Paleontologists in Brazil have discovered a previously unknown archosauroid species that thrived approximately 240 million years ago. This intriguing species may belong to a little-understood group of ancient reptiles reminiscent of the ancestors of crocodiles and dinosaurs.
Reconstruction of Silescerida acristatata. Image credit: Mateus Fernández Gadelha.
Silescerida acristatata resided in what is now Brazil during the Middle Triassic Period, a crucial time when life on Earth was diversifying following the mass extinction at the end of the Permian Period.
During this era, archosaurs—a diverse group of reptiles that eventually evolved into dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and crocodiles—began to dominate terrestrial ecosystems.
The newly discovered species is likely linked to a rare and poorly understood group known as Euparkeriidae.
Among the most recognized species of Euparkeriidae is Eupacheria capensis, first described in South Africa in 1913 and remains the sole definitive member of this intriguing group.
“The Euparkeriidae are primarily noted for their distinctive stalked archosaurs. Eupacheria capensis existed during the Early to Middle Triassic in South Africa and is the only established member of this clade,” stated lead author Mauricio García from the Federal University of Santa Maria and his colleagues.
“Other presumed euparckerids have been found in regions across China and Europe.”
“Eupacheria capensis and Euparkeriidae rank just outside of archosaurs in all major phylogenetic analyses, highlighting their significance in understanding archosaur origins.”
“This species, along with other potential euparkerids, holds substantial implications for understanding the evolutionary trajectory of archosaurs, as it closely resembles the body plan of archosaur ancestors.”
The skeletal remains of Silescerida acristatata, including its left shoulder blade, right hip bone, and a left femur measuring around 17.3 cm in length, were discovered at a site in Doña Francisca, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
Based on examinations with related species, the new find likely resembled a long-limbed, agile lizard-like predator.
The discovery of Silescerida acristatata broadens the known geographical range of the Euparkeriidae lineage, and reaffirms South America’s vital role in the early evolution of archosaurs.
“This discovery not only provides insight into the temporal and paleogeographical distribution of Euparkeriidae but also illuminates the origin and early evolution of this family. Eucrocopodan represents the first record of this archosaur in the Brazilian Triassic,” concluded the paleontologists.
“More broadly, this new species underscores the significance of South American Triassic deposits in the evolutionary history of archosaurs.”
The team’s research paper was published in the journal Scientific Reports on June 10th.
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García, M. S., et al. 2026. A new euparkeriid form from the mid-Triassic period of southern Brazil, a member of the family Euparkeriidae. Scientific Reports 16, 16585; doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-53740-9
A Cemetery for Children. Traces of Plague Bacterium Found on Remains.
Vladimir Bazaliiskii
Recent analysis of ancient DNA from hunter-gatherers buried near Lake Baikal, Siberia, indicates a devastating plague outbreak occurred as early as 5,500 years ago. This discovery challenges the traditional belief that significant disease outbreaks emerged only with the advent of agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution.
“Before the Neolithic Revolution, we didn’t anticipate major disease outbreaks affecting entire communities,” states Ruairidh MacLeod from Oxford University. “This evidence reveals a catastrophic epidemic impacting the entire hunter-gatherer community around Lake Baikal—similar to challenges we face today.”
Plague bacteria have caused multiple pandemics, including the Plague of Justinian (541 AD), the Black Death (1346), and the third plague pandemic (1855), resulting in over 15 million deaths worldwide.
The plague bacterium can cause severe infections, including pneumonic and septicemic plague. However, the most recognized form is bubonic plague, which results from flea bites that infect the lymph nodes, leading to painful swelling known as “buboes.”
Advancements in ancient DNA sequencing techniques enable researchers to detect plague bacterium in the bones and teeth of individuals buried centuries ago. Notably, this has shown that plague has been affecting rural regions in Sweden and other areas for over 5,000 years.
These revelations have prompted theories suggesting plague could have contributed to the Neolithic decline—a stark population decrease in Europe. However, early strains of plague bacterium were found to lack a vital gene necessary for transmission through fleas.
Infected fleas possess a protein encoded by the ymt gene that clogs their intestines, enriching plague bacteria near their mouthparts. “This condition propels the flea to bite excessively, searching for new blood meals,” explains MacLeod.
Researchers hypothesize that the plague bacterium likely did not become a widespread epidemic until it acquired the ymt gene. Despite this, MacLeod’s team identified the bacterium in 18 out of 42 hunter-gatherer remains unearthed across four archaeological sites near Lake Baikal.
“We finally have compelling evidence that strains of plague from this era were indeed lethal,” asserted MacLeod.
It appears there were two separate outbreaks, with the initial one commencing roughly 5,500 years ago. Evidence shows instances of siblings buried side by side, indicating they perished concurrently, with multiple individuals interred together.
Skull of a Young Plague Victim, Buried with Others
Angela Lieverse
Notably, most identified plague victims were children and adolescents. This high mortality rate among young individuals aligns with historical records indicating that children were disproportionately affected by plague.
It is also evident that some individuals survived, receiving standard burial rites. “This provides poignant insight into the responses of hunter-gatherer communities,” MacLeod remarked.
According to MacLeod, hunter-gatherers had greater exposure to wild animals compared to agricultural populations, making them more susceptible to zoonotic diseases. Researchers suggest that marmots, known reservoirs of the plague, may have transmitted the disease, as evident from archaeological findings indicating these animals were hunted for food. Even today, local populations remain at risk from plague through contact with marmots or consuming undercooked marmot meat.
Once one hunter-gatherer was infected, pneumonic plague could swiftly spread via respiratory droplets.
Current genomic analyses indicate that the plague bacterium emerged between 9,800 and 5,700 years ago, with a more recent estimate appearing more plausible. Hence, the plague outbreak might be older than previously believed, but still not overly ancient.
“This study is unique in several aspects,” states Nicholas Raskovan from the Pasteur Institute in Paris. He highlights this research as the oldest known plague outbreak, occurring furthest east and affecting hunter-gatherers rather than agricultural societies.
“This evidence strongly suggests that the emergence of plague was not solely linked to agricultural practices,” Raskovan concludes. “This research indicates that non-agricultural societies had lethal infectious diseases, which is particularly fascinating and may have significantly influenced population decline during the Neolithic era in Europe.”
Paleontologists have unearthed 13 fossilized teeth deep within a limestone cave in southern China, belonging to the species Gigantopithecus brachy, the largest known primate species in history. This groundbreaking discovery provides crucial insights into the species’ adaptability during significant climate changes between 1.2 million and 700,000 years ago, thereby filling important gaps in the fossil record.
Artist’s impression of a herd of Gigantopithecus brachy in the forests of southern China. Image credit: Garcia / Joannes-Boyau, Southern Cross University.
Gigantopithecus brachy was an extinct great ape inhabiting the jungles of Southeast Asia.
This impressive primate surpassed modern gorillas, standing up to 3 meters (10 feet) tall and weighing as much as 540 kg.
This species existed from approximately 2.3 million years ago until its extinction roughly between 295,000 and 215,000 years ago.
First described in 1935 by German-Dutch anthropologist Gustav von Königswald, the species was based on an isolated tooth discovered in a Hong Kong pharmacy.
The fossil record for Gigantopithecus brachy includes several thousand teeth and a limited number of jawbones.
“Gigantopithecus brachy is hypothesized to have been the largest primate species,” stated paleontologist Dr. Yanyang Yao from Shandong University, Nanning Normal University, and Guangxi Museum of Anthropology, alongside colleagues in China.
“Their fossil record primarily dates back to the Early Pleistocene and continues into the Middle Pleistocene, but material from the Early to Middle Pleistocene transition (1.2 million to 700,000 years ago) remains relatively rare.”
Yanli Dong, Chongzuo City, Guangxi Province, China. Image credit: Yao et al., doi: 10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2026.0010.
Paleontologists successfully uncovered 13 teeth of Gigantopithecus brachy, including both upper and lower canines, premolars, and molars, at Yanli Cave 1 in Chongzuo City, Guangxi Province, China.
This significant find dates accurately to the Early Middle Pleistocene Transition (EMPT), a period characterized by cooler, drier climates and increasing glacial influence.
Estimated ages of the fossils are derived from associated animal fossils rather than direct dating of the teeth.
Researchers identified specimens from 30 species across six orders, including relatives of orangutans, tigers, clouded leopards, tapirs, Javan rhinos, stegodons, and Asian elephants.
Notably, two species in this assemblage provided valuable information for dating. The Airuropoda oolinshanensis represents a giant panda characteristic of the late Early Pleistocene, while Airuropoda melanoluca bakoni typifies a panda subspecies of the Middle Pleistocene.
The co-occurrence of both species strongly indicates that this deposit was formed during the transition between these two epochs.
“This faunal assemblage is indicative of the biostratigraphic age of EMPT,” the researchers stated.
The fossils of Gigantopithecus brachy found in Yanli Cave 1 appear to showcase ongoing evolutionary changes.
Some specimens exhibit the relatively small tooth sizes typical of early populations, while others approach the larger dimensions found in later populations, likely reflecting dietary adaptations.
“Comparative analyses of tooth dimensions of Gigantopithecus fossils from other sites indicated that some specimens from Yanli Cave 1 retain the smaller size characteristics prevalent in early Early Pleistocene populations,” the scientists noted.
“Conversely, other specimens approach the larger tooth sizes common in late Early Pleistocene populations and the extensive size ranges recorded in Middle Pleistocene populations.”
“These findings align with our biochronological assessments.”
“Following discoveries at Queque Cave and Zhanwang Cave, both located in nearby Chongzuo, Yanli Cave 1 represents the third significant EMPT site. This regional focus is likely to provide essential evidence for understanding dental evolutionary patterns and adaptive strategies in response to climate change during the EMPT.”
Yanyang Yao et al. 2026. Discovery of Gigantopithecus brachy in Yanli Cave 1, Chongzuo City, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, during the transition period between the Early and Middle Pleistocene. Chinese Anthropology Methods 45 (02): 199-209; doi: 10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2026.0010
Two previously elusive millipede groups, Siphoniurida and Siphonocryptida, have been identified as the last missing links in the evolutionary history of Earth’s oldest land animals, as revealed by a research team from Virginia Tech.
As of now, 14,232 millipede species have been identified, with countless others yet to be documented. Image credit: Vazquez Valverde et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2026.05.035.
“Millipedes helped pave the way for vertebrates to inhabit land for over 80 million years,” stated Dr. Paul Marek, the lead author from Virginia Tech.
“They truly laid the groundwork for subsequent terrestrial life, including humans and other vertebrates.”
In this groundbreaking study, Dr. Marek and his team merged genomic data from existing millipede species with fossil morphological evidence.
They analyzed hundreds of genes across 82 millipede species, including data from 29 fossils.
A significant milestone was the successful sequencing of DNA from the two elusive groups, Siphoniurida and Siphonocryptida, whose genetic information had never been accessed before.
Researchers traveled to Mexico’s Los Tuxtlas Island and Spain’s Canary Islands to gather specimens such as Sifoniurus neotropicus and Hildicryptus canariensis.
“It took 10 researchers over a week to locate a single tiny 10mm adult,” commented lead author Luisa ‘Fernanda’ Vázquez Valverde, also affiliated with Virginia Tech.
“Finding them in the wild was difficult because they resembled small white nematodes.”
“I wasn’t even sure it was a millipede until I examined it under the microscope.”
Interestingly, the study revealed that one of the “missing” groups, Siphonocryptida, is not a standalone order but part of an already recognized lineage. In contrast, Siphoniurida was successfully positioned on the evolutionary timeline.
The research traces the origins of millipedes back roughly 460 million years, during the Ordovician period, about 35 million years before the earliest known millipede fossils, suggesting these creatures arose much earlier than previously believed.
Millipedes dominated the terrestrial landscape over 80 million years ago, thriving on decaying organic matter even before the emergence of trees and flowering plants, marking them as some of the earliest terrestrial pioneers.
“The most surprising aspect was the ancient nature of some of these lineages,” noted Dr. Marek.
This study also indicates that millipedes have been producing chemical defenses for approximately 260 million years, establishing them as one of the earliest creators of biological and chemical substances on Earth.
“They were among the first to develop chemical defenses; essentially, they are tiny chemical factories,” stated Dr. Marek.
For more insights, refer to the study results published in Current Biology.
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Luisa F. Vázquez Valverde et al.. Reshaping the millipede tree of life by including the last two unsampled orders. Current Biology, published online June 12, 2026. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2026.05.035
Recent radiocarbon dating at Sala Queimada, an elusive chamber in Cueva Palomera, located in northern Spain’s Burgos province, reveals that generations of humans frequented this sacred site from the end of the Ice Age to the Iron Age, leaving behind significant artifacts, structures, and offerings.
Sala Queimada at Cueva Palomera, Burgos, Spain. Image credit: Ortega-Martinez et al., doi: 10.1016/j.jasrep.2026.105818.
According to lead author Dr. Ana Isabel Ortega Martínez, a researcher at the Instituto Fernán González, Royal Academy of History and Art of Burgos, “Cueva Palomera serves as the primary entrance to the Ojo Guareña cave system, which houses the majority of the rock art within the region.”
“Sala Queimada is situated on the third floor of the cave, approximately 290 meters from the entrance,” she added.
Accessing this chamber involves navigating a crawl space, which has dimensions of 13 meters wide and only 0.2 meters high.
The recent study involved obtaining 18 new radiocarbon dates from charcoal samples, drawings, and bone remains found throughout Sala Queimada.
The oldest artifacts date back to around 13,700 years ago, indicating the site’s use during the Upper Paleolithic.
The most recent discovery is that of a domestic piglet, whose bones, found in a rocky pool, date back to the Iron Age, approximately 2,100 years ago, suggesting it may have been a ritual offering.
Additionally, evidence indicates repeated visitations during the Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and Bronze Ages.
Importantly, each generation appeared to respect the artwork left by their ancestors, preserving older creations while adding new markings and paintings.
“One notable discovery is a complex structure comprised of two large limestone slabs held upright against each other and supported by smaller stones,” the scientists reported.
“The primary slab, measuring 1.5 meters in length, features a meticulously shaped upper edge that creates a pointed profile resembling animal figures facing the main artwork panel.”
“This slab and its supporting stones show carvings and charcoal marks that indicate significant human activity around the area.”
The structure bears similarities to another Paleolithic slab found in the Tito Bustillo Cave (Ribadesella, Asturias) but is larger in size.
This discovery adds Sala Queimada to an expanding list of prehistoric cave sites across the Iberian Peninsula, where ancient people returned for centuries to what they regarded as sacred locations.
“It’s significant that eight different usage stages were identified in Sala Queimada, making it one of the most challenging and secluded sanctuaries within Cueva Palomera,” noted the authors.
“This indicates that over millennia, humans not only utilized the entrance area as a habitat but also made numerous visits to this intricate underground environment.”
For further details, refer to the findings published in the May 23rd issue of the Journal of Archaeological Science: Report.
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Ana Isabel Ortega-Martinez et al. 2026. Sala Queimada: Another Paleolithic sanctuary in Cueva Palomera, Ojo Guareña (Burgos, Spain). Archaeology Journal: Report 73: 105818; doi: 10.1016/j.jasrep.2026.105818
Regarding the Richter Scale, it was innovatively developed by seismologist Dr. Charles Richter in 1935 to create a standardized and objective number for quantifying the strength of earthquakes.
Before this advancement, earthquakes were merely classified as “violent” or “strong,” complicating global comparisons of seismic events.
