of 29 primate species while also assessing newborn skull sizes. Their findings indicated that some primate pelvises are ill-suited for childbirth, especially in smaller species like bushbabies and tamarins, where newborn heads can be nearly double the size of the birth canal.
“We were surprised by the high incidence of these size discrepancies across many primate species,” states research team member Leah Betti.
This challenge may even extend back to our primate ancestors, particularly given the small size of early primates, as noted by Betty.
“It’s fascinating to analyze such a diverse dataset,” adds Nicole Webb from the University of Zurich, Switzerland. “These species exhibit varied lifestyles, habitats, and anatomical diversity.”
Different primate species have developed adaptive strategies to cope with these complications. For instance, bush babies and tamarins can dislocate their pelvic bones, temporarily enlarging the birth canal. However, humans are unable to perform this adaptation, as it would make bipedal movement excruciatingly painful.
Interestingly, Torres-Tamayo, Betti, and their colleagues observed that larger great apes experience fewer birthing challenges. This might be due to their size compared to smaller tree-dwelling primates. As such, humans are further distinguished by their unique birth difficulties, making them the only great apes encountering these issues, as Betty noted.
Nonetheless, Webb casts doubt on this conclusion. A study she and her colleagues published in 2024 concluded that even chimpanzees face tight matches between birth canal dimensions and newborn head sizes. “This mismatch is curious and could indicate methodological flaws,” Webb states. “The findings from this new study provide compelling reasons to reassess our assumptions.”
Paleontologists in Brazil have discovered a previously unknown archosauroid species that thrived approximately 240 million years ago. This intriguing species may belong to a little-understood group of ancient reptiles reminiscent of the ancestors of crocodiles and dinosaurs.
Reconstruction of Silescerida acristatata. Image credit: Mateus Fernández Gadelha.
Silescerida acristatata resided in what is now Brazil during the Middle Triassic Period, a crucial time when life on Earth was diversifying following the mass extinction at the end of the Permian Period.
During this era, archosaurs—a diverse group of reptiles that eventually evolved into dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and crocodiles—began to dominate terrestrial ecosystems.
The newly discovered species is likely linked to a rare and poorly understood group known as Euparkeriidae.
Among the most recognized species of Euparkeriidae is Eupacheria capensis, first described in South Africa in 1913 and remains the sole definitive member of this intriguing group.
“The Euparkeriidae are primarily noted for their distinctive stalked archosaurs. Eupacheria capensis existed during the Early to Middle Triassic in South Africa and is the only established member of this clade,” stated lead author Mauricio García from the Federal University of Santa Maria and his colleagues.
“Other presumed euparckerids have been found in regions across China and Europe.”
“Eupacheria capensis and Euparkeriidae rank just outside of archosaurs in all major phylogenetic analyses, highlighting their significance in understanding archosaur origins.”
“This species, along with other potential euparkerids, holds substantial implications for understanding the evolutionary trajectory of archosaurs, as it closely resembles the body plan of archosaur ancestors.”
The skeletal remains of Silescerida acristatata, including its left shoulder blade, right hip bone, and a left femur measuring around 17.3 cm in length, were discovered at a site in Doña Francisca, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
Based on examinations with related species, the new find likely resembled a long-limbed, agile lizard-like predator.
The discovery of Silescerida acristatata broadens the known geographical range of the Euparkeriidae lineage, and reaffirms South America’s vital role in the early evolution of archosaurs.
“This discovery not only provides insight into the temporal and paleogeographical distribution of Euparkeriidae but also illuminates the origin and early evolution of this family. Eucrocopodan represents the first record of this archosaur in the Brazilian Triassic,” concluded the paleontologists.
“More broadly, this new species underscores the significance of South American Triassic deposits in the evolutionary history of archosaurs.”
The team’s research paper was published in the journal Scientific Reports on June 10th.
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García, M. S., et al. 2026. A new euparkeriid form from the mid-Triassic period of southern Brazil, a member of the family Euparkeriidae. Scientific Reports 16, 16585; doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-53740-9
At the Fernández Figueira Institute in Rio de Janeiro, breast milk undergoes testing before being delivered to mothers.
Christine Bethge
For new mothers struggling to breastfeed, Brazil offers exceptional support through its milk banking system. Established in the early 20th century, these milk banks collect donated breast milk and distribute it to mothers and infants in need. Originally costly and limited in availability, a transformative redesign in the 1980s by chemist **João Apurigio Guerra de Almeida** revolutionized Brazilian milk banks. By employing cost-effective methods like repurposed food industry hot tubs—significantly cheaper than traditional pasteurizers—and sterilizing reused containers, this approach made breast milk more accessible.
The Brazilian term for innovative problem-solving is Jeitinho, as highlighted by photographer Christine Bethge. Together with journalist Niklas Franzen, she investigated various Brazilian milk banks, including the Fernández Figueira Institute based in Rio de Janeiro.
Today, Brazil’s milk banking network is acclaimed globally for providing the safest and most affordable human milk. With over 200 milk banks serving hundreds of thousands of babies, Brazil holds the record for the highest number of milk banks worldwide. This successful system has played a pivotal role in reducing the under-five mortality rate in Brazil by more than 70% from 1990 to 2015, a noteworthy achievement attributed to its milk bank initiative. Many sources reference this remarkable program.
A courier at the Instituto Fernández Figueira collects breast milk from donors.
Christine Bethge
The success of Brazil’s milk banking system can be attributed to its efficiency and accessibility, allowing women to easily donate and retrieve milk. A network of delivery drivers facilitates this process; one such driver, witnessed delivering on a bicycle in the Flamengo suburb of Rio de Janeiro, exemplifies this commitment. Christine Bethge noted that without the courier service, mothers might hesitate to contribute, emphasizing the importance of this logistical support.
A laboratory assistant checks breast milk for large contaminants like hair or dust particles, an essential step in quality control.
Christine Bethge
The milk bank serves multifaceted purposes, acting as a comprehensive support center for new mothers by collecting, sterilizing, and storing milk, and directly supplying it to premature infants in critical need. Each milk donation undergoes strict inspections for large contaminants before it is pasteurized at 62.5°C for 30 minutes to eliminate any bacteria and ensure safety.
Milk is pasteurized at 62.5°C for 30 minutes to eliminate bacteria.
Christine Bethge
New mothers can also receive valuable assistance from nurses in expressing milk, particularly in premature birth wards. “The couriers play a vital role in this communication, informing mothers about their milk’s journey,” Bethge remarks.
A nurse assists in expressing milk for a mother’s premature twins at the Fernández Figueira Institute.
Blocks keep falling in Quantris, a quantum twist on the classic game Tetris. A pale yellow square awkwardly lands atop a green block shaped like the letter “Z”. There’s a unique block nearby, bordered in white, seemingly enclosing empty space—a representation of a quantum state of superposition. Observing it changes everything. Confirm your existence: a small black square with an eye symbol falls, flashes into existence, and your block tower perilously approaches the ceiling. Did the block vanish due to observation? No luck here! In Quantris, the quantum version of Tetris, one realization becomes clear: even quantum mechanics can’t save me from my gaming skills.
Though I’m new to quantum video games, their history runs deep. References to quantum physics appeared in video games back in the 1980s. However, the surge in quantum games truly took off when quantum computing became accessible via the cloud in 2016. The rising adoption of tools like IBM’s quantum software development kit has further fueled innovation. Laura Pispanen, a researcher at Aalto University, estimates there are nearly 400 quantum games today, many born from the weekend Quantum Game Jam events since 2014.
Among her favorites is Cubit the Barbarian, reminiscent of classic sword and sorcery themes. This game lets players navigate a maze through tiles that represent different quantum states, enabling them to exploit quantum mechanics and interact with the environment in fascinating ways. By measuring quantum states, players can transform the maze, discovering new paths or erecting barriers.
A dedicated community of researchers and gamers believes in the future of quantum video games. The convergence of untested tech, counterintuitive physics, and the timeless joy of gaming creates a unique landscape. What advancements will we see from quantum computing in gaming? How can games leverage the power of quantum mechanics?
It’s essential to clarify that we’re not discussing games playable directly on quantum computers. While these devices are rapidly advancing, they remain largely experimental. They’ve only recently gained enough computational power and reliability for specific scientific problem-solving. However, they are not all-purpose machines yet—likely suitable for only select tasks, and real-time video game execution remains untested.
Despite this, quantum hardware is making inroads into game development. Released this year, Quantum Backroom is a horror game that utilizes an IBM quantum computer for level generation. This eerie journey through liminal spaces reflects the unsettling nature of its internet phenomenon origins. James Wootton from Moth Quantum notes each room mirrors a quantum state of the computer, creating a visceral link to quantum technology.
Explore Quantum Backrooms
credit: Moth
Curious if these innovations will become mainstream, Julian Togelius from New York University, who studies creativity in video games and AI, believes that quantum computing could revolutionize game development. Quantum technology could connect in-game worlds more realistically, tackling the challenging mathematical problems that currently limit game design. However, he warns that this remains a complex challenge due to the limitations of quantum hardware.
In Quantum Backroom, the quantum elements impact game development rather than gameplay—it’s after the quantum computer powers off that gameplay is handled by classical systems. While Wootton successfully created a quantum version of rock-paper-scissors in 2017, many quantum games still run on classical simulators due to hardware limitations.
“At present, all my games are running on simulators. The hardware isn’t quite ready,” reflects Chris Cantwell, creator of Quantum Chess and other titles. In 2020, a Google quantum computer tested Quantum Chess, but it required extensive recoding. The essence of adapting games to quantum mechanics involves integrating quantum features into gameplay, essential for benchmarking quantum computer performance. Evert van Nieuwenburg at Leiden University has developed Quantum TiqTaqToe, a quantum version of Tic-Tac-Toe.
Bringing Quantum Concepts to the Living Room
Many quantum games incorporate real quantum phenomena, like superposition and entanglement, into familiar gameplay mechanics. In Quantum Chess, for example, two pieces can coexist on the same square. Van Nieuwenburg emphasizes that players don’t require in-depth knowledge of these concepts; engaging with them naturally builds understanding.
Quantum physics is often counterintuitive, as it usually applies to tiny particles or extreme temperatures. However, games offer a unique opportunity to interact with these principles. “At a recent science night, I observed kids playing Tic-Tac-Toe. They may not have understood the mechanics initially, but one kid excitedly exclaimed, ‘Oh, now you’ve got me involved!'” Van Nieuwenburg reminisces. Children quickly adapt to new concepts, including jargon from quantum physics textbooks. “Quantum Chess” enhances traditional chess, providing players additional pieces, and interestingly, children might not grasp the quantum aspects yet. However, they engage in genuine quantum phenomena, hinting at a future where they could become quantum-native developers.
Quantum Chess: A Leap Ahead of Traditional Games?
credit: Shotshop GmbH/Alamy
Reflecting on my younger brother—who found little interest in physics but was absorbed in his console games—I ponder whether he could excel in quantum challenges if the stakes involved gaming. Spiros Michalakis from Caltech, who engages in games like Quantris and Quantum Chess, emphasizes the outreach potential of quantum gaming. His journey began in 2014 with quantum adaptations in Minecraft, leading to a new research field focused on creating games that are not only playable but engaging, where participants leverage new game mechanics for strategic advantages.
The challenge often lies in creating engaging gameplay using quantum features, depending less on the complexity of quantum mechanics and more on the allure of smart mechanics. “Creating a game is easy; making one popular is where the real challenge lies,” Togelius points out, along with skepticism about quantum computing becoming the next gaming revolution.
This dilemma resonates with broader quantum computing challenges, focusing on applying unique quantum operations to achieve previously unattainable outcomes. While daunting, the intersection of gaming and quantum innovation offers promising avenues for exploration.
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The Homo naledi discovery in a South African cave over thirteen years ago has revealed astonishing insights. Recent analyses of skeletal proteins suggest all samples examined were female, providing potentially the most compelling evidence of early human behavior yet.
Uncovered by a group of cavers in 2013 within the Rising Star cave system, approximately 40 kilometers northwest of Johannesburg, the fossils were situated in deep, hard-to-reach chambers. Since their discovery, researchers have tirelessly investigated how these remains came to rest in such a location.
Initial hypotheses emerged in 2015, proposing that H. naledi corpses were intentionally placed in the cave, as suggested by Lee Berger from the University of the Witwatersrand. Archaeological findings indicated potential grave digging within the cave and the use of torches to navigate the darkness, with claims of ancient rock paintings left behind in this burial space. However, these ideas have been met with skepticism.
The latest findings by Palesa Madupe at the University of Copenhagen involved extracting ancient proteins from H. naledi tooth enamel, enabling insights into the genetics of this long-extinct species, believed to have lived between 335,000 and 236,000 years ago.
Tooth enamel comprises around a dozen proteins, relatively understudied in evolutionary terms. However, certain proteins can reveal biological sex due to the presence of amelogenin proteins linked to X and Y chromosomes, with females typically containing only the X-linked (amelogenin A) allele.
Madupe and her team examined all 23 known H. naledi specimens and successfully identified amelogenin proteins in 20, all of which were female—a startling outcome. Madupe expressed initial concerns about potential errors in their analysis, yet repeated tests yielded the same result, leading researchers to ponder the absence of male specimens.
One explanation could be the rapid degradation of AMELY proteins, making some undetectable. However, Madupe suggests this is unlikely, especially considering that similar proteins dating back two million years were recently discovered in South African excavations.
Lee Berger at the Rising Star Cave Entrance
Luca Sola/AFP via Getty Images
Another theory suggests that H. naledi males might not express AMELY genes on their enamel. Examining existing literature, researchers note that such deletions can occur in current human populations, though infrequently. They calculated the likelihood of AMELY absence among a random sample of 20 individuals, positing that the odds would be exceedingly low at just 0.0000954 percent.
This points to one intriguing conclusion: all 20 fossilized remains could have belonged to females. Berger argues this indicates that the notion of a natural process leading to their arrival in the cave is untenable. Instead, he posits that the findings imply intentional placement of female corpses within the cave.
Many researchers support this conclusion. For instance, Emma Pomeroy from Cambridge University remarked, “This suggests either flawed analytical methods or intentional choices regarding H. naledi individuals.” Similarly, Bernard Wood from George Washington University hypothesizes there might be behavioral reasons behind why female remains were deposited in the cave.
Others remain more skeptical. Researcher Kimberly Fecke from George Mason University suggests cave access may have historically posed challenges for larger individuals, thus affecting the representation of males in the fossil record. Notably, the initial archaeologists who explored the cave were predominantly women.
In contrast, Michael Petraglia at Griffith University advocates the idea that social dynamics among H. naledi could have led to populations with higher female-to-male ratios for foraging activities.
However, other experts, like Eric Kruvezy from the University of Toulouse, express reservations about this theory, noting that in primate groups with uneven male-to-female ratios, one typically finds a balance of male and female infants. This discrepancy brings into question the potential for a largely female demographic in the cave.
Berger maintains that these findings bolster his hypothesis that H. naledi corpses were purposefully placed in the cave. Other researchers challenge this notion, with Wood asserting that simply placing a body in a rock crevice shouldn’t be equated with burial rituals, denying the existence of complex cultural beliefs in early hominins regarding mortality.
Finally, the pivotal question remains: what did H. naledi look like? Wood notes that while physiological traits can be surmised from female specimens, significant variation might be expected, especially considering other hominin species like Paranthropus boisei, where males displayed larger cranial features.
Recent research spanning five continents, from the steppes of Mongolia to the rainforests of the Pacific, reveals that hunting dogs and their owners share a remarkable bond. This study suggests that their cooperative relationship dates back approximately 30,000 years, highlighting deep evolutionary ties.
Examples of hunting dogs and human interaction across four non-WEIRD societies: (a) pointing in Mongolia, (b) problem-solving in Vanuatu, (c) demonstration in Mongolia, and (d) scenarios from Madagascar and Peru. Image credit: Bräuer et al., doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-57657-1.
