According to a recent study, severe and long-lasting river droughts, lasting over 85 years each, impacted the Indus basin from 4,400 to 3,400 years ago. This finding may provide insights into the gradual decline of this ancient civilization and underscores how environmental factors can influence historical societies.
An artist’s reconstruction of the gates and drainage channels of the ancient city of Harappa. Image credit: Chris Sloan.
The Indus Valley Civilization, one of the earliest urban cultures, thrived between 5,000 and 3,500 years ago along the Indus River and its tributaries in present-day Pakistan and northwestern India.
During its zenith, around 4,500 to 3,900 years ago, the civilization was noted for its advanced urban centers and sophisticated systems for managing water resources.
Despite this, the reasons behind the protracted decline following its peak remain largely elusive.
“The Indus River played a crucial role in the growth of the ancient Indus Valley civilization by offering a consistent water source for agriculture, trade, and communication,” stated Dr. Bimal Mishra from the Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar and his colleagues.
“Civilizations prospered near the Indus River and its tributaries approximately 5,000 years ago and evolved over time.”
“The mature Harappan phase (4,500 to 3,900 years ago) was marked by meticulously planned cities, advanced water management techniques, and an intricate writing system.”
“However, post 3,900 years ago, the Harappan civilization began to deteriorate and eventually fell into decline.”
“The causes for this decline are still under discussion. Potential factors encompass shifts in river dynamics influenced by climate change, ocean retreat, drought, flooding, and alterations in social and political structures.”
“Understanding ancient hydroclimatic events and their impact on societies provides vital insights into the susceptibility of complex societies to environmental pressures.”
For this research, the authors simulated climate patterns in the Indus Valley from 5,000 to 3,000 years ago.
They integrated these findings with various indirect climate indicators, including the geochemistry of stalactites and stalagmites from two caves in India and water level data from five lakes in northwestern India.
The results indicated that temperatures rose by approximately 0.5 degrees Celsius during this time, while average annual precipitation in the region decreased by 10% to 20%.
They were able to identify four significant drought periods lasting over 85 years between 4,450 and 3,400 years ago, impacting 65% to 91% of the Indus Valley area.
“These droughts affected the selection of settlement locations in the Indus Valley Civilization,” the researchers noted.
“From 5,000 to 4,500 years ago, settlements were primarily situated in regions with abundant rainfall.”
“However, after 4,500 years ago, they shifted closer to the Indus River as drought conditions began to limit water availability.”
“The last identified drought, lasting 113 years from 3,531 to 3,418 years ago, corresponds with archaeological evidence of significant urbanization in the Indus Valley Civilization.”
“Instead of collapsing abruptly due to sudden climate changes, the Indus civilization likely faced a gradual decline, with extended drought being a key factor,” concluded the researchers.
Their study was published on November 27 in the journal Communication Earth and Environment.
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H. Solanki et al. 2025. River drought forcing Harappan metamorphosis. Communication Earth and Environment 6,926; doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02901-1
Bolivian archaeologists have unearthed an ancient complex located approximately 215 km (130 miles) southeast of the historic Tiwanak site. This large modular structure, featuring integrated sunken courtyards, bears a striking resemblance to the terraced temples of Tiwanak, indicating significant national investment.
Isometric reconstruction of the Paraspata temple rendered with a 3 m high wall. Image credits: Capriles et al., doi: 10.15184/aqy.2025.59.
The ancient society near the southern shore of Lake Titicaca was once among the most influential civilizations in Bolivia.
Known as Tiwanak, this society is regarded by archaeologists as one of the earliest instances of Andean civilization and a precursor to the Inca Empire, yet it mysteriously vanished around a millennium ago.
“Much remains enigmatic about the Tiwanak civilization,” remarked Pennsylvania archaeologist Jose Capriles.
“Their society disintegrated around 1000 AD, long before the Incas seized control of the Andes in the 15th century.”
“At its zenith, Tiwanak showcased a well-organized social structure, leaving behind architectural remnants like pyramids, terraced temples, and monoliths. While most of these artefacts are found around Lake Titicaca, Tiwanak’s influence extended much farther, though the exact boundaries of its control remain debated.”
“The newly uncovered temple complex is situated about 215 km south of the historically recognized Tiwanak site, known to local indigenous farmers but inadequately studied by researchers due to its unassuming setting.”
“However, the site’s location is quite strategic.”
During the Tiwanaku period, it linked three major trade routes across diverse ecosystems, with the fertile highlands around Lake Titicaca to the north.
This has led researchers to conclude that the site must have been significant in connecting communities.
“People traveled, traded, and erected monuments at pivotal points across the arid mountainous terrain,” Dr. Capriles said.