The Richter Scale quantifies seismic activity based on the maximum amplitude of the seismogram waveform recorded by a seismometer—a device often dramatized in disaster films.
Significantly, the Richter Scale operates logarithmically. Thus, escalating from a magnitude 4 earthquake (which can cause books to tumble off shelves) to a magnitude 5 (which may damage poorly constructed buildings) indicates a tenfold increase in seismometer readings and approximately 32 times more energy released.
However, the traditional Richter Scale is optimized for a specific type of seismometer, which is now obsolete. Its limitations become evident when measuring large or distant earthquakes.
Consequently, earthquakes exceeding a magnitude of 7 on the Richter Scale fail to show proportional measurements relative to the actual energy released, thereby underestimating the potential damage to buildings and infrastructure.
Every increment on the Richter Scale signifies about 32 times more energy release. For instance, a magnitude 6 earthquake packs roughly 1,000 times more force than a magnitude 4. (Image credit: Getty Images)
In 1979, Professor Hiroo Kanamori and Dr. Thomas C. Hanks introduced an alternative known as the Moment Magnitude Scale. This method measures the strength of slow vibrations with periods spanning from 30 seconds to several minutes.
While these longer frequencies carry less energy, they penetrate deeper into the Earth’s crust and provide a more equitable distribution of energy measurements relative to the earthquake’s magnitude.
As a result, the Moment Magnitude Scale offers a more reliable framework for predicting earthquake energy using equipment located far from the epicenter.
Since the early 2000s, key seismological institutions have transitioned to employing the Moment Magnitude Scale.
Interestingly, seismologists occasionally still use the Richter Scale for events of magnitude less than 1, as this scale is less effective for measuring very minor earthquakes.
This article, written by Britt Gill of Peterborough, addresses the question: “What is the leading method for measuring earthquakes?”
For inquiries, feel free to email us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or connect with us on Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram. Don’t forget to include your name and location!
Explore our ultimate collection offun facts and more fascinating science content.
For those eager to experience the wonder of Stonehenge, the most convenient route is along Britain’s A303 road. This ancient Neolithic monument, standing for over 5,000 years, offers one of the most breathtaking vistas for travelers.
Your first sighting of the remarkable stone circles is truly awe-inspiring. But merely driving past it presents a missed opportunity to connect deeply with the site.
While it’s tempting to view Stonehenge as just a magnificent ruin shrouded in mystery, experiencing it from a distance neglects the intimate connection one could have up close. Imagine ascending a hill and witnessing the giant stones slowly rising before you, surrounded by an expansive landscape.
Explore the Origins of Humanity: A Walking Tour in Southwest England
Embark on a journey through the Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Iron Age with this fascinating walking tour that unveils early human history.
Despite extensive research into Stonehenge’s temples, burial sites, and ancient calendars, the site continues to evoke a sense of mystery.
During my visit from Australia, I opted for the Inner Circle Tour led by English Heritage experts, which provided a deeper understanding of the site. As dusk approached, we entered a designated area not open to the public, transforming Stonehenge from a distant silhouette into a magnificent monument rising before us.
James captures a memorable moment at Stonehenge.
James Woodford
We had about 30 minutes to explore, examining the iconic stones from various angles. As our time drew to a close, the sun broke through the clouds, bathing the monument in a warm golden glow. Stonehenge is a powerful reminder of deep time and should be experienced meaningfully, rather than just casually observed from afar.
The Plane Unit Distance Problem explores the maximum number of equally sized lines connecting points on an infinite paper.
Noga Alon et al. 2026, OpenAI
An 80-year-old mathematical conjecture, known as the plane unit distance problem, has been solved by OpenAI’s advanced artificial intelligence model. This breakthrough is igniting discussion around the immense mathematical capabilities of AI.
“This is a problem I never expected to see solved in my lifetime,” states Mischa Rudnev from the University of Bristol, UK. “It’s a groundbreaking achievement.”
Tim Gowers commented that the solution represents a “significant milestone in AI mathematics.” He noted in a paper that had it been submitted by a human, it would be accepted without hesitation, highlighting that such groundbreaking evidence of AI-generated solutions is rare.
The plane unit distance problem was deemed by the 20th-century mathematician Paul Erdős as his “most important contribution” to geometry. The challenge lies in determining the maximum number of lines of equal length that can connect numerous dots placed on an infinite paper.
Erdős believed that the optimal arrangement for maximum connections would be a grid layout, suggesting that the number of lines would surpass the number of points only marginally. Persistent efforts to prove his assertion or to discover alternative patterns yielded minimal advances, with the most recent improvements occurring over 40 years ago.
OpenAI’s model revealed that Erdős’s hypothesis was significantly underestimated, demonstrating that a more irregular arrangement of points can yield far more connections.
“Initially, I could hardly believe the results,” remarks Will Sawin from Princeton University. “It convinced me that this achievement is the most remarkable in the realm of AI mathematics so far.”
Details on how the OpenAI model diverges from publicly available AI technology and its training methods remain undisclosed. However, researchers have mentioned that the model is “general purpose” and was not specifically trained for mathematical applications.
AI employed strategies from algebraic number theory to establish extensive lattices in dimensions far exceeding two-dimensional configurations. By creating these more sophisticated shapes, AI translates them into two dimensions to generate representations of the higher dimensions.
“The counterexamples produced by AI are intricate, and while the foundational ideas exist in existing literature, the synthesis to achieve them required ingenuity,” explains Kevin Buzzard from Imperial College London.
While the magnitude of this result is undeniable, it underscores a gap in mathematicians’ consideration of Erdős’s original predictions. Samuel Mansfield from the University of Manchester, England, notes that the complexity of executing an experiment to challenge the conjecture would have eluded many geometry experts lacking advanced number theory knowledge. “This highlights a necessity for interdisciplinary expertise,” he adds. “In hindsight, AI’s adaptability in this area may not be surprising.”
Rudnev emphasized that the problem’s allure lies in its “pure intellectual challenge,” and although it may not directly influence other unresolved questions, it has inspired further research. Sawin, after examining the proof, utilized the techniques unearthed by AI to advance the number of connectable points.
“Similar to many other AI milestones, it didn’t take long for human researchers to internalize, comprehend, and extend upon the AI-derived arguments,” commented Buzzard. “This contrasts sharply with human discoveries that often require extensive validation periods.
While many envision Mars as a desolate red dust ball, recent research indicates the presence of mineral deposits suggesting a warm and wet history for the planet. A dedicated team utilized the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer aboard NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter to analyze specific wavelengths of visible and near-infrared light from Martian minerals, allowing for detailed assessments of the planet’s chemical composition from afar.
Previous studies have revealed layered silicate minerals, notably clay, scattered across Mars’ surface. This clay formation occurs when water interacts with rock, documenting the amount and chemical composition of the water involved. Water’s interaction with Martian rocks led to the mobilization of elements like magnesium and iron, transporting them to deeper soil layers, while more stable elements like aluminum remained in place. This natural process, known as leaching, resulted in the creation of two distinct clay layers within Martian geology.
Scientists have proposed two primary hypotheses regarding the formation of these layered clays on Mars. The first suggests that clay was formed through underwater seepage in ancient lakes. The second hypothesis posits that a humid surface environment facilitated the leaching process across the Martian landscape.
To investigate these hypotheses, a team from Purdue University estimated the “true” thickness of Mars’ clay layers using terrestrial methods. Since clay-containing rock layers can appear distorted, they can misrepresent thickness. The team conducted a high-resolution imaging science experiment (HiRISE) to generate detailed elevation maps of the Martian surface, utilizing tools from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. These elevation maps were combined with surface composition data from the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer to create intricate 3D composition maps.
Using these 3D compositional maps, the researchers tracked the exposure of each clay layer and monitored it underground to estimate slope angles. They applied trigonometry to calculate the actual thickness of each clay layer, studying 46 locations on Mars. Astonishingly, they found that the total thickness of the combined clay layers ranges from approximately 20 to 680 feet (6 to 200 meters), averaging about 190 feet (60 meters), equivalent to the height of a 60-story building.
The researchers then explored the extent of clay deposits in a significant ancient Martian valley known as the Great Valley of Mars, specifically the Mawrth Vallis region. This region was chosen for its significant elevation variations and previously collected high-resolution chemical composition and elevation data.
The study determined that if the clay layers were confined to the valley’s bottom where water existed, along with varying thicknesses and boundaries, this would strongly support the “aquatic seepage” hypothesis. Conversely, consistent thickness and widespread layer boundaries would lean towards the “surface seepage” hypothesis, indicating a moist surface environment.
The findings revealed that the clay layer extended beyond the valley’s lowest points, maintaining consistent boundaries over an elevation difference of more than half a mile (approximately 1 kilometer). Consequently, the researchers concluded that the clay layers most likely formed through surface leaching in a moist environment.
These groundbreaking discoveries challenge earlier Martian climate models, which suggested that surface conditions rarely exceeded freezing temperatures. The research team hypothesized that these deposits may have formed gradually over extended periods, despite a generally frigid climate. If Mars’ surface remained frozen most of the time with occasional warmth, this could reconcile their findings with existing climate models.
The researchers noted limitations within their study, especially regarding sparsely sampled locations. Despite their strong evidence for widespread wet environments on early Mars, further detailed research in areas like Mawrth Vallis could refine our understanding of the specific surface conditions under which these clays developed, potentially aligning more closely with Martian climate models.
Starship on the Launch Pad at SpaceX’s Starbase in Texas
Credit: SpaceX
SpaceX’s Upcoming Starship Test Flight
SpaceX is poised to conduct a highly anticipated test flight of its significantly upgraded Starship next week, which has the potential to become the tallest and most powerful rocket in history. This flight is crucial for NASA’s ambitious plans to return humans to the Moon by 2028.
The Starship system consists of two main components: an upper stage, also referred to as the Starship, and a lower stage known as the Super Heavy. Since the last test back in October, SpaceX has implemented several substantial modifications to both stages.
The upcoming test flight scheduled for May 19th will feature new iterations of both the Starship and Super Heavy, including three distinct models. Each stage is powered by the enhanced version 3 Raptor engines, which have been tested only sparingly in previous launches. The stakes are higher this time, as the launch will occur from a newly designed pad at SpaceX’s Starbase facility in Texas.
In the configuration of Super Heavy 3, the number of grid fins has been reduced from four to three, but their size has been increased by 50% to ensure precise atmospheric maneuverability. Starship 3 incorporates larger propellant tanks, an advanced on-orbit refueling capability, and enhanced heat-resistant tiles designed for atmospheric reentry.
At launch, the rocket will reach a total height of 124 meters, surpassing the previous version 2 by about one meter. This height also exceeds that of NASA’s 98-meter Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and the 111-meter-tall Saturn V, the historic rocket that transported astronauts to the Moon during the 1960s and ’70s.
Starship 3 is engineered to produce a staggering thrust of 75,000 kilonewtons, nearly double that of the SLS’s 39,000 kilonewtons, making it the most powerful rocket to date.
Research from the University of Sheffield, conducted by Alistair John, indicates that the collective power output of all engines combined in the Starship stack at maximum capacity exceeds the total electricity generation of Germany. “It’s enormous,” John remarked.
SpaceX CEO Elon Musk has outlined plans for the Starship to transport satellites into orbit, as well as serve beyond Earth with missions to Mars. Moreover, NASA selected it as one of two commercial lander designs for the Artemis program, aiming for a human return to the Moon, alongside the Blue Origin lander backed by Jeff Bezos.
After the successful unmanned Artemis 1 mission in 2022, the recent Artemis flight saw four astronauts venture further from Earth than any humans before, orbiting around the Moon.
A recent NASA document confirmed details of the Artemis III mission, which will send a crew into low Earth orbit aboard the Orion spacecraft atop an SLS rocket. They will then rendezvous with one or both commercial lunar landers offered by SpaceX and Blue Origin. This critical maneuver is necessary for transferring crew and fuel to the lander in preparation for a lunar landing mission targeted for Artemis IV as early as 2028.
SpaceX employs a rapid iteration and learning strategy, typical of Silicon Valley, distinct from the more cautious approach usually adopted in space exploration. Out of 11 test flights conducted thus far, six have succeeded while five have encountered failures. Neither SpaceX nor NASA has commented on these outcomes.
Dr. Peter Shaw from Kingston University believes SpaceX remains aligned with its Artemis timelines despite earlier setbacks. “Rocket science is inherently complex and difficult,” remarks Shaw. “Can they succeed? Absolutely. Will they meet their deadlines? There is confidence in their ability; even if they face more failures, they will learn, adapt, and innovate.”
The forthcoming Starship test is vital for confirming the integrity of the Version 3 design, which will underpin SpaceX’s Human Landing System (HLS) essential for Moon landings. The HLS will require significant adaptations, including a different engine tailored for the Moon’s lower gravity and will forgo the heat shield since it will not need to handle Earth reentry.
“While this represents a small, incremental improvement, it is also the most significant iteration. Version 3 is what we require for the Artemis program; its predecessors were merely prototypes,” explains John. “Version 3 is effectively the inaugural test of the production model. Our goal is reliability.”
Deep X-ray Observation of Abell 2029 – Researchers have uncovered evidence of ancient cosmic collisions within this galaxy cluster, recognized as the most serene in the universe, which features a colossal spiral of superheated gas stretching over two million light-years.
This composite image integrates both original and subtracted X-ray data from Abell 2029’s Chandra deep observations. Image credit: NASA / CXC / CfA / Watson et al. / Panstars/SAO/N.Walk/P.Edmonds.
“Galaxy clusters are the largest gravitationally bound structures in the universe,” stated Boston University astronomer Courtney Watson and her colleagues.
“These clusters contain hundreds or even thousands of galaxies, along with invisible dark matter and significant amounts of gas that fill the spaces between galaxies.”
The gas, heated to millions of degrees, emits X-ray light, allowing astronomers to study it effectively.
Utilizing NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory, astronomers have conducted the deepest X-ray observations of Abell 2029, a galaxy cluster approximately one billion light-years away in the constellation Virgo.
New data indicate that this galaxy cluster is continuing to settle after a violent collision with a smaller cluster around 4 billion years ago.
“The spiral shape of the hot gas likely formed when the gravitational forces from the cluster collision caused the gas to be pushed sideways, similar to how wine moves within a glass,” the researchers explained.
The sloshing spiral of Abell 2029 is one of the longest ever recorded, extending roughly two million light-years from its center.
“We have uncovered significant evidence of past collisions that have not been previously seen together in a cluster, enabling us to trace the cluster’s collision history with unprecedented detail.”
“For instance, we observe signs that the collision dispersed cold gas across a broad area.”
“The remnants of superheated gas from the collision may also produce shock waves akin to sonic booms generated by supersonic aircraft.”
“Additionally, the hot gas displays a ‘bay’ feature, likely resulting from the overlap between the outer section of the vortex and the materials stripped from the smaller clusters as they traversed the larger clusters.”
“We believe this indicates impact debris, although alternative explanations may exist.”
According to the researchers’ computer simulations, the smaller cluster’s mass was about one-tenth that of the larger cluster.
“The sloshing spiral emerged when a small star cluster initially passed through a larger one, pulling gas sideways,” the scientists noted.
“The gravity of the larger cluster then decelerated the smaller cluster, leading to a second collision.”
“This triggered the shockwave, creating a wake of material and forming a droplet field.”
To uncover these various features, the authors employed a specialized technique that analyzes how much the cluster’s hot gas deviates from a symmetrical shape.