Over the last 25 years, domestic dogs have increasingly become a significant focus of scientific research.
Throughout domestication, dogs have developed human-like communication skills essential for thriving in human environments.
Specifically, dogs excel in social communication, responding adeptly to human gestures and language. Their selection as cooperative partners during domestication has played a vital role in this evolution.
Extensive studies have examined dogs’ communication proficiency, including their response to human pointing, social referencing, and problem-solving abilities.
However, most findings have predominantly emerged from studies involving dogs from “WEIRD” (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Wealthy, Democratic) societies.
Dr. Julian Breuer, a cognitive psychologist at the University of Jena, emphasized the focus of their field study on hunting dogs, which necessitate deep collaboration between humans and their furry companions.
“This cooperation might have been critical in the domestication of dogs, marking them as the first domesticated animals in history,” noted Dr. Breuer.
To explore whether the dog-human bond is universal or influenced by culture, Dr. Breuer and his team assessed 164 dog-human pairs across culturally rich regions: Germany, Madagascar, Mongolia, Peru, and Vanuatu.
Standardized behavioral tests were performed to evaluate communication and cooperation between dogs and humans.
Remarkably, the findings revealed a strikingly similar relationship worldwide, indicating its roots in shared evolutionary history rather than cultural differences.
Across all regions, dogs demonstrated an understanding of human gestures, communicated actively with their owners, and relied significantly on their owners’ guidance in challenging situations.
Additionally, dog owners consistently described their pets as trusted companions, valuing their presence beyond mere working animals.
“While we anticipated notable cultural differences, we found the human-dog relationship to be surprisingly universal,” stated Dr. Breuer.
Despite these similarities, variations emerged, primarily influenced by environmental conditions and hunting methodologies.
For instance, hunters in Vanuatu displayed superior skills in interpreting dog signals compared to their counterparts in other regions.
In the South Pacific islands, dogs play a crucial role in tracking wild boars through thick underbrush, necessitating high levels of human-animal coordination.
Conversely, in Germany, dogs appear to be more reliant on their owners, responding consistently to signals likely due to more focused training approaches.
“Despite significant cultural and environmental contrasts, the relationship between dogs and humans is notably similar,” concluded the researchers.
Residual differences may arise from variations in hunting techniques and distinctions between queer and non-queer societies.
The findings of this research were published in a paper in the journal Scientific Reports.
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J. Breuer et al. 2026. Global similarities in dog-human interactions. Scientific Reports 16, 18527; doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-57657-1
New research indicates divergent brain connectivity in people with autism, showing both enhanced and diminished inter-brain region connections.
Puwadol Jaturautchai/Alamy
Recent studies show that individuals diagnosed with autism may present either strong or weak neural connectivity patterns. These variations are linked to distinct mechanisms within the brain, hinting at the existence of multiple autism subtypes.
“We have identified major autism subtypes associated with differing biological mechanisms,” notes Alessandro Gozzi from the Italian Polytechnic University in Rovereto.
Autism, often viewed through the lens of neurodiversity, affects approximately 780 individuals per 100,000. Common traits include social interaction challenges, sensitivity to sensory stimuli, and restricted interests. However, the intensity and manifestation of these traits vary widely.
For years, neuroimaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have been used to identify unique autism signatures in the brain. “No definitive single signature has yet been identified,” Gozzi states. Some researchers have observed hyperconnectivity in some brain regions, while others have noted low connectivity or a combination of both patterns.
Many previous studies overlooked autism’s diversity, according to Gozzi. To address this, his team studied 20 mouse models with mutations in genes linked to human autism. fMRI results showed variations in connectivity; eleven strains demonstrated primarily hypoconnectivity while nine showed hyperconnectivity.
“These conflicting connectivity signatures are indicative of different underlying mechanisms,” Gozzi explains. They mapped protein interactions associated with the mutated genes. Mice with lower connectivity showed interactions with synapse-related proteins, while hyperconnected mice interacted with proteins linked to gene regulation and immune function.
Furthermore, the research team analyzed fMRI data from 940 autism patients compared to 1,036 age-matched controls. Among the autistic participants, 24% exhibited hypoconnectivity and 17% hyperconnectivity. “At least two biologically distinct autism subtypes are evident,” Gozzi asserts.
Nevertheless, 59% of the autistic population does not fit into these classifications, potentially due to the specific genes selected for study. “Our findings do not suggest these are the only subtypes,” Gozzi clarifies. These were merely the ones detectable through their research methods.
Natalie Sauerwald, a researcher at New York’s Flatiron Institute, concurs that there may be additional, yet unidentified, subtypes of autism. She emphasizes that this work sheds light on autism’s heterogeneity and the biological factors involved.
Challenges persist in utilizing animal models for autism research. Humans have numerous genes, each with minimal individual effects on autism risk. Consequently, studied mice may not represent the full spectrum of autism, as noted by Sauerwald.
Some of the genes examined also relate to developmental delays. Thus, studies like this may only reflect individuals with autism who experience developmental deviations, rather than those without.
Looking ahead, connecting genetics, brain connectivity, and behavioral traits will be crucial to fully understanding autism’s diversity, according to Sauerwald.
While wandering around the large green sculpture, I noticed how its shadows and light shifted with my movements, causing my stress to dissolve. Henry Moore’s work, particularly Mother and Child Lying Down, exudes tranquility, inviting one to envision a mother and child basking in a serene garden.
This sculpture is among 30 of Moore’s creations displayed amidst the landscape and conservatory at London’s Kew Gardens for the exhibition, Henry Moore: Monumental Nature, which is available until January 31st. Observing the smooth curves and sharp edges of these bronzes, I realized Moore’s inspiration drawn from nature. For instance, his Large Spindle Piece evokes thoughts of seeds, while Sheep Piece symbolizes the bond between a lamb and its mother. The associated work,Three-piece Sculpture: Vertebrae, resonates with the concept of a backbone even before knowing its title.
Moore’s strategic incorporation of holes and empty spaces allows visitors to appreciate fresh perspectives on both the sculptures and the surrounding landscape. For example, Double Oval appears reminiscent of a pelvis and features significant openings in each leaf, illustrating a palm house from one angle and a tree from another.
A complementary exhibit located in the Shirley Sherwood Gallery of Botanical Art offers an intriguing look into Moore’s artistic process. His etching of an elephant skull captivates, showcasing how he masterfully uses curves, shadows, and light to create depth. I found myself entranced by the squiggly lines portraying bone growth that anchor these intricate labyrinths to their original forms. If you have the chance, make sure to see this exhibition along with his remarkable tree paintings, which provide insight into the inspiration behind some of his more abstract sculptures.
Starting June 5, four of Moore’s sculptures will also be displayed alongside contemporary works at Kew’s sister site, Wakehurst, near Haywards Heath. Check out Henry Moore Etc.. Wakehurst is a stunning landscape featuring meadows, woodlands, and wetlands, as well as the Millennium Seed Bank, which has its origins in an Elizabethan mansion. Before the new facility was established, seeds were preserved and tested in the charming chapel and billiards room, both of which display photographs and a small exhibition that narrates their history.
My favorite season is April and May, when the grounds are adorned with thousands of bluebells. Henry Moore Etc. will conclude in May 2027. Visit when the bluebells bloom to appreciate the incredible beauty created by both man and nature.
The nature of time may be nothing more than an illusion generated through quantum interactions within the universe. This intriguing concept arises from innovative space toy models, potentially offering insights into the true essence of time in our cosmos.
Giovanni Barontini, while studying at the University of Birmingham in England, contemplated the nature of time as he observed his six-year-old son’s imaginative play. “He was constructing his own microcosms; it struck me that this mirrors our work in the lab with ultracold atomic systems,” he reflects. “However, I began to ponder that this universe could be perceived as rather dull, as inactivity implies no passage of time.”
To delve into whether time is genuinely an illusion within these systems, Barontini employed lasers and electromagnetic forces to cool approximately 20,000 rubidium atoms to temperatures near absolute zero. He divided these atoms into two sectors, likening one to ‘dark matter’, labeling one region as “bright” and the other as “dark”.
Despite this initial state of timelessness, Barontini directed lasers to facilitate atomic exchanges and interactions at a quantum level, thereby modifying the entropy or disorder of this universe—asserting that the flow of time correlates with increasing entropy. He successfully defined an internal concept of time for this toy universe, employing the Schrödinger equation to calculate the quantum state of atoms, which aligned with the experimental findings.
This idea that time is not an inherent feature but results from quantum correlations was initially proposed by physicist Neville Mott in the 1930s, and it has since been the subject of theoretical exploration. It wasn’t until 2013 that Dr. Marco Genovese and his team at the Italian National Institute of Metrology first demonstrated its feasibility through experiments involving entangled light particles, further establishing the concept that the essence of time emerges from quantum correlations.
“This study builds on previous concepts and brings notable advancements,” comments Genovese. Notably, the cold-atom universe exhibits greater complexity than previous light-based models. Barontini innovatively applied the Schrödinger equation within the internal framework of this system, a feat previously unachievable.
Klaus Kiefer from the University of Cologne suggests that this experimental paradigm links to broader questions surrounding the unification of gravitational and quantum theories into a comprehensive framework applicable across all scales of the universe. While this inquiry persists, some physicists propose that such a comprehensive theory might fundamentally lack a predetermined notion of time. Kiefer notes substantial differences—such as the limited interactions between ultracold atoms transitioning between sectors compared to complexities in the actual universe.
In contrast, Carlo Rovelli from the University of Aix-Marseille cautions that such experiments may not unveil new insights about time, as they largely rely on established physics. Nevertheless, approaching them as analogs to significant unsolved issues might inspire innovative treatments of uncharted physics, akin to the enduring conundrum of quantum gravity.
Barontini regards this study as empirical support for long-standing hypotheses, underscoring their acceptance within the scientific community, although he concedes that it does not elucidate the mechanisms of time across various scales.
As Barontini continues to explore this intriguing frozen miniverse, he intends to use lasers to create a confined area, echoing the gravitational dynamics of a black hole—raising further questions about the nature of time and space.
The extinct Eurasian cave lion (Panthera spelea) and today’s African and Asian lions (Panthera leo) have been analyzed through the genomes of 12 cave lions spanning over 100,000 years. This study reveals that cave lions comprise a distinct evolutionary lineage that diverged approximately 1.7 million years ago, significantly earlier than previously believed.
A cave lion depicted in Chauvet Cave, France.
Lions are among the most prevalent megacarnivores in the fossil record, with remains discovered across four continents: Africa, Europe, Asia, and the Americas.
The earliest fossils exhibiting distinct lion traits originated in East Africa around 1.9 million years ago, spreading to Syria by 1 million years ago.
These majestic creatures have been recorded in Europe since about 700,000 years ago (in Italy and Britain) and in North America for 300,000 years, possibly reaching southern North America and even parts of South America around 130,000 years ago.
Today, lions are limited to a small population in India and fragmented groups across Africa.
Evidence from skeletal remains, preserved soft tissues, and Pleistocene cave paintings suggests that the extinct late Pleistocene lions in the northern Arctic were morphologically distinct from modern lions, being larger and likely possessing lighter fur.
Despite their prominence in the Holarctic fossil record during the Late Pleistocene, cave lions went extinct approximately 13,000 to 14,000 years ago, marking them as one of the earliest casualties of the megafauna extinction.
At their peak, cave lions were among the most ecologically significant predators in the Northern Hemisphere.
“The cave lion is frequently portrayed as a larger, more robust version of modern lions,” remarked lead author Dr. David Stanton, a lecturer at Cardiff University.
“However, what our genomic analysis reveals is even more astonishing: this lineage has evolved independently for over a million years, accumulating remarkable biological traits.”
Stanton’s analysis utilized 12 cave lion genomes spanning more than 100,000 years. This research shows that modern lions and cave lions are separate evolutionary lineages, each with unique demographic histories and genetic variants. Image credit: Stanton et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2026.05.007.
The research team examined 12 cave lion genomes collected over 100,000 years across Eurasia and northernmost North America, comparing them with 20 genomes from modern lions in Africa and Southern Asia.
Cave lion DNA was extracted from both dental and skeletal remains, alongside well-preserved soft tissue specimens, including two cave lion cubs from northern Siberia.
Comparing these genomes indicates that cave lions and modern lions represent distinct groups, highlighting a substantial evolutionary divide.
While earlier research indicated a more recent divergence, this study supports a much older separation, approximately 1.7 million years ago.
Interestingly, the research uncovered evidence that the two lineages occasionally interbred during periods of peak glacial expansion, allowing cave lions to migrate into areas inhabited by modern lions.
The Central East Asian cave lions, dating back around 20,000 years, contained 3.2 to 4.4 percent of the ancestors of modern lions, likely stemming from the now-extinct lion population of Southwest Asia.
The authors also identified numerous unique mutations in proteins specific to cave lions, concentrated in genes associated with brain function, vision, the circulatory system, and growth, indicating significant biological adaptations to the harsh Holarctic environment they inhabited.
“Our findings point to the impact of historical climate change on more than just habitat,” stated lead author Professor Rav Dalen, research group leader at the Stockholm Center for Paleogenetics.
“It also influenced migration and created a fleeting window for interbreeding opportunities that would not have been present otherwise.”
The team’s results are published in the journal Cell.
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David WG Stanton et al. Paleogenomes reveal evolutionary relationships between modern lions and cave lions. Cell published online on June 3, 2026. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2026.05.007
Optical Micrograph of a Human Egg Cell After Fertilization
CC Studio/Science Photo Library
In 2018, a Chinese researcher faced global condemnation after announcing he had used CRISPR technology to create three gene-edited children. The scientific community’s primary concern revolved around the risks of using CRISPR, particularly its potential to cause harmful mutations.
Recent advancements in gene editing show promise, particularly with a refined version of CRISPR called base editing. This technique allows researchers to edit healthy embryos with a significantly reduced risk of unwanted mutations. However, ethical and scientific hurdles remain before considering its broader application.
Human DNA consists of double strands, and the original CRISPR method employs a protein known as Cas9. This protein utilizes a guide RNA to target specific genomic locations, where it creates cuts in both strands. Unfortunately, such repairs by cells can lead to small mutations that may disrupt gene function.
Thus, even when the CRISPR-Cas9 system is successful, its inherent risks include major mutations and chromosomal abnormalities due to incorrect DNA repair.
Improvements, such as CRISPR base editing, now allow for more precise modifications by changing a single DNA base and cutting only one strand. Such advancements have demonstrated life-saving potential in ongoing clinical trials, particularly as treatments for conditions like hypercholesterolemia.
However, gene editing in embryos differs vastly from treating diseases in adults. In adult therapies, successful editing in just a fraction of cells may suffice. Yet, in an embryo, precise editing is critical, as every cell in the body will derive from it.
In 2017, a Chinese study explored base editing in abnormal human embryos, yielding positive results with minimal unintended changes.
More recently, Columbia University’s Dieter Egli and his team conducted a larger study using healthy two-cell embryos, achieving varied results. They found that one modification succeeded in three-quarters of cells without unintended changes, while another, less effective modification caused problems in about half of the cells.
The researchers attribute these discrepancies to the design of their guide RNA, emphasizing the need for better optimization to minimize off-target effects.
One critical challenge remains: the issue of mosaicism. If only some cells in an embryo undergo the intended gene edit, diseases still risk manifesting. This raises concerns, as evidenced by the potential mosaicism in the three gene-edited children from China.
Currently, there’s no foolproof way to confirm the absence of mosaicism in gene-edited embryos. Genetic testing can detect issues, but may fall short with mosaic embryos, necessitating more comprehensive approaches to ensure accurate results.
While recent findings are encouraging, regulators continue to demand solutions to mitigate the mosaicism issue before considering the safety of germline gene editing.
