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This galaxy cluster must be much, much colder than it actually is.
Lingxiao Yuan
Recent discoveries about young galaxy clusters, such as SPT2349-56, are transforming our understanding of how these colossal structures formed and evolved in the early universe. Interestingly, the gas within SPT2349-56 is significantly hotter and denser than anticipated, posing intriguing questions for researchers.
Zhou Daizhi and their team at the University of British Columbia utilized the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) in Chile to investigate this galaxy cluster. Their findings revealed that the gas at the cluster’s center reaches temperatures of tens of millions of degrees Celsius.
“The sun’s surface temperature is just a few thousand degrees Celsius, making this region much hotter,” Zhou notes. “Our conservative estimates indicate temperatures five to ten times higher than expected based on simulations, which is surprising since such hot gas was thought to exist only in clusters billions of years old.”
Located in the early universe, approximately 1.4 billion years after the Big Bang, SPT2349-56 is unlike any other known cluster of its age. Zhou explains, “This gas should still be relatively cold and in small quantities, as these nascent clusters are still in the process of accumulating gas and heating up.” However, SPT2349-56 seems to be more mature than anticipated.
The unusual heating could stem from the presence of particularly active galaxies within the cluster, with at least three galaxies emitting massive jets of energy. These jets, combined with intermittent star formation bursts, might be heating the gas rapidly, challenging previous assumptions.
“This discovery opens a new window into understanding stages of cluster evolution that we have not observed before,” Zhou emphasizes. The research team plans additional observations to locate more hot young clusters like SPT2349-56, with the hope of unraveling the complexities of galaxy formation.
A groundbreaking research team at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology has successfully generated a high-quality Denisovan genome assembly using ancient DNA extracted from molar teeth found in the Denisovan Cave. This genome, dating back approximately 200,000 years, significantly predates the only previously sequenced Denisovan specimen. The findings are prompting a reevaluation of when and where early human groups interacted, mixed, and migrated throughout Asia.
Artist’s concept of Penghu Denisovans walking under the bright sun during the Pleistocene in Taiwan. Image credit: Cheng-Han Sun.
Dr. Stéphane Peregne, an evolutionary geneticist from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, along with his team, recovered this Denisovan genome from molars excavated in the Denisova Cave, located in the Altai Mountains of southern Siberia. This cave is historically significant as it was the site where Denisovans were first discovered in 2010 through DNA analysis of finger bones.
This cave continues to be pivotal in the study of human evolution, revealing repeated occupations by Denisovans, Neanderthals, and even offspring resulting from the interbreeding of these groups.
“The Denisovans were first identified in 2008 based on ancient DNA sourced from Denisova 3, a phalanx found in the Denisova Cave,” Dr. Peregne and his colleagues noted.
“This analysis confirms that Denisovans are closely related to Neanderthals, an extinct human group that thrived in Western Eurasia during the mid-to-late Pleistocene.”
Since then, twelve fragmentary remains and a single skull have been associated with Denisovans through DNA or protein analysis, with Denisova 3 being the only specimen yielding a high-quality genome.
The newly studied molars, belonging to a Denisovan male who lived approximately 200,000 years ago, are predating modern humans’ migration out of Africa.
“In 2020, a complete upper left molar was found in Layer 17, one of the oldest cultural layers within the southern chamber of the Denisova Cave, dating between 200,000 and 170,000 years old based on photostimulated luminescence,” the scientists elaborated.
“Designated as Denisova 25, this molar resembles others found at Denisova Cave, specifically Denisova 4 and Denisova 8, and exhibits larger dimensions compared to Neanderthal and most post-Middle Pleistocene hominid molars, indicating it likely belonged to a Denisovan.”
“Two samples of 2.7 mg and 8.9 mg were extracted by drilling a hole at the cement-enamel junction of the tooth, with an additional 12 subsamples varying from 4.5 to 20.2 mg collected by carefully scraping the outer root layer using a dental drill.”
Thanks to excellent DNA preservation, researchers successfully reconstructed the genome of Denisova 25 with high coverage, matching the quality of the 65,000-year-old female Denisova 3 genome.
Denisovans likely had dark skin, in contrast to the pale Neanderthals. The image depicts a Neanderthal. Image credit: Mauro Cutrona.
Comparisons between the genomes indicate that Denisovans were not a singular, homogeneous population.
Instead, at least two distinct Denisovan groups inhabited the Altai region at various intervals, with one group gradually replacing the other over millennia.
Earlier Denisovans possessed a greater amount of Neanderthal DNA than later populations, suggesting that interbreeding was a regular event rather than an isolated occurrence in the Ice Age landscape of Eurasia.
Even more intriguing, the study uncovered evidence that Denisovans engaged in interbreeding with “hyperarchaic” hominin groups that diverged from the human lineage before the ancestors of Denisovans, Neanderthals, and modern humans branched off.
“This second Denisovan genome illustrates the recurrent admixture between Neanderthals and Denisovans in the Altai region, suggesting these mixed populations were eventually supplanted by Denisovans from other regions, reinforcing the notion that Denisovans were widespread and that populations in the Altai may have existed at the periphery of their geographic range,” the researchers explained.
The Denisovan 25 genome presents valuable insights into the long-standing mysteries regarding the Denisovan ancestry in contemporary populations.
People in Oceania, parts of South Asia, and East Asia all carry Denisovan DNA, albeit from different Denisovan sources.
Through genetic comparison, scientists have identified at least three separate Denisovan origins, highlighted by their genetic segments found in thousands of modern genomes.
One lineage closely relates to the later Denisovan genome and is linked to widespread ancestry across East Asia and beyond.
A second, more distantly related Denisovan population contributed independently to Oceanian and South Asian ancestry.
Notably, East Asians do not share this highly divergent Denisovan ancestry, implying their ancestors may have taken a different route into Asia, potentially from the north, whereas Oceanian ancestors likely migrated through South Asia.
“Neanderthal-like DNA fragments appear in all populations, including Oceanians, aligning with a singular out-of-Africa migration; however, the distinct Denisovan gene flow points to multiple migrations into Asia,” the researchers stated.
Reconstruction of a young Denisovan woman based on skeletal profiles derived from ancient DNA methylation maps. Image credit: Maayan Harel.
The researchers believe certain Denisovan genetic traits offered advantages that increased their prevalence in modern human populations through the process of natural selection.