“Most hot gases are symmetrical and roughly elliptical in shape.”
The team’s results were published in the Astrophysical Journal.
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Courtney B. Watson et al. 2026. Deep Chandra X-ray observations of A2029: Merger history of a relaxed and strong cool core cluster. APJ 996, 106; doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae2026
Neanderthal dentistry may have been remarkably advanced, according to a recent study led by scientists from the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg.
This study examined a 59,000-year-old molar tooth discovered in Chagyrskaya Cave, Russia, featuring a deep central hole.
Archaeologists believe that the tooth was intentionally punctured with a sharp tool to treat an infection and alleviate pain.
This represents the oldest known dental evidence, dating back over 40,000 years and surpassing previous findings from about 14,000 years ago in Italy, which were previously considered the first examples of dental treatment by Homo sapiens.
“What surprised me was that the owner of this tooth understood exactly what was causing the pain and intuitively knew it could be alleviated,” remarked the first author, Dr. Aliza Zubova from the Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnology, Russian Academy of Sciences.
“Neither Neanderthals nor even later modern humans have encountered anything like this before.”
To investigate the treatment of this tooth, archaeologists utilized a method known as microtomography to capture highly detailed X-rays. This analysis revealed microscopic grooves on the tooth’s surface.
Researchers performed experiments on modern human teeth, attempting to replicate similar holes and markings using techniques accessible to Neanderthals.
Neanderthal tooth labeled Chagyrskaya 64, photographed from five angles – Image credit: Zubova et al., 2026, PLOS One, CC-BY 4.0
Senior author Dr. Kseniya Korobova from the Siberian branch of the Russian Academy stated that these experiments showcased the technical proficiency of the procedures, involving the removal of carious tissue via deep holes in the tooth.
“It’s important to remember that we couldn’t fully replicate the real-life conditions,” she noted. “The inflammation and swelling in the oral cavity would have introduced additional challenges during the procedure.”
She emphasized that the mouth is a “complex area to work,” necessitating “manual dexterity, patience, and a caregiver to keep the head still.”
Remarkably, all of this was achieved without anesthesia. Thus, while the patient likely experienced pain, archaeologists believe the method effectively alleviated tooth discomfort.
Second author Dr. Lydia Zotkina remarked, “What astonishes me is the incredible willpower this Neanderthal must have possessed.”
“This finding is a striking illustration of how archaeological evidence allows us to gain insights into past lives, revealing the strength and resilience of these individuals. Every visit to the dentist now reminds me of that Neanderthal.”
For Zubova, this research contributes to a growing body of evidence indicating that Neanderthals provided care for one another regularly.
“Historically, Neanderthals have been viewed as more primitive than modern humans, making their care for Middle Paleolithic community members an exception,” she explains.
“As evidence accumulates, it increasingly suggests that Neanderthals cared for the sick and infirm just like modern humans.”
Scientists suggest that the lethal hantavirus, which infected 11 passengers on a Dutch cruise ship, may have existed alongside humans for millennia. However, insights into human infections largely stem from a limited number of outbreaks over the past century.
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The first recorded hantavirus outbreak occurred during the Korean War in the 1950s, impacting around 3,000 UN soldiers, who fell ill from a mysterious disease later identified as hantavirus.
It wasn’t until 1978 that scientists connected the virus to rodents in the Hantan River area of South Korea, leading to the naming of hantavirus.
In 1993, the first case was diagnosed in North America, followed by Argentina reporting the first known case of human-to-human transmission in 1996.
While hantaviruses are rare, they are significantly more lethal than respiratory viruses such as coronaviruses and influenza. Only one strain, not found in the continental U.S., can be transmitted between humans, linked to outbreaks on cruise ships that necessitated worldwide quarantines for passengers.
Previous limited cases of hantavirus infection provide insights into how cruise ship passengers fell ill, though medical experts assert that more research is needed.
“The study was exceptionally challenging due to the rarity of the disease,” stated Dr. Charles Chiu, a laboratory medicine and infectious diseases professor at the University of California, San Francisco.
Between 1993 and 2023, fewer than 900 hantavirus cases were reported in the U.S. Investigating each case can be complicated, as many patients succumb soon after symptoms develop, with fatality rates reaching up to 50% depending on the strain and transmission method.
“This recent outbreak will offer further insights, as we rarely encounter such a situation with more than a handful of cases,” noted Dr. Gregory Martz, professor emeritus of internal medicine at the University of New Mexico.
Below is an overview of significant hantavirus outbreaks in recent history.
Outbreaks in the Four Corners and Yosemite
In 1993, public health officials initiated an investigation into a mysterious outbreak in the Four Corners area of the United States, where Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah intersect.
The first incident that raised alarms involved a 19-year-old distance runner from New Mexico, whose fiancée had recently died from an unexplained respiratory illness. He sought medical attention twice due to symptoms including fever, muscle aches, and gastrointestinal issues but was misdiagnosed and ultimately passed away just before his fiancée’s funeral.
“Some doctors recognized a pattern in multiple cases and suspected they were dealing with an unfamiliar illness,” commented Mertz, who contributed to the outbreak investigation.
The CDC later confirmed hantavirus via antibody testing and autopsy findings. At the time, it was unknown whether the virus infected humans in North America. This specific strain, named “Sin Nombre,” was linked to deer mice, which proliferated in the Four Corners region following an unusually wet spring. By August 1993, about 30 confirmed cases of infection were reported in the southwestern United States, 20 of which resulted in fatalities.
What if you could communicate with the past? Surprisingly, the laws of physics don’t rule this out. In some cases, sending messages backward in time could be more feasible than we imagine.
The potential for sending messages into the past stems from specific solutions to the equations of general relativity. This foundational theory of physics explains how the fabric of spacetime operates, showing that all objects traverse paths through time and space. Among these paths is the concept of a closed time-like curve (CTC), where an object journeys into the future before looping back to the past.
However, creating a CTC on a cosmic scale poses a significant challenge, as it necessitates bending spacetime—a feat that demands an enormous amount of energy. This complication seems to render backward messaging impossible, but quantum entanglement might offer a potential workaround.
In quantum mechanics, entangled particles exhibit a unique property: the state of one particle directly influences the state of another, regardless of distance. Some physicists theorize that this connection implies one particle could send messages back in time to inform its counterpart of future events.
While this theory is debated, in 2010, Seth Lloyd and colleagues at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology demonstrated this concept using entangled photons to simulate a quantum CTC. “It’s akin to sending a photon back in time for mere nanoseconds with the intention of eliminating your previous self,” Lloyd explained.
Lloyd’s team then envisioned a scenario where the CTC experienced interference, similar to a faulty phone line. Analyzing the communication capacity of these “noisy” channels is a common challenge in information theory. To their surprise, they discovered that communicating with the past could actually outperform traditional communication methods, even with noise present.
Team member Kaiyuan Ji noted that their inspiration came from the film Interstellar. In a pivotal scene, Matthew McConaughey’s character sends a message to his daughter from the past by manipulating a clock using a CTC. Considering this as a noisy quantum channel, they found that messages sent backwards in time could be understood better, as the sender could access past memories, enhancing message decoding. “Fathers recall how their daughters interpret future messages, allowing them to optimize their message encryption,” Ji added.
While practical time travel remains hypothetical, improved communication strategies for noisy devices are valuable, according to Lloyd. “Creating a physical closed time-like curve poses immense challenges. However, all channels have noise,” he remarked. The findings from Lloyd’s research could be adapted to similar experiments using photons, potentially uncovering new avenues for effective communication, even in conventional contexts.
Andreas Winter from the University of Cologne highlighted that the study illustrates how feedback types can enhance communication protocols, allowing future senders to draw on their memories. However, he notes that the chances for practical applications are minimal. “As far as we know, time travel or sending signals back in time isn’t feasible in our universe. We are unaware of any mechanisms that could facilitate such phenomena,” he concluded.
Yohei Utsugi / Graduate School of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Hokkaido University
The Cretaceous seas were once dominated by a formidable giant octopus species, potentially reaching lengths of up to 19 meters, rivaling the era’s most intimidating predators, including sharks and marine reptiles such as plesiosaurs and mosasaurs.
According to Yasuhiro Iba from Hokkaido University, these octopuses acted as apex predators in their ecosystem. “They can be likened to the killer whales or great whites of the invertebrate realm—large, intelligent, and proficient hunters,” states Iba. These colossal beings boasted over 10 meters in length with robust arms and powerful jaws designed to crush hard prey, likely displaying complex behaviors.
Researchers, including Iba and his colleagues, analyzed 27 large octopus jaw fossils dating from 100 million to 72 million years ago, discovered in Japan and Vancouver Island, Canada. Remarkably, over a dozen of these jaw fossils, previously unseen by science, were unearthed through “digital fossil mining,” leveraging advanced scanning technology and AI to reveal the octopus remains embedded within stone.
The jaw, or beak, is often the only surviving fossil component of an octopus, made primarily of durable chitin, while the softer parts decay.
Initially thought to comprise five Cretaceous octopus species, recent research indicates that only two have been identified to date: Nanaimoteutis zeretskyi and N. hagarti.
Iba notes, “We quickly observed the jaw’s unusual size, especially that of N. hagarti. It stood out even among modern large cephalopods.” The true scale emerged from correlating the jaw’s size to the length of the mantle in contemporary long-bodied octopuses, estimating that N. hagarti may have reached overall lengths between 6.6 and 18.6 meters, marking it as one of Earth’s largest invertebrates.
John Long, a professor at Flinders University in Australia, expressed that he was unsurprised by this finding. “Many creatures during the Cretaceous period exhibited gigantism, including sharks, marine reptiles, and ammonites, filling the ocean with ample prey for large predators,” he said, while acknowledging the surprising nature of finding giant killer octopuses as apex predators of the Cretaceous seas.
Comparative Size of Ancient Octopuses and Cretaceous Marine Predators
Yohei Utsugi / Graduate School of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Hokkaido University
Notably, ancient octopuses bore a resemblance to modern giant squids (Architeuthis dux), which can grow beyond 12 meters. However, as Iba points out, they possessed distinct traits. Squids feature eight arms and two long tentacles for captures, while octopuses utilize all eight arms effectively to ensnare prey.
Nanaimoteutis likely did not pursue prey like squids but rather employed their lengthy, flexible arms for capture, complemented by their formidable jaws for processing.” The researchers also scrutinized wear patterns on ancient jaws, indicating substantial “hard material processing,” implying they preyed on robust organisms like large bivalves, ammonites, crustaceans, fish, or other cephalopods.
While the intuition might suggest they hunted massive creatures, careful consideration is warranted. “No direct evidence,” says Iba, “indicates predation on marine reptiles or sharks, such as stomach contents or bite marks on vertebrate bones.”
Fossil Jaws of Nanaimoteutis hagarti (top) and N. zeretskyi (bottom)
Hokkaido University
Another noteworthy observation was the uneven wear on the jaws, suggesting a phenomenon known as “lateralization.” This behavioral preference for one side of the body may indicate a level of intelligence, echoing characteristics seen in modern octopuses.
Overall, lateralization is linked to sophisticated brain function and efficient information processing. “The asymmetrical wear on our fossil jaws implies these octopuses had individual feeding preferences,” asserts Iba, highlighting their physical strength, behavioral complexity, and possible unique tendencies.
NASA is set to livestream the launch at 12:50 p.m. ET on our YouTube channel. A live feed from the Orion capsule will also be available throughout the mission.
Wiseman shared that the crew has affectionately nicknamed their spacecraft “Integrity” to honor the principles guiding their training and teamwork.
“Honesty is fundamental,” he stated in a September interview with NBC News. “While there are times when honesty can be challenging, the original Artemis crew commits daily to embodying this value.”
Glover mentioned that the crew crafted the mission insignia to foster unity. The mission patch creatively incorporates the “A II” from “Artemis II” to represent the word “All.”
“We want everyone to join us on this mission,” he expressed. “Numerous minor differences can divide us, and if we ignore them, they can become significant. I hope this mission stands as a bridge to fill those gaps and promote unity.”
Artemis astronauts display their emblem. Robert Markowitz / NASA
Approximately eight and a half minutes post-launch, astronauts Wiseman, Koch, Glover, and Hansen will ascend to space. The first day will focus on testing Orion’s life support systems, which include temperature regulation, air quality management, and other essential safety measures like drinking water, food, and waste systems.
On the second day, the spacecraft’s primary engine will ignite, initiating its trajectory toward the moon.
Over the next four days, astronauts will assess how effectively the Orion capsule shields against space radiation, while also practicing emergency protocols in preparation for future Artemis missions. The upcoming Artemis III flight aims to conduct advanced technology demonstrations in low Earth orbit, including docking with a secondary spacecraft designed to transport astronauts to the lunar surface. Following that, NASA is scheduled to send astronauts to the moon with the Artemis IV mission in 2028.
Ancient Evidence of Dog Care in Punarbashi, Turkey, dating back 15,800 years.
Credit: Kathryn Killackey
A groundbreaking discovery at a 15,800-year-old archaeological site in Turkey has revealed the oldest known evidence of dog domestication. Genetic studies indicate that our canine companions were already widespread across Europe 14,300 years ago, during a time when humans were primarily hunter-gatherers and agriculture had yet to develop.
Determining the precise timeline for dog domestication is complex, especially due to the genetic similarities shared between Canis lupus familiaris (domestic dogs) and Canis lupus (gray wolves). Initially, it was believed that the earliest dogs dated back to around 10,900 years ago. However, earlier fossils resembling dogs have been found, as far back as 33,000 years ago, indicating the presence of ancestral dogs that were not fully domesticated.
To further examine the history of dogs, Dr. Lachie Scarsbrook and his team at the University of Oxford analyzed genetic material from various early dog-like remains unearthed at different archaeological sites in Europe.
The oldest confirmed dog remains were discovered at the Pinarbaş Ruins in central Anatolia, Turkey, dating back to the Upper Paleolithic period (15,800 years ago). These findings are currently the earliest direct evidence of dog existence, with more substantial evidence emerging around 5,000 years ago.
“By at least 15,800 years ago, dogs possessed physical and genetic traits akin to modern breeds,” noted Scarsbrook.
Researchers genetically verified that remains from Gough’s Cave, located in Somerset, England, belonged to a dog that lived approximately 14,300 years ago. The genetic cohesiveness between these two ancient dogs suggests a shared ancestor, a phenomenon that sparked intrigue among researchers, given the geographical distance between the cultures associated with these dogs.
The genome analysis indicates that these two Paleolithic dogs originated from a population that traversed across Europe between 18,500 and 14,000 years ago.
Despite their impressive range, Scarsbrook notes, “It’s unlikely dogs traveled across Europe independently.” Instead, the researchers propose that the Epigravettian culture played a role in their introduction, as evidenced by past archaeological findings indicating ancient human interactions.
14,300-Year-Old Dog Jawbone from Gough’s Cave, England
Credit: Natural History Museum
During significant periods, these ancient peoples migrated from the Italian peninsula into Western Europe and southeast into Turkey, fostering interactions that likely resulted in cultural and technological exchanges.
Dogs provided hunter-gatherers with enhanced hunting capabilities, protection from predators, and warmth during chilly nights, according to Scarsbrook.
Research at Gough’s Cave and the Pinarbaş ruins indicates the nature of ancient human-dog relationships. “These findings highlight the foundations of modern human-dog interactions,” states team member William Marsh from the Natural History Museum in London.
