Utilizing the Highly Sensitive Wide-Field K-Band Imager (HAWK-I) on ESO’s Very Large Telescope (VLT), astronomers have captured stunning new images of the emission nebula RCW 36. These images reveal the vibrant cradles of newly formed stars and intriguing substellar entities known as brown dwarfs.
This captivating VLT/HAWK-I image of emission nebula RCW 36 features dark clouds forming the head and body of a bird of prey, with filaments extending as wings. Below, a fascinating blue nebula hosts a newly formed giant star, illuminating the surrounding gas. Image credit: ESO / de Brito de Vale et al.
Situated approximately 2,300 light-years away in the constellation Hera, RCW 36—also known as Gum 20—is one of the nearest massive star-forming regions to our solar system.
This nebula is part of the expansive star-forming complex known as the Vera Molecular Ridge.
RCW 36 houses a star cluster that dates back around 1.1 million years.
The most massive stars in this young cluster are two O-type stars, alongside several hundred lower-mass stars.
“Embedded star clusters are active sites of very recent star formation located within dense molecular gas clouds in the Milky Way,” explained Dr. Afonso de Brito de Vale, a student and researcher at the Spanish Institute of Astronomical Sciences and the Bordeaux Institute of Astrophysics.
“Within these clouds, stellar and substellar nuclei emerge from local gravitational instabilities, evolving through accretion and contraction processes that expel surrounding gas and dust.”
The hawk-like nebula RCW 36 has been vividly captured by the VLT’s HAWK-I instrument.
“While the most obvious star in this image may be a bright young star, our primary interest lies in the hidden, faint stars known as brown dwarfs—objects that cannot undergo hydrogen fusion in their cores,” Dr. de Brito de Vale noted.
“HAWK-I is perfectly designed for this task, as it operates in infrared wavelengths, where these cold, failed stars are more easily detectable and can correct for atmospheric turbulence using adaptive optics, resulting in exceptionally sharp images.”
“Beyond providing essential data on the formation of brown dwarfs, we have captured a stunning image of a massive star seemingly ‘pushing aside’ clouds of gas and dust, reminiscent of an animal breaking free from an egg.”
“Perhaps a space hawk is watching over the baby star as it ‘hatches’.”
The team’s findings have been published in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.
_____
ARG de Brito de Vale et al. 2026. A substar group of Vera’s young massive star cluster RCW 36. A&A 706, A149; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202557493
Recent findings from the University of Kansas have unraveled a long-standing astrophysical mystery, revealing how the intricate interplay of gravity and magnetospheric plasma divides the radio emissions of a club pulsar—a remnant of the supernova witnessed by ancient astronomers in 1054 AD—into perfectly aligned “stripes.”
This composite image showcases the Crab Nebula, with the club pulsar centrally positioned. Image credit: X-ray – NASA / CXC / ASU / J. Hester et al.; Optics – NASA / HST / ASU / J. Hester et al.
In 1054 AD, Chinese astronomers documented an exceptionally bright new star, the most luminous object in the night sky after the moon, visible even in broad daylight for 23 days. This spectacular celestial event was also noted by Japanese, Arabian, and Native American astronomers.
Today, the Crab Nebula, found where this bright star once shone, is cataloged as Messier 1 (M1) or NGC 1952, located approximately 6,500 light-years away in the Taurus constellation.
Initially identified in 1731 by British physician and astronomer John Beavis, the Crab Nebula was later rediscovered in 1758 by French astronomer Charles Messier. Its name, reflecting its appearance, is derived from a painting by Irish astronomer Lord Rose in 1844.
The central star of the Crab Nebula is the Crab Pulsar, scientifically known as PSR B0531+21.
Due to their proximity and visibility, studying the Crab Nebula and its pulsars offers astronomers vital insights into the nature of nebulae, supernovae, and neutron stars.
“In the presence of a gravitational field, light does not travel in straight lines because space itself is curved,” he explains.