By analyzing both Denisovan genomes, the authors pinpointed numerous regions in present-day populations that appear to have originated from Denisovan introgression, particularly in Oceania and South Asia.
Genetic alterations observed in other Denisovans provide intriguing insights into their physical appearances.
Several unique mutations in Denisovans influence genes connected to cranial shape, jaw protrusion, and facial characteristics—attributes that align with the limited fossil record associated with Denisovans.
A shift in regulatory mechanisms is on the horizon. The Fox P2 gene, implicated in brain development and language in modern humans, raises important questions regarding the cognitive capabilities of Denisovans, although researchers emphasize that genetic data cannot replace direct fossil or archaeological evidence.
“The impact of Denisovan alleles on modern human phenotypes might also shed light on Denisovan biology,” the researchers pointed out.
“Examining alleles linked to contemporary human traits, we identified 16 associations with 11 Denisovan alleles, covering aspects like height, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and C-reactive protein levels.”
“Additionally, we recognized 305 expressed quantitative trait loci (QTL) and 117 alternative splicing QTLs that affect gene expression across 19 tissues in modern humans, with the most significant effects observable in the thyroid, tibial artery, testis, and muscle tissues.”
“These molecular effects can be utilized to explore additional phenotypes that are not retained in the fossil record. This updated catalog provides a more reliable foundation for investigating Denisovan traits, adaptations, and disease susceptibilities, some of which may have influenced modern humans through admixture.”
European scientists first discovered the platypus due to its unique fur and anatomy. A sketch sent from Australia in 1798 left them in disbelief.
This specimen was so extraordinary that British zoologist George Shaw initially deemed it impossible, stating there was no reason to doubt its authenticity.
Could a prankster have stitched a duck’s beak onto a beaver’s body? To verify, Shaw meticulously examined the specimen for seams, but none were found. Thus, he became the first person to officially describe the animal, naming it platypus anatinus, originally referred to as “duck-like flat feet.” Over time, the classification evolved to Ornithorhynchus anatinus, meaning “duck-billed platypus.”
The platypus resembles a whimsical creation from a children’s book, combining features from various animals. It has a duck’s beak, an otter’s body, and a beaver’s tail. Notably, it lays eggs like birds while nursing its young with milk, a trait shared with mammals.
After extensive research and debate, scientists classified the platypus as a primitive type of mammal known as monotremes.
The term “monotreme” comes from the Greek word for “single opening,” referring to a multifunctional orifice, or “cloaca,” utilized for excretion, reproduction, and laying eggs.
The platypus is among five living monotreme species, along with four echidna species, all of which lay eggs instead of giving live birth.
Image of a platypus swimming – Males possess hollow spurs on their hind legs to inject venom. Image courtesy of Getty Images
The female platypus lays two small, leathery eggs in a breeding burrow, typically surrounded by grass. After around ten days, the platypus hatchlings, known as “
About the size of a butterbean, these hatchlings are born blind and hairless, making them entirely dependent on their mother.
For the next four months, she nourishes them with rich, nutritious milk that she secretes through special pores on her hairless abdomen, which they lap up from her fur.
Furthermore, the platypus’ beak is equipped with special receptor cells that detect electric signals generated by prey movements, including crustaceans and insect larvae.
Untypically for mammals, the platypus is also venomous. Males utilize their hollow spurs to inject venom into rivals to attract female attention.
In terms of swimming style, platypuses differ from river otters, which use all four legs for propulsion or beavers that use their hind legs and tail. Instead, platypuses swim by paddling solely with their front feet, using their tails and webbed hind legs primarily for steering.
If that wasn’t strange enough, consider the platypus genome.
Unlike most mammals that have two sex chromosomes, the platypus has ten, along with genes typical of mammals, genes from reptiles, and some entirely unique genes.
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Visual representation of polycystic ovary syndrome showing enlarged ovaries
Science Photo Library / Alamy
Recent research has begun to shed light on the genetics behind polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), paving the way for potential new therapies.
PCOS affects up to 20% of women, leading to disrupted ovarian function characterized by at least two of the following: irregular or absent periods, elevated male hormones like testosterone, and the accumulation of immature eggs within cyst-like ovaries. Consequently, it can result in fertility challenges.
While the exact causes remain unclear, PCOS is believed to correlate with changes in the gut microbiome and hormonal imbalances during prenatal development. The condition also appears to have a hereditary component, with studies indicating that 70% of the risk is genetic. However, researchers have only pinpointed about 25 genetic mutations impacting sex hormone production and ovarian function, explaining roughly 10% of an individual’s risk.
To address this knowledge gap, Qiao Shigang and colleagues at Shandong University in Jinan, China, conducted a genomic study involving over 440,000 women from China and Europe, out of which 25,000 were diagnosed with PCOS, marking the largest gene analysis related to the condition to date.
The researchers discovered 94 genetic variants that appear to contribute to PCOS risk, with 73 being previously unrecognized. Notably, one mutation affects the gene responsible for the mitochondrial ribosomal protein S22, essential for mitochondrial function, an area that Zhao points out has connections in earlier studies discussing the link between PCOS and mitochondrial dysfunction.
Another newly identified variant impacts sex hormone-binding globulin, a protein that moderates the activity of sex hormones and is often found at reduced levels in women with PCOS.
Several of the remaining variants influence the function of granulosa cells in the ovaries, responsible for producing estrogen and progesterone and aiding in egg development during the menstrual cycle. This supports the hypothesis that PCOS is genetically influenced by fluctuations in sex hormone levels, according to Zhao.
In summary, the research indicated that these 94 mutations account for around 27% of the risk variation in PCOS among European participants and about 34% in the Chinese cohort.
“This study is significant because it enhances our understanding of the genetic factors associated with this condition,” remarks Elisabeth Stenner-Victorin from Karolinska Institutet, Sweden. Furthermore, it underscores the necessity of including diverse ancestral backgrounds in PCOS genetic research, according to Zhao.
Ultimately, the team identified medications that could modify the pathways affected by the recognized mutations. Some of these, like clomiphene, are already used for PCOS treatment; they stimulate ovulation which is often hampered by the syndrome. Additionally, the team discovered that betaine—sometimes utilized for homocystinuria treatment—might also benefit PCOS patients. Future studies using mice exhibiting PCOS-like symptoms could explore this treatment potential.