Isotope analysis has revealed that the Pinarbash community not only fed their dogs fish but also consumed it, indicating a profound bond between humans and canines. Dogs were buried similarly to humans, pointing to symbolic treatment of these animals about 15,000 years ago, notes Marsh.
At Gough’s Cave, the mixed diet of humans and dogs suggests a connection rich in symbolism. Instead of typical burial practices, some cultures there appear to have practiced ritual cannibalism, with evidence of bones showing mutilation marks and carvings.
Interestingly, similar markings were discovered on a dog jawbone from Gough’s Cave, suggesting parallels in treatment between humans and dogs, positing emotional ties as well, per Marsh. “They undoubtedly felt bonded to these animals, but the complexity of these expressions remains hard to interpret,” he reflects.
Scarsbrook hypothesizes that the domestication of dogs began during the Last Glacial Maximum, roughly 26,000 to 20,000 years ago. “Circumstances were dire for both wolves and humans in northern Eurasia during this period, pushing them southward and compelling interactions that may have initiated a unique companionship,” he states.
Exploring the Origins of Humanity Through Prehistoric Times in South-West England
Join a gentle walking tour that delves deep into the Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Iron Age, allowing you to immerse yourself in the rich heritage of early humans.
Artist’s Impression of a 5th-Century Visigoth Warrior
Creative Assembly (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)
A groundbreaking DNA study from Gothic tombs uncovers that the Goths were a multi-ethnic society, linked to regions spanning Scandinavia, modern-day Türkiye, and North Africa.
This finding challenges traditional theories that positioned the Goths solely as Scandinavian migrants to the eastern Mediterranean. “If Gothic identity were primarily tied to a biological lineage from Scandinavia, we wouldn’t observe this diversity,” states Svetoslav Stamov of the National History Museum of Bulgaria.
The Goths inhabited Eastern Europe from at least the 3rd century AD, frequently residing along the Roman Empire’s borders. They alternated between being allies and adversaries of Rome. Notably, the Visigoths famously sacked Rome in 410 AD, playing a crucial role in the Western Roman Empire’s decline.
Despite their historical significance, the Goths remain one of history’s least understood cultures, largely represented through potentially biased Roman accounts that often conflated various neighboring groups under labels like “Goths,” “Celts,” and “Scythians.”
To uncover the true identity of the Goths, Stamov and his team sequenced the genomes of 38 individuals from two Bulgarian sites, identified as Gothic based on their unique beads, jewelry, burial practices, and cranial modifications.
One site near the palace of Aur in Khan Omurtag featured a cemetery likely linked to an early Gothic bishop’s church, dating from around 350 to 489 AD. This location is tentatively associated with an early Christian bishop named Ulfila.
The team also analyzed samples from the necropolis of Aquae Caridae, an ancient Roman site (circa 320 to 375 AD) known for its healing center and bathhouse. Though not a cemetery, several burials occurred there; one revealed an artificial skull deformity atypical for Roman times, indicating cultural diversity, as noted by Stamov.
Though significantly distinct genetically, the two groups shared mixed heritage from Scandinavia, the Caucasus, the Levant, Anatolia (now Turkey), East Asia (now Mongolia), Egypt, and sub-Saharan Africa. “This reflects a remarkably diverse community,” Stamov commented.
Arianism, an early Christian sect, might have played a pivotal role in fostering inclusivity. “Anyone could become an Arian Christian,” emphasizes Todor Chobanov at the Balkan Research Institute and Laryngology Center, Sofia, Bulgaria.
Chobanov asserts that the premise that the Goths were “complex and diverse” holds merit, as doesn’t establish a direct link between ancestry and ethnic identity. However, the team’s genomic analysis remains limited, so further sampling is necessary for a comprehensive understanding. Moreover, they caution that simply possessing Gothic artifacts does not definitively identify individuals’ ethnicities.
James Harland, from the University of Bonn, posits that the Roman Empire’s influence was significant in shaping Gothic identity as they navigated cooperation and conflict with the empire. “The interactions with the empire facilitated the existence of these groups as cohesive units,” he points out.
“Various Gothic tribes resided at the fringes of the Roman Empire for centuries, absorbing numerous influences, such as clothing styles and pottery,” notes Chobanov.
Explore Historic Herculaneum – Uncover Vesuvius, Pompeii, and Ancient Naples
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In March 2025, renowned mathematician Daniel Litt placed a bet regarding the impact of artificial intelligence on mathematics. He asserted that by 2030, there would be only a 25 percent chance that AI could produce mathematical papers comparable to those of top human mathematicians. However, just a year later, he anticipates losing this wager, stating, “I now expect to lose this bet,” as noted in his blog.
The rapid advancements in AI’s problem-solving capabilities have left mathematicians astounded. “Only a few years ago, AI struggled with even simple high school math problems, but now it can tackle real challenges faced by mathematicians,” Litt comments from the University of Toronto.
This acceleration in AI development is unprecedented, with mathematicians expressing concerns about the rate at which their field is evolving. “There’s no place to hide,” warns Jeremy Avigado from Carnegie Mellon University in Pennsylvania in his essay. “We must confront the reality that AI will soon outperform us in theorem-proofing.”
This shift is not due to a singular event but the cumulative progress AI is making in mathematics. Last year, companies like OpenAI and Google DeepMind accomplished unprecedented feats at the International Mathematics Olympiad—an elite competition once deemed too complex for AI tools. In January, mathematicians began leveraging AI to address longstanding questions posed by Hungarian mathematician Paul Erdős.
AI is now addressing more intricate mathematical challenges, tackling real-world research problems and assisting in the automatic verification of complex proofs that traditionally required extensive collaboration among mathematicians.
In February, Nikhil Srivastava from the University of California, Berkeley, launched the First Proof project to establish realistic benchmarks for evaluating AI’s mathematical capabilities. The initial phase consisted of ten problems drawn from various mathematical areas that researchers regularly encounter.
Evidence of AI Progress
Once the challenge was publicized, solutions began to pour in. Researchers from technology giants like OpenAI and Google DeepMind participated in solving the First Proof challenge. OpenAI reported that it correctly answered half of the questions based on “expert feedback,” while Google DeepMind achieved success on six of ten questions, according to consulted mathematicians.
“Everything changed rapidly,” reflects Thanh Luong from Google DeepMind. “AI has become a legitimate research collaborator, capable of yielding significant research results, as demonstrated by First Proof.”
Google’s AI mathematics tool, Aletheia, combines a compute-intensive version of the Gemini AI chatbot with validation algorithms to identify flaws in proposed solutions. The iterative nature allows researchers to refine their answers continuously. While Google has not disclosed the number of iterations taken to solve problems, mathematicians remain impressed.
Not all proposed solutions received unanimous approval. For example, in geometry, out of seven experts consulted, only five agreed on the correctness of one solution. Ivan Smith, a professor at the University of Cambridge not involved with Google’s team, noted that AI is approaching problems sensibly and showing promise. “If this were a PhD student presenting ideas, it would encourage confidence that the results are valid,” Smith states.
This situation highlights the complications associated with AI-generated proofs. The challenge lies in the verification process. The speed at which AI generates proofs may outpace human verification capabilities. If an AI produces a theorem but no one is available to verify it, has it truly been proven? AI may assist in this area as well.
Technology is rapidly advancing, converting handwritten proofs expressed in natural language, like those posed in the First Proof challenge, into formats that computers can validate through a process called formalization.
Recently, Math, Inc. surprised mathematicians by announcing that its AI tool, Gauss, had successfully formalized and verified an award-winning proof. This proof pertains to how many spheres can be efficiently packed in space, a subject central to Marina Wiazowska’s 2022 Fields Medal, the mathematics equivalent of the Nobel Prize.
Efforts to formalize Wiazowska’s work began in late 2024, independent of Math, Inc.’s initiative to manually convert the problem into code. They initially analyzed Wiazowska’s eight-dimensional sphere-packing solution. As they made steady strides, Math, Inc. unexpectedly declared it had already obtained a complete proof, along with a broader version of the result in 24 dimensions.
Bhavik Mehta and his team at Imperial College London initially outlined a framework for formalizing the research and identifying essential mathematical definitions. Without this groundwork, Mehta notes, the AI tools would have been unable to complete the proof.
“I compiled all the components but didn’t provide instructions on assembling them,” states Chris Birkbeck, a PhD candidate at the University of East Anglia, who is part of the team.
A New Era of Mathematicians
The final proof consists of around 200,000 lines of code, representing about ten percent of all formalized mathematics to date. Although this output may be ten times longer than a human would typically take, it marks a significant achievement, according to Johann Kommelin from Utrecht University. “This is groundbreaking work that is effectively being formalized,” he affirms.
Similar initiatives could emerge across various fields, transforming traditional mathematical practices. “The future we envision is a tool that automates the formalization of new research and mathematical papers, while also flagging potential errors,” Commelin emphasizes. “This would greatly influence peer review processes and evaluations.”
Faced with a future where AI completes a significant portion of mathematical tasks, some mathematicians, like Avigad, are raising concerns about the ramifications on our ability to innovate and engage with new mathematics.
Engaging with tools to solve problems presented in First Proof can yield concrete proofs, notes Anna Marie Bowman. However, she emphasizes that we’re losing valuable “learning opportunities.” The process of generating and formulating new ideas and confronting complex problems is vital for consolidating knowledge for both learners and practitioners.
Similarly, Tony Fen, a member of the Google DeepMind Aletheia team, expresses hesitance toward the tool’s use. “I often believe in doing one’s own work and fostering personal intuition,” he states.
Mehta adds that merely formalizing the proof provides crucial insights, and now he and his colleagues must meticulously sift through the 200,000 lines of AI-generated proof to extract useful components for future projects.
However, mathematicians remain optimistic about their role in an increasingly AI-driven environment. Reflecting on historical parallels, Kommelin notes that manual computations once formed the backbone of mathematical work but have since transitioned to automated methods. “I believe we are on a similar track; this will revolutionize our field. Yet, even in 10 or 20 years, we’ll still possess a unique identity in mathematics.”
When AlphaGo showcased its capabilities, the world took notice. Lee Sedol, the top Go player globally, was visibly unsettled by the rise of artificial intelligence. The audience in downtown Seoul, South Korea, was captivated, realizing that this AI was groundbreaking.
Not only did AlphaGo defeat Lee, but it did so with a level of skill that resembled human intuition. “AlphaGo actually has intuition,” stated Sergey Brin, co-founder of Google, right after AlphaGo secured a 3-0 victory. “It creates beautiful movements, even more so than many humans expect,” New Scientist.
The match concluded with AlphaGo triumphing 4-1, leaving Mr. Lee in disbelief.
Ten years have elapsed since this pivotal event marked a turning point for AI. As we now celebrate advancements in large-scale language models like ChatGPT, it’s remarkable to reflect on how AlphaGo was a precursor to today’s AI. What remains of AlphaGo’s legacy, and is the technology fulfilling its promise?
“While large language models differ fundamentally from AlphaGo, there are crucial technological connections that have persistently evolved,” notes Chris Madison, a professor at the University of Toronto and a member of the original AlphaGo development team.
The core technology driving AlphaGo is neural networks, mathematical structures inspired by the brain, coded for machine learning. Historically, programming machines to play games required humans to dictate rules. Neural networks allow machines to learn independently.
However, mastering Go with neural networks presented a significant challenge. The ancient game allows for 10171 possible positions on a 19 x 19 board, dwarfing even the estimated 1080 atoms in the observable universe.
This breakthrough emerged when Madison and his team aimed to emulate human intuition by training a neural network to predict optimal moves based on millions of historical game moves. Humans develop intuition without such extensive data, providing AI a competitive edge.
Furthermore, AlphaGo wasn’t limited to human gameplay; it could play millions of self-matches to refine its capabilities. “Through countless matches, we can uncover new strategies that surpass human performance,” explained Pushmeet Kohli, a leader at Google DeepMind.
The final version of AlphaGo that triumphed over Lee was more intricate than Madison’s original model, but the conclusion was clear: neural networks excel at pattern recognition and can possess an intuition that surpasses human understanding, according to Norm Brown from OpenAI.
The Next Iterations of AI
What followed after AlphaGo? Google DeepMind and AI researchers began applying the foundational lessons from AlphaGo to real-world problems, including mathematics and biology. A prominent example is AlphaFold, which can predict protein structures in three-dimensional space from their chemical makeup, earning its creators a Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Recently, another neural network AI, AlphaProof, astonished mathematicians with its stellar performance in the International Mathematics Olympiad, a high-level competition for students. “Superhuman intelligence is not just confined to games; it extends into crucial scientific endeavors,” Kohli emphasized.
The methodologies behind AlphaGo and large-scale language models like ChatGPT share similarities. The first phase, known as pre-training, feeds vast amounts of data into the neural network—either complete Go matches or the entirety of Internet content for language models. The second phase, post-training, refines the network using reinforcement learning, helping AI understand and achieve success.
For AlphaGo, this entailed self-playing millions of games to discover optimal strategies. AlphaFold relied on understanding correctly folded proteins. ChatGPT utilizes a process called reinforcement learning from human feedback to inform the model on preferable answers, guiding it through specific tasks like mathematics or coding.
However, this process isn’t without challenges. Neural networks often function as black boxes; their internal mechanisms can be too complex to comprehend fully.
During AlphaGo’s remarkable 37 moves, spectators initially believed the AI had made an error, only to later see its brilliance unfold as a strategic move. Yet, engineers at Google DeepMind could not elucidate why AlphaGo made that choice, leaving room for doubt about its reasoning.
“These models produce answers, yet we cannot discern whether they are profound insights or mere hallucinations,” Kohli commented. “We are actively exploring methods to address such issues.”
A large part of AlphaGo’s success stemmed from the quality of data utilized and having clear success metrics. This reinforces that AI thrives in fields where both conditions are met. Madison asserts that domains like mathematics and programming lend themselves well to easily defined success criteria. “These similarities highlight essential factors that drive progress in AI development,” he concluded.
Currently, I am reading Big Oyster: The History of the Half Shell, a captivating account that chronicles New York City’s rich relationship with oysters through the lens of a renowned oyster farm. As a local resident, I was only vaguely aware of how significant the oyster population was to the city and the restoration efforts that are underway.
Upon the arrival of Europeans in the early 1600s, they were astonished by the oysters, which were reportedly the size of their feet. The Lenape Indians consumed so many oysters that they created massive shell heaps, referred to by archaeologists as middens.
Even today, construction workers frequently encounter these ancient shell mounds while excavating for subway tunnels and railroads.
In his book, journalist Mark Kurlansky intricately weaves together historical narratives, archaeological findings, and urban records, illustrating New York City’s transformation from a natural haven to a bustling concrete metropolis. This new perspective has profoundly altered my view of the city.
A Brief History of the Universe By Sarah Alam Malik, Published by Simon & Schuster (UK, February 12) and William Morrow (USA, May 5)
Published in 1988, Stephen Hawking’s A Brief History of Time revolutionized the field of cosmology and became a bestseller. As a curious teenager, I attempted to read it, but I never finished. Now, nearly four decades later, particle physicist Sara Alam Malik offers her own perspective on cosmology with A Brief History of the Universe (and Our Place in It).
While Hawking’s work began with Aristotle’s heliocentric theory from 340 BC, Malik traces our understanding back to Babylonian astronomical observations recorded in cuneiform around the 7th century BC. The journey then progresses through the contributions of Aristotle and Ptolemy, reaching the flourishing of astronomical sciences in the Islamic Golden Age during the 6th century AD.