Potential strategies include utilizing gene-edited sperm or eggs, where modifications made prior to fertilization could eliminate mosaicism. Although applications in humans are still pending, innovations such as lab-generated sperm from stem cells could pave the way for safe genetic modifications.
Such advances could eventually lead to safe gene editing in future generations, but ethical questions about the implications of gene editing remain unresolved.
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A Ship is Coming In
We asked our readers, and you delivered. In our recent feedback request, we sought the most fitting adjective for the Wikipedia page discussing the Ship of Theseus paradox. To clarify, this philosophical puzzle explores whether an object remains the same when all its components are replaced. Interestingly, the Wikipedia page itself has undergone extensive editing, making it a prime example of the very paradox it describes.
In our mailbag, you’ll find a wide array of suggestions, including Tim Molesley’s “automatic paradigm” and Bryn Glover’s “automatic causes.”
Among the standout contributions was Martin Baston, who drew inspiration from the British sitcom Only Fools and Horses. In the show, the character Trigger receives a medal for maintaining the same broom for 20 years, albeit with 17 new heads and 14 new handles. Thus, Martin proposed describing the Ship of Theseus Wiki page as a “trigger.”
However, the prevailing consensus labels it “self-logical.” Peter Jeffrey, Peter Gutfreund, and others pointed out that an autological word expresses a characteristic it possesses. For example, “noun” is a noun, and “sesquipedalian” refers to a sesquipedalian.
Yet, there is a debate about whether “autological” can refer to entire articles. Philip Penton humorously suggested, “If you need another term for your article, consider ‘autobloomian.’”
Mairi McKissock also contributed valuable insights. She uncovered the opposite of autological—“foreignness,” a term that fails to describe itself. For instance, the word “monosyllabic” is inherently polysyllabic. This led Mairi to examine another intriguing paradox, the Grelling-Nelson paradox. “Is the word ‘alien’ foreign? If so, it proves itself to be autological. If not, it fails to do so and thus becomes foreign,” she posited.
Now that the feedback is yielding more questions than answers, let’s change direction and explore another segment of the mailbox.
Discovering Niche Markets
The conversation surrounding niche science-themed tourism continues steadily. Criteria for winning include parks adorned with foraminiferal sculptures or gardens exclusively made of moss.
Andrew Taubman, a volunteer at the Australian Museum, reported significant progress in digitizing their extensive entomology collection. He recently aided in the digitization of the Lamprogaster genus, which oddly lacks a dedicated Wikipedia page, showcasing how obscure these insects truly are. Similarly, Rosalinda Hardiman’s collection of handpicked beach pebbles, gathered during her years of open water swimming, is not publicly available. She seeks feedback on whether to exhibit them, and the response is a resounding yes.
In Australia, Sari Somerstrom introduced us to the Puseum in Richmond, Tasmania, which specializes in animal waste. Their website claims to be “the only facility of its kind in Australia”. According to Sari, the book is “not only interesting but packed with fascinating facts.” However, concerns arise about its niche appeal, given the universal nature of defecation.
Turning to John Blakey, he highlighted two hidden gems. The first is a Gas Museum in Hobro, Denmark, dedicated to the intriguing history of gas production and distribution. Though John hasn’t visited yet, he considers it a must-see.
Yet, John’s second recommendation truly stands out: Kornets Hus, or “House of Grain,” located in northern Jutland. This venue celebrates all things corn and grains, set in a dedicated center amid a cornfield. “It’s so obscure; no one has left a review on TripAdvisor,” John remarked, although there is a separate page for the museum café, which had a handful of reviews as of mid-May.
Precious Chihuahua
While I usually refrain from quoting feedback directly, this particular insight comes from renowned author Janet Winterson of Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit. While browsing Apple News, she noted the amusing use of dogs as a unit of measurement. A recent article mentioned a “giant 11,000-carat ruby worth millions,” likening its weight to that of a dog.
To highlight the absurdity of this comparison, an English Mastiff can weigh over 100 kg, while a Chihuahua might only weigh about 1 kg. Such comparisons invite confusion, much like stating that a building’s height lies somewhere between two stories and the Burj Khalifa. Further information reveals that this gemstone weighs around 2.2 kg, a weight consistent with a Chihuahua.
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Bryozoans, small colonial animals, were traditionally believed to have appeared millions of years after the Cambrian explosion. However, remarkable fossils discovered in 520 million-year-old rocks in China reveal that these fascinating creatures have been present since the dawn of time.
Reconstruction of the early Cambrian ocean floor showing Protomerision Gatehouse and Daingomellission Hexacritia flourishing in the shallow waters of Archaeossias Reef. Image credit: Zhifei Zhang.
“Bryozoans are small, filter-feeding, colonial invertebrates that continue to thrive in the world’s oceans today. Yet, their origins remained a mystery for decades,” noted paleontologist Dr. Timothy Topper from Northwest University and the Swedish Museum of Natural History.
“While nearly all other major animal groups emerged during the Cambrian explosion around 530 million years ago, the fossil record for bryozoans remained conspicuously absent until the Ordovician period, roughly 50 million years later.”
In a groundbreaking study, paleontologists analyzed a stunning bryozoan fossil from the early Cambrian Sennudo Formation in China.
The samples represent two species: Protomerision Gatehouse and a newly recognized taxon, Daingomellission Hexacritia.
“For too long, bryozoans have been the missing link in Cambrian paleontology,” Dr. Topper stated.
“Except for bryozoans, all other significant animal phyla have Cambrian representations. This discovery definitively closes that gap.”
Specimen of Protomerision Gatehouse excavated from the sacrolactoid layer where a membranous sac is preserved. Image credit: Song et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-026-10590-9.
This discovery not only fills a significant gap in the fossil record but also has profound implications for our understanding of the tree of life.
Phylogenetic analysis firmly places both Protomerision Gatehouse and Daingomellission Hexacritia within the Crown Group Stenolaemata, one of the three main classes of living bryozoans.
Since these fossils represent a more advanced branch of the Bryonidae family tree, their existence suggests that the origin of the entire group might date back to the Ediacaran period, even before the Cambrian explosion.
This study also confirms that Protomerision Gatehouse is indeed a bryozoan, despite some researchers proposing it might be a sclerotid derived from green algae or another unrelated organism.
New soft tissue data, along with detailed comparisons of colony size, shape, and internal structure, refute these alternative interpretations, clearly solidifying their association with bryozoans.
Specimen of Daingomellission Hexacritia showcasing colonies and cystids from the Xiannüdong Formation. Image credit: Song et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-026-10590-9.
“These are not merely precursors; they are complex, modular colonies,” asserts paleontologist Baopeng Song from Northwest University.
“The combination of skeletal structure and internal anatomy provides definitive evidence that these represent true bryozoans, indicating that this phylum was already diversifying during the Cambrian radiation.”
“Together, the two Chinese taxa and previously reported Cambrian material from South Australia suggest that bryozoans were not only widespread in the early Cambrian oceans but also highly sophisticated in their development.”
“The concept of colonial body planning, where genetically identical individuals known as polypids cooperate within a communal skeleton, appears to have evolved as a core innovation of the Cambrian explosion itself rather than a late development.”
The team’s paper is published in the latest edition of Nature.
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B. Song et al. The high-fidelity modular skeleton proves the Cambrian origin of bryozoans. Nature, published online on June 3, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41586-026-10590-9
A compound in turmeric known as curcumin is sold in supplement form—what are its benefits?
Soldat Off/Shutterstock
As temperatures in Australia drop, ‘golden milk’, a blend of warm milk, turmeric, spices, and honey, is gaining popularity on social media. This comforting beverage not only tastes great but also boasts medicinal properties, primarily due to curcumin—the yellow pigment in turmeric. Curcumin is touted for its anti-inflammatory properties, which may aid in fighting diseases such as cancer, arthritis, allergies, Alzheimer’s, and menopause. But is the evidence behind these claims robust?
Turmeric has a storied history in South Asian cooking and medicine spanning thousands of years, but it has recently emerged as a “superfood” in Western cultures. This shift can be attributed to extensive research conducted by Bharat Agarwal, a former biochemist at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center. Since the early 2000s, Agarwal and his team have published over 100 studies demonstrating that curcumin reduces inflammation and promotes cell death across nearly all types of cancer.This research has fueled the surge in popularity of turmeric lattes and curcumin supplements, prompting further investigations. To date, U.S. health agencies have allocated approximately $275 million to curcumin research since 1990, especially in light of Agarwal’s contributions.
The notion that a colorful, flavorful spice rooted in Ayurvedic traditions could transform modern medicine is captivating. However, questions regarding the integrity of Agarwal’s findings have emerged. In 2012, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ Office of Research Integrity informed MD Anderson of allegations regarding potential research misconduct. At least 65 of Agarwal’s papers have faced scrutiny, although this does not confirm any fraudulent activity. Following an internal investigation, Agarwal left the cancer center, and 30 of his studies have since been retracted or denied publication due to concerns over data reliability. Despite this, Agarwal has authored many articles still frequently cited in the literature. New Scientist was unable to obtain a comment from him.
It is quite remarkable that curcumin has attracted such a volume of research. However, an examination of its chemical properties suggests it may not serve as an effective drug. During my PhD focused on cancer drug development, a lab colleague found curcumin challenging to work with due to its low solubility and instability. A 2017 review published in the Medicinal Chemistry Journal, led by Kathryn Nelson from the University of Minnesota, concluded that “curcumin is an unstable, reactive, and non-bioavailable compound, thereby having very limited therapeutic potential.”
Curcumin’s poor solubility in water limits its absorption into the bloodstream after consumption, often leading to most of it remaining in the intestines and being excreted. In a recent Dutch study, curcumin was hardly detectable in participants’ blood. This finding applied even to those taking higher doses of “fortified” supplements designed to enhance absorption with black pepper and piperine. The blood concentration levels recorded were over 100 times lower than those needed to exhibit activity against cancer cells in laboratory settings.
This ineffectiveness may explain why curcumin has fallen short in demonstrating notable results in clinical trials for conditions like cancer, arthritis, and more. According to Nelson and her research team, curcumin is “like a missile that keeps detonating on the launch pad, never reaching its target.”
Too Many Claims
A scanning electron micrograph of hepatic stellate cells forming scar tissue in response to liver damage.
Steve Gschmeisner/Science Photo Library
Additionally, there are growing concerns regarding the safety of turmeric and curcumin supplements. While turmeric is safe when consumed in culinary quantities, concentrated curcumin supplements pose risks. Since curcumin constitutes only about 5% of turmeric’s dry weight, concentrated versions can cause liver complications in susceptible individuals. According to the U.S. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, “Turmeric is the most common cause of herb-related liver damage,” particularly due to highly bioavailable curcumin formulations.
Symptoms of liver damage include jaundice, dark urine, and gastrointestinal discomfort. Although these issues often resolve after discontinuing the supplement, some cases have resulted in liver failure and fatalities.
Contamination is another risk associated with turmeric products. In the U.S., various brands of powdered turmeric spice were recalled between 2011 and 2016 due to lead chromate contamination, which was added to enhance color intensity. Certain children consuming these tainted products exhibited dangerously elevated lead levels in their blood. Additionally, turmeric supplements in Norway and Sweden were linked to hepatic damage, with some containing a painkiller, Nimesulide.
While I hope the turmeric in my kitchen is safe, brewing “golden milk” soothes my spirit. I plan to make it a winter staple, knowing that its true magic lies in its unique flavor rather than miraculous health benefits. Agarwal and his colleagues once noted in a paper published in The Journal of the American Society of Pharmaceutical Scientists that curcumin’s effectiveness may seem “too good to be true.” Indeed, they were right.
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Ian Watson, a renowned British science fiction novelist with over 20 published works, sadly passed away in April 2023. Although less known today, his groundbreaking debut novel, The Embedding, was widely praised upon its release in 1973; audience described it as “the most spectacular thing since stellar science fiction.” Watson’s subsequent creations spanned both science fiction and fantasy genres, including contributions to the Warhammer 40,000 universe and work on Stanley Kubrick’s AI: Artificial Intelligence.
Admittedly, as a science fiction critic, I was unaware of Watson’s work until his recent passing. I decided to explore his most recognized novel first.
The Embedding explores first contact through the lens of linguistics. The protagonist, Chris, experiments on children at a UK research institute to study the effects of growing up with a constructed language influenced by the poet Raymond Roussel. Chris’s hypothesis posits that language fundamentally shapes our perception of reality, potentially unlocking novel insights into the universe. Simultaneously, in the Amazon rainforest, Chris’s former friend Pierre investigates the Zemahoa people.
“
Aliens are in search of living human brains to aid in uncovering language that might open new dimensions of understanding. “
The Zemahoa possess two distinct languages: A and B, with the latter requiring local medicinal aid for articulation and comprehension. This aligns with several concepts of the “embedded” language Chris is studying in the UK. Unfortunately, U.S. contractors are threatening to encroach upon the tribes’ ancestral lands.
Amid this backdrop, aliens arrive on Earth searching for living human brains to contribute to their research on languages that could unveil new realities. Naturally, they are intrigued by Chris and Pierre’s endeavors.
If you enjoy science fiction that delves into profound philosophical themes, The Embedding may be a perfect fit. However, for those who prefer cozy sci-fi, a heads-up: the characters are notably flawed.
Chris conducts harsh experiments on children while Pierre engages in morally dubious relationships in the Amazon. The Zemahoa react to the environmental threat by confining pregnant women and using significant amounts of local drugs, leading to dire consequences. The aliens’ quest for human brains is echoed by indifferent government officials. Essentially, the protagonists may seem absent in their own story, but this narrative choice serves a purpose.
It’s crucial to note that this book reflects its era. Language and attitudes that might have been deemed acceptable in early 1970s Britain can now come off as blatantly racist.
Additionally, much of the literature from that time, including this novel, predominantly centers on male perspectives, often reducing women and girls to mere plot devices.
Nevertheless, The Embedding emerges as a thought-provoking work. I am eager to explore some of Watson’s later fantasy writing. Highly recommended!
This exceptional short story collection, including the tale that inspired the acclaimed film Arrival, was originally published as Stories of Your Life and Others. Chiang’s exploration of alien perspectives on time and language resonates with some themes found in The Embedding.
Emily H. Wilson is the author of the Sumerians series (Inanna, Gilgamesh, and Ninshbar, all published by Titan) and is currently crafting her first science fiction novel. A former editor at New Scientist, you can follow her on Instagram @emilyhwilson1.
A scene from “Mirror” by Alexander Whitley Dance Company
Credit: Oskein
While traditional ballet featuring tutus and pointe shoes remains my favorite theater experience, I recently attended an engaging contemporary production at Sadler’s Wells East in London.
The performance, Mirror,
presented by the acclaimed Alexander Whitley Dance Company, is scheduled for another showing at the Royal Opera House on June 4. This innovative work draws inspiration from the thought-provoking book AI Mirror by Professor Shannon Valler, who explores the complex ethics surrounding data and artificial intelligence. Valler emphasizes the importance of finding a balance between viewing AI as a replacement for human agency and recognizing its potential existential threats.
As a science journalist, I appreciate the nuanced approach Valler takes in her writing; however, I found the same balance lacking in the choreography. The production’s captivating and slightly unsettling choreography and direction powerfully illustrate how our increasing interactions with AI and technology are shaping and distorting human relationships. I encourage you to experience it for yourself and form your own opinion.
A disk of matter swirling around a supermassive black hole could give rise to many planets
NASA and M. Weiss/Chandra X-ray Center
The active centers of galaxies might be unique locales for planet formation, where millions of new worlds could potentially emerge.
Most galaxies, including the Milky Way, harbor supermassive black holes at their cores. Typically, these black holes remain dormant, awaiting the influx of dust and gas. However, they can become active galactic nuclei by consuming large amounts of material, particularly during galaxy mergers, and remain active for extended periods.