“Upon discovering an unmapped rectangular area, we employed various techniques to visualize the region.”
“The function of the site was unclear, so I integrated different satellite images.”
“We also carried out a series of UAV missions to capture high-resolution images.”
“Using photogrammetry—a method that constructs 3D models from photographs—we achieved a more detailed visualization of the structure and its surrounding landscape.”
Stone alignments identified an ancient temple named Palaspata, derived from the local terminology.
This temple complex spans roughly 125 m in length and 145 m in width, featuring 15 rectangular enclosures surrounding a central courtyard.
The layout seems to align with rituals that coincide with the sun’s zenith, particularly when it is directly above the equator.
Paraspata Temple. Image credits: Capriles et al., doi: 10.15184/aqy.2025.59.
Using the information gathered, researchers created reconstructions to visualize what the ancient Palaspata temple may have looked like.
The temple’s surface contained numerous fragments of Kelcups, which were used for consuming chicha, a traditional corn beer, during agricultural festivals and ceremonies, suggesting the temple was a key trade hub.
This highlights that corn was cultivated in the Cochabamba valley, indicating the temple’s role in facilitating connections among various culinary traditions on its elevated grounds, thereby enhancing access to an assortment of products.
“The temple likely served a spiritual function, as evidenced by the interconnections that managed trade and harvest distribution within designated ritual spaces,” noted Dr. Capriles.
“Most economic and political dealings were likely mediated through divinity, since this was a common framework for fostering cooperation among disparate individuals, as religion often serves as a unifying force among different groups.”
“The discovery was a revelation, even for local inhabitants,” commented Jas Ventura Guaralo, the mayor of Caracoro, where the site is located.
“The archaeological findings at Palaspata are vital as they unearth significant aspects of local heritage that have been largely ignored.”
“This discovery is crucial for our community, and we regard its documentation as invaluable for boosting tourism and showcasing the region’s rich history.”
The team’s paper was published today in the journal Ancient.
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Jose M. Capriles et al. 2025. Gateway to the East: Palaspata Temple and the southeast expansion of Tiwanak. Ancient 99 (405): 831-849; doi: 10.15184/aqy.2025.59
For centuries, humanity has been intrigued by the possibility of encountering advanced civilizations beyond our planet. But what if such a society existed on Earth long before humans evolved?
In 2018, physicist Professor Adam Frank and climate modeler Dr. Gavin Schmidt published a paper exploring whether modern science might uncover traces of an extinct industrial civilization from millions of years ago. The paper is available here.
Dubbed “Silur’s Hypothesis,” after the advanced reptilian species from the long-running BBC science fiction series Doctor Who, the researchers concluded that, while unlikely, evidence of such a civilization may be elusive.
The study focuses on the timeframe between 400 million and 4 million years ago, investigating what remnants this hypothetical society might have left behind.
Over just a few centuries, our industries have significantly altered global climate and ecosystems. If humanity were to vanish over millions of years, however, any direct evidence of our society would likely fade away.
Our largest cities could vanish within a geological instant due to erosion and tectonic activity.
Consequently, scientists searching for an ancient civilization should look for geological signatures of their existence.
Advanced civilizations, much like modern humans, would demand substantial energy and food production. As a result, we might anticipate similar indicators in Earth’s geologic layers, such as evidence of extensive carbon emissions, climate change, and rising sea levels.
Should pyramids reminiscent of alien architecture have been constructed by lost ancient civilizations millions of years ago, Silur’s Hypothesis suggests that discovering them would be quite unlikely.
The challenge lies in distinguishing climate change caused by fossil fuel-dependent civilizations from that induced by natural processes in the geological record.
Interestingly, there is a striking resemblance between current climate change and historical events on Earth referred to as “hyperthermal” events. One such instance occurred around 55 million years ago, where global temperatures surged by up to 8°C (14.4°F) and were accompanied by intense geological upheavals.
Another consideration is that the longer a sophisticated civilization endures, the more evidence it generates. However, for a civilization to have longevity, it must be sustainable, leading to reduced geological traces.
For instance, a civilization relying on wind and solar energy would leave less physical evidence compared to one powered by fossil fuels. This paradox explains why the traces of such civilizations, if they indeed existed, would be infrequent.
Silur’s Hypothesis encourages us to reflect on the imprints humanity leaves behind. Addressing these inquiries may enhance our search for advanced civilizations on other planets.
This article answers the question posed by Exeter’s Joshua Stucky: “If advanced civilizations lived on Earth millions of years ago, could we recognize their existence?”