This concise history propels readers through significant milestones by page 47, covering Galileo’s discovery of Jupiter’s moons, Newton’s apple, and Einstein’s general relativity, ultimately exploring the mysteries of galaxies and black holes, leading to the concept of the universe’s thermal death. Malik adeptly connects cosmic-scale truths with the intricate world of quantum mechanics, stating, “The building blocks of the universe turned out to be as amazing as the structure of the universe they created.”
Unlike Hawking’s technical depth, Malik adopts a broader perspective, bringing to life characters such as Dmitri Mendeleev, who created the periodic table, and Fritz Zwicky, the pioneer of dark matter. Her narrative highlights a diverse cast, including medieval Islamic astronomers and groundbreaking women like Vera Rubin, who overcame gender barriers to reshape our understanding of galaxies.
Written with a more contemporary tone, Malik discusses topics Hawking could not forecast in 1988, such as the Large Hadron Collider, revealing the emotional impact of scientific breakthroughs like the Higgs boson discovery through compelling anecdotes.
This book is not only a “brief history of the universe” but emphasizes “and our place in it.” It narrates humanity’s discovery of the cosmos, underscoring our journey enabled by the giants before us. It evokes awe and humility, reminding us, “It remains a wonder of human existence that we can understand worlds so far removed from our own.” Each era has crafted its narrative of the universe, often believing its own version.
At its best, Malik’s work dives deeply into cosmic and quantum mysteries, aligning with her expertise in dark matter. While chapters on the origin of life, its future, and machine intelligence may feel less thorough, her warm, clear prose covers an impressive breadth within just 223 pages. As an 18-year-old, I might have navigated this complex narrative and been inspired to follow in Hawking’s footsteps.
Treponema pallidum Bacteria Linked to Syphilis and Related Diseases
Source: Science Photo Library / Alamy
New research reveals that traces of Treponema pallidum—the bacteria responsible for syphilis—have been identified in the bones of ancient inhabitants of Colombia, dating back over 5,000 years. This discovery suggests that syphilis was infecting humans far earlier than previously believed, prior to the advent of intensive agriculture, which many experts think may have facilitated its spread.
Currently, Treponema pallidum encompasses three subspecies that cause syphilis, bejel, and framboise. The origins and transmission pathways of these diseases remain topics of scientific debate. Although ancient DNA and infectious markers on bones offer insights, they are often limited and ambiguous.
In a groundbreaking study, researchers analyzed DNA from 5,500-year-old remains discovered in the Bogotá savannah. The unexpected finding of Treponema pallidum in a human leg bone provides critical evidence of its historical prevalence.
“This discovery was entirely unanticipated, as there was a lack of skeletal evidence indicating an infectious disease,” notes Nasreen Broumandkoshbacht from the University of California, Santa Cruz.
Many scholars have long posited that the majority of diseases affected humans only after the rise of intensive agriculture, which led to denser populations. However, this individual lived in a contrasting setting—small, nomadic hunter-gatherer bands that maintained close contact with wild animals.
“These results shed light on the extensive evolutionary history of these organisms,” states Davide Bozzi from the University of Lausanne, Switzerland. “They reveal longstanding relationships between the bacterium and human populations.”
As researchers, including Blumandhoschbacht and Bozzi, correlated ancient genomes with contemporary ones, they identified that the pallidum strain was part of a distinct lineage, separate from any known modern relatives. This indicates that early variants of syphilis were already diversifying and infecting humans in the Americas millennia ago, with many of the same genetic traits that make present-day strains particularly pathogenic.
The findings imply that these pathogens were not only early residents in the Americas but may have been affecting human populations globally for much longer than previously assumed.
Rodrigo Barquera, a researcher at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, suggests that this ancient strain might link to an elusive “missing” pathogen, Treponema carathaeum, known primarily for its physical characteristics rather than its genetic makeup.
Kertu Majumdar, a researcher at the University of Zurich in Switzerland, posits, “The genomes of even older organisms might provide insights into a variety of extinct lineages and diseases caused by these pathogens.”
For Bozzi, unearthing the evolutionary adaptations of pathogens like syphilis is crucial for understanding their genetic attributes that enhance their virulence in new hosts.
Shorebirds serve as important indicators of coastal and wetland ecosystems, and their widespread distribution highlights their ecological significance. Although wading shorebirds are infrequently found in the fossil record, a remarkable collection of shorebird fossils has emerged from Pleistocene deposits at the Naracoorte Caves World Heritage Site in South Australia. Recent studies on these fossils provide insights into the evolution of wetland environments, revealing that flourishing habitats vanished with climate shifts as far back as 60,000 years ago. The research links a drying phase around 17,000 years ago to the decline of many of the nine or more shorebird species discovered in one of the Naracoorte Caves.
Red knot (Calidris canutus), near Grinet, Brittany, France. Image credit: Stephan Sprinz / CC BY 4.0.
“Shorebirds are rare in the fossil record, making the discovery of numerous shorebird fossils in Blanche Cave surprising,” stated PhD candidate Karl Lenser from Flinders University.
“This finding suggests that wetlands and tidal flats—vital feeding grounds for plovers, sandpipers, and other shorebirds—were more prevalent during the last Ice Age.”
Currently, climate change and habitat loss are contributing to the decline of Australia’s shorebird populations.
Gaining insights into how these species adapted to historical climate changes may be essential for forecasting their future.
Lenser and his team were particularly intrigued by the remains of the Plains Wanderer, an endangered bird found mostly in Victoria and New South Wales, which was among the most common fossils identified in this study.
Out of approximately 300 examined bones, more than half were identified as those of Plains Wanderers.
“Today’s Plains Wanderers are selective about their habitats; however, other fossils from Naracoorte indicate that the area once featured wooded environments—starkly different from the treeless grassland they inhabit today,” Lenser explained.
Naracoorte represents the only fossil site in Australia with such a substantial population of Plains Wanderers, indicating a significant decline in their numbers over the last 14,000 years due to habitat restriction.
Dr. Trevor Worthy from Flinders University highlighted the uniqueness of this sandpiper fossil sample, noting its representation of migratory species that travel from the Northern Hemisphere to spend winters in Australia.
“This includes three species from the Calidris genus and the Latham Sandpiper (Galinago hardwickii),” he added.
“Fossil assemblages also include blue-bellied plovers that migrate from Australia to New Zealand for breeding.”
“Fossil evidence shows that two young birds flew approximately 2,000 km from New Zealand and were captured by owls near Blanche Cave in Naracoorte,” Dr. Worthy explained.
“There remains much to uncover about Australia’s bird species from the last Ice Age, and fossils from sites like Naracoorte are crucial for filling in these knowledge gaps,” Lenser noted.
“Naracoorte Caves holds a 500,000-year record of biodiversity in Southeast South Australia,” stated Dr. Liz Reid from the University of Adelaide.
“As this study clearly demonstrates, caves offer a glimpse into pre-European landscapes, providing valuable information for the conservation of endangered species today.”
Visitors to Naracoorte Caves can explore the excavation site and delve into the science behind South Australia’s only World Heritage Site.
Findings have been published in the online journal Old Trogia Electronica about the study.
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Karl M. Lenser et al. 2026. Fossil shorebirds (order: Charadriidae) revealing a Pleistocene wetland trend at Naracoorte Caves, South Australia. Old Trogia Electronica 29 (1): a2; doi: 10.26879/1608
An Artist’s Rendition of the Universe’s Early Moments
Credit: Alfred Pasieka/Science Photo Library/Alamy Stock Photo
The initial second of the universe’s existence was arguably the most significant moment in history. According to Big Bang cosmology, which is widely accepted by most cosmologists, the universe commenced from an infinitely small and dense state, expanding into a vast cosmos over several light-years.
This monumental journey began with a phase known as inflation. The exact cause of this exponential expansion remains a mystery; however, every 10 years, it is estimated that the distance between any two points in space doubled. This process saw the universe swell by a billion times, far exceeding the total number of grains of sand found on Earth’s beaches – and even surpassing the number of stars in the known universe.
During this inflationary period, foundational structures, which would evolve into the universe’s largest formations, were established. As the universe expanded, minuscule irregularities grew, driven by the randomness of quantum mechanics. These fluctuations contributed to differences in the density of the immensely hot plasma that filled the universe.
The duration of the Inflationary Era and the final size of the universe at its conclusion are topics of ongoing debate. While cosmologists might liken its size to that of various fruits, the consensus is that it lasted just a fleeting moment. Despite its rapid growth, the universe would have been comparable to a grain of sand up to a few meters in diameter, existing as a hot, opaque plasma interspersed with the first particles and antiparticles amidst raw energy.
As this hot sphere expanded, it gradually cooled, allowing particles to bond and form the first hadrons, including protons and neutrons, which comprise most of today’s matter. This process, known as baryogenesis, saw an unexpected surplus of matter compared to antimatter, resulting in the majority of antimatter annihilating with matter during the early universe’s development.
As particles continued to evolve, the universe underwent significant transitions referred to as “phase transitions,” simultaneously altering the state of all matter. This was a unique moment of synchronicity that has never been replicated. Initially, the four fundamental forces of nature – gravity, strong force, weak force, and electromagnetic force – were unified during the Big Bang, but separate distinguished behaviors emerged within the first billionth of a second.
These phase transitions facilitated further changes. The universe transitioned from opaque to transparent, allowing radiation to flow freely, lighting up the cosmos. Newly formed matter particles began gaining mass through interactions with the Higgs field, which had recently become separated from other fields. At this juncture, only a trillionth of a second post-Big Bang, particles, including the fundamental ones, began to acquire mass, significantly altering the cosmic landscape.
As the universe, still less than a light-year in diameter, started clumping together due to the quantum fluctuations, it laid the groundwork for the eventual formation of galaxies and star clusters. While it took an extensive period for these structures to materialize, this aggregation was a crucial event in cosmic evolution.
Approximately one second after the Big Bang, the rapid evolution of the cosmos began to moderate. Although the universe remained considerably smaller than the distance between our Sun and the nearest star, Alpha Centauri, the fundamental particles and forces that shaped its future were already taking familiar forms.
Nuclei formed a few minutes after the Big Bang, but it would be hundreds of thousands of years before they could hold electrons and create neutral atoms. Stars and galaxies took tens of millions of years more to emerge. Yet, the essential foundations for our universe were established within that brief second. Numerous seconds have elapsed since then, with cosmologists tirelessly investigating and piecing together the myriad events bridging that primeval moment to the present.
Ultimately, that single second of cosmic history was transformative. It propelled the universe from a point in the vast nothingness into the primordial soup from which everything else arose.
Arc-shaped volcanoes like Japan’s Sakurajima release carbon dioxide from the Earth’s interior
Asahi Shimbun via Getty Images
New research suggests that the impact of volcanoes on Earth’s climate may not be as ancient as previously believed.
The Earth’s climate has experienced shifts between “icehouse” and “greenhouse” conditions, largely dictated by greenhouse gas levels like carbon dioxide.
Volcanic arcs, including significant eruptions from mountain ranges such as Japan’s, release CO2 from deep within the Earth. Recent findings indicate that dinosaurs became a substantial source of carbon emissions only towards the end of their reign, approximately 100 million years ago, according to Ben Mather and his team from the University of Melbourne.
This correlates with the emergence of phytoplankton featuring calcium carbonate scales in the oceans approximately 150 million years ago. When these organisms perish, they deposit large amounts of calcium carbonate on the ocean floor.
As tectonic plates shift, these significant reservoirs of carbon are pushed into the mantle and recycled into the Earth’s molten core via a process known as subduction.
“Most of the carbon derived from plankton on the subducting oceanic plate mixes into the melt interior, but a portion is released through volcanic arcs,” explains Mather.
Before the emergence of scaly plankton, volcanic arc emissions contained relatively lower levels of CO2, according to Mather.
Through modeling, Mather and colleagues examined tectonics’ long-term impact on the carbon cycle over the past 500 million years. They discovered that much of the carbon stored within Earth throughout its history was released through crustal fractures in a process termed rifting, not primarily through volcanic arcs.
Rifting, a geological process where continents separate, can occur on land (as in the East African Rift) or along mid-ocean ridges.
“As tectonic plates separate, they effectively ‘roof off’ parts of the molten Earth,” Mather states. “This process generates new crust at mid-ocean ridges, releasing carbon.” The amount of carbon entering the atmosphere from continental fractures and mid-ocean ridges relies on the cracks’ length and the rate at which they separate, a process that has remained relatively stable. However, emissions from volcanic arcs have surged in the last 100 million years due to new carbon reservoirs formed by plankton.
Currently, Earth is in a temporary warm phase called an interglacial period, nested within a larger ice age that began 34 million years ago. One reason for the persistent cold phases is that phytoplankton sequester substantial amounts of carbon from the ocean, depositing it on the sea floor. Although volcanic emissions are rising, they still pale in comparison to the carbon stored by phytoplankton and that sequestered through tectonic movements.
According to Alan Collins and his team from the University of Adelaide, modeling studies like this are crucial for comprehending how volcanic and tectonic activities have influenced climate patterns over geological timescales.
“The composition of marine sediments has shifted as new organisms evolved, utilizing diverse elements, including the rise of calcium carbonate-based zooplankton,” Collins emphasizes.
Reference journal: Nature Communications Earth and Environment, DOI TK
Explore the Land of Fire and Ice: Iceland
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Image of SN Eos supernova taken by the James Webb Space Telescope
Astronomers have identified a colossal star’s explosion shortly after the universe emerged from the Cosmic Dark Ages, offering insights into the birth and demise of the first stars.
When a star exhausts its fuel, it explodes in a spectacular event known as a supernova. While nearby supernovae are exceedingly bright, the light from ancient explosions takes billions of years to reach Earth, fading into invisibility by the time it arrives.
This is why astronomers typically detect distant supernovae only during exceptional circumstances, such as Type Ic supernovae, which are the remnants of stars stripped of their outer gas and producing intense gamma-ray bursts. However, the more common Type II supernova, the predominant explosion observed in our galaxy, occurs when a massive star depletes its fuel but remains too faint for casual observation.
Notably, David Coulter, a professor at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, and his team utilized the James Webb Space Telescope to discover a Type II supernova named SN Eos, dating back to when the universe was only 1 billion years old.
Fortunately, the supernova’s explosion took place behind a vast galaxy cluster, whose potent gravity amplified the light, rendering SN Eos dozens of times brighter than it would typically appear, facilitating detailed studies.
Researchers meticulously analyzed the light spectrum from SN Eos, confirming it as the oldest supernova detected via spectroscopy. Their findings denote it as a Type II supernova, attesting to its origins from a massive star.
Additionally, evidence suggests that the progenitor star contained remarkably low quantities of elements beyond hydrogen and helium—less than 10% of the elemental abundance present in the Sun. This aligns with theories about the early universe, where multiple stellar generations hadn’t existed long enough to create heavier elements.
“This allows us to quickly identify the type of stellar population in that region. [This star] exploded,” stated Or Graul from the University of Portsmouth, UK. “Massive stars tend to explode shortly after their formation. In cosmological terms, a million years is a brief interval, making them indicators of ongoing star formation within their respective galaxies.”
Light from such vast distances is typically emitted by small galaxies, allowing astronomers to infer the average characteristics of the stars within these galaxies. However, studying individual stars at these distances tends to be unfeasible. As noted by Matt Nicholl of Queen’s University, Belfast, UK, “This discovery provides us with exquisite data on an individual star. [Distance] has kept us from observing an isolated supernova here, but the data confirms this star’s uniqueness compared to others in the local universe.”