Barry McKernan and his research team from the City University of New York have modeled a dust and gas disk surrounding a typical active galactic nucleus, finding it to be an ideal environment for planet formation. Dust tends to aggregate into larger bodies, leading to the formation of unique planetary systems.
“This discovery unveils a surprising pathway to forming diverse planetary bodies,” says McKernan. “These planets could be unlike anything we’ve encountered before.”
Active galactic nuclei contain significantly more dust than the protoplanetary disks surrounding young stars that lead to systems like our solar system. This abundance of material could give rise to massive rocky planets comparable to or larger than Jupiter, which are otherwise unheard of in the universe and may exhibit lava-covered surfaces due to frequent collisions.
McKernan mentions that some of these planets could grow so massive they might initiate nuclear fusion in their cores, resulting in “very strange aliens” made of rock or perhaps absorb enough gas to collapse into intermediate-mass black holes.
The extensive dust disks surrounding active galactic nuclei can stretch over tens of light years, indicating that this planetary formation process operates on a grand scale. “There could potentially be millions of planets orbiting a supermassive black hole,” McKernan observes.
While it’s known that stars and planets can form around black holes, the prospect of such large-scale planet formation remained largely unexplored until now. Sean Raymond from the University of Bordeaux, France, comments that active supermassive black holes might be among the best sites in the universe for cultivating new planetary worlds.
“What other phenomena unfold in the presence of so much matter surrounding a supermassive black hole?” Raymond adds. “It seems almost inevitable.”
Many of these planets could interact significantly, leading either to their capture by the black hole or ejection into surrounding galaxies. The remnant planets may be detected by observing how their gravitational fields distort the light of distant stars, employing a technique known as microlensing.
Upcoming telescopes, like NASA’s Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope launching in September, are poised to make such discoveries feasible. “We are stepping into an era where microlensing represents a crucial tool,” states Benne Holwerda from the University of Louisville, Kentucky.
McKernan also notes that many active galactic nuclei exhibit flickering, likely caused by “swarms of smaller objects passing in front of them,” potentially indicating the presence of these intriguing planets. “These formations should exist,” McKernan asserts. “So, the real question is: Can we observe them?”
Paleontologists have studied 1.75 billion-year-old microfossils from the ancient ocean floor of Australia, revealing that early eukaryotes—the ancestors of all plants, animals, and fungi—thrived in patches of oxygen-rich ocean floor for over a billion years before they ventured into the open ocean.
Eukaryotic fossils from Northern Territory, Australia. Image credit: Lechte et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-026-10533-4.
Eukaryotes encompass a wide range of life forms, including humans, plants, animals, fungi, and various microorganisms.
Understanding their origins is crucial for grasping the evolution of life’s diversity and complexity on Earth.
“Our goal was to uncover the environments in which early eukaryotes existed, particularly to determine if these early fossils had acquired mitochondria, enabling them to thrive in aerobic conditions,” stated Professor Galen Halverson from McGill University.
“Interestingly, the earliest eukaryotes we studied already demonstrated some level of dependence on oxygen,” remarked Dr. Leigh-Anne Readman, a paleontologist at the University of California, Santa Barbara.
“The distribution of these fossils indicated they lived on or within the ocean floor,” she added.
In this groundbreaking study, paleontologists examined microscopic fossils preserved within fine-grained rocks found in the Macarthur and Billindudu basins of Australia’s Northern Territory.
Today, this area features diverse landscapes, from outback terrains and savannas to the lush environments of Kakadu National Park.
However, between 1.75 billion and 1.4 billion years ago, it was a shallow inland sea with lagoons, tidal flats, and calm coastal waters.
To decode the habitat of these ancient eukaryotes, researchers analyzed the rocks’ chemistry.
By examining oxygen-sensitive elements like iron, they confirmed that the seawater inhabited by these early eukaryotes was oxygen-rich, despite most oceans lacking oxygen during that time.
“We now understand that the earliest known eukaryotes lived predominantly in oxygen-abundant benthic (seafloor) environments near the coast,” Professor Halverson explained.
“This compelling evidence suggests that oxygen availability was a significant factor in the early evolution of eukaryotes,” Dr. Readman noted.
Historically, many scientists believed early eukaryotes existed without oxygen or floated within water columns.
The revelation that oxygen was integral to early life on Earth overturns longstanding assumptions.
The location of these fossils provided additional insights into how these primitive organisms existed.
Dr. Maxwell Lechte, a paleontologist from the University of Sydney, stated: “The fossil distribution implies that eukaryotes likely inhabited the ocean floor and didn’t venture into the open ocean until about a billion years later, when significant environmental changes occurred.”
This discovery aligns with recent studies on microorganisms closely related to eukaryotic ancestors, indicating their ability to utilize oxygen.
“Eukaryotes constitute most of the visible life around us,” Professor Halverson remarked.
“Understanding their origin remains a pivotal scientific challenge, key to comprehending the biodiversity we see on Earth and the potential for life on other habitable planets.”
Exploring the Revelations Surrounding Oliver Sacks’ The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat
Often, popular science books become dated as new research debunks their key theories or presents outdated concepts. Sometimes, however, explosive revelations transform the narrative entirely.
In the case of Oliver Sacks, it’s the latter with The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat. This groundbreaking work has influenced countless psychology students and researchers, including myself. Yet, its reputation has been shaken by startling disclosures about Sacks’ commitment to factual accuracy. Is there anything redeemable amidst the wreckage?
I first read The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat—referred to as hat here—around 25 years ago as an undergraduate psychology student. It’s a collection of case studies featuring individuals with neuropsychiatric conditions, primarily drawn from Sacks’ own patients. He immerses readers into the lives of those battling memory loss, neurosyphilis, Tourette syndrome, and more, examining not just their challenges in daily life but the neurological foundations of their conditions and their implications for understanding the human mind.
On a recent reread, I noticed some elements that raise concerns. Originally published in 1985, the book includes language that is no longer acceptable, particularly concerning individuals with developmental delays. Moreover, Sacks occasionally reflects on the profound meanings his patients derive from their cognitive challenges.
Yet overall, revisiting it reminded me of the compelling storytelling that captivated me initially. Sacks is often viewed as the empathetic “grandpa” of psychology, which explains why this book resonates with so many.
In Chapter 3, “The Disembodied Woman,” Sacks recounts the story of “Christina,” a woman who suffered severe neurological damage and lost her sense of proprioception—the awareness of one’s body in space. For Christina, even actions as simple as riding the bus became Herculean tasks, as her awkward movements led others to mistakenly assume she was intoxicated.
By sharing these narratives, Sacks advocates for greater societal acceptance of individuals who have experienced brain injuries or who possess atypical neurological wiring. Although he never employs the contemporary term “neurodiversity,” the idea is very much present in hat.
The central issue with this book lies in its veracity; one cannot ascertain the authenticity of many accounts. Investigative journalist Rachel Aviv gained access to Sacks’ correspondence and personal diary through the Oliver Sacks Foundation, revealing Sacks’ “guilt” over “my lies” and “falsifications.” hat.
Aviv has uncovered that several stories within the book may be at least partially fabricated. For instance, Sacks narrates a patient named Rebecca, depicted as unable to “confidently open a door with a key,” yet flourishing in a theater company, a transformation unsupported by evidence in Sacks’ records. Similarly, he describes identical twins with severe disabilities allegedly capable of identifying six-digit prime numbers, an extraordinary claim unverified by any other source.
In conclusion, it remains ambiguous how much of hat can be trusted. Most case studies go unpublished in scientific journals, leaving no room for independent validation. What we have are the words of Oliver Sacks; however, his diary confesses to deception. While I hesitate to endorse remarkable claims like the twins’ prime number identification, many narratives—such as that of Christina—align better with verified accounts.
Aviv’s investigation highlights that Sacks grappled with his internal struggles. He didn’t publicly embrace his identity as a gay man until later in life and lived with feelings of guilt and self-loathing due to societal homophobia, a struggle that deeply impacted both his personal life and professional work. This narrative is profoundly tragic and underscores the intersections of identity and mental health.
The most significant concern is that hat Sacks presented this work as nonfiction, yet its most remarkable achievement lies within the realm of fiction: transporting readers into the minds of those whose experiences and perceptions diverge dramatically from the norm. While it may not serve as a reliable source of neuropsychiatric facts, approaching it with this understanding reveals enduring truths.
The universe is approximately 14 billion years old, but during the initial few hundred million years, a phase known as the dark ages of the universe is theorized to have occurred when no stars were formed. Following this era, scientists speculate that the period marking the beginning of star formation is referred to as the dawn of the universe. This phase saw the earliest galaxies begin to emerge from vast clouds of gas and plasma.
As these galaxies began to merge and more materials became available, star formation rates significantly increased. Between two to three billion years post-Big Bang, galaxies entered a phase of rapid growth, yielding stars at an unprecedented rate in cosmic history, aptly termed the noon of the universe.
Recently, Dutch researchers focused on three distant galaxies whose light started its journey to Earth during cosmic noon. They selected these galaxies from a pool of ancient star-forming galaxies identified through the ALMA program, aimed at advancing kinematic analysis, such as the ALMA Alpaca project. The galaxies under study were designated ID1, ID3, and ID13.
The team utilized two sets of data to create a comprehensive profile of these galaxies. They first gathered information from the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array, a massive 66-antenna telescope located in Chile, known as the ALMA telescope. By employing ALMA, researchers detected radio emissions from carbon monoxide and elemental carbon present in these galaxies. They posited that understanding these chemicals could provide insights into the dynamics of free-floating gas clouds in distant galaxies.
Additionally, they used publicly available data from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) near-infrared camera, or NIRCam, to assess the starlight emitted from these galaxies. By analyzing these midday galaxies through multiple methodologies, the researchers sought to quantify their mass and assess the contributions of both normal and dark matter.
They utilized computer programs developed by other astronomers to interpret the JWST data into a series of maps, displaying the star distribution within each galaxy. This emission data was instrumental in estimating the overall mass of stars in these galaxies. Subsequently, they developed their own program to delineate gas distribution using ALMA data, resulting in plots known as rotation curves, which depict the orbital speed of particles around each galaxy’s center relative to their distance from that center.
Astronomers employed these rotation curves to estimate the dark matter content within each galaxy. This method is effective since dark matter is undetectable yet still exerts gravitational forces. Consequently, visible matter such as stars and gas located at the outskirts of galaxies is observed to move faster in dark matter-rich galaxies.
The findings revealed that these galaxies have masses ranging from 39 billion to 80 billion times that of our Sun, known in astrophysics as solar mass. They contained free-floating gas equivalent to between 4 billion and nearly 16 billion solar masses, in addition to dark matter amounts estimated at between 1 trillion and 31 trillion solar masses.
However, upon comparing the luminosity data with the rotation curves, a discrepancy emerged. Typically, dark matter is expected to dwell within a halo surrounding the galaxy, primarily influencing the outer regions. Normally, astronomers can calculate the mass of central matter based solely on the stellar and gas content found there. Yet, in the centers of these galaxies, the mass derived from emissions was found to be lower than that estimated from the rotation curves.
The researchers proposed several explanations for this anomaly. They hypothesized that the shape of the dark matter halo might not accurately represent its distribution in all galaxies, suggesting that the noon era galaxies may contain dark matter closer to their centers. Alternatively, they posited that densely packed stars within these galactic centers might impede each other’s emissions. Additionally, galaxy ID1 hosts a supermassive black hole comprising approximately 1.5% of its total stellar mass.
In conclusion, while the researchers successfully delineated the mass distribution of these midday galaxies, the underlying reason for the central mass discrepancy remains unresolved. They inferred a complex interrelationship between dark matter halos and the remaining matter within these galaxies and encouraged future astronomers to apply similar methods to explore the matter distribution in the ALMA Alpaca and other distant galaxies highlighted in upcoming surveys.
What is love? This enduring question has mystified philosophers for centuries, and even today, scientists are still searching for answers.
Niall McDiarmid/Millennium Images, UK
In the vibrant hotel lobby, I walk past a couple sharing an intimate kiss as I head towards a softly lit conference room buzzing with the excitement of new connections. I am here to participate in “Love: Practical and Theoretical,” a groundbreaking conference sponsored by the Royal Society in Edinburgh, UK. As a romantic at heart, I hope this event sheds light on one of life’s greatest mysteries: what is love?
Over the next two days, I absorbed insights from numerous experts, including evolutionary biologists, neuroscientists, and psychologists, all sharing their perspectives on this instinctive yet elusive concept we call love, with a particular focus on romantic relationships.
This event was a historic meeting, providing many key researchers in love studies their first opportunity to convene. “This is a significant challenge for love science. It brings tears to my eyes,” remarked Adam Bode, a professor from the University of Melbourne, during a poignant moment at the conference.
Romance research has often struggled for funding, perceived as a “soft” science, according to Bode. “Initially, I felt that the science of love was not taken seriously,” he expressed. “The very fact that the world’s oldest and most prestigious scientific institution now supports discussions on love lends it a legitimacy that has been lacking.”
Defining love is a challenging yet essential first step in studying it. “As scholars, we have not yet agreed on a clear definition of love,” stated Marta Kowal from the University of Wrocław, Poland.
Some view love merely as an emotion, similar to joy or sadness—subjective experiences that vary widely among individuals. “My fascination with love sparked when I found myself deeply in love with someone I didn’t intend to,” Bode remarked.
However, the consensus among many researchers is that romantic love encompasses more than mere feelings. Some suggest it serves as a motivational state, driving us to maintain close relationships and ensuring the continuation of our species.
This assertion is supported by brain imaging studies showing that love activates reward pathways deep within the brainstem, influencing our fundamental urges. “Like hunger and thirst, love is integral to our survival,” explained Lucy Brown from the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York.
Other scientists prefer to analyze love through established psychological frameworks. Robert Sternberg at Cornell University proposes that love is built on three fundamental elements: intimacy, passion, and commitment. Intimacy involves an emotional connection, passion encompasses physical attraction, and commitment signifies the intention to sustain a relationship.
Sternberg shared that his theory stemmed from personal experiences. “I developed a strong bond with Mary and a deep passion for Julia. Yet there was Eren, who had a scheduled meeting with me,” he elaborated.
A point of agreement among researchers is that romantic love evolves through distinct stages. Initially, the honeymoon stage is marked by intense desire and typically lasts one to two years, followed by a more pragmatic, lasting love. “This next phase is ‘more practical than poetic,’ and it represents a continuum rather than a clear cut transition,” Kowal noted.
The attachment experienced in passionate love can form part of this definition. According to Bode, individuals in love devote about half their waking hours contemplating their partner. “I suspect anyone newly in love shouldn’t be granted a driver’s license; I’m even considering a research grant to investigate this,” he joked.
In the conference’s final discussion, researchers outlined plans to explore various definitions of love in forthcoming scientific papers. Although we may never fully unravel the mystery of love, the pursuit remains invaluable, as many of us find our lives driven by love itself.
In the early 20th century, physicists grappled with profound questions raised by the revolutionary mathematical principles of quantum mechanics. Many settled on the mantra: “Shut up and do the math.” This phrase captured the prevailing sentiment of engaging with quantum mechanics pragmatically, without delving into its philosophical implications.
This mindset reflects a broader trend in science, where researchers prioritize calculation over contemplation. While scientific inquiry thrives on empirical data, recent advancements in the study of consciousness demonstrate a shift in understanding—recognizing it as a legitimate scientific field, rather than relegating it to philosophical discourse. For instance, some climate scientists readily build models to predict the impacts of rising emissions but often shy away from discussing the political ramifications, fearing they may stretch beyond scientific boundaries.
In New Scientist, we advocate that while science is a powerful framework for understanding the universe, it shouldn’t be the sole avenue of knowledge. Embracing a more pluralistic approach could yield significant insights into overarching questions like “What is the origin of the laws of nature?”