For your inquiries, please reach out to usat Question @sciencefocus.com or MessageFacebook,Twitter, orInstagram(please include your name and location).
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Many years ago, during the progress of Civilization II, I began my career as a writer for the video game magazine Edge. As an enthusiast of the original Civilization game, I was eager to review its sequel and impressed the editor enough with my comprehensive analysis of the complex turn-based strategy game that I nearly lost my job due to my addiction to playing it non-stop for two weeks instead of writing my assigned articles. This led to a stern warning about my performance and ultimately ended my tenure as a game writer. Consequently, I did not review the next four installments of the series. Now, Civilization VII is making a comeback, and I find myself facing this captivating nemesis once again.
This game has always been a favorite among me and many other fans, offering a compelling simulation of building an empire from ancient tribes to modern superpowers. As a player, you have the opportunity to establish cities, gather resources, research new technologies, send out settlers, merchants, and armies, and expand your influence through peaceful relations or conquest. Victory can be achieved through military prowess, cultural dominance, or economic power, depending on your chosen playstyle. Each campaign offers a unique experience, making it a game that has withstood the test of time.
Extra nuances … civilization VII. Photo: 2K game
In this latest installment, Firaxis has made some significant changes, deviating from guiding a single civilization through the entire campaign. Instead, players now choose different leaders with unique attributes and guide them through three distinct historical ages, each time selecting a new country to control. Each country brings its own units and buildings, adding depth to the gameplay. The game structure encourages continuity and strategic decision-making, enhancing the overall experience.
I I feel anxious about the world. There was a mayoral election in Canada, where I live, and it wasn’t even a contest because one candidate was backed by more money than Croesus. In the UK, people have not been able to get the Labor government they wanted to vote for. And as someone who lives a few hours’ drive from the US border, I can only hope Orange Hitler never invades again. Or maybe I’m praying that he does. I willTo prevent our southern neighbor from falling into a repeat of civil war due to refusal to vote. So instead, I decided to play a game where I could control the rise and fall of a civilization. As a snack.
Civilization 6 is a so-called 4X game. 4X stands for “EXplore, EXpand, EXploit, EXterminate,” a phrase that offends my pedantic spelling sense. Unfortunately, the four “exes” I spent a lot of time on here were Exert, Expire, Exclaim, and Exit. It’s as intuitive as Heston Blumenthal’s recipes, thanks to the game’s Execrable gamepad controls. I forgot how many times I moved the wrong unit, or my brain froze trying to remember which button did what. I would have preferred a more common sense control system, mouse and keyboard support, or an interface that uses the kind of power of thought that Elon Musk pretends to have.
My irritation was assuaged by remembering that nothing in a Civilization game brings more joy than finding a barbarian encampment. Free stuff! yay! As I work through the years, I see a menu of intellectually solid advances that remind me that there are many elegant paths to civilization. Learn how the world developed by advancing goals through trade routes and charitable diplomacy that reward mathematical thinking. It offers a real chance to form a spiritual land of pure peace and happiness with environmental protection measures.
“Well, good luck and I’ll give you a ride in the Hanging Gardens someday, right? Good morning, Terry, how are you doing!”
“We discovered the Great Barrier Reef!”
“Good times! Give me 40 more turns to build the boat and I’ll send Frank over there to help.”
But they are just one of many things I have to move. After all, modern The world is a bloody hard place to run. Maybe a zombie apocalypse is actually the way to go.
Today marks the first day of Gamescom, the Cologne trade show that is currently the biggest event on the video game calendar. This year, I wasn't among the 300,000 or so spectators that flocked to Germany, but I did watch the two-hour livestreamed Opening Night broadcast yesterday. But don't worry if you didn't: here we bring you all the most interesting news, organized by theme, because we're tired of writing simple lists of games and trailers.
Frustrating news Xbox The biggest fanboy A new trailer for Indiana Jones and the Great Circle, a new first-person adventure from Bethesda and MachineGames, has been released. In it, long-time video game actor Troy Baker looks charmingly excited about playing Indiana Jones. The game will be released on Xbox and PC on December 9th, but it was also announced that it will be released on PlayStation 5 in spring 2025. Earlier this year, Xbox head Phil Spencer said that Indiana Jones will be do not have It's planned to be a multi-platform game, so I'm interested to see how it unfolds.
An unexpected comeback Borderlands 4 is due to be released in 2025, and the trailer revealed very little – perhaps developer Gearbox was trying to capitalize on the anticipation of this month's film, but unfortunately, it wasn't very good.