“Current treatments focus on alleviating symptoms, as there aren’t any medications that can cure PCOS,” states Stenner-Victorin. Typical interventions include clomiphene, contraceptive pills to manage periods, and metformin, a type 2 diabetes medication that may enhance fertility. However, effectiveness varies among individuals. “Identifying genetic clusters that affect PCOS risk will be essential for developing more targeted treatment strategies for these women,” she adds.
Individuals with fibromyalgia exhibit different genetic mutations compared to those who do not have fibromyalgia.
Katerina Conn/Science Photo Library/Getty Images
Recent advances in our understanding of the genetics behind fibromyalgia, a poorly understood disorder characterized by widespread chronic pain, are emerging. Two large-scale studies have reinforced the notion that dysfunctions within the central nervous system significantly contribute to fibromyalgia. Nonetheless, other studies have indicated the involvement of alternative mechanisms such as autoimmunity, highlighting the complex, multi-faceted nature of this ailment.
Fibromyalgia is believed to impact 2-3% of the population. While the exact cause remains a mystery, treatment is challenging. A prevailing hypothesis suggests that individuals with fibromyalgia may experience alterations in how their central nervous system interprets pain signals, potentially triggered by infections or changes in gut microbiota.
To investigate the genetics involved, two research teams undertook genome-wide association studies (GWAS) to pinpoint genetic variations prevalent in fibromyalgia patients. Their focus rested primarily on single-letter mutations rather than more extensive genomic alterations which might have more pronounced effects.
The first study, led by Michael Weinberg at Mount Sinai Hospital in Toronto, Canada, encompassed participants from various countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, and Finland. This team gathered data from 54,629 individuals with fibromyalgia, primarily of European descent, and compared it to 2,509,126 individuals without the condition. Their findings revealed 26 genetic mutations linked to a higher risk of fibromyalgia.
Meanwhile, Joel Gelernter from Yale School of Medicine directed a second study utilizing datasets from the U.S. and the U.K. Their research involved 85,139 patients with fibromyalgia and 1,642,433 controls of mixed European, Latin American, and African ancestries. They identified 10 mutations associated with fibromyalgia among the European group, one in the African group, and 12 across diverse ancestries.
Both Weinberg and Gelernter opted not to give interviews as their studies await peer review.
“Both studies are truly commendable in terms of their participant numbers,” remarked Cindy Bohr from Erasmus Medical Center in Rotterdam, Netherlands.
In Weinberg’s study, the strongest association was linked to a variant of a gene called huntingtin, known for its role in causing Huntington’s disease. This condition results from repeating genetic sequences that prompt the production of faulty proteins. Conversely, the mutations associated with fibromyalgia are characterized by single-letter changes throughout the gene.
However, Bohr emphasizes that this mutation is unlikely to be the sole contributor to fibromyalgia. “It needs to be viewed alongside other risk factors and genetic elements.” There are likely thousands of contributing variants, along with external factors such as exposure to air pollution, she states. Larger studies are essential to uncover all contributing variants.
Despite certain limitations, the mutations identified by Weinberg’s team are found in genes linked to neuronal function, indicating that crucial mechanisms of fibromyalgia likely occur in the brain. Similarly, Gelernter’s research has highlighted variants previously connected to pain and neurologically related issues like post-traumatic stress disorder and depression.
These findings reaffirm a prevailing theory about fibromyalgia: “There’s a significant issue within the brain tissue,” said Bohr. Tracking these mutations may help identify key cell types, brain regions, and biochemical pathways that could become targets for future therapies. However, Bohr cautions that this is still years away unless existing drugs targeting known mechanisms prove relevant. Current treatments focus on approaches such as exercise, therapy, and antidepressants, though results are mixed.
Nevertheless, factors aside from genetics may also be influential. David Anderson and colleagues at King’s College London previously identified signs suggesting fibromyalgia may have autoimmune origins. In 2021, mice injected with antibodies from fibromyalgia patients exhibited symptoms like painful hypersensitivity and muscle weakness. Furthermore, research in September showed that these mice displayed atypical sensory responses, where nerves usually responsive to light touch began reacting to cold stimuli—mirroring the chronic pain experienced by fibromyalgia patients from non-painful stimuli, such as mildly lower temperatures.
“I firmly believe in the conclusions of our fibromyalgia research and anticipate that the findings will pivot the field’s focus toward autoantibodies [targeting the body’s tissues] and peripheral nerve cells [neurons outside of the brain and spinal cord], forming a new mechanism,” Anderson stated.
Bohr, however, points out that this recent research does not discount other theories. With rigorous statistical standards, while confident in the variants discovered and their implied mechanisms, they likely overlook many others. Gelernter and his team also detected several variants linked to autoimmune responses.
Professor Bohr characterizes this work as an essential “first step” towards understanding the roots of fibromyalgia. “What’s the pathway?” she inquires. “And is there something we can target?”
Individuals facing significant adversity in their early years show elevated levels of specific proteins in their brains, a discovery that may shed light on the connection between childhood difficulties and persistent mental health issues. Moreover, medications targeting this protein could potentially mitigate these effects in the future.
About 1 in 5 adolescents in the U.S. report having experienced at least four potentially traumatic events, such as abuse, neglect, homelessness, or losing a parent. Studies indicate that these experiences can hinder brain development, leading to an increased risk of mental health conditions, including depression, persisting into adulthood.
“The mechanisms through which early life stress and adversity exert lasting effects are still not fully understood,” states Christoph Anacker from Columbia University, New York. “Individuals who have endured childhood trauma usually exhibit lesser responsiveness to current antidepressant treatments.”
Prior studies have indicated that individuals with depression show elevated symptoms such as heightened levels of the protein SGK1 (serum and blood glucocorticoid-regulated kinase 1). While little is known about this protein’s exact role, it seems to affect brain cell processing and information dissemination .
To investigate its effects further, Anacker and colleagues examined SGK1 levels in the postmortem brains of 50 men, 36 of whom had died by suicide. Each participant had completed a questionnaire detailing experiences of physical or sexual abuse before the age of 16.
The research revealed that in the hippocampus—a brain region linked to memory and stress—the levels of genetic material for SGK1 were approximately 33 percent higher in men who had died by suicide compared to those who had not, with even higher levels in those who faced childhood adversity.
In another segment of the study, over 8,500 children aged 9-10 were analyzed, revealing that those diagnosed with depression were more likely to exhibit heightened activity of the SGK1-encoding gene, which was also connected to instances of childhood adversity.
