Dinosaurs ruled the earth for around 180 million years. But fossils that are at least 65 million years old are incredibly hard to decipher, so we know very little about what these iconic prehistoric creatures lived. Finding out more has long seemed impossible, but not anymore.
Over the past few decades, new techniques and new specimens have provided previously unimaginable insights into the behavior and ecology of dinosaurs. Combined with insights from modern animals, this has finally enabled paleontologists to understand dinosaur biology, from parental care, migration, and hunting styles to communication, sociality, and combat.
David Horne is one of the researchers trying to find out more about life during the time of the dinosaurs: the paleontologist at Queen Mary, University of London, is soon to publish a book about his latest findings. Revealing dinosaur behavior: What they did and how we know. New Scientist From mobile herbivores and semi-aquatic predators to why ostriches are problematic for understanding which dinosaurs doted on their young, here’s some of what’s been discovered so far.
Collin Barrass: Some of the biggest dinosaurs were Diplodocus or BrachiosaurusFor example, dinosaurs were not at all similar to living animals, so how do we figure out how they behaved?
David Horne: One of the most important things we can do as paleontologists is to better utilize our knowledge of the biology and behavior of modern animals. Mouth shapes are a good example. People with small mouths usually target nutritious food, such as shoots and leaves, one by one. If…
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When the COVID-19 pandemic hit in 2020, it forced Krista Castro and Bryan Shin to rethink their lives. The couple, an animation director and programmer, had been working for major studios but wanted to create their own games. They decided to quit their jobs in 2021 and form A cozy gaming companion. They also became parents around the same time.
They set a goal to create a game in two years. By 2023, they had completed Fear the Spotlight, a ’90s-style horror adventure game. Although it received positive reviews on Steam, they struggled to market it and considered moving on. Then, Blumhouse, the successful horror film production company, approached them.
Blumhouse saw potential in Fear the Spotlight and offered to help. The couple was thrilled to collaborate with them as they shared a passion for horror. Together, they worked on an expanded version of the game set to release soon.
Fear the Spotlight captures the essence of ’90s horror with its atmospheric design and slow pace. Inspired by classic horror games and movies, the game aims to appeal to all horror enthusiasts, even those not typically into gaming.
The couple’s love for horror shines through in the game, incorporating elements from various horror media. With Blumhouse’s support, they look forward to sharing their vision with a wider audience.
A recent study published in July suggests that Egypt’s oldest pyramid, the Step Pyramid of Djoser, may have been constructed using advanced technology. The study proposes that a hydraulic lift system was used during the construction of the pyramid to raise the massive blocks needed for its construction.
The Step Pyramid of Djoser was built as the final resting place of King Djoser, the first or second pharaoh of Egypt’s Third Dynasty during the Old Kingdom, around 4,700 years ago. The pyramid rises in six tiers to a height of 62 meters above the Saqqara plateau, equivalent to the height of a 14-storey building.
If proven true, the existence of this hydraulic lift system would offer an explanation for how the ancient Egyptians were able to construct such monumental structures with the technology available at the time. The study also suggests that a nearby enclosure, known as Gisr el-Mudir, may have served as a “check dam” to capture water and sediment, supporting the hydraulic system.
Map of the Saqqara plateau showing the waterway from the Gisr el-Mudir Dam to the water treatment facility near the Pyramid of Djoser. The water is then routed to the pyramid’s pipe network to power the hydraulic elevators. – Image courtesy of Paléotechnique, Paris, France
The study proposes that a sophisticated system of water treatment plants outside the pyramid combined with the Gisr el-Mudir and a ditch controlled water quality and flow. Water would flow into a shaft inside the pyramid where a float system potentially carried building stones to their needed locations. A plug system at the base of the shaft could then drain the water for the process to start again.
Xavier Landreau, president of Paleotechnique and lead author of the study, emphasizes the importance of this discovery in questioning established historical narratives and the technical knowledge possessed by the ancient Egyptian architects. The study also raises the intriguing question of whether the same hydraulic system used to construct the pyramid could have been used to bury the king in his final resting place within the pyramid.
About the Experts
Xavier Landreau: President of Paleotechnique and lead author of the study. Paleotechnique is a research practice that combines hydrology, geotechnical engineering, physics, mathematics, materials science, and history to explore the origins of civilization.
I I don’t often miss my teenage years, but I do miss the time I had to play video games. I used to get into games late into the night, but now that I’m a busy adult, I barely have the time to do that. Outside of covering games for work, I feel like I barely have time to play. So instead of the huge, engrossing role-playing games I once craved, I prefer games I can complete in a few nights. I’m pretty much used to this. The days of 100-hour epics and live service online games are long gone. They’ll come back eventually, when my kids are older.
But more than two years have passed since the release of Elden Ring, a game in my favorite genre by my favorite director, and I suddenly found myself tired of having barely played it. I’d been playing it bit by bit on my PS5, but I’d never been able to get past Rimgrave’s (admittedly vast) starting area. I kept hoping that my partner would take the kids for the weekend, or that I’d have a week off during term time so I could revert to my teenage habits and play hours alone. But… 2 yearsIf I want to play this game, or any big game, I have to make sure I fit it into my real life, which includes work, two small kids, and all the other responsibilities.
Is that even possible? There’s one thing that definitely helps: Steam Deck. Since having kids, I’ve become a lot more reliant on portable consoles. Spending hours uninterrupted in front of the TV without being seen is nearly impossible, and I don’t want to traumatize my kids by blasting them the violent and grotesque scenes of Elden Ring. I’ve been able to play both Zelda games on my Switch because I can take them anywhere and play them occasionally. Plus, these games are huge. So a few weeks ago I bought Elden Ring again, installed it on my Steam Deck, rebooted it, and resolved to defeat the infamous opening boss, Godric the Grafted, and see what’s beyond Stormveil Castle.
At home, I spent all my free time on Steam Deck, to the point of ignoring my family. Kids watching 30 minutes of TV before dinner? Elden Ring. Partner watching Euros? Elden Ring with eyes fixed on the score. Microwaving lunch? Time for Elden Ring. I tried small, achievable adventures like running around looking for unexplored ruins and getting surprised by a dragon in the middle of a lake. I made it through Stormvale Castle and back only to be totally beaten by Godric. I got used to giving up mid-battle, retreating, and looking for something else to do. Progression felt painfully slow, and I hated every time I had to stop playing in the middle of something. At the end of the first week, I checked my playtime. It was 6 hours.