Master of Albion. Photo: IGN
Peter Molyneux has released a new game, ” Master of Albionhas been kept very quiet (probably unsurprising as some of its recent games have been high-profile flops and the latest, Legacy, is Web3/blockchain and has gone very quiet after making £40m in NFTs in 2021). It's a mash-up of Molyneux's biggest god-game hits: Fable, Black & White, and Dungeon Keeper. By day, you build a town, design food, weapons, and armor to feed and equip your townsfolk, and generally play the role of a god. By night, you possess your warrior subjects and wield clubs to defend your town from fantasy creatures.
Ten years on from the first game, Monument Valley 3 is coming from Ustwo and Netflix, featuring the usual Escher-esque puzzles and mesmerizing colors. It'll be released on December 10th, and the previous two games will also be re-released on Netflix.
And the long-running Mafia series will see a new installment from Brighton-based Hangar 13, Mafia: The Old Country.
A debut game from a nervous developer Glowmade's multiplayer Rick and Morty-style cartoonish gameshow coliseum game, King of Meat, lets players create fearsome gauntlets that other players can challenge, much like a cartoonish Takeshi's Castle, and there was also Lynked: Banner of the Spark, a new cooperative action-adventure game that reminds me a bit of Hi-Fi Rush, from the new studio FuzzyBot, in which you kill evil robots and rescue cute ones to fuse with your arm for fighting powers.
Zombies and men with guns
Dying Light: The Beast. Photo: Techland
Call of Duty: Black Ops 6 has been shown off again ahead of its October launch, revealing one entire level of its single-player campaign, an overwhelmingly silly Cold War action-adventure. (Your character's analog camera is treated with the dignity of a gun, right down to the elaborate reload animations.) Techland is adding a new zombie game to its Dying Light series, The Beast, promising another 20 hours of open-world undead parkour action. There'll be even more zombies to shoot in the upcoming eight-player co-op survival game No More Room in Hell 2. And co-op survival shooter Arc Raiders, previously announced as a free game, will be released in 2025, and do not have You can play freely.
Most delayed TV shows Netflix's 100-player Squid Game was the show's most obvious video game tie-in, and I'm surprised it took this long. It's a selection of Fall Guys-esque cartoonish, sadistic challenges that look like a lot of fun.
Meanwhile, Deadpool director Tim Miller breathlessly teased his company Blur's new Amazon Prime TV series, The Secret Level, an anthology similar to Love, Death + Robots (also a Blur production) and described as a love letter to video games, due for release in December.
game I don't understand it, but it'll probably sell millions of copies.
Dune Awakening has received a tremendous response. Photo: Funcom
Billed as “the coziest open-world game ever,” Infinity Nikki seems like a completely baffling game, featuring pink-haired anime girls and a bunch of weird, cute singing creatures that look like adorable Noah's Ark. I'm not sure what to make of it.
And the upcoming Dune MMO, Dune: Awakening, in which hundreds of players explore the desert planet Arrakis and compete for abandoned technology and spice resources, drew a big response at the event.
For tasteful horror fans The trailer for Tarsier's upcoming Little Nightmares game looks very promising: a complex, intimate side-scrolling horror game. It's called ReanimalMeanwhile, Little Nightmares itself has been handed over to new developer Supermassive, a company with a long history in horror, and a trailer for it has now been released, maintaining the Tim Burton-esque toy-like atmosphere of the first two games.
game It looked especially cool
Majestic…Monster Hunter Wild. Photo: Capcom
With its menacingly majestic creatures, harsh weather, and expensive-looking production, Monster Hunter Wilds is a fantastic piece of work. I'm a long-time fan of the series and can't wait for this new game. Keep an eye out for an interview with the developer on the site soon.
There was an extended preview of Civilization VII, the latest attempt to capture the entire chaos of human history on a computer monitor.
meanwhile, Lost Records: Bloom & Rage The film depicts four kids in the summer of 1995, playing music in their garage and discussing their hopes for the future. But things don't always go as they hoped.
Finally, I note Shepherding the FlockDue for release in 2025, the game has a gentle Last Guardian vibe to it, as a young boy herds giant horned beasts through mountainous terrain.
A turn-based military tactics game…Tactical Breach Wizards. Photo: Suspicious developments
I was looking forward to Tactical Breakthrough Wizard For years, this game has been the third in the Defenestration Trilogy, a series of indie games about fun ways to throw enemies out of windows. It's made by the unfairly fun and talented developer Tom Francis. (Disclosure: I've known Tom since he was a games journalist.) In this turn-based, destructive military tactics game, you play a group of misfit wizards who make up for their uselessness as humans with some very useful abilities, like seeing a second into the future and raising the dead.