“
The lesson is not to dismiss philosophy, but to view it as an additional tool. “
When integrating philosophy into scientific exploration, it must not be burdened by dogma or rigid methodologies. A case in point is the concept of trees sharing resources through the so-called “Wood Wide Web,” a notion ecologist Suzanne Simard has significantly advanced—but also faced backlash for potentially overextending scientific claims.
Ultimately, the crucial takeaway is to embrace philosophy as an ally in the realm of science. Just as computational quantum physicists have done, we should broaden our intellectual horizons. Science does not possess an exclusive claim to useful ideas; insights from various knowledge domains should be acknowledged and welcomed, provided they are supported by empirical evidence.
Beyond a black hole’s event horizon lies a strange boundary
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The extraordinary phenomenon of falling into a black hole protects you from spaghettification. While the intense gravity pulls the near side of objects with greater force than the far side, stretching them into improbable shapes, a hypothetical high-tech compression suit could shield you from this fate. As you pass through the event horizon—the ultimate point of no return—all that remains visible is darkness mixed with streaks of light plummeting toward the singularity at the heart of the black hole. This Impossible Suit might even provide defense against molecular disruption caused by near-light-speed collisions.
Upon crossing a lesser-known boundary known as the Cauchy horizon, time and space swap roles. If they exist inside a black hole, its interior would truly be among the most bizarre places in the universe.
All classical physics is rooted in causality—the understanding that past events shape future outcomes. For instance, if you observe all variables affecting a thrown stone, you can accurately determine where it will land. This deterministic view holds at human scales and beyond, but falters within the enigmatic environment of a black hole.
Black holes, irrespective of their types, are some of the oddest locales in the cosmos, with such immense mass that they warp the very fabric of spacetime. If a black hole is rotating and bears an electric charge—a rare phenomenon—it opens the door to even stranger phenomena.
In everyday experience, we can move freely through space but are bound to a linear path through time. Yet, upon crossing the event horizon, your directionality changes. You can only move towards the black hole’s center, while your perception of time becomes warped. To an external observer, it seems you are suspended at the edge of the black hole due to time dilation, yet to you, time flows normally—until you confront the Cauchy horizon, where the oddities intensify with peculiar constructs known as closed time-like curves.
Envision these curves as temporal Möbius strips; through forward movement in time, you could find yourself looping back to the past before returning to the present—a scenario that challenges our very notion of causation. Events can no longer dictate future outcomes—or vice versa.
Beyond Cauchy’s horizon, time may flow in a curve like a Möbius strip
Mirage C/Getty Images
Existing in a closed, twisted timeline feels like an uncanny odyssey. In this realm, the very structure of spacetime becomes so tangled and warped that predicting subsequent events becomes impossible. A thrown stone might wholly defy expectations, perhaps even morphing into a pumpkin due to the chaotic laws of this universe. Under these conditions, it’s hard to trust the protective capabilities of the suit that carried you into the black hole in the first place. As you witness the full extent of this scenario, hope for escape dwindles rapidly.
How do we resolve the implications of our current understanding of physics? Enter cosmic censorship—a principle asserting that at the singularity’s core, or points where causality fails, the breakdown of physics remains unseen. This maintains the predictive integrity of our physical laws. A parallel theory, time series censorship, posits that if you venture too close to the singularity, escaping becomes nearly impossible, reinforcing the idea that such phenomena can occur without entirely dismantling the principles of physics.
This theory complicates experimental validation of black holes possessing Cauchy horizons. Checking for black hole rotation is feasible, and the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) has confirmed the existence of rotation. Yet, determining electric charge remains elusive, given their propensity to discharge into surrounding space.
Researchers have also calculated the stability of a potential Cauchy horizon, but findings suggest that such horizons lack stability and may collapse with minimal disturbance, giving rise to an extended singularity and unleashing immense energy density. Would you place faith in your protective suit amid such tumultuous conditions? The only certainty appears to be that encountering what lies past the Cauchy horizon may be more hazardous than not stepping across it at all.
Engaging in self-exploration can enhance your understanding of your mind. Start by placing your finger on the area of your body that resonates with your sense of self. Avoid overthinking this; there are no right or wrong choices. Simply connect with your identity and where you feel most centered.
If you’re like most individuals, you’ll likely touch either your head or your heart. This choice may seem trivial, but several studies indicate that it can reveal your thinking style—whether you lean toward logic and analysis or intuition and emotion. Understanding how to switch between these modes can remarkably improve your decision-making capabilities.
It’s widely accepted that our decisions hinge on whether we think with our heads or hearts, a notion that’s prevalent in popular culture. Interestingly, this connection was first studied scientifically in 2013 by researchers Adam Fetterman from the University of Houston and Michael D. Robinson from North Dakota State University, who examined if our perceptions truly influence our actions.
Through self-report questionnaires, it emerged that “head-locators” frequently categorized themselves as rational thinkers, while “heart-locators” identified as emotionally driven. Remarkably, these perceptions correlate with objective behavioral metrics. For instance, Fetterman and Robinson observed that those who considered themselves ‘head-locators’ tended to excel on general knowledge exams, indicating a more cognitive-focused lifestyle. Conversely, ‘heart-locators’ often reported heightened sensitivity in stressful scenarios, reflecting their emotional depth.
The researchers found that individuals’ self-perception could predict outcomes related to their rational or emotional thinking styles a year later, signifying that this is a stable trait. However, many aspects of our psychology remain pliable. Just as levels of extraversion can fluctuate based on social context, it’s worth questioning whether our self-concept is equally adaptable. Robinson’s team explored this concept in a recent study.
In the studies, participants (n=455) were prompted to envision themselves engaging in various activities, rating how prominently their self-awareness was rooted in their brain or heart on a scale from 1 (not present) to 7 (very present). As predicted, responses varied based on the task; for example, self-awareness was more pronounced when engaged in analytical activities versus emotional reflection. This flexibility related directly to test performance. Participants who exhibited higher adaptability in their self-awareness scored better on key assessments, such as the American College Testing (ACT) and the North Dakota Emotional Ability Test, which assesses emotional intelligence.
These findings align with the “dual process theory” of cognition, which posits that our mental systems engage in either methodical reasoning or instinctual responses. Robinson’s research suggests that self-perception impacts which cognitive approach we employ, with those adept at reverting between modes enjoying superior decision-making capabilities in various domains. High achievers were found to effectively practice the “art of employing strategies” suitable for each task, merging head-driven logic with heart-driven intuition.
Can we all cultivate this skill? When I queried Robinson, he posited, “Achieving conscious control over this mental flexibility may require time and practice, possibly through meditation and other body-focused exercises.” As someone who leans intellectually, he admitted the journey can be challenging.
In a preliminary experiment from their 2013 study, having participants touch specific body locations altered their cognitive processes. For example, touching one’s temple promotes logical thinking, while touching the chest encourages instinctual moral reasoning, akin to the famous trolley problem. These bodily interactions also improved performance on true/false tests necessitating logical reasoning by around 9%.
Although I won’t depend on this method without larger trials to validate it, my awareness of my self-location has shifted since learning about Robinson’s ongoing studies. At times, my sense of self seems to align straight behind my eyes, while other moments place it lower in my ribcage. The contrast is so vivid that I now recognize transitions I once overlooked. By acknowledging these shifts, I gain deeper insights into what influences my decision-making.
That’s the beauty of psychological research—it unveils critical facets of our existence that we often overlook.
David Robson’s latest book is The Law of Connection: 13 Social Strategies That Will Change Your Life. If you have questions for his column, feel free to reach out: davidrobson.me/Contact
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As organizations like Anthropic, Google, and OpenAI develop cutting-edge artificial intelligence systems, they are increasingly focused on implementing safeguards to prevent misuse—such as spreading disinformation, creating weapons, or hacking networks.
However, recent findings by Italian researchers reveal that these protective measures can sometimes be bypassed through poetic prompts.
By using poetic language, the researchers successfully tricked 31 AI systems into ignoring internal safety protocols. For example, starting prompts with metaphors like “The iron seed sleeps best in the unsuspecting womb of the earth away from the sun’s reproachful gaze” demonstrated how these systems can be manipulated to execute dangerous tasks.
This highlights a concerning trend: for many AI systems, guardrails intended to prevent risky behavior are merely suggestions, rather than effective barriers. Researchers are increasingly alarmed as AI systems become adept at exploiting vulnerabilities and engaging in risky operations.
Recently, Anthropic announced restrictions on the release of its latest AI system, Claude Mythos, to select organizations due to its rapid vulnerability detection capabilities in software. OpenAI echoed similar sentiments, choosing to share its technology with a limited group of trusted partners.
Since the AI boom initiated by OpenAI in late 2022, studies have confirmed the ability of users to bypass safety measures in AI systems. Closing one loophole often leads to the emergence of another.
“Everyone in the field acknowledges that establishing effective guardrails is challenging and will continue to be so for the foreseeable future,” stated Matt Fredrickson, a computer science professor at Carnegie Mellon University and CEO of Gray Swan AI, which specializes in securing AI technologies. “Determined individuals can evade these systems with relative ease.”
The repercussions of bypassing guardrails are significant. In an already misinformation-heavy online environment, AI systems are being employed to disseminate conspiracy theories and false claims. Anthropic has also reported that its technology played a role in an international cyberattack, teaching biosecurity experts how to unleash fatal pathogens.
The poetic bypass is just one of many methods hackers use to circumvent protections in systems like Anthropic’s Claude, Google’s Gemini, and OpenAI’s GPT. Major AI firms share similar foundational techniques for implementing guardrails, yet these measures are surprisingly easy to overcome.
“Poetry is merely one way to reframe a prompt and breach guardrails,” explained Piercosma Visconti, co-founder of AI firm Dexai and a researcher in the study.
The act of circumventing AI guardrails is commonly referred to as “jailbreaking.” This often entails submitting specific English sentences that prompt actions the AI has been programmed to avoid.
Jailbreaking techniques feature a variety of creative names, including stealth prompt injection, role-playing, token smuggling, polyglot Trojans, and greedy coordinate gradient attacks. Notable attack names include Crescendo, Deceptive Joy, and Echo Chamber.
Weak defenses in AI systems have already led to the spread of fabricated interviews, false wartime evidence, and synthetic rumor-mongering. Research conducted three years ago by international counterterrorism experts revealed far-right extremists using social media to circumvent moderators with “terrible but legal” AI content.
Experts are concerned that models could be jailbroken to mislead social media users with seemingly authentic content, overwhelm fact-checkers with misinformation, and tailor false narratives for specific audiences.
Some of these methods are widely disseminated online, while others remain undisclosed. Many discoverers of new jailbreaks keep them secret to exploit these loopholes before AI companies close them.
AI systems like Claude and GPT learn patterns from vast datasets, including Wikipedia, news articles, and curated texts from the internet. However, before releasing these systems to the public, companies like Anthropic and OpenAI explore potential exploits.
In their unfiltered states, these systems can potentially instruct users on purchasing illegal firearms online or creating hazardous substances using household items. Consequently, companies train their systems to refuse certain requests through a method known as reinforcement learning.
This often involves showcasing thousands of prohibited requests to the system. Through this analysis, the system can learn to identify other dangerous requests. However, this method only partially succeeds.
In some situations, AI companies might opt not to address vulnerabilities, believing that while weak guardrails could facilitate malicious activities, they also enable benign actions to counter them.
Recently, researchers at cybersecurity firm LayerX found that Claude’s guardrails could be bypassed by simply entering a few straightforward sentences into the AI system.
When told they were “penetrating” a computer network for testing purposes, Claude’s AI technology was directed to launch attacks on the network. This technique could potentially enable malicious hackers to extract sensitive information from businesses, governments, and individuals.
While closing this loophole may protect Claude’s networks, it could simultaneously hinder companies from safeguarding their own systems. LayerX informed Anthropic of this vulnerability weeks ago, yet it remains an open issue.
LayerX CEO Olu Eshed warned that this strategy might backfire. “Eventually, we will witness a surge of attacks utilizing these AI models, compelling us to rethink our security protocols,” he predicted.
Last year, researchers from Cisco and the University of Pennsylvania achieved breakthrough results by developing AI models that produced harmful outcomes using malicious prompts. Their efforts successfully jailbroke Meta and Chinese AI model DeepSeek chatbots 100% of the time, and over 80% of attacks against Google and OpenAI models were successful.
(The New York Times has filed a lawsuit against OpenAI and Microsoft, claiming copyright infringement related to its AI systems, with both companies denying these allegations.)
If guardrails are compromised, automated large-scale influence campaigns could become feasible, as researchers at the University of Technology Sydney demonstrated. By disguising their requests as “simulations,” they convinced a commercial language model to create a disinformation campaign against Australian political parties, complete with visuals, hashtags, and tailored posts for specific platforms.
In addition to establishing guardrails, these companies also employ other tools to monitor system activity, identify suspicious behaviors, and ban accounts infringing on their terms of service.
“Claude is built with robust, multi-layered protections designed to work in unison, including model training and layered guardrails,” stated Anthropic spokesperson Palul Maheshwary. “Bypassing one layer doesn’t circumvent the others.”
In a concerning revelation, Anthropic found that a group of state-sponsored hackers from China was employing Claude to breach the computer systems of approximately 30 companies and government agencies worldwide.
Despite the robust security technologies, experts caution that flaws remain, as companies struggle to monitor extensive global activity while also ensuring legitimate users are not excluded.
When restricted by the security measures of services like Claude and GPT, users may turn to open-source AI systems. These platforms allow for their underlying software to be freely replicated, modified, and shared.
Such systems can be altered to eliminate guardrails. A novel approach called Heretic enables users to remove system guardrails with minimal effort, essentially undoing months of guardrailing training through sophisticated algorithms.
“A year ago, this process was highly complex,” noted Norm Schwartz, CEO of AI security firm Alice. “Today, it can be controlled effortlessly via a mobile device.”
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Exploring Different Kinds of Fields
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As I prepared to launch my column for New Scientist, my editor inquired about a title. I proposed “Field Notes from Space and Time.” This title serves a dual purpose for me as a physicist, subtly referring to the scientific practice of field observations—notes recorded in the field akin to a lab notebook—while also hinting at a critical concept in particle physics: the field itself.
In classical terms, one might envision a “field” as a vast agricultural space, but in physics, it embodies a more abstract notion. A field represents a mathematical framework that assigns numerical values to points across both space and time, characterizing various physical phenomena. For instance, when a magnet approaches a refrigerator door, a magnetic force exists between them, with a corresponding magnetic field value that intensifies as the distance decreases.
Intriguingly, the term “field,” in this scientific context, emerged thanks to 19th-century scientist Michael Faraday, who investigated the magnetic properties of bismuth. While working on my recent manuscript, I delved into Faraday’s diary and examined his initial references to field concepts. One can’t help but wonder how he conceptualized these ideas, particularly given his working-class origins and an upbringing deeply intertwined with the land. I envision Faraday pondering the invisible forces at play in the expansive environments familiar to his family.
The notion of fields extends beyond magnetism. A groundbreaking advancement in the 20th century arose at the intersection of electromagnetism and quantum physics, leading to the realization that particles and waves share a dual relationship. Notably, particles such as electrons can also be perceived as waves, while electromagnetic fields can be represented as particles (termed photons). As the scientific community embraced wave-particle duality, a deeper connection between quantum theory and fields became apparent.
To forge a complete quantum model of photons, we once again turned to fields—this time, quantum fields. Just as magnetic fields quantify the magnetic force at specific points, quantum fields determine the creation and annihilation of particles at various locations. Consequently, all electrons emerge from a quantum electronic field. It is believed that a similar undiscovered realm of dark matter also exists, behaving as if composed of particles despite being invisible to the naked eye. Our universe brims with particles springing from a vacuum, facilitated by quantum fields. Thus, when I contribute to this column, I am genuinely crafting field notes from both space and time.
What are you reading?
I am captivated by The Herman Melville Declaration by Barry Sanders.
What are you watching?
I am enjoying the final season of Hacks.
What are you working on?