“I left Godric at the castle and warped away to a safer location to just… have some fun.” Photo: Bandai Namco Europe
Six hours?! Is that all the free time I have available in a week? I was seriously depressed. It’s unnatural to play a game like this bit by bit, and when I add up all the stolen time, I’m left with a shockingly small amount of time. At this rate, it’ll take me six months to beat this game, and that’s without playing (or doing) anything else.
My problem was that I was only interested in finishing the game, rather than enjoying it. Six hours is better than zero. I couldn’t play the game the way I used to, so I had to think differently. Instead of reading guides to figure out the best way to progress through the game and trying to progress as quickly and efficiently as possible, I left Godric in the castle, warped to a safer area, and just… tried to have fun. I found a hidden boss and easily defeated it. I opened a treasure chest that teleported me to a terrifying underground mine full of insect-like wizards, then escaped and ended up in a ghostly city. I really liked the Wolverine-esque metal claws I found, but not because they were the best weapon, but because they were fun to use.
After a week of running around like this, I was relieved of the frustration I had felt before. Elden Ring is a terrible game if you try to complete it as quickly as possible in an extremely limited time frame, as most games are. It’s a great game if you focus on the adventure of the moment. I spent about 40 minutes in a smoldering little church trying to kill a red phantom warrior with a giant cleaver that could kill me in two hits, just to see if I could do it. When I managed two parries and killed her after a flurry of desperate sword strikes, I was beside myself. If I had insisted on getting through the game, I would have missed that moment entirely.
I beat Godric last night. With those funny claws that I love so much. I stopped watching the clock for how long I was playing. I stopped worrying about getting the most out of the least amount of effort. And now I’m really having fun. If you’re wondering how to play a huge game when you only have an hour, my advice is to use that hour. It’s the time you have. And an hour of enjoying a game is better than an hour spent wishing you could play longer.
What to Play
Demon’s Souls. Photo: Sony
If you’re ready to tackle a FromSoftware/Hayao Miyazaki game for the first time and want something more manageable than Elden Ring, I’d recommend the PS5 remake. Demon’s SoulsOriginally released in 2009, this rebuild fixes many of the control and camera flaws, offering a horror-infused dark fantasy vision and great, stress-free combat. It’s hard, but well worth it, and it takes less time than other Souls games.
Available on: PS5 Estimated play time: 30+ hours
What to Read
Positech Democracy 4. Photo: Positech Games
We did the cursed thing and ran a game simulating the first five years of each British party in power. Democracy 4Each party acted based on the policies set out in their manifestos, but it didn’t work at all.
Elden Ring creator Hidetaka Miyazaki mentioned the possibility of an Elden Ring movie or TV show in an interview last week. George R.R. MartinCo-wrote the game’s story. The blog suggests Something may already be in the works: “You may have heard rumours about a feature film or a TV series… but I have nothing to say. Not a word, no, nothing. I don’t know anything and you haven’t heard a word from me.”
There are several remakes of older works assassin’s creed Games in development, Ubisoft says This may also include the pirate-flavored Black Flag, but this is still the best in my opinion.
Capcom Remake announced of Dead Risinga satirical cult hit about killing zombies using items found in shopping malls, is due for release in September.
Is the consolidation of video game journalism a good thing for gamers? Photo: Josep Martinsson/FIFA/Getty Images
Reader Matt asks:
“What would be the consequences if IGN bought the video game news site Gamer Network? If Eurogamer shuts down, we’d riot.“
This may seem like an insider question, but it’s an important one for readers of gaming news and reviews — which of you, the Pushing Buttons reader, is a reader of that. In late May, the very large gaming website IGN (I’ll be honest, I worked at IGN from 2010 to 2013) announced that Bought out UK gaming websites include VG247, Eurogamer and GamesIndustry.biz (and, more specifically, I worked for all of these sites from 2006-2010 or so). There are currently just two companies that own pretty much all of the specialist gaming media in the UK: Future Publishing has GamesRadar, PC Gamer and a selection of their magazines, and IGN has everything else.
IGN has previously acquired gaming sites. 1up and GameSpyand they ended up closing down, which doesn’t inspire confidence. But you have to ask: why buy a bunch of beloved brands that are still making a profit from what I’ve heard, and close them down? In 2024, any company in online media needs all the traffic it can get; buying a competitor only to close it down would be a terrible investment in a shrinking advertising economy. That’s why IGN is cautiously hopeful that it will be a good owner of these sites and that it won’t lose a huge chunk of UK games media with this acquisition.
Why is this important? Gaming is one of the few entertainment verticals where specialized media still thrives. Music media is in decline; just look at the fate of NME and Pitchfork. TV and film journalism is mostly newspapers like this one now. But when it comes to games, mainstream media is far behind reporters and critics at IGN,
Back in the spring of 2003, the Human Genome Project completed the monumental task of sequencing the human genome.
Even now, The Book of Life remains a captivating and complex subject for the world’s top geneticists, as they work to unravel its mysteries.
This achievement was not only a major milestone for science but for life on our planet, marking the first time any organism had documented its fundamental genetic makeup. This event sparked the ongoing genetic revolution but also presented profound questions.
Questions like, “Why is there so much genetic material?”
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One intriguing aspect of the human genome is that the majority of it seems to serve no apparent function. With around 3 billion nucleotide pairs (A, C, G, T), fewer than 2% (approximately 20,000) of these are genes responsible for coding proteins that direct cellular activity in the body. So, what purpose do the remaining genes serve?
Some have referred to these as junk DNA: seemingly meaningless genetic remnants accumulated over the course of evolution or like a convoluted word puzzle with little coherence.
However, ongoing research indicates that at least some of these regions are not simply genetic debris but have crucial regulatory and corrective roles in the human genome’s protein-coding genes. These DNA sequences are likened to the controls for gene expression.
For instance, enhancer sequences boost gene transcription from DNA to RNA, while silencers have the opposite effect.
The dark genome largely consists of lengthy repeat DNA sequences called Transposons, which play vital roles in gene expression, evolutionary processes, and environmental adaptation.
These “jumping genes” can relocate within the genome, potentially causing significant genetic mutations or inversions. Scientists posit that transposons are linked to evolutionary developments such as opposable thumbs in humans and the loss of tails in humans and apes.
In certain scenarios, transposons may contribute to the onset of tumors and genetic disorders like hemophilia and Duchenne muscular dystrophy, stemming from repetitive DNA sequences associated with transposons.
As a result, the dark genome has become a focal point of medical research, with hopes that increased understanding over the next two decades will lead to revolutionary therapies for genetic diseases.
This content addresses the query of “What makes up the other 98% of DNA?” posed by Asa Mcintyre via email.