Our reviewer, Rick Lane, was totally enthralled by the game, writing, “Its blend of inventive, flexible puzzles and wickedly entertaining writing should be enough to warrant active play on anyone's console. But what qualifies it for the Bureau of Special Arcane Arts is how boldly it critiques the murky morality of military-themed games.”
IIt’s been eight years since Civilization 6 launched, the latest in the long-running strategy game series in which you lead a nation from the first town in prehistoric times through centuries of development to the space age. Since 2016, the game has accumulated a plethora of expansions, scenario packs, new nations, modes, and systems for players to master, but Dennis Shirk, series producer at Firaxis Games, feels like he’s had enough. “It was getting out of hand,” he says. “It was time to build something new.”
“Even completing the whole game is a struggle,” says designer Ed Beach, citing a key problem Firaxis is trying to solve with the upcoming Civilization 7. While the early turns of Civilization 6’s campaign may be quick, when you’re only deciding what the inhabitants of a single town will do, “after a while you explode with the number of systems, units, and entities you have to manage,” Beach says. From turn one to victory, a single campaign can take more than 20 hours, and as you start to fall behind other nations, you might want to start over long before you see the endgame.
To that end, Civilization 7’s campaign is split into three eras — Ancient, Exploration, and Modern — with each era ending in a dramatic explosion of global crisis. “By dividing the game into chapters, we’re giving people a better sense of history,” Beach says.
Mongolian city in Civilization 7. Photography: Firaxis Games
When you start a new campaign, you choose a leader and civilization to rule, and lead your people to establish their first settlements and encounter other peoples in a largely undeveloped land. Choose which technologies to research, which cities to expand, and who to befriend or conquer. Every turn completed and every scientific, economic, cultural and military milestone passed adds points to a meter running in the background. When the meter reaches 200, you and all other surviving civilizations on the map will move on to the next era.
Choose and lead a new civilization as you move from Ancient to Exploration and from Exploration to Modern. You’ll keep all the cities you previously controlled, but you’ll have access to different technologies and attributes. This may seem odd, but it’s designed to reflect history – think of London, once ruled by the Romans, then replaced by the Anglo-Saxons. No empire lasts forever, but not all fall.
Dividing Civilization 7 into chapters also gives the campaign a new rhythm. As you approach the end of an era, you start to face global crises. In ancient times, for example, you see a surge of independent factions similar to the tribes that toppled Rome. “We don’t call them barbarians anymore,” Beach says. “It’s a more nuanced way of describing it.” These crises increase and intensify until you reach the next era. “It’s like a sci-fi or fantasy series that has a big, crazy ending, and then the next book is a calm, feel-good beginning,” Beach says. “There’s a moment of relief when you get to the next era.”
Veteran players will recognize the flow of Civilization 7’s franchise-wide offerings, but this new structure is certainly a radical change, introducing more chaotic and dramatic moments to every campaign. Whereas previously you were assured of victory (or defeat) after a few hours of play, each new era brings with it climactic crises and plenty of opportunities for game-changing moments. “Not everyone will survive,” Shirk says. “It’s a lot of fun to play.”
The Summer Game Fest this year was lacking major announcements but featured plenty of indie titles. One noteworthy reveal was the announcement that Civilization 7 is set to launch in 2025.
This legendary strategy simulation series, which first debuted in 1991, has not seen a new release in eight years. Publisher 2K accidentally leaked the news. Along with this announcement, fans were treated to a video of designer Sid Meier showcasing new projects.
Meier expressed his excitement for fans to witness Civilization VII, the culmination of three decades of strategic innovation. The game will be available on PC, PlayStation, Xbox, and Switch, but the exact release date is yet to be revealed.
Harry Potter, LEGO Horizon Adventures, etc.
The event kicked off with host Geoff Keathley addressing the challenges faced by the gaming industry in the past year. Among other announcements, LEGO Horizon Adventures was officially unveiled, a cooperative game featuring protagonist Aloy.
Additionally, Warner Bros. and Unbroken Studios announced Harry Potter: Quidditch Champions, a simulation of the magical sport set to release on September 3 for various platforms.
New trailers for Monster Hunter Wild, Slitterhead, and Dune Awakening were also released, building up anticipation for these epic games. Ubisoft teased Star Wars Outlaws, featuring familiar characters from the Star Wars universe.
Indie Summer
The indie developers were the spotlight of the show, showcasing games like Cuffbust and Wonder Stop. Exciting new projects from studios like Nomada Studio were also presented, offering unique and innovative gaming experiences.
Big companies like Blumhouse and InnerSloth announced their support for indie studios, unveiling new games and funding opportunities. Despite the lack of major triple-A announcements, the focus on indie developers brought hope for the future of gaming.
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