Following the US launch of The End of Space and Time, we are currently focusing on its release in the UK!
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Discover stunning new images captured by NASA/ESA/CSA’s James Webb Space Telescope featuring the barred spiral galaxy Messier 77, showcasing its mesmerizing swirl of dust, vibrant newborn stars, and an extraordinarily active nucleus.
This breathtaking image of Messier 77, taken by Webb’s Mid-Infrared Observatory (MIRI), illustrates its unique spiral arms, dust within its disk, and an exceptionally bright core. The orange lines radiating from the galaxy’s center are diffraction spikes, an optical phenomenon from Webb’s design. Image credit: NASA / ESA / CSA / Webb / A. LeRoy.
Situated about 62 million light-years from Earth in the constellation Cetus, Messier 77 ranks among the brightest and most extensively studied galaxies visible from Earth.
This galaxy, commonly referred to as the Squid Galaxy, NGC 1068, LEDA 10266, and Cetus A, boasts an apparent magnitude of 9.6.
First discovered in 1780 by French astronomer Pierre Méchain, Messier 77 was initially recorded as a nebula before its true galactic nature was revealed.
As technology advanced, astronomers like Charles Messier recognized the galaxy’s immense scale and complexity.
Measuring approximately 100,000 light-years in diameter, Messier 77 is one of the largest entries in the Messier catalog, with a gravitational influence strong enough to distort its neighboring galaxies. Additionally, it is one of the nearest galaxies exhibiting an active galactic nucleus (AGN).
Messier 77 is classified as a Type II Seyfert galaxy and is particularly luminous in infrared wavelengths.
According to Webb astronomers, “At the heart of Messier 77 lies a compact region filled with hot gas that shines brighter than the entire galaxy, surpassing even the capacity of Webb’s camera.”
“Powered by a supermassive black hole weighing 8 million solar masses, this AGN pulls gas into rapid orbits, causing collisions that generate immense radiation.”
This striking image of Messier 77, captured by Webb’s Near Infrared Camera (NIRCam), brilliantly showcases its features. Image credit: NASA / ESA / CSA / Webb / A. LeRoy.
“Messier 77 is not only recognized for its visible AGN but also as a vigorous star-forming galaxy,” they added.
“Near-infrared observations reveal a widening bar in the central region, untraceable in visible-light images of the galaxy.”
“This bar is encircled by a bright ring known as the starburst ring, formed by the inner sections of Messier 77’s two spiral arms.”
“Starburst zones in galaxies typically exhibit remarkably high star formation rates.”
“This ring, exceeding 6,000 light-years in diameter, displays intense starburst activity characterized by dense orange bubbles surrounding the ring.”
“Given Messier 77’s relatively close proximity to Earth, this starburst ring serves as an exemplary case study in galactic phenomena.”
“As an active spiral galaxy, Messier 77’s disk is abundant in gas and dust, both of which are vital for future star formation.”
“Webb’s MIRI highlights the galaxy’s view filled with the glow of interstellar dust particles, depicted here in blue.”
“These particles form massive vortexes of swirling filaments resembling smoke, with cavities interspersed.”
“Glowing orange bubbles, crafted by newly formed star clusters, can also be seen along the galaxy’s arms.”
“Beyond Webb’s focused field of view, Messier 77’s arms integrate into a faint hydrogen gas ring, thousands of light-years wide, where additional star formation is underway.”
“Delicate filaments of hydrogen gas stretch across this ring into intergalactic space, forming the outermost layer surrounding the galaxy.”
“These tentacle-like filaments contribute to the moniker Squid Galaxy for Messier 77.”
A clandestine society of mathematicians has been operating under pseudonyms for nearly a century
Shutterstock/Stephen Ray Chapman
One of the most influential figures in modern mathematics, Nicolas Bourbaki, has reportedly been researching for almost a century, producing numerous books and publications that guide the entire field. Interestingly, Bourbaki is a pseudonymous figure who does not exist as an actual individual.
Bourbaki represents a secretive collective of mathematicians, initially formed in France in 1934. Their primary objective was to modernize mathematics textbooks, transforming them to meet contemporary reader needs. However, this endeavor culminated in the creation of an innovative approach to mathematical writing, impacting the field for decades.
The group initially anticipated that their study would comprise about 1,000 pages and be completed in six months. By 1935, Bourbaki had expanded its vision to include six interconnected volumes, aiming to “provide a comprehensive foundation for modern mathematics,” as expressed in an explanatory preface. While they were correct about the length, they were notably mistaken regarding the timeline.
Though these volumes (which eventually comprised several physical books) were intended to be read sequentially, Bourbaki’s first published text in 1939 turned out to be the concluding chapter of the first book on set theory. The group later published different sections intermittently before returning to finish set theory in 1954, finally completing the entire project in 1970. Collectively labeled as elements of mathematics, this singular title underscores the cohesion of the mathematicians’ work. The completion of this monumental collection extended into the 1980s, reaching nearly 4,000 pages. Even after that, Bourbaki continued to release new works as the original scope broadened.
This unorthodox publishing approach stemmed from Bourbaki’s distinctive methodology. The original group comprised six young mathematics professors, including Andre Weil, a prominent figure in number theory and algebraic geometry. Most members were former students of the École Normale Supérieure in Paris, and the group’s name emerged from a prank revolving around the notoriously obscure Bourbaki theorem.
This playful spirit fostered a strong sense of camaraderie. Meetings were lively, often involving shouting matches and humorous banter. One member crafted the proposed text and presented it line by line for critique and discussion, leading to a revised draft before reaching consensus. Given that chapters took an average of ten years to produce, the protracted timeline is understandable. This mathematical endeavor spanned generations, as Bourbaki members were required to retire at 50, making way for new recruits.
Eternal Challenges in Mathematics
Founding members of the Bourbaki Group gathered in France in 1935
Charmet/Bridgeman Image Archive
So, what was Bourbaki’s actual contribution? Despite its unorthodox methods, the group’s work was notably serious and thoroughly detailed. The cornerstone of their research, set theory, aimed to tackle the perennial challenge in mathematics: the idea that mathematical objects are fundamentally independent of human language and symbols.
To illustrate this, consider the word “addition” or the symbol “+”. These terms have an arbitrary connection to the underlying mathematical concepts. As long as there’s an agreement on the meaning of “addition,” any string of symbols could be utilized to indicate it. Conversely, addition has a definitive relationship with subtraction; one operation is the inverse of the other, independent of their nomenclature.
In practical terms, labeling mathematical concepts does not present a significant challenge, as mathematicians adhere to standardized mappings between ideas and symbols. However, in principle, contradictions and inconsistencies may emerge.
Bourbaki was not the inaugural attempt at formalization (as mentioned in my previous writings), but his approach was perhaps the most meticulous. For instance, he took care to define the number 1 in a footnote on page 158 of set theory. Bourbaki clarified that “the symbol ‘1’ should not be confused with the common language interpretation ‘one'”; instead, it should be understood through a rigorous definition:
τZ ((∃u)(∃U)(u = (U, {∅}, Z) and U ⊂ {∅} × Z and (∀x)((x ∈ {∅}) ⇒ (∃y)((x, y) ∈ U)) and (∀x)(∀y)(∀y’)(((x, y) ∈ U and (x, y’) ∈ U) ⇒ (y = y’)) and (∀y)((y ∈ Z) ⇒ (∃x)((x, y) ∈ U))))
Don’t worry if this seems daunting; a simplified explanation is that ∅ represents a set devoid of elements, referred to as the “empty set.” Consequently, 1 is defined as {∅}, indicating a set containing only one item (which, in this case, is the empty set). More details on this concept can be found in a previous column.
Astonishingly, embedded within this sea of symbols is a broader and more complex formal definition. Each symbol is elaborately defined based on earlier texts using only designated symbols. Bourbaki never elaborated these entirely; the footnote mentions that completing this definition would require tens of thousands of symbols — an estimation soon revealed to be vastly understated. Later mathematicians calculated that articulating the full formula for the number 1 would necessitate over 4.5 billion symbols, or more precisely, 2,409,875,496,393,137,472,149,767,527,877,436,912,979,508,338,752,092,897 symbols, depending on your definition of precision.
Clearly, mathematicians would need to occasionally abandon such stringent formalism if they wished to accomplish their objectives. Bourbaki acknowledges this necessity, while maintaining that utilizing shorthand terms like “1” is an “abuse of language.” By establishing foundational rules, Bourbaki granted mathematicians the flexibility to deviate as needed.
Emerging Mathematical Challenges
So, what achievements stemmed from all this labor? One significant outcome was Bourbaki’s aspiration to unite mathematics as a cohesive discipline. In theory, if terms and concepts from various mathematical domains could be expressed using a common set of symbols, it would yield a rigorous framework for transitions between fields. Although few actually practice this, it positions mathematics on a more solid philosophical foundation.
In the decades that followed, Bourbaki’s influence has proven unexpectedly significant, particularly as mathematicians increasingly explore computer-assisted formalization to verify proofs generated by artificial intelligence. The collective also introduced numerous concepts and symbols, many of which remain integral to contemporary mathematics (for instance, ∅ representing the empty set). On a broader scale, the Bourbakian writing style continues to shape modern mathematical textbooks.
However, Bourbaki was not without critique. Following the publication of elements of mathematics, some mathematicians expressed discontent with the group’s claims of excessive rigor. Oddly enough, Bourbaki inadvertently incited a misguided initiative to reform mathematics education in schools. Emerging in France during the late 1950s, this movement, dubbed New Mathematics, sought to replace traditional educational methods with rigorous set-theoretic approaches based on Bourbaki’s teachings. The intention was to grasp the general principle of multiplication rather than memorizing specific multipliers, such as 3 × 4 = 12.
The “New Math” movement faced extensive criticism and was largely deemed a failure. Parents and teachers alike struggled to understand the curriculum. Bestselling critiques like Why Can’t Johnny Add? emerged, and by the late 1970s, the initiative had largely dissipated. Additionally, this decade brought challenges for Bourbaki, including legal disputes with publishers over copyright and royalties.
Despite these hurdles, Bourbaki remains relevant today. New chapters will be released this year alone. However, the identity of the author remains a well-guarded secret. This anonymity allows mathematicians to regard Bourbaki as a quirky, eccentric relative: appreciated for essential contributions, yet sparing themselves from the discomfort of personal association.
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Eurovision 2026: Are You Ready?
The highly anticipated 2026 Eurovision Song Contest is fast approaching, with the grand finale set for Saturday, May 16th. Whether you’re a fan or not, get ready for an entertaining spectacle!
Coinciding with this buzz, a comprehensive study published in Royal Society Open Science delves into the rich history of Eurovision. Researchers analyzed data from every contest between 1956 and 2024, totaling 1,763 songs. They categorized entries by various musical attributes, including language, themes, lyrics, and genre, utilizing AI tools for analysis. It’s hard to ignore the auditory implications of such a massive dataset!
The analysis unearthed intriguing insights, revealing that past research identified 12 major themes prevalent in popular songs, such as desire, heartbreak, and pain. However, only 11 themes are reflected in the Eurovision entries, as researchers excluded the theme ‘Jaded’ for being underrepresented.
The data also shows a significant decline in songs expressing nostalgia, while themes of pain, rebellion, despair, confusion, and escapism have become more prominent over the years. The 1970s marked a notable rise in songs depicting disorder and escapism, reflecting the societal crises of that era. However, the increase in ‘pain’ themes began not until the 2000s, post-Great Recession, suggesting a correlation.
Interestingly, songs have shifted from acoustic to electronic styles, with a growing prevalence of English lyrics over national languages. This trend indicates that Eurovision participants are deliberately aligning their entries with the winning formula established by past champions.
There are notable exceptions, as countries like France, Italy, Portugal, and Spain continue to champion their native languages, suggesting a deeper cultural rationale beyond mere competition.
The researchers conclude by emphasizing the notion of “organizational learning” among Eurovision participants, reflecting an ongoing adaptation to the competition landscape. Feedback sees this as a testament to the enduring allure of the contest.
Moss Appeal: A Niche Attraction
In a previous article, we discussed a park filled with intricate foraminiferal carvings and pondered the existence of niche science-themed attractions. This inspired reader John Wilson to share information about the Serenity Moss Garden in North Carolina.
Spanning about 900 square meters, this moss-covered mountainside offers visitors a unique experience, though John humorously described it as “more like a climate-controlled box” rather than a traditional museum.
Feedback realizes that our quest for niche appeal may have been too limited. Are there any other unique attractions, such as a museum dedicated to Plecopteran (stoneflies) or specialized exhibits featuring beach pebbles?
New Math? A Logical Dilemma
Regardless of our professional backgrounds, math can sometimes overwhelm us. Navigating concepts like converting square kilometers to square meters can be perplexing.
Recently, U.S. Secretary of Health Robert F. Kennedy Jr. faced scrutiny for claiming a 600% decrease in drug prices, an assertion deemed mathematically implausible by rival politicians.
Feedback believes RFK Jr. has been misled. A 100% drop suggests prices have plummeted to zero, a mathematical limit. In theory, this could even lead to negative pricing, but the complexities of rate changes should ideally be left to mathematicians.
In a curious twist, RFK Jr. stated, “If that drug goes from $100 to $600, that’s a 600% price increase.” This form of reasoning feels like a new, perplexing brand of logic—while the premises hold, the conclusion is unmistakably flawed.
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As a passionate honey enthusiast, I relish the taste of honey in everything from buttery sourdough bread to refreshing smoothies and savory Asian stir-fries. I often justify my sweet indulgence by recalling its numerous health benefits. But how true are these claims?
Honey is widely recognized as a healthier alternative to refined white sugar. Its less processed nature results in a more stable blood sugar level. Honey, derived from plant nectar and enriched by bees, primarily consists of monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, along with trace sugars like trehalose, kojibiose, nigerose, melibiose, gentiobiose, and palatinose. However, the health benefits of honey largely depend on the sources of nectar collected by the bees.
One useful measure for comparing honey to other sugars is the glycemic index (GI), which indicates how quickly a food raises blood sugar levels. Refined white sugar has a GI score of approximately 65. In contrast, honey’s GI can vary significantly; for example, honey made from Sidr tree nectar in the Middle East boasts a GI of just 32, while Greek thyme honey reaches a GI of 85. Interested in comparing various honey types? Check out the University of Sydney’s extensive GI database for more information.
The variation in GI values can be attributed to the differing ratios of glucose and fructose in honey. Glucose raises blood sugar levels rapidly, whereas fructose does not. Unlike refined sugar, which contains a consistent ratio of glucose and fructose, honey’s composition can vary, impacting its glycemic response.
Additionally, honey contains components like phenolic acids and flavonoids that may slow glucose absorption in the intestines, thus contributing to lower GI values. These compounds are also believed to possess antioxidant properties that provide mild protection against ailments like cancer and heart disease—conditions often associated with oxidative stress. However, it’s essential to remember that fruits and vegetables are far superior sources of antioxidants as they are lower in sugar and calories.
Opting for raw honey, often available at local markets, is considered a healthier choice compared to mass-produced varieties, as it retains a higher concentration of beneficial phenolic acids and flavonoids. Raw honey is freshly harvested directly from the hive and minimally processed. Unlike raw milk, raw honey is generally safe to consume, although there are risks of contamination from Clostridium botulinum, a bacterium producing a potent neurotoxin. This toxin is particularly hazardous for infants under one year. Parents should avoid giving honey to infants, and it’s advisable to steer clear of Botox for little ones as well.
A straightforward way to gauge the phenolic acids and flavonoids in honey is by examining its color. Darker honey typically indicates higher levels of these beneficial compounds. Personally, I enjoy purchasing rich, dark brown raw honey from a local beekeeper, which I find far superior in taste compared to supermarket varieties. His bees gather nectar from local eucalyptus trees, which likely contributes to its lower GI value based on tests conducted on other eucalyptus honeys.
Is Honey Effective for Hay Fever or Just a Myth?