Finally, the researchers conducted an experiment injecting 10 adult male mice daily for 10 days with a novel drug designed to inhibit SGK1. After each injection, the mice were placed in a cage with aggressive counterparts for 5 minutes to elevate stress levels.
At the conclusion of the 10-day study, the treated mice exhibited fewer signs of anxiety and depression than a control group that received saline injections. Notably, the treated group spent more than double the time in the center of a vacant cage rather than cowering in a corner, compared to the control subjects.
“Lowering SGK1 levels in the hippocampus enhances resilience to stress in mice,” states Anacker. A similar biological pathway appears to exist in humans, suggesting that targeting SGK1 may alleviate depression in those who faced early hardships. Although the exact mechanism by which SGK1 contributes to mental health issues remains unclear, one theory is that it inhibits the formation of brain cells in the hippocampus.
While the drug utilized in this study is not yet approved for human use, other SGK1 inhibitors are undergoing clinical trials for specific heart conditions. If proven safe, these could potentially be repurposed for treating mental health disorders, according to Anacker. However, “this fundamental research in rodents is still far from providing the conclusive evidence needed to identify practical drug targets for humans,” notes Katie McLoughlin at Harvard University.
If you need someone to talk to, reach out to the British Samaritans at 116123; the U.S. National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at 1-800-273-8255; or find hotlines in other countries.
Between mid-May and late June, Icechip Storm Chasers explore the Front Range of the Rockies and the Central Plains, often in vehicles fortified against falling ice. Equipped with drones, balloons, and mobile Doppler radars, they enhance methodologies previously perfected by Tornado Chasers.
While one team strategically positions mobile Doppler radars to monitor storms at close proximity, other researchers focus on deploying balloons and utilizing sensors to assess the size and velocity of hail strikes.
Amid various storms, researchers have embarked on the Tempest Path to observe the life cycle of hailstones, utilizing hundreds of ping-pong ball-like devices known as Heilsondos that melt and freeze.
Convection thunderstorms with substantial internal updrafts generate hail by circulating a mix of water and ice crystals into the freezing layer above. Hail typically forms at altitudes between 20,000 to 50,000 feet, where temperatures range from -22 to 14 degrees Fahrenheit. The same updrafts can obliterate ailsond at any hail-generating region of the storm.
This is situated on the roads of Oklahoma. Ice plants/farm
“By tracking that sensor over time, we can understand the precise path and trajectory that hail follows, at least for some storms,” stated Victor Gensini, a meteorology professor at Northern Illinois University and lead researcher at ICECHIP.
“We anticipate increased instability,” Gensini remarked, with researchers believing this could foster stronger updrafts.
Such powerful updrafts can sustain larger hail for extended periods, allowing ice balls or discs to gain mass before gravity pulls them down.
“If you use a hair dryer and direct it towards the edge, it’s easy to balance a ping pong ball with that airstream,” Jensee described. “But how do you balance a softball? A stronger updraft is necessary.”
Storm modeling indicates that more potent updrafts could increase the likelihood of large hail in the future, even though they may lower the overall chance of hail. Researchers predict smaller hail will diminish, as it possesses less mass and often dissolves before reaching the ground.
“There’s a sort of dichotomy. Yes, there are fewer people around, but warmer atmospheres with very strong updrafts yield even more significant hail,” Jensee explained.
Throughout their field campaign, researchers collected over 10,000 hailstones in dry ice chests to evaluate their computer models against observed growth dynamics.
Measuring the hail. Ice plants/farm
“The hail data is somewhat concerning,” Jensini remarked about previous records, noting an increase in reports of 2-inch, 3-inch, and 4-inch hail. However, it’s unclear whether this is due to more people chasing storms and discovering larger hail or if the atmosphere is genuinely producing larger hailstones.
Gensini conveyed that the new measurements will enable researchers to correlate airborne conditions with ground findings, leading to enhanced forecasts and reduced economic impacts.
In many regions where Icechip operates, agriculture is prevalent, according to Karen Kosiba, an atmospheric scientist with flexible radar teams at the University of Illinois.
“It influences their crops and machinery, prompting them to seek shelter,” she stated. “Weather holds numerous economic implications.”
[The world underwent a profound transformation when project scientists in Manhattan detonated the first atomic bomb on July 16, 1945.
The Trinity test created a radioactive legacy, much like the numerous ground nuclear tests that followed (with a total of 528 explosions), which introduced radioactive particles into the atmosphere.
As a result, the air we breathe now carries a slight level of radioactivity. This has led to unforeseen effects on various materials we produce.
For instance, steel is manufactured by pushing refined oxygen through molten iron ore. Given the radioactivity present in today’s air, the steel produced is subtly radioactive as well.
The fallout from nuclear tests reached its peak in 1963, with levels subsequently dropping over 95% as the radioactive particles in the atmosphere decreased. This decline occurred gradually.
While the steel produced today poses no health risks, its slight radioactivity can interfere with sensitive scientific instruments, particularly those designed for detecting dark matter.
Hence, scientists are on the lookout for materials with minimal radiation contamination. Steel made before the first nuclear explosion in 1945 is particularly valuable for particle physics research because it contains significantly fewer radioactive particles.
Much of this “low-radiation steel” has been salvaged from shipwrecks, including a fleet of 52 German battleships that sank in the shallow waters of Orkney, Scotland.
Even slight radioactivity can disrupt sensitive scientific instruments, like those made to detect dark matter. – Image credits: Science Photo Library
However, the rising demand for low-radiation steel has sparked controversy. In 2017, it was revealed that salvage divers had illegally looted up to 40 World War II warships near Singapore, Indonesia, and Malaysia.
This discovery triggered protests from veterans and historians, who regard these wrecks as sacred sites of underwater warfare.
Ancient Roman lead is also prized among physicists for its ability to shield ultra-sensitive experiments from background radiation. Naturally radioactive, lead ore can contain trace amounts of isotope lead 210, which has a half-life of 22 years.
While fresh lead suitable for particle physics takes centuries to produce, Roman-sourced lead had enough time to lose its radiation.
In 2010, Italy’s National Archaeological Museum celebrated a historic agreement to donate 120 lead ingots, recovered from a Roman ship that sank around 80-50 BC, to the Nuclear Physics Institute for use in future experiments.
This article answers the question posed by Henry Becker from Durham: “How does background radiation affect particle detectors?”