If you have inquiries, please contact us via the email address provided below.For additional information:or send us a messageFacebook,XorInstagramPage (include your name and location).
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The ancient Maya civilization of Central America has captivated researchers for centuries with its amazing astronomical calendar and impressive step pyramids.
Along with their rich culture, they are also connected with a darker aspect: human sacrifice. Recent studies reveal that this is indeed a grim reality.
New genetic analysis from the ancient Maya city of Chichen Itza indicates that many of the sacrificial victims were children, with a high number being identical twins.
El Castillo, also known as the Temple of Kukulkan, is the centerpiece of the Chichen Itza ruins in the Yucatan state of Mexico. – Image credit: Johannes Krauss
Published in the journal Nature, the research looked at human remains found in a xultun near the Sacred Cenote.
Radiocarbon dating suggests that the chultun was used between the 7th and 12th centuries AD.
“All individuals in the chultun were children aged three to six,” explained Dr. Rodrigo Barquera, the lead author of the study.
Genetic evidence showed that all 64 individuals tested were male, with about 25% being closely related, including two sets of identical twins.
The occurrence of male identical twins in such a small sample size is unusual.
Barquera noted that twins held significance in Mayan mythology, especially the story of heroic twins defeating the king of the underworld.
This suggests that sacrificing identical male twins was a way to honor the hero twins’ existence.
Detail of the reconstructed stone tzonpantli (skull house) at Chichen Itza. – Image courtesy of Christina Wariner
While this may not have been favorable for identical twins in Maya culture, it was a great honor for their families.
Barquera and his team aim to validate their findings by comparing them with other archaeological sites.
About our experts
Rodrigo Barquera is a postdoctoral researcher in the Archaeogenetics department at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig. He has authored numerous research papers published in esteemed journals like Nature and Nature Communications Biology.
TThe famously difficult dark fantasy epic Elden Ring is the second best-selling game in the world in 2022, and with the release of its expansion Shadow of the Erdtree last Friday, everyone is once again debating whether the game is too difficult. Every game developed by From Software since Demon’s Souls in 2009 has sparked this debate, but I’m not going to get into it, because it’s neither interesting nor particularly important. These games are what they are, and you can either choose to get into it or, of course, walk away.
This vision is inherited from the game’s director, Hidetaka Miyazaki, who rose to fame with Dark Souls in 2011 and has also served as FromSoftware’s president since 2014. Though tough, there’s also an element of faith and encouragement in this approach to game design: Elden Ring and other games believe that if you just play patiently and ask other players for help, you’ll eventually win and feel much better.
Miyazaki is an interesting character and one of the most influential artists in the gaming and entertainment world. He was named the “100 Most Influential People in the World” by Time magazine. The 100 most influential people I first interviewed him last year, just before the European launch of Demon’s Souls in 2010. Following his career since then has been one of the highlights for me. I recently interviewed him again in Los Angeles, and it might be comforting for some of us to know that playing his games is sometimes painful, even for him.
“With any game, before launch I’ll spend as much time playing it as I can,” he told me, “but after launch I don’t want to touch it too much because I think I’ll find things that I’ve missed or issues that bother me. And once I’m a player, I don’t have the power to do anything significant to change that, so I stop playing it once it’s out.”
“However, in preparation for Shadow of the Erdtree, I played through the main story of Elden Ring. I’m absolutely terrible at video games, so my approach and playstyle was to use everything I had at my disposal, every assistance, every help the game offered, and all of my knowledge as a game designer…The freedom and open-world nature of Elden Ring probably lowered the barrier to entry, and I may have benefited from that more than anyone else as a player.”
Hidetaka Miyazaki at the E3 Expo in California in 2013. Photo: Daniel Botsarski/WireImage
Watching Miyazaki pick up the controller and agonize over the world he’s created (and its imperfections that only he would notice) made me laugh heartily. It’s a true commitment to his game design philosophy of improving through failure, a mantra that seems to permeate his entire life. Miyazaki is a very hands-on director, and all of his games clearly bear his influence, but during his decade as president of From Software, he has tried to pass on his knowledge and artistic approach to others, giving them the space to fail as well.
“The budget, the size, the scope, everything has expanded to a level where I think there is not as much room for failure as there was before,” he told me. “From Software has its own way of hedging, so to speak. For most of our projects, we have partners who fund the projects. … From a business management perspective, we are not betting everything on one project. At the same time, we need to find the right projects where we can afford to fail. Even if they are small in scope or size, or a small module within a bigger one, we need to have room to fail. I think that’s where a lot of young game directors can try and learn from. Understanding and identifying where we can afford to fail is how we develop talent.”
Miyazaki considers Elden Ring a “turning point” for FromSoftware: “There will be a clear difference between before and after Elden Ring… [2023’s mech game] “Armored Core VI,” he says. He expects to see more games from the company’s other directors soon, rather than just himself. “I think Elden Ring is the limit for FromSoftware right now, in terms of scale. We’ve used all the resources and talent available to us. … There are concerns about scaling up even further. Perhaps having multiple projects is the next step, and other younger talents will have the opportunity to manage and oversee the game design of smaller projects.”
Shadow of the Elder Tree is the end of Elden Ring for now. With the exception of Dark Souls, Miyazaki generally doesn’t make sequels. Demon’s Souls, Sekiro, Bloodborne, and Elden Ring are all standalone works, and I get the impression he likes it that way. Interestingly, though, he wouldn’t mind someone else continuing The Land Between in a different medium.
“I don’t see any reason to rule out another interpretation or film of Elden Ring,” he told me, “but I don’t think myself or FromSoftware have the knowledge or the ability to create something in another medium. That’s where a very strong partner would come in. We’d need to build a lot of trust and agreement on whatever we’re trying to achieve, but I’m certainly interested.”
If any Soul Geek readers work in arthouse film production, consider this an opportunity to jump on.
What to Play
Luigi’s Mansion 2 HD. Photo: Nintendo
Now, let’s talk about something completely different. Luigi’s Mansion 2 HD This week there is a welcome blast from the past (I Reviewed by IGNOriginally released on Nintendo 3DS in 2013, this fantastically unique and spooky adventure is better than any Ghostbusters game ever made.
Mario’s clumsy, timid little brother has five elaborate diorama mansions to clear out of ghosts and secrets. The animation here is unparalleled, the ghosts are brimming with personality along with ectoplasm, and Luigi himself is an underrated star of slapstick comedy.