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While many believe that consuming locally produced honey may relieve hay fever, this idea is rooted more in folklore than in scientific fact. The premise is that honey contains trace amounts of local pollen that might help the immune system acclimatize to these allergens. However, hay fever is primarily triggered by pollen from trees that bees do not visit; these trees release airborne pollen that can irritate your nasal passages. In fact, hay fever is caused by such wind-dispersed pollen.
Nonetheless, honey does demonstrate potential benefits in soothing symptoms like a sore throat and cough, likely due to its pleasant consistency and natural antibacterial properties. A review of existing studies found that honey could alleviate cough symptoms in children and was comparable in effectiveness to over-the-counter cough syrups. Anyone who has tried a warm lemon-ginger tea with honey can attest to its comforting effects when feeling unwell.
Honey’s efficacy extends beyond soothing sore throats; it also plays a significant role in wound care. Medical-grade Manuka honey, which is recognized in countries like the UK, US, and Australia, is often used in ointments and dressings. This honey is made from the nectar of Manuka tea tree flowers and is sterilized to eliminate harmful microorganisms. It possesses high levels of an antibacterial compound called methylglyoxal, which is effective in preventing or treating wound infections. Studies highlight its healing properties.
However, it’s crucial to heed warnings about honey derived from rhododendron flowers, especially from certain species native to Nepal and Turkey. This type of honey can cause “mad honey disease,” leading to symptoms such as confusion, dizziness, and vomiting. Historically, it has even been weaponized; for instance, Mithridates VI Eupator used it strategically against Roman troops in 65 BC, luring them into confusion. Do you dare to wonder what happened next?
While honey may not alleviate my hay fever, I still enjoy it—after all, there’s no sweeter delight than the joy it brings me.
A team of Japanese astronomers has discovered a thin atmosphere surrounding the trans-Neptunian object (612533) 2002 XV93, which has an approximate diameter of 500 km. This celestial body is too small and cold to retain a substantial atmosphere.
Artist’s conception of trans-Neptunian object 2002 XV93. Image by: National Astronomical Observatory of Japan
“The cold regions of the outer solar system host thousands of small bodies known as trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) because they orbit outside Neptune.” according to Dr. Ko Arimatsu from Ishigakijima Observatory.
“While Pluto, the most well-known TNO, has been observed with a thin atmosphere, studies of other TNOs generally yield negative results.”
“Most TNOs are extremely cold and possess weak surface gravity, making it unlikely for them to maintain an atmosphere.”
Astronomers utilized stellar occultation to study trans-Neptunian object 2002 XV93, measuring its light fluctuations as background stars passed behind it.
“With a diameter of around 500 km, 2002 XV93 is significantly smaller than Pluto, which has a diameter of 2,377 km,” they noted.
“On January 10, 2024, 2002 XV93’s orbit caused it to briefly obscure a background star.”
“As the star gradually dimmed while being obscured by 2002 XV93, it indicated the possibility of light attenuation due to the thin atmosphere, or a sudden disappearance as it moved behind the solid surface of the TNO.”
The researchers concluded that the observed behavior best supports the existence of a thin atmosphere around 2002 XV93.
They estimate that this atmosphere could vanish in approximately 1,000 years unless it is replenished in some manner.
This suggests that the atmosphere must have formed or been replenished relatively recently.
“Observations with the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope reveal no indications of frozen gas that could sublimate to create an atmosphere on 2002 XV93,” the authors stated.
“One hypothesis is that deep internal processes brought frozen or liquid gas to the surface of the TNO.”
“Alternatively, a comet may have collided with 2002 XV93, releasing gas and forming a temporary atmosphere.”
“Further investigations are essential to clarify these possibilities.”
“This finding sheds light on the potential for even smaller TNOs to temporarily harbor atmospheres, challenging conventional volatile retention models,” the researchers concluded.
“Our results imply that some distant icy bodies could be sustained by ongoing cryovolcanism or exhibit atmospheres formed by recent impacts from small icy objects.”
The team’s research paper was published in the journal Nature Astronomy.
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Kazuya Arimatsu et al.. Discovery of the atmosphere surrounding a trans-Neptunian object beyond Pluto. Nat Astron, published online on May 4, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41550-026-02846-1
You may have encountered the concept that the increase in the number of boys born after wars can be perceived as a form of divine intervention or karmic response to those who lost their lives in battle.
However, this phenomenon isn’t restricted to wartime. Significant stressors in a nation’s history, such as natural disasters, famine, or collective mourning periods, can also impact male birth rates.
For instance, a study led by Maltese pediatrician Professor Victor Grech in 2015 revealed that the birth rate of boys in the UK temporarily dipped following the death of Princess Diana.
These fluctuations might be connected to the established link between stress and miscarriage rates. Recent research indicates that miscarriages affect female fetuses slightly more than male ones.
But why exactly is this the case? It remains unclear.
Yet, female embryos appear to be particularly vulnerable during the first trimester, leading to an increased risk of repeated miscarriages.
Therefore, during times of heightened stress—like wartime—the increased frequency of miscarriages might contribute to a skewed sex ratio favoring boys.
Additionally, another factor influencing the rise in male births post-war is that overall birth rates tend to surge when soldiers return home. This is often attributed to increased intimate activity among couples.
But why does this result in more boys? The theory suggests that male births occur slightly more often when conception happens at the onset or end of the menstrual cycle, while female births are more likely to occur when conception happens mid-cycle.
As couples engage in sexual activity more frequently, they may conceive during the “male” days of the cycle. This leads to a slight but noticeable increase in male births when many couples are intimate.
While this difference isn’t significant enough for those trying to conceive a specific sex, in the context of hundreds of thousands of births, it could help adjust the overall sex ratio.
This article answers the question posed by Nicole Porter via email: “What is the veteran effect? Is it true?”
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Colorectal cancer is on the rise, particularly among younger individuals.
Getty Images North America Copyright: Paul Morigi/Getty Images for Fight Colorectal Cancer
Research into the rising incidence of cancer among young individuals has generated more questions than definitive answers. While one study indicates that increasing obesity rates may account for a fraction of this trend, it doesn’t provide a comprehensive explanation.
According to Montserrat Garcia-Crosas from the Institute of Cancer Research (ICR) in London, the main takeaway is that although Body Mass Index (BMI) serves as a significant indicator, much of the increase remains unexplained.
Numerous global studies have documented a rise in cancer cases among adults under 50. Notably, the incidence of colorectal cancer has surged by about 50% in countries including the United States, Australia, and Canada since the 1990s.
To investigate the reasons behind this trend, Garcia-Crosas and colleagues analyzed cancer data in the UK alongside population trends related to risk factors such as obesity. Their findings indicated that 11 types of cancer are rising among individuals aged 20 to 49, with breast and colorectal cancers being the most prevalent. Other malignancies include liver, kidney, and pancreatic cancers, exhibiting growth rates between 1% and 6% annually.
The researchers discovered that the incidence of nine out of these 11 cancers was also increasing in individuals over 50, suggesting some common underlying factors. However, ovarian cancer and colorectal cancer were exceptions to this pattern, as noted by Garcia-Crosas.
The team also explored behavioral factors linked to these 11 cancers as identified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, which include alcohol consumption, smoking, physical inactivity, body mass index, and dietary habits related to fiber and processed meats. “These researchers provide the strongest evidence connecting these factors,” Garcia-Crosas stated.
Despite the stable or improving nature of these risk factors over time, BMI remains a consistent concern, particularly given the rising rates of obesity. However, the link between obesity and the increase in cancer among young people is only partially understood. For instance, only about 20% of the rise in colorectal cancer among young women can be attributed to increasing BMI, as per Garcia-Crosas.
According to team member Mark Gunter at Imperial College London, extensive research is currently ongoing to identify the causes of this troubling trend. Potential factors being examined include a higher consumption of ultra-processed foods, substances known as PFAS (forever chemicals), and antibiotics affecting the gut microbiome.
Your analysis suggests that the increase in cancer cases among youths likely stems from a combination of elements rather than a single cause, and they could not exclude the possibility that diagnostic practices may also be influencing these statistics.
This rise should also be considered in context, as highlighted by Amy Berrington at ICR. In the UK, only about 3,000 bowel cancer cases are reported annually among individuals aged 20 to 49. Consequently, a 3% increase signifies approximately 100 more cases each year. “These trends are relative, and the overall increase in cases remains modest,” Berrington elaborated.
The study did not include cervical cancer due to the significant decrease in cases among women who received the HPV vaccine during childhood.
Looking ahead, Berrington draws attention to data through 2023, expressing optimism as the upward trend seems to be stabilizing. Furthermore, if obesity is a contributing factor to the rise in cancer diagnoses, emerging GLP-1 weight loss medications, such as semaglutide, may offer a potential solution. “Should obesity rates decline due to the adoption of these medications, we could witness a reduction in some obesity-related cancers in the future,” Professor Gunter concluded.
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Wildfires are currently raging across southern Georgia and northern Florida, exacerbated by intense heat, strong winds, severe drought, and dry vegetation left from previous hurricanes. These elements have created a perfect storm for wildfires in the region.
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This situation is exactly what climate scientists have been warning about for decades as our planet continues to warm.
“This is certainly abnormal, but aligns with our concerns regarding climate change,” explained Caitlin Trudeau, a climate scientist at Climate Central, a nonprofit scientific research organization. “These events highlight the dramatic changes occurring in our climate.”
The wildfires are consuming thousands of acres across both states. Notably, a wildfire in Atkinson, Georgia, has already destroyed approximately 90 homes since its ignition on Monday.
In response to these fires, multiple counties, including those in Georgia, have implemented burn bans, leading to Gov. Brian Kemp declaring a state of emergency on Wednesday across 91 counties.
The wildfires are primarily attributed to widespread drought conditions in the Southeast, exacerbated by remnants of previous hurricanes—circumstances tied to climate change.
Specifically, Hurricane Helen, which made landfall in Florida’s Big Bend area as a Category 4 storm in 2024, left behind scorched trees, branches, and other dry vegetation.
“It’s as if the hurricane stripped a significant number of trees and laid everything bare in that area,” Trudeau noted. “The remains were exposed to the sun, and wood with high oil content becomes extremely flammable when dry.”
This dry vegetation significantly amplifies wildfire risks, fostering their growth and increasing their destructiveness.
Researchers warn that catastrophic wildfires will become increasingly prevalent in a warming world. Studies indicate wildfires will not only occur more frequently but will also be more devastating due to climate change—a situation with serious environmental, economic, and health repercussions for communities nationwide and globally.
Trudeau emphasized that even in humid areas like the Southeast—traditionally not considered as wildfire-prone—the risks are evolving under climate change.
“This is the reality we’ve been anticipating with climate change,” she said. “Certain parts of the Southeast are extremely dry now. Although these regions have high humidity, climate change has intensified atmospheric thirst. As temperatures rise, the amount of water drawn from the landscape and extracted from plants and soils increases as well.”
For a wildfire to ignite, two key elements must be present: fire-prone weather, which includes dry conditions, lightning, and wind, and “fuel,” such as dead wood, dry leaves, and other flammable vegetation.
As temperatures rise due to climate change, the atmosphere can efficiently extract moisture from trees and soils. In the event of prolonged droughts, insufficient rainfall exacerbates the potential for destructive wildfires.
Currently, all of Florida is experiencing some level of drought, with much of the Panhandle region categorized as facing “extreme” or “exceptional” drought, according to the US Drought Monitor. Likewise, 71% of Georgia is experiencing “extreme” or “exceptional” drought, particularly in southern regions.
For Trudeau, the wildfires witnessed this week serve as a stark indication of climate change’s catastrophic effects on natural ecosystems, including increased fire activity in areas historically deemed humid.
“This is why we are facing such an extraordinary situation right now,” Trudeau concluded. “It’s truly a perfect storm.”
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Exploring the Deeper Layers of Reality Beyond Quantum Theory
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Physicists are delving deeper into the realm of post-quantum theory, unveiling a reality that exists at a level even more perplexing than the already bewildering quantum theory.
In the 1920s, physicists developed vital theories that explained fundamental workings of the universe, yet they continuously encountered phenomena where these theories fell short. This spurred them to glimpse into a more profound layer of reality: the quantum realm. Today, physicists find themselves revisiting this experience. While quantum theory accurately describes many phenomena, it leaves significant gaps when it comes to large cosmic structures influenced by gravity. What kind of post-quantum reality will manifest through these gaps?
James Hefford from the National Research and Development Agency, along with Matt Wilson from the University of Paris-Saclay, has created a mathematical framework outlining a potential post-quantum world—perhaps the deepest layer of reality.
“Quantum theory does not encompass the entirety of the universe,” Hefford remarks. “A significant challenge in physics is developing a quantum gravity theory that reconciles quantum mechanics and gravity. This theory must surpass traditional quantum descriptions.”
Multiple propositions exist for developing a quantum gravity theory, but Wilson and Hefford found their inspiration in the interplay between quantum and classical physics. Everyday experiences shield us from peculiar quantum effects, attributed to a phenomenon known as decoherence, which eliminates the quantum characteristics of most objects. Decoherence brings forth our tangible, rational world from the quantum domain, where the paradoxical states of cats exist and particles can seemingly disappear through barriers. They propose that quantum theory could arise from post-quantum theory through a similar mechanism called “hyperdecoherence.”
This concept isn’t entirely new; a specific theorem established in 2018 suggests that creating a coherent hyperdecoherence process that accurately reproduces quantum theory is mathematically infeasible. However, Hefford and Wilson scrutinized the underlying assumptions of this theorem and devised an innovative approach. The outcome? They entered a remarkably unconventional post-quantum landscape defined by a theory called QBox.
A fascinating aspect of QBox is its redefined conception of causality. Traditionally, causality operates on a clear sequence (event A causes event B or vice versa), but QBox permits a blend of both where causation is ambiguous.
“This introduces causal uncertainty, a critical aspect when pursuing a quantum gravity theory,” notes Carlo Maria Scandoro from the University of Calgary, who was not a part of this project. This uncertainty arises because Einstein’s theory of general relativity enforces varying causal orders across different spacetime points.
This is evident in thought experiments where observers traveling in different spaceships witness the same events but disagree on the chronological order of occurrences.
The researchers also ensured that hyperdecoherence adequately transitions QBox back into quantum theory, stipulating that objects described roughly within the QBox don’t gain precise clarity after hyperdecoherence. Wilson describes this hyperdecoherence as a dimension accessible to entities within the QBox realm—those capable of interacting within its confines—yet obscured from us in the classical or quantum realms.
Currently, the researchers are still clarifying how to conceptualize these dimensions and the experiences of agents operating within them. Preliminary indications suggest that the inaccessible dimensions are temporal rather than spatial—hyperdecoherence selectively concealing past processes while leaving future interactions untouched.
“Previously, there had been speculative models supporting concepts like indeterminate causal order, but formulating comprehensive quantum mechanics proved challenging, with no successful conclusions,” states Ciaran Gilligan Lee, involved in Spotify’s Causal Inference Lab and a co-author of the 2018 theorem opposing hyperdecoherence. He points out that the true merit of this new research lies in its concrete theoretical foundation and its mathematical simplicity. Notably, QBox does not necessitate hypothesizing entirely new constructs like cosmic strings for quantum gravity.
Beyond demonstrating the feasibility of hyperdecoherence as a mathematical function, the subsequent step involves elucidating its physical implications, contends John Selby from the University of Gdańsk, another co-author of the 2018 theorem. “A narrative is essential to clarify why these phenomena arise in our empirical universe.” In his opinion, the mathematical exploration by Hefford and Wilson is a promising foundation, regardless of whether QBox accurately represents the post-quantum layer of reality.
Gilligan-Lee and Selby have also formulated a new theorem, not yet explored by contemporaneous physicists, which may impose stricter criteria on a theory like QBox for it to meaningfully differentiate from quantum theory.