“What seems straight in flat spacetime appears curved under strong gravitational influence. Hence, gravity functions as a lens in curved spacetime.”
While gravitational lensing has often been discussed in relation to black holes, this case uniquely illustrates a “tug of war” between plasma and gravity creating the observed signals.
“In black hole imagery, gravity solely shapes the structure,” notes Professor Medvedev.
“In contrast, both gravity and plasma are at play in the club pulsar. This research presents a novel application of this combined effect.”
“An intriguing pattern emerges in the pulsar’s spectrum,” Professor Medvedev adds.
“Unlike a conventional broad spectrum like sunlight—which offers a continuous range of colors—the Crab’s high-frequency interpulses display discrete spectral bands. It’s like observing a rainbow with only selected ‘colors’ visible, leaving significant gaps in between.”
A large mosaic image of the Crab Nebula, a six-light-year wide remnant of a supernova explosion. Documented by Japanese, Chinese, and Native American astronomers around 1054 AD. Image credit: NASA / ESA / J. Hester / A. Loll, Arizona State University.
Typically, pulsar radio emissions are broader, noisier, and less organized compared to those from club pulsars.
“In the case of club pulsars, the stripes are exceptionally distinct, contrasting sharply with the complete darkness that separates them,” explains Professor Medvedev.
“There are shining bands and voids in between, with no gradual transition. No other pulsar displays this kind of banding. This uniqueness makes the club pulsar both intriguing and complex to comprehend.”
While former models could replicate the striped pattern, they failed to account for the high contrast actually seen in club pulsars.
Professor Medvedev has found that the plasma material surrounding the club pulsar contributes to the diffraction of electromagnetic pulses, which significantly influences the neutron star’s distinct zebra pattern.
By integrating Einstein’s theory of gravity into his analysis, Medvedev discovered its crucial role in shaping the club pulsar’s zebra stripe pattern.
“Prior theoretical models could reproduce the striped pattern, but not the observed contrast. Including gravity bridged that gap,” asserts Professor Medvedev.
“The plasma in a pulsar’s magnetosphere acts as a defocusing lens, while gravity serves as a focusing lens. Plasma tends to scatter light rays, whereas gravity draws them inward. When these dual effects converge, certain paths will offset each other.”
The synergy between defocused magnetospheric plasma and focusing gravity creates in-phase and out-of-phase interference bands of radio intensity, producing zebra stripes in club pulsars.
“The nature of symmetry suggests there are at least two pathways for light,” Medvedev observes.
“When two nearly identical paths converge on an observer, they create an interferometer. The signals amalgamate, reinforcing each other at specific frequencies (in phase) to yield bright bands, while at others (out of phase), they cancel each other out, generating darkness. This concept encapsulates the essence of interference patterns.”
“Little additional physics appears necessary to qualitatively explain the stripes.”
“Yet, quantitative enhancements could be implemented; the current model includes gravity in a static, lowest-order approximation.”
“Since pulsars rotate, incorporating rotational effects might lead to significant quantitative, if not qualitative, changes.”
Mikhail V. Medvedev. 2026. Theory of the dynamic spectrum of club pulsar high-frequency interpulse stripes. Plasma Physics Journal, in press. arXiv: 2602.16955
For years, the fossil record of pachycephalosaurs (dome-headed dinosaurs) has primarily consisted of fossilized skulls. In contrast, the postcranial remains of young pachycephalosaurs have remained largely unexplored. Recent paleontological findings have unveiled the youngest known example of a pachycephalosaur body, shedding light on how these fascinating dinosaurs grew and moved during their early months of life.
Reconstruction of the life of the pachycephalosaur individual CMNFV 22039 in a typical environment of the Upper Maastrichtian French Formation. Image credit: Caitlin Lindblad.
Paleontologist Brian Moore from Carleton University and his team noted that pachycephalosaurs predominantly comprised small, bipedal dinosaurs (ranging from 2 to 6 meters long) found in Asia and North America during the Santonian to Maastrichtian periods (85 to 66 million years ago).