Available on: Nintendo Switch Estimated play time: 12 hours
The “Elgin Marvel” fossil is a block of reddish sandstone containing a natural cast of a Permian skull and jaw. Dicynodonts It was discovered in the Hopeman Sandstone Formation near Elgin, Scotland. According to a new study, the specimen Gordonia traquairi A type of dicynodont that lived between 254 and 252 million years ago, when the Earth was made up of a single land mass called Pangaea.
Artist image Gordonia traquairi Image courtesy of Scott Reed.
Gordonia traquairi It belongs to a group of extinct species known as dicynodonts, and is characterized by its stocky body, beak, and tusks.
This organism lived relatively shortly before the end-Permian extinction (the Great Dying), the worst mass extinction event in history, which occurred about 252 million years ago and wiped out much of life on Earth.
The Elgin Marvel specimen is one of the best-preserved in a series of fossils collected near Elgin in northeast Scotland.
These are collectively known as the Elgin reptiles. Gordonia traquairi are closely related to mammals.
In the new study, paleontologist Heidi George of the University of Edinburgh and her colleagues performed micro-CT scans of the cavities the animal carved into the sandstone before the bones deteriorated.
The scan produces a three-dimensional representation of the skull anatomy, including details of the brain.
These insights help us understand animal behavior and the biology behind it, providing clues about the evolution of this and other species.
Gordonia traquairi The fossil shares many physical characteristics with similar remains found in China, indicating that dicynodonts were diversifying around the world just before the devastating extinction.
The Elgin reptile is the only known example of this type of fossil from Western Europe.
Palaeontologists hope that the increasing use of micro-CT scanning as a tool to study fossils in detail, combined with the trend toward open sharing of data, will provide opportunities to add to the body of knowledge in the field.
“The Elgin Marvel is a fascinating fossil of an ancient mammal relative that is one of the best-preserved of the world-famous Elgin reptiles,” Dr. George said.
“Most of these famous fossils were discovered more than a century ago, but it’s only recently that new techniques have revealed more detail and provided valuable insights into their skull and brain anatomy and lineage.”
“It’s hard to imagine, but about 250 million years ago Scotland was a desert covered with sand dunes. Gordonia “God was in control of the world,” says Professor Steve Brusatte of the University of Edinburgh.
“By studying them, we can learn about some of the earliest stages of our own evolution.”
This study paper In Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society.
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Heidi George others Micro-CT data reveal new information about the craniomandibular and neuroanatomy of dicynodonts. Gordonia (Therapsid: Heterodontida) Lived in the Late Permian of Scotland. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society Published online June 18, 2024; doi: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlae065
In the spring of 2003, the Human Genome Project completed the task of sequencing the human genome, marking a significant moment for science and life on Earth. The genetic revolution that followed raised questions about the meaning of the genome, particularly the fact that most of it seems to be non-coding. Less than 2% of the genome consists of genes that code for proteins, while the rest was once considered junk DNA.
However, recent research has shown that this “dark genome” plays a crucial role in regulating gene expression and has evolutionary significance. Long repeat sequences like transposons can impact genetic mutations and adaptation, leading to the development of features like opposable thumbs and the loss of tails in humans and apes. Understanding these once-neglected parts of the genome is now a focus of medical research for potential therapies for genetic diseases.
This article addresses the question of what makes up the other 98% of DNA, shedding light on the hidden functions of the dark genome. If you have further questions or want more information, you can reach out on our Facebook and Instagram pages.
Fun Facts: Check out this page for more amazing science and information.
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Music and physics are two disciplines that transcend mere study to become intertwined aspects of human creativity. This hidden harmony between music and physics has been acknowledged by luminaries such as Albert Einstein, who expressed a longing for music had he not pursued physics.
As someone who navigates both fields, I have uncovered deeper connections between them. My journey began in the Bronx, where the worlds of hip hop and science collided in unexpected ways. Later, while studying at Imperial College London, I witnessed the fusion of artistic expression and scientific inquiry in Brian Eno’s studio.
This intersection between art and science inspired me to explore further and led me to write the book “Physics Jazz.” Through this exploration, I delved into the commonalities between music and physics, from improvisation to quantum uncertainty.
My passion for sharing these discoveries prompted the creation of the course “Jazz in Modern Physics” at Brown University, bridging the gap between disciplines and offering students a new way to appreciate the symphony of the universe through mathematics and melody.
Believing in the transformative power of education, I founded the “Sound + Science” after-school program to provide underserved students with an opportunity to explore the fusion of music and physics through hands-on experimentation and collaboration.
This fusion of art and science celebrates human ingenuity and the interconnectedness of the universe. In embracing this harmonious blend, we can unlock the mysteries of the universe and delve into the depths of the human soul.
Pluto's surface is dominated by Sputnik Planitia, a giant pear-shaped basin. Although it appears to be of impact origin, modeling has not yet accounted for its unique shape. Planetary scientists at the University of Bern have proposed an impact mechanism that would both recreate the topography of the basin and explain the alignment around the Pluto-Charon axis. According to their research, Sputnik Planum was created by a collision between Pluto and a planet about 700 km (435 miles) in diameter.
This mosaic of Pluto was created from the New Horizons LORRI image taken on July 14, 2015 from a distance of 49,700 miles (80,000 km). This view is projected from 1,118 miles (1,800 km) above Pluto's equator, from northeast over the dark, cratered Cthulhu region to a bright, smooth, icy plain called Sputnik Planum. I am. Pluto's north pole is off the left side of the image. This mosaic was created using panchromatic imagery from the New Horizons LORRI camera, with color overlaid from New Horizons' built-in Ralph color mapper. Image credit: SA Stern other.
In 2015, NASA's New Horizons spacecraft revealed that Pluto's surface is geologically complex.
The region is dominated by a 1,200 x 2,000 km (746 x 1,243 mi) nitrogen ice-filled basin called Sputnik Planitia.
Sputnik Planitia is located in the western part of Pluto's Tombow region, a famous heart-shaped structure.
This basin is 3 to 4 km (1.9 to 2.5 miles) lower in elevation than most of the dwarf planet's surface.
“Sputnik Planitia's bright appearance is due to the fact that it is filled with mainly white nitrogen ice, which moves and convects to constantly smooth the surface,” said Dr. Harry Ballantyne, a planetary scientist at the University of Bern. Ta.
“Due to the low altitude, this nitrogen likely accumulated quickly after the impact.”
“The eastern part of the 'heart' is also covered with a similar but much thinner layer of nitrogen ice, the origin of which is not yet clear to scientists, but is probably related to Sputnik Planum.”