This observation occurred just a few hundred million years following the Era of Reionization, a pivotal period in the universe’s history. During this time, light from the inaugural stars began ionizing neutral hydrogen gas, transitioning it into translucent ionized hydrogen. This relates to SN Eos, as it serves as a supernova from a time we would expect to see.
“This discovery closely coincides with the reionization era when the universe emerged from darkness, permitting photons to travel freely once more and allowing us to observe,” said Graul.
Rowan Hooper: Bill, when you announced your visit to the office, people reacted as if Ryan Gosling or David Beckham were arriving.
Bill Bryson: That’s just my appeal.
RH: Your book from 2003, A Short History of Almost Everything, has become one of the best-selling nonfiction titles of the 21st century, and you’ve now released a revised edition.
It’s over 20 years old, and science has evolved tremendously since then. Consider the Denisovans: back when I wrote the first edition, little was known about these ancient humans, just like Homo floresiensis – the Hobbit. Revisiting and updating this was gratifying because I reconnected with many experts I first interviewed two decades ago.
RH: One of the most rewarding aspects of being a science reporter is the privilege of speaking with leading experts and engaging them about their groundbreaking research.
For many scientists, their work often goes unnoticed, especially in fields that lack public interest. I’m here to say that their contributions are remarkable and worth discussing.
I always ask, what inspired you to enter your specific field? What was that defining moment that made you passionate about studying, say, lichens?
RH: Shifting gears, what was your own “Eureka” moment in science?
I struggled with science during my school years. Coming of age in America during the 1950s and 1960s, education focused heavily on producing future scientists, which didn’t resonate with everyone.
Yet, I believe everyone should connect with science at some level. Science is foundational—it explains our existence and guides us towards understanding our future. My aim was to engage people in this discovery, sparking curiosity without delving into complexities like equations and technical jargon.
When I first pitched this idea to publishers, they dismissed it as impractical, suggesting I leave popular science to titans like Stephen Hawking. But they eventually allowed me to proceed.
To my surprise, many people are eager to learn about science just as I am. The book’s essence revolves around the question: “How do we know what we know?” It explores the processes scientists use to uncover knowledge.
Remarkably, I found it fascinating how much we still don’t know. The unknown is as compelling as the known.
Understanding that we cannot yet quantify all the insect species on Earth highlights this point.
RH: Many species are disappearing before we’ve even identified them, directly linking to climate change, which isn’t covered in the book. What was the rationale behind that decision?
The book aims to clarify our historical understanding and the current state of knowledge. Thus, its focus leans towards the history of science.
Penny Sarche: One significant change from the initial edition to the new one is the human lifespan—previously 74.2 years, it has now extended to over 80 years. This reflects a major increase in longevity.
Originally, I emphasized that a human lifespan comprises roughly 650,000 hours. Reflecting on all the moments spent idly, like watching Coronation Street, makes me value the time we have.
PS: Did you encounter any unexpected insights while revising this book?
I was amazed to discover that we’ve identified twice as many moons in the solar system. I pondered, “How difficult can it be to keep track of moons?”
“
One thing I didn’t expect was that it’s actually quite interesting that there’s so much we don’t know. “
In the past 20 years, the number of moons orbiting Jupiter has tripled, with most being relatively small. The definition of a moon is simply a rock that orbits a planet.
RH: Another notable change is the complexity of human family trees, now resembling a hedge rather than a straightforward line. Was that surprising? It seems almost manageable, right?
It was indeed surprising. Experts initially believed they had a solid grasp on human ancestry, but discoveries concerning the Denisovans and other ancient human groups have complicated matters.
What fascinates me is how ancient humans interacted and coexisted. Contrary to popular belief, interbreeding was common among different groups, suggesting a rich and intertwined history.
Alec Luhn: Twenty years ago, the scientific community operated in a calmer atmosphere. Currently, discussions in the U.S. suggest a war on science. Did this create pressure while writing the 2.0 edition?
The main goal of this book is to sustain the dialogue around science for another 20 years, hoping for reflection on the current climate as a temporary phase.
It would be tragic if such policies and institutionalized dissent became a long-lasting aspect of the U.S.
This text is revised from an interview shared on the New Scientist podcast titled “The World, the Universe, and Us.”
The skeletal remains of the individual known as ‘Beachy Head Woman’ were rediscovered in 2012 within the collection of Eastbourne Town Hall. Since then, her story has garnered significant public interest. Radiocarbon dating reveals that she lived between 129 and 311 AD during the Roman occupation of Britain. Over the last decade, researchers have sought to uncover her geographic origins and ancestry. Initially believed to originate from sub-Saharan Africa or the Mediterranean, groundbreaking DNA research now indicates she shares strong genetic connections with the local population of Roman-occupied Britain and modern-day Britons.
A depiction of Beachy Head Woman’s face. Image credit: Face Lab, Liverpool John Moores University.
The journey of Beachy Head Woman began with her rediscovery in 2012, although uncertainty still surrounds her life. Radiocarbon dating placed her death between 129 and 311 AD, during the Roman occupation of Britain.
Analysis of her remains suggests she was aged between 18 and 25 at the time of death and stood just over 1.5 meters tall. A healed leg wound implies she endured a serious but non-fatal injury during her life.
Dietary analysis of her bones indicates a high seafood diet, revealing insights into her lifestyle.
“Using advanced DNA technology, we have made significant strides in uncovering the origins of this individual,” stated researcher Dr. William Marsh from the Natural History Museum in London.
“Our findings show that her genetic ancestry is most closely aligned with other individuals from the local population of Roman Britain,” he added.
The Beachy Head Woman’s remains were unearthed from a collection at Eastbourne Town Hall. Initial findings indicated that her skeleton was discovered at Beachy Head, a nearby geographic landmark, during the 1950s, though details of the excavation remain elusive.
Interest in Beachy Head Woman intensified when initial morphometric analyses suggested potential sub-Saharan African origins. This captivating narrative was exhibited at Eastbourne Museum, capturing widespread media attention.
In 2017, unpublished DNA findings implied a Mediterranean origin, possibly from Cyprus, rather than Africa. However, these conclusions are drawn from limited data, leaving many questions about Beachy Head Woman’s life unanswered.
“As our scientific knowledge continues to expand, it is our mission as researchers to seek further answers,” commented Dr. Selina Brace, also from the Natural History Museum in London.
“Thanks to technological advancements over the past decade since Beachy Head Woman’s reemergence, we are thrilled to share new comprehensive data and insights into her life,” she concluded.
For more details, you can refer to the team’s paper published this month in the Archaeology Journal.
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Andy Walton et al. Beachy Head Woman: Uncovering her origins using multi-proxy anthropological and biomolecular approaches. Archaeology Journal, published online on December 17, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2025.106445
The moon may have had a more intricate formation than previously believed.
NASA/NOAA
Recent theories suggest that multiple collisions with Earth might better elucidate the Moon’s origin than the traditionally accepted single massive impact 4.5 billion years ago, potentially addressing one of its greatest enigmas.
Tracing the Moon’s origin has proven challenging. The prevailing theory is that it formed early in the solar system’s evolution due to a catastrophic collision between Earth and Theia, a Mars-sized body, and its formation likely originated closer to the sun than Earth’s current position. This impact would have expelled debris that ultimately coalesced into the large natural satellite we recognize today. At that period, matter around the sun was highly intermixed, making collisions frequent.
However, this prevailing model encounters complications, as the chemical compositions of Earth and the Moon are remarkably similar, suggesting that the Moon should retain more material from Theia than our planet does. “This presents a significant dilemma for the standard model,” comments Philip Carter, a researcher at the University of Bristol, UK.
Carter and his team propose a paradigm shift, suggesting that a series of impacts with Earth over millions of years may provide a more coherent explanation for the compositional similarities between Earth and the Moon. They propose that three or more significant impacts in the early solar system, involving bodies from the size of the modern Moon to those approaching Mars in size, could account for the Moon’s creation as we observe it today.
In this revised model, each impact creates smaller moons, known as microsatellites, orbiting Earth. Over eons, these smaller bodies would progressively merge under gravitational attraction, forming a singular large entity. “They will be drawn to one another and collide,” explains Carter. “The probability of sustaining a stable system with multiple large moonlets is exceedingly low.”
Previous models also posited multiple impacts as the origin of the Moon; however, they typically required a more rigorous series of impacts than this current framework. “After three significant collisions, we introduced sufficient mass into orbit to form a full Moon,” stated Carter.
Robert Citron, a researcher at the Southwest Research Institute in Colorado, suggests that fewer impacts might be more favorable since too many collisions could displace smaller satellites from Earth’s orbit and hinder Moon formation. However, as more impacts occur, the compositional alignment between Earth and the Moon increases, accurately reflecting their current similarities. “When multiple impacts are involved, you are averaging out more influencing factors,” Citron notes.
The unique relationship between Earth and the Moon underscores the necessity of understanding the Moon’s formation. “It is a remarkably distinctive satellite,” Citron emphasizes. “Its size relative to Earth is vast, whereas the moons of Mars appear minuscule in comparison to Mars, and the moons of gas giants are diminutive compared to their planets.”
Establishing which hypothesis is correct necessitates more intricate modeling to assess the impact’s intensity on Earth and the volume of material expelled. Carter remarks, “Calculating all these details remains exceedingly complex.” He adds, “Personally, I prefer the multi-impact model over the traditional single-impact theory.”
Corals construct their skeletons from calcium carbonate, releasing carbon dioxide as a byproduct.
Reinhard Dirscherl/Alamy
For the last 250 million years, coral reef systems have been crucial to the Earth’s climate, but perhaps not in the manner you might assume.
Coral reefs generate excess carbon dioxide because the formation of calcium carbonate, which constitutes coral skeletons, involves the release of greenhouse gases.
Certain plankton species utilize calcium carbonate to form their shells, and when these organisms perish, the mineral becomes buried on the ocean floor. In ecosystems dominated by coral, calcium and carbonate ions that typically nourish deep-sea plankton are rendered inaccessible.
Tristan Salles and his team at the University of Sydney conducted a modeling study on the interactions among shallow corals and deep-sea plankton over the last 250 million years, incorporating reconstructions of plate tectonics, climate simulations, and variations in sediment contribution to the ocean.
They determined that tectonic activity and geographic features foster periods with extensive shallow continental shelves, which provide optimal conditions for reef-building corals, thereby disrupting the coral-plankton dynamics.
As the area covered by coral reefs diminishes, calcium and alkali levels accumulate in the ocean, enhancing plankton productivity and increasing the burial of carbonate in the deep ocean. This shift contributes to lower CO2 concentrations and cooler temperatures.
The study revealed three significant disruptions in the carbon cycle over the past 250 million years. During these events—specifically in the Mid-Triassic, Mid-Jurassic, and Late Cretaceous—extensive coral reefs consumed vast amounts of calcium carbonate, resulting in notable ocean temperature increases.
Once the balance between shallow-sea corals and deep-sea plankton is disrupted, realignment can require hundreds of thousands to millions of years, noted Salles.
“Even if the system recovers from a significant crisis, achieving equilibrium will be a prolonged process, significantly extending beyond human timelines,” Salles elaborated.
On a brighter note, Salles observes that corals excel at absorbing excess nutrients to aid in reef building, even if planktonic nutrient growth gets excessive.
Currently, human-induced carbon dioxide emissions are driving unprecedented global warming and ocean acidification, endangering both corals and plankton, according to Salles. While the outcomes remain uncertain, the potential impact on ecosystems could be catastrophic.
“The feedback mechanisms we modeled span deep time and may not be relevant today. The current rate of change is too rapid for carbonate platform feedbacks to maintain similar significance.”
Alexander Skiles from the Australian National University in Canberra remarks that this research illustrates a “profoundly interconnected feedback cycle between ecosystems and climate.”
He suggested that while species are presumed to evolve and adapt to the climatic conditions dictated by “immutable physical and chemical processes,” it is increasingly evident that certain species are actively shaping the climate itself, leading to co-evolutionary feedback loops.
“Beyond corals, ancient microbial colonies like stromatolites have significantly influenced atmospheric carbon regulation,” Skiles pointed out.
“It is well-recognized that carbon is accelerating climate warming at an alarming rate. Corals contribute to this dynamic over extensive geological time, which may elucidate fluctuations between warmer and cooler periods.”
Prime Minister Tony Blair asserted that “history will not permit” Britain to lag behind in the quantum computing race. This advanced technology is anticipated to ignite a new era of innovations across various fields, from pharmaceutical development to climate analysis.
“The United Kingdom risks losing its edge in quantum research,” cautioned the former Labor prime minister at the Tony Blair Institute, a think tank supported by tech industry veterans such as Oracle founder Larry Ellison.
In a report advocating for a national quantum computing strategy, Mr. Blair and former Conservative leader William Hague drew parallels between the current situation and the evolution of artificial intelligence. While the UK made significant contributions to AI research, it has since surrendered its leadership to other nations, particularly the US, which has triggered a race to develop “sovereign” AI capabilities.
“As demonstrated with AI, a robust R&D foundation alone is insufficient; countries with the necessary infrastructure and capital will capture the economic and strategic advantages of such technologies,” they noted. “While the UK boasts the second-largest number of quantum start-ups globally, it lacks the high-risk investment and infrastructure essential for scaling these ventures.”
Quantum computing operates in unusual and fascinating ways that contrast sharply with classical computing. Traditional computers process information through transistors that switch on or off, representing 1s and 0s. However, in quantum mechanics, entities can exist in multiple states simultaneously, thanks to a phenomenon called quantum superposition, which allows transistors to be in an on and off state concurrently.
This leads to a dramatic boost in computational capabilities, enabling a single quantum computer to perform tasks that would typically require billions of the most advanced supercomputers. Although this field is not yet mature enough for widespread application, the potential for simulating molecular structures to develop new materials and pharmaceuticals is vast. The true value of quantum computing lies in its practical delivery. Estimations suggest that industries such as chemicals, life sciences, automotive, and finance could represent about $1.3 trillion.
There are increasing fears that extraordinarily powerful quantum machines could decipher all encryption and pose serious risks to national security.
Prime Ministers Blair and Hague remarked: “The quantum era is upon us, whether Britain chooses to lead or not.” They added, “History will not excuse us if we squander yet another opportunity to excel in groundbreaking technology.”
This alert follows the recent recognition of British, Cambridge-educated John Clarke, who received the 2025 Nobel Prize in Physics for his contributions to quantum computing, alongside the continued growth of UK quantum firms supported by US companies.
In June, the Oxford University spinout Oxford Ionics was acquired by US company IonQ for $1.1 billion. Meanwhile, Cyclantum, a spinout from the University of Bristol and Imperial College London, primarily thrived in California, discovering that its most enthusiastic investors were located there, where it developed its first large-scale quantum computer. These advancements can be made in Brisbane, Australia.
A report from the Tony Blair Institute for Global Change critiques the UK’s current quantum approach, highlighting that both China and the US are “ahead of the game,” with countries like Germany, Australia, Finland, and the Netherlands also surpassing the UK.
A government representative stated: “Quantum technology has the potential to revolutionize sectors ranging from healthcare to affordable clean energy. The UK currently ranks second globally for quantum investment and possesses leading capabilities in supply chains such as photonics, yet we are resolute in pushing forward.”