This clade is particularly recognized for its unique frontal and parietal bones, which merge to create a bulbous dome on their skulls.
The cranial elements surrounding this dome are occasionally integrated into the structure, often featuring nodes, spikes, and other decorative traits.
Notably, the frontoparietal dome is the most resilient part of the pachycephalosaur skeleton (besides the teeth), resulting in a fossil record that heavily favors partial skull remains.
Consequently, much of the understanding regarding the ontogeny and phylogeny of pachycephalosaurs relies significantly on skull morphology.
The recently described pachycephalosaur specimen, cataloged as CMNFV 22039, dates back to roughly 67 million years ago during the Maastrichtian period of the Late Cretaceous.
This fossil was discovered in the French Formation, the youngest of the five Maastrichtian formations located in southern Saskatchewan, Canada.
Remarkably, this dinosaur was likely under a year old at the time of its death, marking it as the youngest known pachycephalosaur from fossil records.
“Despite its small size (estimated at just 90 centimeters or 3 feet), the skeleton displays several features characteristic of pachycephalosaurs,” the paleontologists confirmed.
These findings indicate that many traits used to identify adult pachycephalosaurs were present from a very young age.
Additionally, they provide insight into how juvenile pachycephalosaurs moved. In comparison to adults, the hindlimbs of juveniles were proportionately longer, suggesting that they had a more agile physique during their early development.
As the dinosaur matured, its body seemingly transitioned to the more robust proportions observed in adults, indicating a shift in physical capabilities as it increased in size and weight.
“The relatively long hind limbs of juveniles compared to those of adults imply a likely negative ontogenetic allometry in the hind limbs,” the researchers concluded.
The team’s findings are detailed in a paper published in the February 26th issue of the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
_____
Brian R.S. Moore et al. Posterior skull of ontogenetically youngest known pachycephalosaur (Dinosauria: Ornithischia). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, published online on February 26, 2026. doi: 10.1080/02724634.2026.2616325
The concern over sleep quality has become a common fixation for many. This is largely due to the booming sleep industry, which provides everything from wearable trackers that monitor sleep patterns to melatonin supplements designed to enhance your sleep experience. But is our anxiety over sleep justified?
Conventional wisdom suggests aiming for approximately 8 hours of uninterrupted sleep. This advice conveys that insufficient sleep can lead to serious health issues such as dementia and diabetes. However, as highlighted in this week’s cover story, adhering strictly to these sleep norms can be detrimental. Many individuals may adopt an “insomniac identity,” even if they do not genuinely suffer from insomnia. In fact, at least one-third of self-identified insomniacs report satisfactory sleep.
Recent studies reveal that our perceptions about sleep significantly influence cognitive performance. Beliefs about sleep quality can impact our abilities more than actual sleep data. Furthermore, the rigid 8-hour guideline is more flexible than commonly believed. Research shows that consistently getting over 6 hours of sleep does not lead to documented adverse effects, while 7 hours of sleep may actually contribute to longevity, with no additional benefits derived from longer sleep durations. It’s crucial to recognize that worrying about sleep often exacerbates the problem rather than alleviates it.
“
The sleep industry might help us realize that most people are sleeping better than they think. “
There are solutions available. The sleep industry has the potential to shift its focus toward technology that tracks and shares individual sleep data, which could help those mistakenly believing they suffer from insomnia understand their actual sleep quality. This may lead to more achievable sleep goals set by health organizations and medical professionals, while also clarifying that occasional sleep deprivation is manageable.
On a personal note, knowing that the difficult standards imposed on us may not be as absolute as we perceive can provide relief. Your preoccupation with sleep might have become more of a hobby than a concern, but perhaps it’s time to explore new interests.