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In the early days of scientific exploration, researchers observed natural phenomena and began to unravel the mysteries behind how lightning forms.
These brief yet incredibly bright bursts of radiation, referred to as Terrestrial Gamma Ray Flashes (TGF), were identified by a research team at Osaka University in Japan during a lightning event.
Interestingly, TGFs are typically observed in space, associated with supernovae and black hole jets. This raises the question: how does lightning produce the energy required to generate them?
Recent papers published in the journal Advances in Science potentially provide answers. While scientists previously believed that TGFs were caused by the rapid acceleration of electrons, testing this theory has proven challenging. The radiation often occurs in the final microsecond and is concealed by cloud cover.
This is why researchers involved in the new study employed innovative techniques to observe thunderstorms, utilizing a multi-sensor system that includes optical, radio frequency, and high-energy radiation sensors.
“The multi-sensor observations conducted here are unprecedented,” stated Dr. Harufumi Tsuchiya, the senior author of the paper. “While some mysteries persist, this approach has significantly deepened our understanding of these intriguing radiation burst mechanisms.”
So, what did they find? Collectively, the sensors unveiled two channels of charged particles known as the discharge pathway—one descending from the thundercloud to the TV tower, and the other ascending from the tower.
The scientists observed the formation of TGFs occurring 31 microseconds before the two pathways converged, resulting in a highly concentrated electric field where electrons accelerated at nearly the speed of light.
Once the two pathways merged, the burst continued for an additional 20 microseconds, yielding a lightning strike of -56 kiloamperes. (Don’t let the negative sign confuse you—it merely indicates the direction from cloud to ground. This current is exceptionally high, typical of lightning.)
Wada Yutaka, the lead author of the study, remarked, “The opportunity to examine extreme processes such as TGFs stemming from lightning enhances our understanding of the high-energy dynamics present in Earth’s atmosphere.”
The 11 -year survey of particles near our sun and anti -particles has emerged the history of our solar system and causes a new mystery about the particles itself.
“It seems like I stepped into a dark room and saw a lot of new things.” Samuel Tin At Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Energy particles are filled in the space, which is moved by burst called cosmic rays. When the cosmic ray enters the Alpha Magnetic Difference (AMS) detector of the International Space Station (ISS), the magnetic field separates particles based on the charge, and the detector measures mass and energy. This separation is important because it helps to identify the differences between particles and their anti -particles.
AMS collaboration, and his colleagues, analyzed more than 11 years of AMS data, and found that we didn’t know much about the particle behavior as we thought. For example, this survey reveals how the number of particles tends to be over time and how different types of particles interact with each other. Ting says that there are more than 600 theoretical models that can explain each of these trends, but there is nothing to explain both surveys at the same time.
And the results of the survey may be important for more than a single particle. Researchers say that the changing characteristics may be useful as a record of the history of the solar system, so they are shooting cosmic rays with different detectors for more than a century. Jamie Lankin At Princeton University. However, she says that we have never understood how the solar cycle affects the light rays.
This is because 11 years is the length of one solar cycle, so collecting data during that period captures all repeated fluctuations in the sun magnetic field, and the behavior of cosmic rays changes. She says that such a detailed investigation can be a key to solving a method of using cosmic rays in “solar system archeology”.
However, he says that the cosmic ray itself is still mysterious. Gavin Lowell At Adelaide University in Australia. “The measured value of the particle AMS is essentially from outside the solar system,” he says. Detailed amounts of new analysis, including how different particle nuclei on the cosmic ray acts, may help researchers focus on more decisive theories of cosmic rays.
There is also a question of other unexplored universe. “It’s a big mystery for me that AMS can observe antiproton because we don’t see antimatters in our world.” Ian Low At Northwestern University, Illinois. He says that the origin of these anti -particles is connected to a mysterious dark substance, and otherwise it may be better than our current universe.
Ting and his colleagues are currently working on upgrading the AMS detector, can detect more particles, and are adjusted as astronauts who support the installation.
During the Stone Age, the operation of stone tools provides evidence that it was not exclusive to humans, despite the popular image of early humans sitting around campfires or hunting. Even wild chimpanzees ( Pantosloid ) have been observed using stones to open nuts. They place a nut on a flat rock (called an anvil) and strike it with another stone (a hammer), or sometimes with a thick branch.
Research from Africa’s Tai National Park shows that chimpanzees have been using these tools for over 4,000 years. This suggests that the use of stone tools may be a trait inherited from common ancestors, although it’s also possible that different species learned this independently.
Other primates, like capuchin monkeys in Brazil and long-tailed macaques in Thailand, have also been observed using hammer and anvil technology. The capuchin monkeys take up to eight years to master the skill, using stones weighing up to 1 kg (2.2 pounds) to crack nuts, with evidence of this behavior dating back at least 3000 years.
While humans are known for using more advanced stone tools, animals also have their own versions – Credit: Mikroman6
Stone tools are not exclusive to primates either. Otters use stones to crack open shellfish and extract sea snails, while crows in New Caledonia drop hard nuts from heights onto anvils to open and access the contents.
Although stone tool use was once thought to be unique to Homo sapiens, archaeologists have found evidence of stone tool use by earlier human species like Homo habilis. Stone tool manufacturing remains a key aspect of human evolution, connecting ancient actions with the use of these tools. The discovery of other primates using stone tools challenges some of the oldest archaeological sites.
In 2022, archaeologists in Argentina proposed the idea that stone tools found in Brazil 50,000 years ago might have been created by capuchin monkeys, not humans. The quartz tools are similar to those created by present-day capuchin monkeys.
The use of stone tools by monkeys raises questions regarding the origins of tool use between humans and monkeys – CREDIT: chain45154
If these ancient tools were indeed made by monkeys, it would extend the timeline of their stone tool use by thousands of years and raise questions about when Homo sapiens arrived in South America.
Archeologists have also noted similarities between monkey-made stone fragments and human cutting tools, suggesting that early humans may have been influenced by accidental creations to develop their own tools. The discovery raises questions about the origins of the oldest stone tool artifacts.
This article answers the question, “Are we the only species to have passed the Stone Age?” posed by Juanita Andrade via email.
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Recently, the James Webb Telescope (JWST) made a groundbreaking observation of a distant galaxy. These early galaxies challenge our understanding of galaxy formation and the physics of the early universe, appearing as bright, massive, fuzzy red dots.