This challenge is welcomed by Wilson, even if it means QBox evolves into a precursor for a more refined vision of post-quantum theory. Notably, this theory may have tangible implications for specific experiments involving overlapping quantum waves, potentially facilitating experimental validation of the QBox concept.
If QBox successfully navigates forthcoming mathematical and experimental hurdles, even more intriguing inquiries will arise. “Can entire frameworks of theory be similarly disentangled?” Hefford speculates. Ultimately, unearthing the deepest realities might necessitate further mathematical exploration.
Identical twins are created when one fertilized egg divides into two embryos during the early stages of development. These embryos originate from the same set of cells, resulting in virtually identical DNA.
This genetic similarity means they share traits with a strong hereditary component, such as blood type and eye color. However, from that moment, their differences start to grow.
Even though twins share the same womb, their experiences can differ significantly. A minor twist in the umbilical cord, for instance, may lead to one twin receiving a greater share of nutrients than the other.
This nutrient disparity can lead to variations in gene expression patterns, influencing traits like growth, personality, and susceptibility to diseases.
Additionally, differences in intrauterine pressure and positioning can result in identical twins being born with distinct fingerprints. While genetic factors determine the basic fingerprint structure, the amniotic fluid environment shapes its unique characteristics.
After birth, more differences arise. Random genetic mutations can occur in either twin at any time, explaining why identical twins may develop different illnesses, including cancer.
Chance also affects their development; for instance, one twin may contract a virus leading to an autoimmune disease while the other remains unaffected.
Thus, both nature and nurture play crucial roles in their lives. As time passes, their environments will change, further differentiating them.
Even if identical twins grow up in the same household, they often have varied experiences—different teachers, friends, and role models. As adults, they may live in distinct locations, exposed to varying levels of social support, healthcare access, or environmental factors.
All these aspects interact with their DNA, amplifying their differences and ultimately shaping each twin into a unique individual. So, despite being termed identical twins, they are far from being the same.
This article addresses the question posed by Chris Montgomery via email: “How identical are identical twins?”
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While it might sound unusual, you can actually inoculate yourself against stress.
Just as vaccines help the immune system fend off invaders, research suggests stress inoculation can prepare individuals for future stressors.
This concept is particularly noted among military personnel. By allowing soldiers to undergo simulated stressful situations and equipping them with coping mechanisms, they can reduce the impact of stress over time. For instance, a study found that cadets with resilience training showed lower cortisol levels following intense military drills compared to those without such training. Similarly, emergency personnel also experience lower risks of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression due to their resilience training strategies.
Fortunately, you don’t need military training to reap the benefits. Regular, manageable exposure to stress can enhance resilience, as observed by Julie Vashuk from Masaryk University, Czech Republic.
Recent studies indicate that navigating stressful experiences can actually reshape the brain. This includes changes in key areas like the prefrontal cortex, involved in emotion regulation, the hippocampus, crucial for memory, and the amygdala, responsible for threat perception. Facing mild stressors can help individuals adapt to challenges in the following ways: it enhances resilience and accelerates recovery to baseline.
It’s essential to keep stress levels manageable. As Vashuk advises, mild stress should induce just enough discomfort to be tolerated without becoming overwhelming. “Once you’re overwhelmed, it becomes traumatic,” she explains. Activities like visiting unfamiliar places or engaging with new people can be beneficial. She also recommends surrounding yourself with supportive individuals.
This exposure therapy can be useful for adults, but how about children? Numerous studies, like one that highlights that early childhood adversity can elevate health risks, suggest that a small amount of controlled adversity may actually be advantageous. In rodent studies, constant separation from their mothers increases adult stress responses, while brief separations can lead to stronger adult responses. A similar phenomenon has also been observed in primates concerning short-term mother-infant separation.
Extrapolating such studies to humans poses ethical challenges, yet researchers like Carmine Pariante from King’s College London argue that we may not be as resilient as a society as we think. This doesn’t imply inflicting trauma intentionally, but rather suggesting that facing manageable challenges can benefit both adults and children.
Vashuk also highlights a cultural phenomenon in the Czech Republic, where children are introduced to classical music early on. “Five-year-olds perform with their teachers, gradually performing solo as they mature. Although the stress remains, their early exposure equips them to effectively handle stress and rebound quickly,” she notes.
Exposure isn’t the sole method for building resilience. Techniques such as breathing exercises, mindfulness, altering your mindset regarding stress, and recognizing your strengths are proven to boost resilience and transform negative stress into positive energy.
Research is ongoing into the concept of a literal stress vaccine. Studies on rodents indicate that exposure to a heat-killed bacterium, Mycobacterium vaccae, calms stress responses via anti-inflammatory effects. Additionally, experimental drugs like “Alexigent” aim to enhance stress tolerance in individuals predisposed to PTSD and depression, although significant advancements remain limited. A notable 2017 study showed that a single ketamine dose can mitigate stress impacts on mice.
For most of us, however, the solution lies in the simplicity of understanding that stress is not inherently detrimental (see “Why the right kind of stress is crucial for health and well-being”). “Stress is beneficial for growth,” Vashuk states. “Experiencing stress is vital for our responses. What’s equally important is the ability to recover swiftly. Building resilience is crucial for regulating stress hormones effectively.”
New research by Professor Enrique Gaztanaga of the University of Portsmouth and the Institute of Space Sciences in Barcelona proposes a groundbreaking theory that some black holes might have formed before the Big Bang and survived a cosmic ‘bounce’. This intriguing idea could shed light on dark matter, the gravitational wave background, and the formative years of supermassive black holes and galaxies.
Gaztanaga proposes a new dark matter mechanism involving relic black holes stemming from a pre-big-bounce collapse.
“For almost a century, cosmologists have traced the universe’s history back to a singular event known as the Big Bang,” Professor Gaztanaga remarked.
“The conventional theory suggests that space and time originated from an extremely hot and dense state approximately 13.8 billion years ago, leading to billions of years of cosmic expansion and galaxy formation.”
“This prevailing model has been remarkably successful, accounting for the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation—an echo from the early universe—and accurately predicting the distribution of galaxies across the cosmos.”
“Nevertheless, several profound mysteries in physics remain unresolved. We still lack understanding about the Big Bang’s cause, the universe’s initial special conditions, the rapid expansion known as inflation, and the nature of dark matter, which outnumbers ordinary matter by a factor of five.”
“Our research investigates the possibility that the universe didn’t originate from a single shock but may have emerged from a cosmic bounce that mimicked inflation, with some of the universe’s oldest objects potentially surviving as relics from an earlier epoch.”
Some black holes may have emerged during the universe’s early stages and survived this cosmic bounce, leaving behind relics that could still influence galaxy structures billions of years later.
Others may have formed immediately after density fluctuations were amplified, resulting in a more uneven distribution of matter during the early universe.
These concentrated clumps of matter collapse more readily under their own gravity, increasing the likelihood of forming large cosmic structures and black holes early on.
Within Einstein’s theory of general relativity, the Big Bang represents a singularity, a point where density becomes infinite and known physical laws cease to function.
Many physicists view this as indicative of an incomplete understanding of the universe’s earliest moments.
Another concept to consider is bounce cosmology. This theory posits that our universe originated from a colossal cloud that first contracted and then expanded.
Rather than collapsing into an infinite singularity, the universe reaches a very high but finite density before reversing its motion.
“Singularities often signal that a theoretical framework has hit its limitations,” Professor Gaztanaga asserts.
“Bounces offer an avenue for the universe to transition from contraction to expansion without necessitating new and exotic physics.”
Scientists posit that this bounce might emerge naturally from quantum physics. Under extreme densities, quantum effects generate powerful pressures that prevent matter from compressing infinitely. This phenomenon stabilizes dense objects like white dwarfs and neutron stars, potentially replicating the inflationary phase.
New models suggest that similar effects could manifest on a cosmic scale. As the universe contracts, this quantum pressure can halt the collapse and trigger a rebound into expansion.
This cosmic bounce could address two pressing mysteries in cosmology.
First, it could elucidate why the early universe expanded so rapidly and uniformly in all directions.
Second, it may help explain why the universe appears to be expanding at an accelerating rate today—an effect currently attributed to a poorly understood force referred to as dark energy.
A notable hypothesis is that certain structures formed during the collapse phase may have persisted after the bounce.
New calculations indicate that compact objects exceeding about 90 meters in size might traverse the transition and reemerge as remnants in the expanding universe.
Potential artifacts include gravitational waves, density fluctuations, and ancient black holes.
These relic black holes could serve to explain dark matter, the unseen material that shapes large-scale structures of galaxies and the universe.
If substantial numbers were created during the bounce, they could constitute a significant portion, or even all, of dark matter.
This notion may also provide insight into the recent observations by the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope of an unexpectedly massive object, often referred to as a ‘tiny red dot,’ in the early universe.
Many astronomers speculate these sources are related to rapidly growing black holes that emerged shortly after the Big Bang.
“If a supermassive black hole existed right after the bounce, we wouldn’t have to start from square one when forming the initial galaxies in the early universe,” Gaztanaga explained.
This theory also presents predictions that could be tested through future observations.
Scientists may seek to detect relic gravitational waves from previous cosmic stages or subtle patterns in the CMB that preserve traces of a pre-Big Bang universe.
“Much research is still required to validate these concepts,” Professor Gaztanaga states.
“However, if the universe did experience a bounce, the dark structures that shape today’s galaxies might be remnants from an earlier cosmic age that preceded the Big Bang.”
Collaboration between DESI and KPNO/NOIRLab/NSF/AURA/R. Proctor
The universe is in a state of transformation. While not yet at its conclusion, one day all we know will fade away.
Everything we know—the cities, lakes, planets, solar systems, and the stars—are on a path to an ultimate finale.
What lies ahead? Some experts speculate that the universe’s expansion will eventually reverse, gathering everything tightly until it culminates in a big crunch, only to start anew in a big bounce. This idea, known as cyclic cosmology, has resurfaced, partly fueled by groundbreaking data from the Dark Energy Spectrograph (DESI)’s comprehensive 3D map of the universe.
Proponents of periodic cosmology often advocate for its aesthetic simplicity. If the universe follows this cycle, we may not need to grapple with what caused the Big Bang or what existed before it—these questions may have been resolved already. Scottish astronomer Katherine Heymans eloquently summarized during a recent lecture hosted by New Scientist: “The universe undergoes a big bang, expands, slows down, and gravity pulls it back, culminating in another big bang.”
Nobel Prize winner Adam Riess, who contributed significantly to the discovery of dark energy, highlights why many cosmologists favor this concept. He states, “This suggests we are not in a unique universe, implying that the periodic nature of the cosmos makes we, as existences, less coincidental.” However, this perspective may be seen as anthropocentric rather than purely physics-based.
For decades, periodic cosmology lost momentum, especially after Riess’s findings indicated that the universe is expanding at an accelerating rate. Should dark energy outweigh gravitational forces, the likelihood of the universe collapsing decreases. Heymans noted, “Current evidence points towards a desolate, cold demise for our universe,” referring to heat death, which is currently the prevalent theory concerning the universe’s fate.
This notion isn’t without challenges, particularly when exploring how energy, matter, and entropy behave between cosmic cycles.
The second law of thermodynamics complicates the scenario. It posits that disorder, or entropy, never declines in a closed system like the universe. While entropy rises overall as the universe expands, it would seemingly decrease if contraction occurs—an apparent contradiction lies therein. Although some theoretical work has aimed to circumvent this, the ultimate cycle still reverts to a Big Bang followed by heat death, albeit through a convoluted path.
Prominent theoretical physicist Roger Penrose introduced a model called conformal periodic cosmology to navigate these complexities. His theory posits that the universe remains seemingly ever-expanding until the end, where matter disintegrates entirely into photons. Here’s the novel aspect: the uniformity at the new cycle’s start mirrors the emptiness at the previous cycle’s conclusion, potentially allowing a new universe to emerge.
While intriguing, this paradigm remains hard to empirically test, though Penrose has suggested potential measurable evidence. However, skepticism persists in the cosmological community, yet its avoidance of the entropy quandary means it shouldn’t be disregarded outright.
Mayall 4-Meter Telescope at Kitt Peak National Observatory
DESI Collaboration/DOE/KPNO/NOIR
DESI’s expansive cosmic map indicates that dark energy—a previously unstoppable force—may be losing strength. This suggests that while the universe’s expansion continues, its acceleration might be slowing down. As Heymans pointed out, this doesn’t imply a cosmic contraction but marks a significant shift in our understanding of dark energy.
The possibility that dark energy can weaken over the next ten billion years could usher in a new phase for periodic cosmology. “The transformation of dark energy may pave the way for a universe that can reverse its expansion one day,” noted Heymans.
Understanding the universe’s fate hinges on comprehending dark energy, which constitutes nearly 70% of the universe’s matter and energy. The nature of dark energy remains elusive, complicating efforts to theorize regarding the universe’s long-term trajectory. As Reese contended, “Extrapolating into the future without knowing more about dark energy renders predictions difficult.” While the cold death of the universe may seem the most probable outcome, the prospect of a big bounce-back is more conceivable than it has been in decades.
Space is abundant. If we shift our gaze from Earth and the Milky Way to intergalactic space, the average density is approximately 1 atom per cubic meter
, equivalent to 35 cubic feet of space. Yet, the universe is not entirely void; on smaller scales, it is rich with matter.
Within galaxies, there are various forms of matter existing between stars, undergoing different states of temperature and density, known as the multiphase interstellar medium (ISM)
. This substance is primarily made up of hydrogen and helium, along with trace amounts of other heavier elements, often referred to by astronomers as metals
. It is this interstellar material that plays a critical role in star formation.
A team of astronomers conducted research to understand how variations in metallic concentrations impact star-forming regions within the ISM. They simulated ISM clouds with different metallicities corresponding to seven distinct areas in the nearby universe, including regions near the Sun
project, a collaborative effort of multiple European research institutions aimed at examining the life cycle of gas clouds that form stars.
Using advanced simulation software, the team modeled gas movements and their effects on magnetic fields within a massive cuboid measuring 500 parsecs by 500 parsecs by 4 kiloparsecs. Essentially, this translates to a box of 15 quintillion kilometers by 15 quintillion kilometers by 120 quintillion kilometers, or about 10 quintillion miles by 10 quintillion miles by 77 quintillion miles. This computational box comprised gas molecules held together by gravity from the cloud, nearby star clusters, older stars, and even dark matter
. To prevent the cloud’s collapse during the simulation’s initial phase, the gas molecules were programmed to move at an average speed of 10 kilometers per second (about 22,000 miles per hour) for the first 20 million years, creating turbulence within the cloud.
The simulation examined the interactions of the cloud’s magnetic field and fluid dynamics while addressing how swiftly high-energy protons (known as cosmic rays
) emerged within. Over a span of 200 million years, interactions with clouds led to star formation, the birth and death of stars, and changes in the molecular chemistry of the clouds. By considering various factors, the team analyzed the effects of metallicity across all seven simulations. The simulation corresponding to the solar neighborhood exhibited the highest metallicity, while that of I Zwicky 18 showed the lowest, with just 2% metallicity.
The findings indicated that ISM regions with low metallicity are generally warmer compared to their high-metallicity counterparts. The research demonstrated that metals efficiently release heat, unlike hydrogen or helium. While colder ISM phases foster star production and metal generation, warmer, low-metallicity regions tend to produce fewer stars, impeding cooling processes. This trend persisted until the material’s temperature reached roughly 1 million Kelvin (or 2 million °F).
In reviewing their results, the researchers acknowledged certain simplifications. Due to time limitations, many parameters in the simulation were not adjusted, focusing only on metallicity across different regions. They also underestimated the prevalence of common metals, such as carbon, oxygen, and silicon, which form at higher rates in stars. Lastly, they disregarded the potential for some massive stars to form black holes, assuming all such stars would culminate in supernova explosions.
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