They continued: “We have committed to a groundbreaking 10-year funding strategy for the National Quantum Computing Center and will plan other aspects of the national program in due course.”
In June, the Labor party unveiled a £670 million initiative to expedite the application of quantum computing, as part of an industrial strategy aimed at developing new treatments for untreatable diseases and enhancing carbon capture technologies.
On February 24, 1997, Jerry Linenger and his team of five encountered a peril they hoped to avoid: a fire on the space station, located hundreds of kilometers above Earth.
The fire ignited shortly after dinner when Russian cosmonaut Alexander Razutkin activated a solid-fuel oxygen generator meant to boost air supply while Russia’s flagship space station, Mir, was accommodating an unusually large crew.
The generators burst into flames, unleashing a three-foot-high jet of fire and sparks throughout the module. Soon, thick black smoke enveloped the station. The sole evacuation route? Blocked by the flames themselves.
Crews immediately mobilized, donning oxygen masks and using fire extinguishers to combat the blaze. After 14 tense minutes, the fire was extinguished, ensuring crew safety. However, it took hours for the smoke to clear, and even longer for those on the ground to learn what had transpired.
In a conversation with BBC Science Focus, astronaut Linenger reflects on surviving one of spaceflight’s most severe accidents and shares the lessons he hopes to impart to future generations aiming for the stars.
NASA astronaut Jerry Linenger wears a ventilator after a fire on the Mir space station. – Credit: NASA
SF: What was it like to experience such a dramatic event while in space? How did you feel at the time?
JL: It was a nightmare scenario. There’s no place to escape. People often mention claustrophobia, but I never felt that. They thoroughly screen for vulnerabilities like that.
When there’s a fire with flames two to three feet tall and smoke engulfing the entire station, I had never witnessed smoke spread in such a manner. Maintaining calm was crucial.
This is considered the most significant fire in space, and I believe that title remains accurate.
I’ve come to understand just how quickly situations can shift. One moment everything seems normal, and the next, you’re faced with life and death.
Mir space station seen above Earth – Credit: NASA
SF: Fighting fire is one matter, but smoke is equally perilous. How long did it take to resolve the situation?
JL: The Russians claimed the ship had an excellent filtration system, but that wasn’t true. A water-based extinguisher was in place, so much of the smoke evaporated.
Picture a humid, smoky environment. When we moved to the other side of the world, the hull cooled down, causing the water to condense alongside the smoke.
We didn’t have a great life support or filtration system—it was merely the condensation hitting the cold hull, which complicated matters. This issue persisted throughout our stay, as we aimed to avoid water splashing on the walls, where electronic equipment could corrode.
The next 24 hours involved wearing damp clothes and cleaning up the blackened water resulting from the fire. That’s how we cleared the air.
To answer your question, it took about a day to clean up. But roughly 45 minutes to an hour after the fire, the ventilators ran out of oxygen, and we could remove our masks and breathe. The air was still smoky, but I could breathe after about an hour.
Jerry Linenger somewhat relaxed aboard Mir, just three days after the fire started – Credit: NASA
SF: Is experiencing something like that on Earth different from in space?
JL: Yes, it’s an entirely different realm up there. It’s honestly hard to comprehend.
For instance, time loses meaning. The 24-hour day is a geocentric notion, irrelevant to the reality of time. If you experience day and night 15 times within a day, you realize the 24-hour construct is merely an artificial framework. Our sense of time shifts dramatically.
The concepts of top and bottom, space volume, and even the idea of walls change. Everything is fundamentally different.
Surprisingly, maintaining focus takes immense brainpower. Every detail demands attention; nothing is automatic anymore. It’s a stark contrast from the previous 40 years of my life.
The Mir Space Station was officially retired on March 23, 2001 after 15 years of operation – Credit: NASA
SF: Why do you think NASA and the Russian Space Agency downplayed the fire’s severity?
JL: This might be a Russian tactic. We had limited communication with Houston; all dialogue occurred through the Moscow control station, which could only connect when directly overhead.
There was a strong sense of discipline. As I mentioned, this was the final phase of their space program, and they were keen to maintain it at all costs, wanting to keep the U.S. involved. Negative news about the station was likely suppressed. Historically, Russia’s system has excelled at distorting reality and silencing unpleasant information.
“Don’t inform the people on-site. Stay quiet. They don’t want to hear about it,” was said unexpectedly. They wanted to create a particular narrative. In hindsight, it seems absurd. When we returned to Earth, we learned they described it as a minor incident, saying everything was fine. It was a significant fire. We narrowly escaped. Had the flames reached the hull, we would have faced rapid decompression and suffocation.
If the ventilators had failed or the flames lingered, we wouldn’t have had any breathable oxygen.
Despite that, I must emphasize the exceptional nature of my crewmates, the Russian cosmonauts. I wholeheartedly trusted them with my life. However, the systems on the ground were chaotic then, just as they are now. Any official narrative should be taken with skepticism, and it’s common to discredit the messenger conveying the truth upon returning.
The six crew members on board Mir during the February 1997 fire: (front) Aleksandr Y. Carelli, left, Jerry M. Linenger, and Valeri G. Korzun. (Back) Vasili V. Tsibuliev, left, Reinhold Ewald, Alexander I. Razutkin – Credit: DLR German Aerospace Center
SF: What advice would you give to the new generation who will experience the wonders (and risks) of space?
JL: You should feel honored to have that opportunity and make the most of every moment. Give it your all.
Looking back now, I take pride in my efforts. I believe I did my utmost. No regrets. I’m grateful to be alive—never thought I would be.
However, you are incredibly fortunate, so give it everything you have—1,000 percent. Recognize that you are blessed to be among those who venture into space.
Now, I think it’s time to reevaluate what we call astronauts. The experience of going to space and returning to sing “Yahoo!” and take pictures is vastly different from my experience.
If I were a passenger among tourists aboard that flight, I wouldn’t engage with you. It’s indisputable. Surviving Mir was no easy task.
Professional astronauts, much like seasoned test pilots, maintain composure in chaotic situations. I had immense faith in my crewmates, a pilot and a military engineer, as they possessed the expertise essential for navigating difficulties. It’s manageable when circumstances are stable, but when issues arise, having experienced professionals beside you is crucial.
This conversation has been edited for length and clarity.
Interested in learning more about Jerry Linenger’s experiences battling fires in space? His story, among many others, is featured in a new documentary series. Once Upon a Time in Space directed by BAFTA Award-winning James Bluemel. All four episodes are now available for streaming on BBC iPlayer.
Satellite image of Hurricane Melissa captured on October 28
Associated Press/Alamy Stock Photo
Jamaica is facing severe impacts from what is possibly the strongest hurricane to hit the Atlantic Ocean. Current forecasts predict up to 1 meter (40 inches) of rainfall. There’s little doubt that global warming has intensified Hurricane Melissa.
“‘500 to 700 times more likely’ is an astonishing figure,” Guilford stated. “This clearly indicates that the extreme temperatures observed around Melissa would not be feasible without human-induced climate change.”
Tropical storms like Melissa draw their energy from warm ocean waters. The hotter the sea surface, the more water vapor is generated when a storm passes above it. As the warm, moist air rises, the vapor condenses and releases latent heat, warming the air and encouraging further condensation. This process fuels tropical cyclones.
In the central Caribbean, where Melissa rapidly intensified into a Category 5 hurricane, sea surface temperatures were 1.4 degrees Celsius (2.5 degrees Fahrenheit) above the October average. Since these extreme temperatures penetrate to significant depths, there is abundant excess thermal energy available in the ocean.
This indicates that sea surface temperatures remain elevated as Melissa churns the ocean and draws up cooler, deeper water. Conversely, if only a thin layer of warm water exists, the storm brings up cold water, cutting off its energy supply.
“A perfect storm continues to build for Hurricane Melissa. The warm ocean has been rapidly strengthening over recent days, and its slow movement may bring additional rainfall as it makes landfall,” stated Lian Archer, a researcher at the University of Bristol in the UK. “Many of these conditions are being exacerbated by heightened heat in the oceans and atmosphere attributable to climate change.”
The combination of powerful winds and extreme rainfall poses a significant risk of severe damage to Jamaica. So far, three lives have been lost as preparations for the storm continue, which is expected to make landfall around 11 a.m. or noon local time.
“This is one of the most troubling scenarios,” remarked Hannah Cloke, a researcher at the University of Reading in the UK. “The entire nation will suffer long-term and potentially permanent damage from this storm, and recovery will require significant effort for those affected.”
Research into past disasters suggests that such events can depress economic growth for decades. While economists propose that quicker recovery or even growth driven by recovery efforts is possible, these notions have generally proven to be overly optimistic.
The rocks lining Britain’s Jurassic Coast are roughly 185 million years old
James Osmond/Alamy
Whispers of Rock Anjana Khatwa, Bridge Street Press (UK). Basic Books (USA, releasing November 4th)
Stones are often overlooked. How frequently do we consider the materials beneath our feet, or the origins of the beach pebbles we idly collect?
And how often do we recognize the role of geology when discussing nature and our pressing discussions about climate change? Any efforts towards addressing climate change and the future of our planet must include our relationship with the elements that constitute our world.
We are fortunate to gain insights from geoscientist Anjana Khatwa through her latest book, Whispers of Rock: Stories from Earth. This work, described as “an exhilarating journey through deep time,” is a heartfelt tribute that is sure to resonate with readers. Khatwa has dedicated a significant part of her life to promoting an understanding of geology, providing the scientific detail that highlights her profound knowledge.
In this book, she methodically covers topics such as the formation of mountains, craters, and slate, interspersing fascinating anecdotes. For instance, the iconic Taj Mahal of India, a symbol of love, was constructed from ivory-white Makrana marble that dates back approximately 2 billion years, originating from ancient landmass collisions. This complex genesis involved tectonic shifts, cyanobacteria, photosynthesis, and calcium carbonate, all coming together to create the stones used in this magnificent structure.
Once the scientific framework is laid down, Khatwa breathes life into the narrative of rocks and minerals, transforming it into a sensory experience far removed from the geology classes of my past. She invites readers to appreciate the negative spaces carved in Petra, Jordan, which form breathtaking structures and the unexpected beauty found within. She describes the markings on the stone as remnants of an ancient river, illustrating her deep connection to these geological marvels, becoming a “keeper of the stories of time.”
“
A recipe that involved tectonic movements, photosynthesis, and more resulted in the marble utilized in the Taj Mahal. “
Khatwa’s passion for stones began in her childhood, walking on solidified lava flows in southeastern Kenya. Throughout her book, she takes readers on a global journey, including her hometown of Dorset, England, where she enjoyed 20 years of geological history at the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site.
This adventure reveals how rocks have shaped her life and the lives of many others. We explore the colossal sarsen stones of Stonehenge in England, delve into the science and folklore of New Zealand’s Ponamu greenstone, and trace the socio-political history of the Black Belt, a fertile region in the American South shaped by cotton plantations after the removal of indigenous communities.
However, what truly distinguishes this book is Khatwa’s personal narrative. She openly addresses the lack of diversity in the environmental sector in the UK and shares her experiences as a mother, imparting a sense of vulnerability along the journey.
She reflects on how she was “transformed by the whiteness of my working environment” and came to realize that her cultural and spiritual identity often took a backseat to her scientific persona. This book is essential reading for anyone grappling with that duality or wishing to understand it better. We stand with Khatwa as she navigates the space between belonging and the feeling of being an outsider.
Whispers of Rock is packed with such insight that it requires contemplation after each chapter. Khatwa is also intentionally provocative, acknowledging that the intersection between science and spirituality may make some readers uncomfortable, as it challenges their preconceived notions. Yet, this provocative approach sparks a genuinely enlightening exploration.
Dhurti Shah is a freelance journalist based in London.
The recent findings in Sulawesi, Indonesia, have revised the timeline for early human sea crossings, adding complexity to the puzzle of their creators.
Archaeologists have unearthed stone tools at a location in South Sulawesi, called Cario, dating back at least 104 million years. Given that Sulawesi is encircled by swift and deep waters, anyone who created these tools would have had to navigate the open ocean.
“This represents the earliest known evidence of early human presence in Sulawesi,” says Professor Adam Brumm from the Australian Center for Human Evolution Research at Griffith University, which co-directed the research. BBC Science Focus.
“It now seems evident that early hominins managed to cross the Wallace Line, leading to isolated populations on distant islands.”
The Wallace Line serves as a critical biogeographical boundary between mainland Asia and Wallacea Island. “For land mammals that don’t fly, such as those in Sulawesi, crossing from the edge of mainland Asia to the nearest Wallacea island would have been nearly impossible due to the vast distances and swift currents,” Brumm explained.
Earlier discoveries indicated that hominins arrived at nearby Flores Island approximately 102 million years ago, evolving into species like Homo floresiensis (nicknamed “The Hobbit” due to its stature) and Homo luzonensis.
However, as of now, no fossils have been discovered in Sulawesi, leaving the identity of the tool’s maker an enigma.
“We suspect it was an early Asian human species, possibly Homo erectus,” Brumm remarked. “I doubt they used boats for this journey. The colonization of the island likely occurred accidentally as they might have clung to logs or natural vegetation ‘rafts’ that were formed during tsunamis.”
These stone tools, excavated from Cario in Sulawesi, have been dated to over 104 million years ago. The scale bar is 10 mm. – Credit: MW Moore/University of New England
If Homo erectus made it to Sulawesi more than a million years ago, they may have been carving out their own evolutionary niche.
“In Flores and Luzon, fossil discoveries indicate that hominins on these islands underwent evolutionary changes, leading to unique new species that are small and distinct,” noted Brumm. “Though we have yet to find human fossils in Sulawesi, the possibility of similar events occurring on the island cannot be ruled out.”
What’s next for Brumm and the team? “We’re continuing our excavations,” he stated. “Human fossils are incredibly rare, but millions of hominins have existed and perished over the last million years, so there might be preserved remains of these toolmakers out there.”
“We hope to discover a fossil—or two—with persistence (and a bit of luck), as finding one would be an extraordinary breakthrough, perhaps even a game changer.”
Adam Brumm is a professor of archaeology at Griffith University. His work has accumulated over 21 years of funding for research in Indonesia. His published studies include many in Nature, spanning topics from the discovery of new human fossils in Wallacea (the island region between Asia and Australia) to recent insights into human evolution.
Alex Garland’s 2015 film Ex Machina and Sierra Greer’s Annie Bot (featured below) uphold the long tradition of female robots
Maximum Film/Alamy
This year, the Arthur C. Clarke Award for the year’s best SF fiction novel was granted to Sierra Greer’s recent work, Annie Bot. Throughout the story, Annie, a sensuous sex robot designed to revere a self-centered owner, gradually cultivates a unique personality. Yet, she is not the first artificial woman to embark on this journey. The earliest fictional female robots were simple mechanical toys, yet over time they have evolved into complex beings akin to their human counterparts.
Artificial beings have a deep-rooted history across cultures. “Every society across the globe has crafted narratives about automata for centuries,” says Lisa Yaszek, a scholar at Georgia Tech. These stories generally fit into three categories; while most depict automated laborers or weaponry, the creations of female robots typically align with domestic and sexual themes. An instance from Greek mythology, Galatea, embodies the ideal woman who comes to life when her creator, Pygmalion, falls in love with her.