One of JWST’s latest discoveries is the presence of “Tyrannosaurus Rex” Stars in a distant galaxy. The spectrum of this galaxy indicates a significant amount of carbon, raising questions about the origin of these stars.
These early stars are believed to be massive, unknown entities, and the carbon could be a remnant from their existence.
Early stars are rare because they formed in a pristine environment before the universe was polluted with heavy elements. Star formation was more challenging in this simpler time.
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Stars typically begin as balls of hydrogen gas that undergo nuclear fusion reactions to convert hydrogen into other elements.
Star formation requires cooling and compressing gas to ignite nuclear fusion reactions. Dust plays a crucial role in cooling the gas by absorbing and releasing energy during collisions.
The lack of heavy elements like carbon in the early universe posed a challenge for star formation. The first stars were likely more massive and exploded as supernovae, dispersing heavy elements and enabling the formation of stars like our sun.
Through observations of distant galaxies, JWST is providing insights into the origins of the universe and our place in it.
While we may not see the “space dinosaurs,” studying their remnants helps us understand how their existence paved the way for life on Earth.
Life is abundant on Earth, from pigeons in the park to invisible microorganisms covering every surface. However, when Earth first formed 4.5 billion years ago, it was devoid of life. The question remains: how did the first life form emerge?
The answer is still unknown. If we understood the process, we could recreate it in a controlled environment. Scientists could replicate the right conditions with the right chemicals and potentially observe living organisms forming. Yet, this has never been accomplished before.
Although the exact origin of life remains a mystery, there are several clues that provide insight. Living organisms consist of various chemicals, including proteins and nucleic acids that carry genetic information. While these chemicals are complex, their basic building blocks are simple to create.
One of the first demonstrations of this concept came from chemist Stanley Miller in 1953. By simulating the early Earth’s conditions with water and gases, Miller produced amino acids, the fundamental components of proteins, through heating and electrical shocks resembling lightning.
Subsequent studies, such as one conducted by Sarah Simkuch, have shown how complex chemicals can arise from basic compounds. By starting with everyday chemicals like water and methane, researchers have generated thousands of substances found in living organisms.
While this abundance of chemical building blocks suggests a fertile environment for life to emerge, the transition from chemicals to life is not automatic. Several key factors contribute to the formation of life, including structure, sustenance, and reproduction.
Research into the origin of life has focused on creating systems that encompass these essentials, such as genetic molecules capable of self-replication. However, the interdependence of these systems suggests a simultaneous emergence may be more plausible, possibly within confined spaces like deep-sea hydrothermal vents or terrestrial pools.
While the exact beginning of life remains uncertain, advancements in understanding have made the origin of life seem less inexplicable than before.
Back in the spring of 2003, the Human Genome Project completed the monumental task of sequencing the human genome.
Even now, The Book of Life remains a captivating and complex subject for the world’s top geneticists, as they work to unravel its mysteries.
This achievement was not only a major milestone for science but for life on our planet, marking the first time any organism had documented its fundamental genetic makeup. This event sparked the ongoing genetic revolution but also presented profound questions.
Questions like, “Why is there so much genetic material?”
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One intriguing aspect of the human genome is that the majority of it seems to serve no apparent function. With around 3 billion nucleotide pairs (A, C, G, T), fewer than 2% (approximately 20,000) of these are genes responsible for coding proteins that direct cellular activity in the body. So, what purpose do the remaining genes serve?
Some have referred to these as junk DNA: seemingly meaningless genetic remnants accumulated over the course of evolution or like a convoluted word puzzle with little coherence.
However, ongoing research indicates that at least some of these regions are not simply genetic debris but have crucial regulatory and corrective roles in the human genome’s protein-coding genes. These DNA sequences are likened to the controls for gene expression.
For instance, enhancer sequences boost gene transcription from DNA to RNA, while silencers have the opposite effect.
The dark genome largely consists of lengthy repeat DNA sequences called Transposons, which play vital roles in gene expression, evolutionary processes, and environmental adaptation.
These “jumping genes” can relocate within the genome, potentially causing significant genetic mutations or inversions. Scientists posit that transposons are linked to evolutionary developments such as opposable thumbs in humans and the loss of tails in humans and apes.
In certain scenarios, transposons may contribute to the onset of tumors and genetic disorders like hemophilia and Duchenne muscular dystrophy, stemming from repetitive DNA sequences associated with transposons.
As a result, the dark genome has become a focal point of medical research, with hopes that increased understanding over the next two decades will lead to revolutionary therapies for genetic diseases.
This content addresses the query of “What makes up the other 98% of DNA?” posed by Asa Mcintyre via email.
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Facial yoga has gained popularity recently, with celebrities like Jennifer Aniston, Kate Moss, and Gwyneth Paltrow endorsing it. It involves stretches and exercises to strengthen the facial, neck, and shoulder muscles, similar to full-body yoga.
Supporters claim that facial yoga can reduce tension and stress, as well as tone and lift areas that may have weakened over time. A pilot study in JAMA Dermatology found that participants aged 40-65 who did facial exercises for 30 minutes daily or every other day for 20 weeks saw improvements in cheek fullness and a decrease in apparent age.
Research in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health suggests that facial muscle exercises can improve mood and reduce stress. Stretching and massage may also have positive effects on health, possibly even reducing the appearance of scars.
While there is promising evidence, more large-scale trials are needed before facial yoga can be considered a proven anti-aging technique.
4 face yoga exercises to try at home
Consult your healthcare professional before starting facial yoga. If you decide to give it a try, here are some exercises to begin with.
Cheek puff
Purse your lips, puff out your cheeks, and hold for 5 seconds. Repeat for tightening cheek muscles.
Eye rejuvenator
Gently tap under your eyes, moving towards the inner and outer eye corners for lymphatic drainage and reduced dark circles.
Fish face
Purse your lips, suck in your cheeks, and hold for 30 seconds to target the jawline and cheek muscles.
Anti-frown agent
Press and release your fingers along the eyebrows for 5 seconds to prevent frowning.
This article was inspired by a question from Alex Maddox: “Should I do facial yoga?”
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A new study has revealed how visual masking, a phenomenon in which rapid succession of images leads to unconscious image processing, occurs in both humans and mice. This study highlights the role of the cortex in conscious perception and provides important insights into the brain’s visual processing mechanisms.