“The elongated shape of Sputnik Planitia strongly suggests that the impact was an oblique impact rather than a direct head-on impact,” said Dr. Martin Jutzi, a planetary scientist at the University of Bern.
This high-resolution image of Pluto was taken by New Horizons on July 14. Pluto's surface boasts an astonishing range of subtle colors, highlighted in this view by a rainbow of pale blues, yellows, oranges, and deep reds. Many landforms have unique colors that tell complex geological and climatological stories that scientists are only beginning to decipher. Image credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute.
The authors used smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) simulation software to digitally recreate such collisions while varying both the composition of Pluto and its impactors, as well as the speed and angle of the impactors. did.
These simulations confirmed our suspicions about the oblique angle of the impact and determined the configuration of the impactor.
“Pluto's core is so cold that the rocks remain very hard and do not melt despite the heat of the impact, and the angle and low speed of the impact prevents the impactor's core from sinking into Pluto's core, leaving it intact. “It's like a splatter,” Dr. Ballantyne said.
Dr. Eric Asfaug, a planetary scientist at the University of Arizona, added: “Somewhere beneath Sputnik are the remains of the core of another giant object that Pluto was not able to fully digest.”
“The strength and relatively low velocity of this core were the keys to the success of these simulations. At low strengths, the highly symmetrical remnants look nothing like the teardrop shape observed on New Horizons. surface features are obtained.
“We're used to thinking of planetary collisions as incredibly violent events, and we can ignore the details except for things like energy, momentum, and density.”
“But in distant solar systems the velocities are very slow and the solid ice is strong, so the calculations need to be more accurate. That's where the fun begins.”
The research team's findings also shed new light on Pluto's internal structure.
“In fact, a giant impact like the one simulated is much more likely to have occurred very early in Pluto's history,” the researchers said.
“But this poses a problem: giant depressions like Sputnik Planitia are expected by the laws of physics to move slowly towards the dwarf planet's poles over time because of the lack of mass. ” But paradoxically, it is close to the equator. ”
“A previous theoretical explanation was that Pluto, like several other planetary bodies in the outer solar system, has an ocean of liquid water underground.”
“Previous explanations suggest that Pluto's icy crust thins in the Sputnik Planum region, where the oceans swell and liquid water is denser than ice, creating a mass surplus that triggers a shift toward the equator. It will be.”
“But new research offers a different perspective.”
“In our simulations, all of Pluto's primordial mantle is excavated by the collisions, and as the impactor's nuclear material splatters into Pluto's core, it creates a localized overmass that causes the absence of a subsurface ocean. Or, at best, it could be explained as moving toward the equator without the ocean being present, “very thin,'' Dr. Yutzi said.
“This novel and original origin of Pluto's heart-shaped feature may lead to a deeper understanding of Pluto's origins,” said Dr. Adeen Denton, a planetary scientist at the University of Arizona.
of result It was published in the magazine natural astronomy.
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HA Ballantine other. Sputnik Planum as an impact debris showing an ancient rocky mascon on oceanless Pluto. Nat Astron, published online on April 15, 2024. doi: 10.1038/s41550-024-02248-1
A total solar eclipse is a great opportunity to learn about the sun
ESA/Royal Observatory of Belgium
A total solar eclipse occurs somewhere on Earth approximately every 18 months, and that has been the case throughout human history. Not surprisingly, people have been studying these dramatic events for just as long, with the first records of solar eclipses dating back more than 3,000 years. During that time, we learned an amazing amount about the Sun, Earth, and even the basic laws of physics from total solar eclipses.
For most of history, humans could only see the faint outermost layers of the sun during total days (periods when the moon covers the entire sun’s disc). This faint blanket of plasma, called the corona, has been central to the scientific advances resulting from the study of solar eclipses.
Solar eclipse in 2024
On April 8th, a total solar eclipse will pass over Mexico, the United States, and Canada. Our special series covers everything you need to know, from how and when to see a solar eclipse to the strangest solar eclipse experience of all time.
The corona is home to many of the sun’s most fascinating phenomena, including coronal mass ejections (CMEs), which occur when the sun’s swirling magnetic fields blast bundles or clumps of matter into space. If a CME were to hit Earth, it could damage satellites and power grids, and could be extremely dangerous to astronauts in space, beyond the protection of Earth’s atmosphere.
“The Sun’s magnetic activity changes over time and changes across the star’s surface.” meredith mcgregor at Johns Hopkins University in Maryland. Currently, there is no good way to predict this activity. But by studying the coronavirus, we may be able to start doing just that.
A total solar eclipse isn’t the only way to see the outermost layer of the sun. There is also a device called a coronagraph, which uses a shade to block the sun’s disk in a type of artificial solar eclipse. These instruments are used not only to study our own star, but also to study other stars that are more distant and look for planets around them that would otherwise be hidden in the glare of starlight. It is also important. “The idea of using coronagraphs to block out the light of other stars and look for extrasolar planets comes from natural solar eclipses,” MacGregor says.
The same dimness that makes the corona difficult to observe in totality also makes it an excellent target for spectroscopy. Spectroscopy works by splitting light into its constituent wavelengths. This allows researchers to determine which elements are present in a material by the unique pattern of wavelengths each element emits or absorbs. Helium was discovered using spectroscopy during a solar eclipse in 1868. This was the first time an element had been discovered by studying the sky.
Shortly thereafter, astronomers discovered what appeared to be another new element in the corona, which they named corona, but it turned out that it was simply iron heated to extraordinary temperatures of several million degrees. found. Even though it was not a new element, it was a puzzling discovery. The surface of the sun is only about 5,600 degrees Celsius, so why is the outermost layer so hot?
I said, “Imagine you’re at a campfire and you start walking away from the campfire. It’s supposed to be cold, but it’s much hotter.” Frederick Bartley at the Ohio State Science and Industry Center. “That’s what’s happening with coronavirus, but no one knows why.”
The eclipse also provided some of the first proofs of Albert Einstein’s theory of general relativity, which governs the behavior of large-scale gravity. One of the key predictions of general relativity is that massive objects should bend the trajectory of light as they pass by. Einstein first published the theory in his 1915, and evidence of its truth came in his 1919 when astronomer Arthur Eddington observed starlight bending around the sun during a solar eclipse.
As a total solar eclipse passes over Central and North America this month, astronomers will continue a long-standing tradition of using the totality to observe the sun and precisely how it affects the space around it. It turns out. The sun still has many secrets to unravel, and eclipses are one of the best times to study them.