Deborah Ferguson (UT Austin), Bhavesh Khamesra (Georgia Tech), Karan Jani (Vanderbilt University)/LIGO
The universe is expanding at an accelerating rate, leaving scientists perplexed about the source of this mysterious phenomenon known as dark energy, which comprises approximately 68% of the universe. Understanding dark energy is a critical challenge for astrophysics today.
Interestingly, some astrophysicists propose a link between black holes and dark energy. Supermassive black holes exert an incredible gravitational pull, drawing in matter, yet the underlying question remains: how can they contribute to the expansion of the universe?
The theory suggests that when matter falls into black holes, it transforms into a type of radiation that exerts pressure on the surrounding space, leading to an expansive force. Although these effects are minuscule individually, the sheer number of black holes could result in a significant cumulative impact, pushing galaxies away from each other.
Initially regarded as a fringe theory, this idea has gained traction amongst cosmologists who believe it could help elucidate several cosmic mysteries. “It’s controversial, but it’s gaining acceptance,” stated Kevin Crocker, a cosmologist at Arizona State University.
According to Nyaesh Afsholdi, a cosmologist at the University of Waterloo, black holes could be pivotal in understanding dark energy, given their complexity and the unusual nature of their singularities.
Understanding Black Hole Singularity
At the center of each black hole lies the astrophysical singularity, where gravity compresses matter to infinite density—a realm of physics not yet fully understood. As Gregory Tarr, a cosmologist at the University of Michigan, suggests, black holes prevent singularities from forming by converting collapsing material into dark energy.
Tarr elaborates that this process is reminiscent of the early universe, where radiant energy transformed into matter. In a black hole, the reverse process could occur, maintaining gravitational stability.
“Understanding how a single dust particle converts to radiation is complex,” explains Massimiliano Rinaldi, a physicist at the University of Trento, Italy. Yet, this conceptual transition may not be as far-fetched as it sounds.
This article is part of a special issue on the crisis in cosmology. Check the complete package here
Traditionally, it was believed that black holes only influenced their immediate surroundings. However, as Croker points out, “It’s not just localized effects; the cumulative impact of numerous black holes can significantly alter cosmic dynamics.”
Even a large influx of matter into a single black hole may not propel universal expansion, but if black holes throughout the universe collectively absorb matter, their gravitational effects could accelerate cosmic inflation.
Evidencing Cosmologically Connected Black Holes
The first substantial evidence of cosmologically linked black holes emerged in 2023, suggesting mysterious expansions throughout the universe, aligning with observations of black holes maintaining growth relative to cosmic expansion. According to Crocker, despite their perceived dullness, even supermassive black holes actively participate in higher cosmic dynamics, as dark energy appears in tandem with their formation.
Critics argue that the precise behavior of these cosmologically connected black holes remains unknown. Rinaldi stresses the lack of exact mathematical models, complicating the understanding of their merger behaviors. However, as research progresses and new data emerges, hope for breakthroughs remains.
The evolution of this theory from fringe to mainstream reflects growing acceptance among cosmologists, especially in light of puzzling results from the Dark Energy Spectroscopy Instrument (DESI) in Arizona.
DESI Insights
DESI is mapping millions of galaxies across the universe, providing insights into cosmic expansion over time. Recent findings indicated that dark energy could be diminishing, challenging established cosmological models that assert its constancy. “Seeing such data was surprising,” remarked Tarr; “dark energy appears to vary over cosmic epochs.”
If dark energy originates from cosmologically linked black holes, the DESI observations reconcile several cosmic enigmas, aligning black hole formation trends with dark energy dynamics.
The interplay of dark matter and dark energy forms the framework of the universe.
Volker Springel/Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics/Scientific Photo Library
The Hubble tension, which highlights differing expansion rates derived from various cosmological measurements, underscores the need for clarity. Integrating cosmologically grouped black holes into current models could bridge gaps between conflicting data regarding cosmic expansion.