Delve into the mysterious optical illusions and science of visual masking.
Recent research published in natural neuroscience Visual masking is a phenomenon that plays an important role in how we perceive things, or rather how we don’t “see” them. This study not only revealed aspects of conscious perception in the brain, but also demonstrated that this phenomenon occurs in both humans and mice.
Visual masking occurs when a person does not consciously recognize an image because another image is displayed in rapid succession. For effective masking, the first image must appear and disappear quickly, followed by her second image within about 50 milliseconds.
Groundbreaking research in visual perception
Allen Institute researcher Dr. Sean Olsen and his colleagues have delved into the science behind this optical illusion and shown for the first time that it also occurs in mice. After training the mice to report what they saw, the researchers were also able to pinpoint the specific areas of the brain needed for the visual masking illusion to work.
“This is an interesting observation, that what exists in the world is not accurately reflected in your perception,” Olsen said. “Like other optical illusions, we think this tells us something about how the visual system works and, ultimately, the neural circuits underlying visual perception.”
Exploring the brain’s role in visual recognition
Scientists discovered this strange phenomenon in the 19th century, but why and how the human brain does this remains a mystery.
The study narrows down the parts of the brain involved in perceiving the world around us, said Dr. Christoph Koch, a Distinguished Fellow at the Allen Institute who led the study with Dr. Olsen and Dr. Sam Gale. Ta. , a scientist at the Allen Institute.
When a rain of photons hits our retina, the information follows a predetermined path from the eyeball through several different areas of the brain and into the highly-processed areas of the cortex, the wrinkled outermost shell of the brain. It ends with Previous research on visual masking has led scientists to believe that neurons in early parts of the brain, in the retina and its pathways, are activated even when a person is unaware that they are looking at an image. I know. In other words, your brain sees things without your knowledge.
From mouse to human: parallel recognition
To explore where unconscious sensations turn into conscious perceptions and actions, scientists first taught 16 mice to move a small mouse in the direction of a rapidly flashing image in exchange for a reward if they chose the correct direction. I trained him to spin a Lego wheel. The scientists then added different masking images on either side of the screen immediately after the target image. Adding a mask prevented the animal from performing the task correctly. This means that the animal can no longer recognize the original target image.
Visual masking had never been tested in mice before, so the research team had to create a task for mice, in which the images and the way they were displayed were different from those used in previous human studies. I meant that. To confirm that the optical illusion they showed to rodents was also relevant to us, the research team tested it on 16 people (using keystrokes instead of a wheel). It turns out that human perception (or lack thereof) and mouse perception of this particular visual masking illusion are very similar.
This result implies that conscious perception is occurring in the visual cortex or in higher regions of the cortex downstream. This is consistent with the general sentiment in the field that the cortex is the seat of conscious cognition in mammals, including us, Koch said.
Reference: “Visual cortex is required for posterior masking in mice” by Samuel D. Gale, Chelsea Stroder, Corbett Bennett, Stefan Mihalas, Christoph Koch, and Sean R. Olsen, November 13, 2023 Day, natural neuroscience. DOI: 10.1038/s41593-023-01488-0
This artist’s impression shows a gas giant exoplanet orbiting a Sun-like star, represented by Kepler-1625b. Credit: NASA
The discovery of giant exomoons around the planets Kepler-1625b and Kepler-1708b raises questions. Since the planets orbit, it is not uncommon for these exoplanets to have moons around them. This makes them even more difficult to detect. So far, only two of the more than 5,300 known exoplanets have been discovered to have moons. New data analysis shows that scientific statements are rarely black and white, that behind every result there is more or less uncertainty, and that the path to a statement often resembles a thriller. Masu.
Introduction to Exomoon research
In observations of the planets Kepler-1625b and Kepler-1708b with the Kepler and Hubble Space Telescopes, researchers discovered the first traces of such moons. New research calls these previous claims into question. Scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research and Sonnenberg Observatory in Germany report in the same journal. natural astronomy
The “planet-only” interpretation of the observations is more definitive.
For their analysis, the researchers used Pandora, a newly developed computer algorithm that facilitates and accelerates the search for the Exum Moon. They also investigated what types of exomoons could in principle be discovered with modern space-based astronomical observations. Their answers are quite shocking.
Examoon: A rare entity in observation
In our solar system, with the exception of Mercury and Mercury, the fact that a planet orbits one or more moons is more the rule than the exception. Venus, all other planets have such companions.
For gas giants Saturn Researchers have discovered 140 natural satellites to date. Therefore, scientists believe that planets in distant star systems are also likely to have moons. But so far, there is only evidence for two such examooons: Kepler-1625b and Kepler-1708b. This low yield is not surprising. After all, distant satellites are naturally much smaller than their home world, and therefore much more difficult to find. And combing through observations of thousands of exoplanets for evidence of satellites is extremely time-consuming.
Pandora: Exomoon search algorithm
To make searching easier and faster, the authors of the new study utilize a search algorithm called Pandora that they developed and optimized for exomoon searches. They announced the method last year And the algorithm is available to all researchers as open source code. When applied to observational data from Kepler-1625b and Kepler-1708b, the results were surprising.
“We wanted to confirm the discovery of exomoons around Kepler-1625b and Kepler-1708b,” said MPS scientist Dr. Rene Heller, lead author of the new study. “However, unfortunately, our analysis shows that this is not the case,” he added.
Using the nematode C. elegans, scientists have made significant headway in understanding brain function. New insights into neural communication are provided by research that uses optogenetics and connectomics to challenge traditional models and deepen the understanding of complex neural networks. The transmission of information between neurons is currently being investigated, raising the question of whether we truly understand how the brain works.
There have been great strides in understanding the complex workings of the brain in recent decades, providing extensive knowledge about cellular neurobiology and neural networks. However, many important questions are still unanswered, leaving the brain as a profound and intriguing mystery. A team of neuroscientists and physicists at Princeton University has made groundbreaking strides in this field of research, particularly through their work with the C. elegans nematode. The study, recently published in Nature, is aimed at understanding how ensembles of neurons process information and generate behavior.
The C. elegans nematode is especially suitable for laboratory experimentation due to its simplicity and the fact that its brain wiring has been completely “mapped.” Furthermore, the worm’s transparency and light-sensitive tissues present the opportunity to use innovative techniques such as optogenetics. Through these techniques, the researchers were able to carefully observe and measure the flow of signals through the worm’s brain, gaining new insights that challenge established models of neural behavior.