Groundbreaking research led by Professor Motoki Shiga has unraveled the complex atomic structure of glass, revealing its unique patterns and anisotropy. This research paves the way for advanced exploration of glass materials using AI and machine learning techniques.Credit: Motoki Shiga
Glass is an essential material in our daily life and serves a variety of purposes, such as insulating our homes and forming the screens of our computers and smartphones. However, its widespread historical use stands in contrast to the scientific mystery posed by its disordered atomic structure. This puzzling arrangement of atoms complicates efforts to fully understand and manipulate the structural properties of glasses. Therefore, designing effective functional materials from glass remains a difficult challenge for scientists.
Advances in glass research
To further elucidate the structural regularities hidden in glassy materials, the research group focused on the ring shape of the chemically bonded glass network. A research group including Professor Motoki Shiga of Tohoku University’s unprecedented scale data analysis center has developed a new method to quantify the three-dimensional structure of the ring and the symmetry of the structure, “roundness” and “roughness.”
Spatial atomic density around rings of silica crystal (left) and glass (right). Blue and red regions indicate areas with high density of silicon and oxygen atoms, respectively.Credit: Motoki Shiga et al.
Breakthroughs and future directions
“Structural units and structural order beyond chemical bonds have long been inferred through experimental observations, but until now scientists have avoided identifying them,” Professor Shiga says. “Furthermore, our successful analysis contributes to the understanding of phase transitions such as vitrification and crystallization in materials and provides the necessary mathematical explanations to control the structure and material properties of materials.”
Looking to the future, Shiga and his colleagues plan to use these techniques to devise procedures for exploring glass materials, procedures based on data-driven approaches such as: machine learning And AI.
Reference: “Ring-derived anisotropy of local structural order in amorphous and crystalline silicon dioxide” by Motoki Shiga, Akihiko Hirata, Yohei Onodera, and Hirokazu Masai, November 3, 2023. Communication materials. DOI: 10.1038/s43246-023-00416-w
Diagram of interacting thick and thin filaments within cardiac sarcomeres based on structural cryo-electron tomography data. Credit: MPI of Molecular Physiology
Scientists have captured the first true-to-life 3D images of the thick filaments of a mammal’s heart muscle.
Atrial fibrillation, heart failure, and stroke are among the serious health conditions that can result from hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and are important factors in sudden cardiac death in people under 35 years of age.
“The heart muscle is the central engine of the human body. Of course, if you know how engines are made and how they work, it’s easy to repair a broken engine,” says Stefan Lunser. say. “At the beginning of our study of muscle, we were able to use cryo-electron microscopy to visualize the structure of key muscle components and how they interact.”
“But these were still images of proteins taken from living cells. We just don’t teach them much,” Rounser said.
through thick and thin
Skeletal and cardiac muscles contract through the interaction of two types of parallel protein filaments (thin and thick) within the sarcomere. Sarcomeres are subdivided into several regions called zones and bands, and these filaments are arranged in different ways.
Thin filaments are composed of F-actin, troponin, tropomyosin, and nebulin. Thick filaments are formed by myosin, titin, and myosin-binding protein C (MyBP-C). The latter can form bonds between filaments, while the so-called motor protein myosin interacts with thin filaments to generate force and muscle contraction.
Thick filament structures within relaxed cardiac sarcomeres. The image above shows a tomographic slice of a cardiac sarcomere. Thin filaments are marked with green marks, thick filaments with purple arrows. The middle image shows reconstructed thick filaments (purple) and thin filaments (green). The image below shows the structure of thin filaments spanning several sarcomere regions. Scale bar indicates 50 nm. credit: Molecular Physiology MPI
Muscle research milestones
“If we want to fully understand how muscles work at the molecular level, we need to delineate their components in their natural environment. This is one of the biggest challenges in biological research today. and cannot be addressed using traditional experimental approaches,” says Rounser.
To overcome this obstacle, his team developed an electron cryo-tomography workflow specifically for examining muscle samples. The scientists flash-frozen mammalian heart muscle samples produced by his Gautel group in London at very low temperatures (-175°C). ).
3D structure of a sarcomere showing thick filaments (purple) and thin filaments (green). Credit: MPI of Molecular Physiology
This maintains moisture and microstructure, keeping it pristine. Next, a focused ion beam (FIB milling) is applied to thin the sample to a thickness of approximately 100 nanometers, ideal for transmission electron microscopy, and multiple images are acquired while tilting the sample along its axis. Masu. Finally, computational methods reconstruct his three-dimensional image in high resolution.
In recent years, Raunser’s group has successfully applied customized workflows and recently published two groundbreaking publications. They created the first high-resolution images of sarcomeres and, so far, a misty muscle protein called nebulin. Both studies investigated the 3D organization of muscle proteins in sarcomeres, such as how myosin binds to actin to control muscle contraction, and how nebulin binds to actin to stabilize it and its We provide unprecedented insight into the 3D organization of muscle proteins in sarcomeres, including what determines their length.
complete the picture
In the current study, scientists have created, for the first time, high-resolution images of the heart’s thick filaments spanning several regions of the sarcomere. “With a length of 500 nm, this makes it the longest and largest structure ever resolved by cryo-ET,” said Davide Tamborini of MPI Dortmund, lead author of the study. Masu.
Even more impressive is the new insight gained into the molecular organization of the thick filaments and, by extension, their function. The arrangement of myosin molecules depends on their position within the filament.
Scientists believe that this allows the thick filaments to sense and process a large number of muscle-regulating signals and adjust the strength of muscle contractions depending on the sarcomere area. They also revealed how titin chains run along the filament. Titin chains intertwine with myosin and serve as a scaffold for its assembly, likely regulating length-dependent sarcomere activation.
“Our goal is to one day paint a complete picture of sarcomeres. The images of thick filaments in this study are ‘only’ snapshots of the muscle in its relaxed state. “We want to analyze sarcomeres in different states, such as during contraction, to fully understand how they function and how they are regulated,” says Rounser.
Comparisons with samples from patients with muscle diseases will ultimately contribute to a better understanding of diseases such as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and the development of innovative treatments.
Reference: “Structure of native myosin filaments in relaxed cardiac sarcomeres” Davide Tamborrini, Zhexin Wang, Thorsten Wagner, Sebastian Tacke, Markus Stabrin, Michael Grange, Ay Lin Kho, Martin Rees, Pauline Bennett, Mathias Gautel, Stefan Raunser, 2023 October 32nd Nature. DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06690-5
Based on the interpretation of the inscription, the bricks date back to the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II (c. 604-562 BC). The item was plundered from its original situation before being acquired by the Slemani Museum and was kept at the museum with the consent of the central government. Image courtesy of Slemani Museum.Credit: Slemani Museum
In a new study, researchers used bricks from ancient Mesopotamia to gain insight into changes in Earth’s magnetic field 3,000 years ago. This archaeomagnetic approach provides a more accurate way to date ancient artifacts and understand historical magnetic field fluctuations.