Historically, these fictional automata have often mirrored real inventions. Novelties that mimic living beings began to emerge. By the 18th century, technological advancements rendered these creations increasingly lifelike and beautiful. Therefore, it’s no surprise that imaginations conjured up automata indistinguishable from reality. One of the unsettling visions of this was Eta Hoffmann’s 1817 tale Sandman, where the beautiful Olympia captivates Nathaniel despite her unsettling rigidity. Learning that Olympia is merely a moving doll ultimately drives Nathaniel to madness and demise.
In the 19th century, artificial women were often relegated to similar roles. Real women were generally expected to provide domestic services for men. In 1886, in The Night Before the Future, Auguste Villiers imagined a contemporary Pygmalion who constructs a flawless mechanical woman, annoyed by the flaws of real women. Alice W. Fuller lampooned this idea in a 1895 short story, Wife Manufactured to Order. The protagonist abandons his opinionated girlfriend in favor of the machine, yet finds himself exasperated by the robot’s mindless adoration.
By 1972, Ira Levin questioned what fate would await real women if robots could assume their roles.
This vision of an absolutely compliant Galatea has persisted through decades of fiction. “The ideal is an extremely obedient, accommodating, available woman,” outlines My Fair Woman: Female Robots, Androids, and Other Artificial Beings.
When writers envisioned automata, societal anxieties increased during the Industrial Revolution, worrying that new machines could outpace human capabilities. Fiction like Samuel Butler’s 1872 novel Erewon hinted at machines evolving their own cognitive abilities. By the dawn of the 20th century, these concerns peaked with two significant works of fiction.
Playwright Karel Čapek’s 1920 work R.U.R. depicted a world striving to elevate all people to the upper echelons of society by delegating labor to synthetic beings he called “robots.” The term robota means serf or forced labor. As foreseen by Butler’s Erewon, the robots in R.U.R. eventually rise against their creators.
Shortly thereafter, Thea von Harbou released Metropolis, adapted into Fritz Lang’s groundbreaking 1927 film. In it, female robots are designed to resemble human women of the working class. While the human Maria advocates for unity and peace, her robotic counterpart incites chaos and destruction.
Ten years later, author Leicester Del Rey introduced Helen O’Loy, presenting a mechanical femme fatale in the form of the synthetic housewife Helen, who develops feelings akin to Robot Maria. In mid-century fiction, such bots often eclipsed more rebellious counterparts. The Twilight Zone featured another robotic wife, while the Jetsons boasted the reliable Rosie the Robot maid.
Yet, the illusion of domestic happiness proved fragile. By 1972, Ira Levin posed a chilling question on what would happen if robots replaced real women. In his novel The Stepford Wives, Joanna discovers that the men in her community are murdering their outspoken wives and substituting them with docile, mechanical replicas.
In subsequent decades, franchises like Terminator and The Matrix tackled fears surrounding the technological replacement of humans—a concern that had loomed since the Industrial Revolution. However, when roles lost to machines are domestic, not all women express discontent with this outsourcing. In Iain Reid’s 2018 novel Foe, a woman confronts her human husband and ultimately claims her position with a robotic replica.
Moreover, the 2010s introduced two influential artificial women. In the 2013 film Her, a man becomes infatuated with the AI named Samantha, leading to a strained relationship with a real woman. Meanwhile, 2014’s Ex Machina features an abuser who coerces his employee Caleb to evaluate the robot AVA. As Caleb develops affection for AVA, she skillfully manipulates him to secure her escape from her creator. Though neither Samantha nor AVA are malicious, they pursue their own interests, prompting questions about the implications for those around them.
Recent narratives increasingly spotlight the journeys of artificial women themselves. In Annie Bot, Annie narrates her own evolution, prioritizing her emotional growth over that of her owner. Greer illustrates that if the bot identifies as a woman, she deserves to forge her own path. A similar approach is evident in this year’s film Fellow, which focuses on the experiences of Iris, a sex robot, as she seeks autonomy—her journey towards liberation is more nuanced than Annie’s.
But what lies ahead for these artificial women (Samantha and AVA, Annie and Iris) if they assert their independence? Their future depends on the creativity of tomorrow’s writers.
Arts and Science of Writing Science Fiction
Engage in science fiction writing this weekend, focusing on the creation of new worlds and artistic expressions.
Topics:
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The examination of North West Africa (NWA) 16286 reveals a lunar metstone with a distinctive chemical profile, offering new perspectives on the evolution of the moon’s interior and emphasizing the enduring nature of its volcanic activity.
Backscattered electron images of NWA 16286 samples. Image credit: Joshu Asu Nape/University of Manchester.
Discovered in Africa in 2023, NWA 16286 is one of only 31 moon basalts officially identified on Earth.
The distinct composition of the 311-gram metstone, featuring melted glassy pockets and veins, indicates it was likely impacted by an asteroid or metstone on the lunar surface before being ejected and eventually landing on Earth.
A recent study by researchers at the University of Manchester supports the theory that the moon has maintained internal heat production processes responsible for lunar volcanic activity across various stages.
Lead isotopic analyses suggest that these rock formations are the youngest basalt lunar metstones identified on Earth, dating back approximately 2.35 billion years, a time when lunar samples are scarce.
The sample’s unique geochemical profile distinguishes it from those brought back by previous lunar missions, indicating that its chemical characteristics likely result from lava flows that solidified after ascending from the moon’s depths.
“While the moon rocks returned from sample return missions provide valuable insights, they are limited to the immediate areas around those landing sites,” stated Dr. Joshua Snape from the University of Manchester.
“In contrast, this sample could originate from impact craters located anywhere on the moon’s surface.”
“Thus, there is a unique coincidence with this sample. It fortuitously landed on Earth, unveiling secrets about lunar geology without the need for an extensive space mission.”
The sample contains notably large crystals of olivine and is classified as olivine basalt, characterized by medium titanium levels and high potassium content.
Alongside the atypical age of the samples, researchers found that the lead isotopic composition of the rocks—geochemical signatures preserved when the rocks formed—originates from internal lunar sources with unusually high ratios of uranium and lead.
These chemical markers can assist in identifying the mechanisms behind the moon’s prolonged internal heat production.
“The sample’s age is particularly intriguing as it fills a billion-year gap in the history of lunar volcanism,” Dr. Snape noted.
“It is younger than the basalts collected during the Apollo, Luna, and Chang-E 6 missions, yet significantly older than the more recent rocks retrieved by the Chang-E 5 missions in China.”
“Its age and composition indicate that volcanic activity persisted throughout this entire timeframe, and our analysis suggests a potentially continuous process of heat generation from radioactive elements that generates heat over extended periods.
“Moon rocks are a rarity, making it always exciting to acquire samples that stand out from the norm.”
“This specific rock presents new constraints on the timing and nature of volcanic activity on the moon.”
“We still have much to learn about the lunar geological history. Further analyses to trace surface origins will inform where future sample return missions might be directed.”
Wimbledon is currently underway, and I’m seizing the moment to present a bold assertion: tennis holds a pivotal role as the most significant sport in the evolution of video games.
Although modern gaming giants like EA Sports FC, Madden, and NBA 2K dominate the charts, tennis lays the groundwork for the industry. Originally conceived as a straightforward bat-and-ball game by scientists in 1958, William Higginbotham introduced what is recognized by the Brookhaven National Laboratory in Upton, New York, as the first video game created solely for entertainment. This tennis game was exhibited on an oscilloscope during the lab’s annual open house, and the growing queue of players hinted at a burgeoning interest in video gaming.
Ralph Baer, the creator of the first mass-produced gaming console, Magnavox Odyssey, incorporated tennis into his innovations. While working for defense contractor Sanders Associates in the late 1960s, Baer’s prototype could only display vertical lines and square dots. Upon Magnavox’s release of the console in 1972, the standout games included table tennis and tennis, with players using a plastic overlay on the TV screen. This allowed two players to hit the ball back and forth, introducing a degree of “spin” via a dial on the controller. The simplistic controls of these tennis games limited player skill but laid the foundation for future development.
This progression inevitably led to Pong, widely regarded as the first major success in arcade gaming. Nolan Bushnell, Atari’s founder, was inspired by the tennis game on the Odyssey and sought to improve upon it. Collaborating with programmer Al Alcone, they divided the bat on-screen into eight sections, each capable of deflecting the ball at varied angles. This marked the dawn of precise player input, a critical aspect for future video games that allowed players to showcase skill and timing. The success of Pong prompted Bushnell to create a single-player variation, Breakout, wherein players aimed to hit a ball against a disappearing brick wall—effectively a one-player tennis game. Its brilliance significantly influenced the Japanese gaming landscape, leading to NAMCO’s entry into the arcade scene. Additionally, it inspired Tomohiro Nishikado in developing Space Invaders in 1978, laying the groundwork for the entire Shoot ’em up genre.
Before his passing in 2009, Ralph Baer showcased a prototype of the “brown box,” the first console. Photo: Jens Wolf/AP
Tennis simulations also played a crucial role in the rise of home computer gaming in the 1980s. Games like ZX Spectrum’s Match Points and International Tennis on the Commodore 64 delivered an engaging, easy two-player experience, contrasting with the more complex football simulations. This accessibility drew in gamers, and Nintendo capitalized on this with titles like Mario Tennis and Wii Sports, which became some of the most beloved sports games.
As consoles evolved, tennis games became staple titles across generations, often drawing in those new to gaming. While not boasting the flashy allure of soccer or basketball simulations, they maintained appeal for casual players. Titles such as Namco’s smash court, Codemasters’ Pete Sampras Tennis, 2K’s Top Spin, and Sega’s Virtua Tennis enriched the fundamental concept of rallying the ball over the net. Tennis uniquely features a confined play area that provides extensive enjoyment, intricate skill mechanics, and an easily understood ruleset within a concentrated, single-screen environment.
Have you ever found yourself waiting in line outside scientific research establishments in Upton, New York, in the fall of 1958, playing Space Blaster or Kung Fu games? I doubt it—it would have seemed uncomfortable and enigmatic to many attendees. Take a look at Computer Space, the first commercial space shooter arcade game released in 1971, designed by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney. It performed modestly, but Pong’s success transformed the gaming landscape. Its controls were overly complex, and the abstract concepts were off-putting. Tennis subtly became the gateway for video games, adeptly infiltrating homes and entertainment venues, creating a new cultural phenomenon.
What to Play
Retro Treat… Armageddon of the Worm: Anniversary Edition. Photo: Team 17
I’m inclined to recommend a tennis game—classics like Virtua Tennis or Top Spin 4 come to mind—but for a twist, consider Worms Armageddon: Anniversary Edition. This modern take on the beloved 1999 title is a chaotic, multiplayer turn-based game where players eliminate opponents using an arsenal that includes sheep launchers, banana bombs, and concrete donkeys.
It’s an absurdly entertaining experience, demanding profound tactical thought and mastery over angles and trajectories. The game also unlocks access to previous titles from the Mega Drive and Game Boy series—an excellent deal.
Available on: PS5, Switch, Xbox Estimated playtime: 10 hours to 25 years
What to Read
£80 Pop…Mario Kart World. Photo: Nintendo
A pressing issue: Video Game Prices on the Rise. Continuing The BBC has reported on consumer grievances regarding video game costs, with major titles reaching up to £80. Increased production and development expenses contribute to this surge, yet attention should also be directed towards the hefty salaries of CEOs in certain industries.
Curious about how Metacritic operates? GamesIndustry.biz interviewed the founder to uncover the science behind score aggregation. Several intriguing discussions arose, including the practice of linking game publisher bonuses to the latest project metascore.
Certain sites, such as IGN, have covered recent comments from former Xbox executive Laura Fryer on the end of Xbox hardware. The announcement about Microsoft’s future strategies, including the ROG Xbox Ally X Handheld PC, sheds light on potential changes ahead.
I love your console… Sega Mega Drive. Photo: Keith Stuart/Guardian
This inquiry is from Johnny Biscuits:
“Five years ago, numerous media commentators claimed that the PS5/Xbox Series X would be the final generation of consoles. What is the current opinion?”
As mentioned, early Xbox employee Laura Fryer has suggested winding down hardware development in favor of Microsoft’s focus on Xbox applications across various platforms. This shift is becoming increasingly evident, particularly with announcements like the ROG Xbox Ally and the Meta Quest 3S Xbox Edition, as well as Samsung integrating Xbox titles into their smart TVs. However, Microsoft recently announced a multi-year partnership with AMD that includes plans for “future Xbox consoles.” Conversely, Sony, lacking the extensive ecosystem available to Microsoft through Windows, recently reiterated its commitment to dedicated consoles, especially given the PS5’s sales of around 78 million units. Additionally, rumors about a Switch 2 have emerged, with the latest model surpassing 3.5 million units sold within its first four days.
In conclusion, I don’t anticipate devoted gaming consoles disappearing anytime soon. They remain more cost-effective than assembling and maintaining a gaming PC while providing a more stable gaming experience than streaming alternatives. After a five-year stretch that prioritized digital access and streaming ownership, game consoles continue to be cherished objects, evoking nostalgia along with being functional. It might seem unreasonable to cling to a bundle of plastic and circuitry, yet when that apparatus resembles the Mega Drive, Neo Geo, or PlayStation 5, it transforms into more than a mere device—it becomes a part of our entertainment culture.
If you have inquiries, feedback regarding the newsletter, or other comments, please reach out to pushbuttons@theguardian.com.
In his intriguing new book, Nature’s Memories: Behind the Scenes of the World’s Natural History Museum, Jack Ashby, assistant director of the University Zoology Museum in Cambridge, UK, describes the museum as a peculiar space. It represents societal meanings and the natural chronicles of our ecosystems and environments. However, these records are often fundamentally flawed and misleading.
Ashby emphasizes the museum’s role, particularly in natural history, as an extensive catalog of past life on our planet. Its original purpose was to document everything from flora to fauna and enhance our understanding of the natural world.
Times have changed. As Ashby reveals in this captivating work, he critiques the shortcomings of museums, challenging our preconceived notions. Notably, much of our natural history remains hidden in poorly lit storage rather than publicly displayed.
Readers will soon discover the significance of the areas typically off-limits to the public. Ashby notes that there are approximately 70,000 flowering plant species worldwide that scientists have yet to fully describe.
The book delves into the preservation processes for animal skeletons, highlighting how flesh is removed for conservation, how insects are prepared for display, and how taxidermy is conducted. These behind-the-scenes insights are among the book’s most intriguing aspects. Ashby also points out the unrealistic representation of frogs due to shrinkage and features a segment on a renowned glassmaker recognized for creating lifelike floral reproductions.
Yet, the lack of representation extends beyond plants. Ashby highlights the biases in what we learned during school trips to such institutions. He cites a 2008 study indicating that merely 29% of mammal displays and 34% of bird exhibits in natural history museums feature females, resulting in a limited understanding of habitat contributions. This imbalance can be attributed to the more visually appealing male specimens and the fact that those who collect and exhibit are predominantly male and often white Westerners.
Ashby advocates for addressing the misrepresentation issue within museums, asserting that our education about nature is severely lacking due to the biases of past generations. Many male mammalian skeletons are misrepresented in museum displays due to curatorial choices that remove pelvic bones.
Though the book was published prior to the intentional dismantling of American scientific institutions, it reflects the prevailing anti-expert sentiment. This makes it all the more vital to read. We must reflect on what is excluded from museum exhibits as seriously as we do what is included.
As Ashby asserts, “The work that is being done at the Natural History Museum is more crucial than ever, and the role that must be played in order to safeguard the future of humanity is just beginning to unfold.”
Chris Stokell Walker is a science writer based in Newcastle, UK.
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