The study provides a comprehensive explanation of how signals flow through the C. elegans brain and challenges established mathematical models derived from connectome maps. The researchers found that many of their empirical observations contradicted the predictions based on these models, leading them to identify “invisible molecular details” and “radio signals” as important components of neural behavior. Ultimately, this work aims to develop better models for understanding the complexity of the brain as a system.
The research was supported primarily by a National Institutes of Health Newcomer Award, a National Science Foundation CAREER Award, and the Simons Foundation. These findings have broad implications, particularly for understanding biological processes and developing new technologies.
Vampire bats are not only masters of flight, but also skillful walkers
Joel Sartor/Photo Arc/naturepl.com
Something begins to stir in the undergrowth of a New Zealand forest. Small furry animals run around on tree roots and in fallen leaves, looking for insects and fruit. He runs with a strange gait, as if he were on stilts. Is it a rat? bird? No, it’s a bat. The New Zealand brown bat, or more precisely, the Pekapeka toupoto.
Bats first took to the skies about 52 million years ago and have remained there ever since. There are approximately 1,300 species in the world, but not one of them is flightless. Most bats can’t even walk well. That’s why many of us are surprised by the behavior of Pekapekatupoto, a bat that is comfortable both in the air and on the ground.
However, why flightless bats do not exist is an evolutionary mystery. Birds, another great group of flying vertebrates, have evolved into flightless animals many times around the world. They frequent remote islands such as New Zealand, where there is little danger from ground-based predation (at least until humans show up, anyone else grilling dodos?). In such situations, flightlessness is a good adaptation because flight is energetically costly.
The world’s most land-dwelling bat, the pekapekatoupoto, has long been thought to hold the key to explaining the strange absence of flightless bats. But research over the past two decades has revealed the surprising fact that many other species of bats can walk, too. Inside…
Researchers at the University of Boulder have advanced the field of ptychography by innovating a new imaging method using donut-shaped light beams. This technique enables detailed imaging of small regularly patterned structures such as semiconductors, overcoming previous limitations of conventional microscopy. This advance promises significant improvements in nanoelectronics and biological imaging. (Artist’s concept) Credit: SciTechDaily.com
In a new study, researchers at the University of Boulder used a donut-shaped beam of light to take detailed images of objects too small to be seen with traditional microscopes.
Advances in Nanoelectronic Imaging
This new technology could help scientists improve the inner workings of a variety of ‘nanoelectronics’, including miniature ones. The semiconductor inside a computer chip. This discovery was featured in a special issue on December 1st. Optics and Photonics News called Optics in 2023.
Ptychography: A Lens into the Microscopic World
This research is the latest advance in the field of ptychography, a challenging yet powerful technique for seeing very small things. Unlike traditional microscopes, ptychography tools do not directly observe small objects. Instead, it shines a laser at a target and measures how the light is scattered. This is a bit like making shadow puppets on a wall when viewed through a microscope.
A scattering pattern produced by donut-shaped rays of light reflecting off an object with a regularly repeating structure. Credit: Wang et al., 2023, optica
Overcoming Ptychography Challenges
So far, the approach has worked surprisingly well, with one major exception, said Margaret Mahne, the study’s lead author and distinguished professor of physics.
“Until recently, we had been completely unsuccessful with highly periodic samples or objects with regularly repeating patterns,” says the UW-Boulder and National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) collaboration. Margaret, a fellow at JILA, said, “That’s a problem because this has a lot of nanoelectronics in it.”
She pointed out that many important technologies, such as some semiconductors, are made up of atoms such as silicon and carbon bonded in regular patterns, like small grids or meshes. So far, it has proven difficult for scientists to observe these structures up close using ptychography.
Donut-shaped beams of light scatter from incredibly small structures. Credit: Wang et al., 2023, optica
A Breakthrough in Donut-Shaped Light
But in a new study, Murunet and colleagues have come up with a solution. Instead of using a traditional laser in a microscope, they generated a donut-shaped beam of extreme ultraviolet light.
The researchers’ new approach can collect precise images of small, delicate structures that are around 10 to 100 nanometers in size, or many times smaller than a millionth of an inch. In the future, researchers expect to be able to zoom in and observe even smaller structures. The donut beam, or angular momentum beam of light, also does not damage small electronic equipment during the process, as existing imaging tools such as electron microscopes do.
“In the future, this method could be used to inspect polymers used in semiconductor manufacturing and printing for defects without damaging the structure during the process,” Mahne said. Stated.
Bin Wang and Nathan Brooks, who received their PhDs from JILA in 2023, are the lead authors of this new study.
Pushing the Limits of Microscopy
Mahne said this research pushes the fundamental limits of microscopy. Because of the physics of light, lens-based imaging tools can only see the world to a resolution of about 200 nanometers, which is not precise enough to capture many viruses. For example, those that infect humans. Although scientists can freeze viruses to death and view them with powerful cryo-electron microscopes, they still cannot capture the activity of these pathogens in real time.
Ptychography, developed in the mid-2000s, could help researchers break through that limit.
How ptychography works To understand how, go back to shadow puppets. Imagine that a scientist wants to collect stylized images of very small structures, perhaps the letters that spell “CU.” To do this, they first shine a laser beam on the text and scan the text multiple times. When light hits “C” and “U” (in this case the dolls), the light rays break and scatter, creating a complex pattern (shadow). Scientists record those patterns using sensitive detectors and analyze them using a series of mathematical formulas. Given enough time, they will perfectly recreate the shape of the doll from the shadow it casts, Mahne explained.
Evolution to Finer Details
Stated. Bin Wang and Nathan Brooks, who received their PhDs from JILA in 2023, are the lead authors of this new study. Other co-authors of the new study include physics professor and JILA fellow Henry Kaptein, current and former JILA graduate students Peter Johnsen, Nicholas Jenkins, Yuka Esashi, Iona Binney, Includes Michael Tanksalvara.
Reference: “High-fidelity ptychographic imaging of highly periodic structures enabled by vortex harmonic beams” Michael Tanksalvala, Henry C. Kapteyn, Bin Wang, Peter Johnsen, Yuka Esashi, Iona Binnie, Margaret M. Murnane, Nicholas W. Jenkins, and Nathan J. Brooks, September 19, 2023, optica.
DOI: doi:10.1364/OPTICA.498619
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