Ancient bricks inscribed with the names of Mesopotamian kings have provided important insights into mysterious anomalies in Earth’s magnetic field 3,000 years ago, according to a new study by UCL researchers.
This study was published on December 18th. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS)So, how were changes in the Earth’s magnetic field imprinted on the iron oxide particles in ancient clay bricks, and how could scientists reproduce these changes from the names of kings carved into the bricks? It explains about Tanaka.
Archaeomagnetic dating: a new dating tool
The researchers believe that by using this technique, “archaeological magnetism,” which looks for traces of the Earth’s magnetic field in archaeological items, they can improve the history of the Earth’s magnetic field and date artifacts more precisely than was previously possible. I hope it will be possible to identify it.
Co-author Professor Mark Altaweel (UCL Institute of Archeology) said: “To figure out the age of ancient Mesopotamia, we often rely on dating methods such as radiocarbon dating. However, some of the most common cultural remains, such as bricks and pottery, Because it does not contain organic material, it typically cannot be easily dated. This research is now an important study that will allow others to benefit from absolute dating using archaeomagnetics. It helps create a baseline for dating.”
The Earth’s magnetic field weakens and strengthens over time, and these changes leave distinct imprints on hot minerals that are sensitive to the magnetic field. The research team analyzed magnetic signatures hidden in iron oxide mineral particles embedded in 32 clay bricks excavated from archaeological sites across Mesopotamia, which overlaps with present-day Iraq. The strength of the planet’s magnetic field was etched into minerals when they were first burned by bricklayers thousands of years ago.
At the time the bricks were made, each brick was engraved with the name of the reigning king, and archaeologists have dated the names to various eras. Combining the engraved names with measurements of the iron oxide particle’s magnetic strength yielded a historical map of changes in the strength of the Earth’s magnetic field.
Uncovering geomagnetic anomalies during the Iron Age in the Levant
Researchers were able to confirm the existence of a “Levantine Iron Age geomagnetic anomaly.” This occurred between approximately 1050 and 550 BC, a period when the Earth’s magnetic field was unusually strong for unknown reasons around modern-day Iraq. Evidence of anomalies has been detected as far away as China, Bulgaria and the Azores, but data from the southern Middle East itself has been sparse.
“We can estimate the age of ancient heated artifacts by comparing them to what we know about ancient magnetic field conditions,” said lead author Professor Matthew Howland of Wichita State University. We can do that.”
Advanced technology and historical significance
To measure the iron oxide particles, the team carefully scraped off small pieces from the damaged surface of the brick and used a magnetometer to precisely measure the pieces.
By mapping changes in the Earth’s magnetic field over time, this data also provides archaeologists with new tools to help date some ancient artifacts. The magnetic strength of the iron oxide particles embedded within the fired product can be measured and matched against the known strength of the Earth’s historical magnetic field. The reigns of kings lasted anywhere from a few years to several decades, providing higher resolution than radiocarbon dating, which can only date artifacts to within a few hundred years.
A further benefit of archaeomagnetic dating of artifacts is that it can help historians more precisely pinpoint the reigns of somewhat obscure ancient kings. Although the length and sequence of their reigns are well known, there has been disagreement within the archaeological community as to the exact year they ascended the throne, as the historical record is incomplete. The researchers found that their technique is consistent with an understanding of the king’s reign known to archaeologists as “subchronology.”
The researchers also found that the Earth’s magnetic field appears to have changed dramatically over a relatively short period of time, from five samples taken during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, from 604 BC to 562 BC. and added evidence to the hypothesis that the intensity increased rapidly. Is possible.
Reference: “Exploring geomagnetic variation in ancient Mesopotamia: an archaeomagnetic study of carved bricks from the 3rd to 1st millennium BC” by Matthew D. Howland, Lisa Tokes, Shai Godin, Mark Altaweel, Brendan Syke, and Erez Ben-Yosef, 2023 December 18th, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2313361120
Co-author Professor Lisa Tax of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography (USA) said: Well-dated archaeological remains of the rich Mesopotamian culture, especially bricks inscribed with the names of particular kings, allow researchers to study changes in magnetic field strength with high temporal resolution over periods of decades or even shorter periods. provides an unprecedented opportunity to track changes that have occurred over time. ”
This research was conducted with funding from the U.S.-Israel Binational Science Foundation.
Researchers are analyzing the Chomadul volcano to comprehend the sudden eruption of a long-dormant volcano. The chemical and mineral composition of magma has been the focus of research to gain insight into volcanic reactivation and prediction of eruptions. This has underscored the potential hazards of inactive volcanoes. The dormant period of a volcano could potentially be interrupted by a rapid and hazardous eruption. The study by Hungarian researchers has helped uncover warning signs before the eruption of long-dormant volcanoes. They focused on the Chomadul volcano in the Carpathian-Pannonian region. The team used mineralogical and chemical composition data to understand magma evolution and infer the structure of the volcanic subsurface magma chamber. The study revealed that the volcanic activity during the last active period was mainly explosive. The eruption of Chomadul volcano was analyzed in terms of its eruptive history. The researchers were able to determine the causes and processes that control the eruption style of volcanic activity through a detailed study of rock-forming minerals. The key mineral, amphibole, played a crucial role in the study. It suggested that water-rich recharge magmas played an important role in triggering explosive eruptions. The research also highlighted the importance of quantitative volcanic petrology studies in understanding pre-eruption signals and enhancing eruption prediction capabilities. The study of Chomadul volcano has attracted international attention and is significant in identifying potential dangers associated with long-dormant volcanoes.
Scientists used supercomputer simulations to study gravitational waves produced by neutron star mergers and found a correlation between residual temperature and gravitational wave frequency. These findings are important for future gravitational wave detectors that distinguish models of hot nuclear material. Credit: SciTechDaily.com
Binary simulation neutron star This merger suggests that future detectors will distinguish between different models of hot nuclear material.
Researchers used supercomputer simulations to investigate the effects of neutron star mergers gravitational waves, found a significant relationship with debris temperature. This research will aid future advances in the detection and understanding of hot nuclear materials.
Exploring neutron star mergers and gravitational waves
When two neutron stars orbit each other, they emit ripples into spacetime called gravitational waves. These ripples drain energy from the orbit until the two stars eventually collide and combine into one object. Scientists used supercomputer simulations to investigate how the behavior of different models of nuclear material affects the gravitational waves released after these mergers. They found a strong correlation between the temperature of the debris and the frequency of these gravitational waves. Next generation detectors will be able to distinguish these models from each other.
Plot comparing density (right) and temperature (left) for two different simulations (top and bottom) of a neutron star merger, viewed from above, approximately 5 ms after the merger.Credit: Jacob Fields, Pennsylvania State University
Neutron Star: Institute for Nuclear Materials
Scientists use neutron stars as laboratories for nuclear materials under conditions that would be impossible to explore on Earth. They will use current gravitational wave detectors to observe neutron star mergers and learn how cold, ultra-dense matter behaves. However, these detectors cannot measure the signal after the stars have merged. This signal contains information about hot nuclear material. Future detectors will be even more sensitive to these signals. Because different models can also be distinguished from each other, the findings suggest that future detectors could help scientists create better models of hot nuclear material.
Detailed analysis of neutron star mergers
The study investigated neutron star mergers using THC_M1, a computer code that simulates neutron star mergers and accounts for the bending of spacetime due to the star’s strong gravitational field and neutrino processes in dense matter. . The researchers tested the effect of heat on mergers by varying the specific heat capacity of the equation of state, which measures the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of neutron star material by one degree Celsius. To ensure the robustness of their results, the researchers ran their simulations at two resolutions. They repeated the high-resolution run using a more approximate neutrino processing.
References:
“Thermal effects in binary neutron star mergers” by Jacob Fields, Aviral Prakash, Matteo Breschi, David Radice, Sebastiano Bernuzzi, and Andre da Silva Schneider, July 31, 2023. of Astrophysics Journal Letter. DOI: 10.3847/2041-8213/ace5b2
“Identification of nuclear effects in neutrino-carbon interactions in low 3 momentum transfer” until February 17, 2016 physical review letter. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.071802
Funding: This research was primarily funded by the Department of Energy, Office of Science, Nuclear Physics Program. Additional funding was provided by the National Science Foundation and the European Union.
This research used computational resources available through the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center, the Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center, and the Pennsylvania State University Computing and Data Science Institute.
Thanks to the James Webb Space Telescope, astronomers discover that most early galaxies from about 12 billion years ago had more glowing gas than stars due to interactions with neighboring galaxies. I was able to.
This groundbreaking result provides new insights into the evolution of galaxies and the early Universe, and highlights the transformative impact of JWST on astrophysics.
New images from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) have helped Australian astronomers uncover the secrets of how infant galaxies began a burst of star formation in the very early universe .Some early galaxies were rich in gas that shined brighter than emerging stars. In a new study, astronomers have discovered just how prevalent these bright galaxies were about 12 billion years ago. Images from JWST show that nearly 90% of galaxies in the early Universe had this glowing gas, creating so-called “extreme emission line features. An image of a distant polar emission galaxy. Observed by the James Webb Space Telescope (left) and the Hubble Space Telescope (right). This comparison highlights the sharpness of the JWST images. Credit: ARC Center of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D)
“The stars in these young galaxies were amazing, producing enough radiation to excite the gas around them. This gas, in turn, shined even brighter than the stars themselves.” said Dr. Anshu Gupta, Curtin University Node of the ARC Center for Three-Dimensional All-Sky Astrophysics (ASTRO 3D) and the International Radio Astronomy Research Center.Iqral), lead author of the paper describing this finding. “Until now, it has been difficult to understand how these galaxies are able to accumulate so much gas. Our discovery suggests that each of these galaxies had at least one neighboring galaxy. This suggests that interactions between these galaxies cool the gas and trigger intense star formation episodes, resulting in this extreme luminescence property.” Progress in observing galaxies in the early universe
This discovery is an example of the unparalleled clarity the JWST telescope provides in studying the early universe.
“The quality of data from the James Webb Telescope is exceptional,” says Dr. Gupta. “It has the depth and resolution necessary to observe the surroundings and neighboring galaxies of early galaxies, when the universe was just 2 billion years old. We were able to confirm that there are significant differences in the number of neighboring galaxies among galaxies that do not.”
The target galaxy observed by the James Webb Space Telescope (left) and the Hubble Space Telescope (right). The unprecedented resolution and sharpness of the JWST images allowed us to identify neighboring galaxies (cyan circles) that were not even visible to Hubble. Credit: ARC Center of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D
Until now, we’ve struggled to get clear images of galaxies whose universe is about 2 billion years old. Since many stars had not yet formed, there were far fewer galaxies to focus on, making the task even more difficult.“Before JWST, we could only get pictures of really huge galaxies, most of which were in very dense galaxy clusters, making them difficult to study,” says Dr. Gupta. “With the technology available at the time, it was not possible to observe 95% of the galaxies used in this study. His Webb telescope revolutionized our research.
An image of a distant polar emission galaxy. Observed by the James Webb Space Telescope (left) and the Hubble Space Telescope (right). This comparison highlights the sharpness of the JWST images. Credit: ARC Center of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D)
Checking previous assumptions
The discovery proved an earlier assumption, said fellow author Tran, associate director of ASTRO 3D and the Harvard University and Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. “We suspected that these extreme galaxies were signposts of intense interactions in the early universe, but only with JWST’s keen eye could we confirm our hunch.” she says.
The study is based on data obtained as part of the JWST Advanced Deep Extragacular Survey (JADES) survey, which uses deep infrared imaging and multi-object spectroscopy to explore the universe for the earliest galaxies. It paves the way for further insights. “What’s really interesting about this study is that we see similarities in emission lines between the first galaxies and galaxies that formed more recently and are easier to measure. It means we now have more ways to answer difficult questions about the early Universe,” said second author Ravi Jaiswal, PhD student at Curtin University/ICRAR and ASTRO 3D.
“This research is at the heart of the work of our Galaxy Evolution Programme. Understanding what earlier galaxies looked like will help us answer questions about the origins of the elements that make up all of our daily life on Earth. We can,” said Professor Emma Ryan-Weber, ASTRO 3D Director.
Reference: “MOSEL study: JWST reveals massive mergers/strong interactions in the early universe driving extreme emission lines” Anshu Gupta, Ravi Jaiswar, Vicente Rodriguez-Gomez, Ben Forrest, Kim -Vy Tran, Themiya Nanayakkara, Anishya Harshan, Elisabete Da Cunha, Glenn G. Kapsack, Michaela Harshman, of astrophysical journal.
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