While numerous theories have attempted to address discrepancies surrounding dark energy, many rely on speculative elements beyond conventional physics. The concept of cosmologically connected black holes, however, remains a relatively conservative yet promising pathway to resolving ongoing mysteries.
Recent investigations by Tarr, Crocker, and colleagues have unveiled what they denote as a “three-legged chair” of evidence supporting their hypothesis, linking particle physics observations to cosmic expansion behaviors.
Neutrinos, often dubbed “ghost particles,” present a challenge in this model due to their elusive nature and negligible mass. Remarkably, if ordinary matter inside black holes can transform into dark energy, this might adjust the universal mass metrics, opening pathways for new discoveries.
Is this evidence sufficient to elevate the notion of cosmologically linked black holes from speculative to mainstream scientific theory? Crocker believes so: “We now possess three key pieces of evidence to lend credence to our hypothesis.”
Encouragingly, interest in this area of research is burgeoning, evidenced by the increased collaboration among physicists and cosmologists, underscoring the growing recognition of the potential importance of cosmologically connected black holes in the accelerating universe scenario.
As ongoing observations from DESI and other large-scale cosmic surveys yield fresh data, uncovering links between black holes and cosmic expansion continues to be a dynamic area of study. Nyaesh Afsholdi aptly characterizes this inquiry as a detective story, with more researchers joining the pursuit of understanding the enigmatic role black holes may play in the speeding expansion of our universe.
Recently, cosmologists using the Dark Energy Spectroscopy Instrument (DESI) announced observations suggesting that the enigmatic dark energy, believed to be responsible for the universe’s expansion, may be diminishing. If validated, these revelations challenge the notion of dark energy as a fixed cosmological constant, a key element in the framework of the lambda CDM model, which seeks to explain cosmic evolution.
Should these findings hold, they could pave the way for more refined theoretical models. Researchers are actively exploring new perspectives on dark energy and even revisiting concepts related to dark matter and gravity.
Moreover, if dark energy’s intensity continues to wane, the implications could extend significantly. This change may inspire proponents of alternative cosmologies to reconsider our understanding of the universe’s ultimate fate and delve deeper into the fabric of space-time. Eric Linder, a physicist and cosmologist at the University of California, Berkeley, remarked, “There are certainly intriguing possibilities that could revolutionize physics.”
The Lambda CDM model proposes a brief period of exponential expansion in the early universe, referred to as inflation. This concept appears to elucidate why the universe is so isotropic, flat, and homogenous at extensive scales. However, it faces criticism, notably from physicist Paul Steinhardt of Princeton University. He bluntly stated, “Inflation doesn’t work,” asserting that it necessitates improbable initial conditions and introduces excessive flexibility, resulting in scenarios that many find implausible.
Circulating Universe
Steinhardt has long championed an alternative notion known as the periodic universe, positing that the universe undergoes cycles of expansion, contraction, and rebirth. For this hypothesis to hold, dark energy must exhibit evolution.
“It requires a type of decaying dark energy that halts the universe’s expansion, causes deceleration, and eventually leads to contraction, triggering a rebound and a new cycle,” Steinhardt explained. Current DESI data indicates at least the initial phase of this deceleration.
This does not imply that DESI’s outcomes validate periodic cosmology. Potential systematic errors may arise in analysis and measurement, and it is entirely plausible for dark energy to weaken without leading to contraction or rebound. However, if the decline of dark energy is confirmed, it would bolster Steinhardt’s long-standing proposition. “I tend to be very conservative and patient,” he noted. “But what I’m suggesting is, the game is on.”
Similarly, the DESI results have reinvigorated another contentious idea. Broadly stated, string theory posits that the universe’s fundamental constituents are incredibly tiny strings embedded in hidden extra dimensions. The vibrations of these strings correspond to the particles and forces we identify. This theory captured attention in the 1980s, hinting at a possible unification of quantum theory and general relativity, often dubbed as “the theory of everything.”
A periodic universe will undergo cycles of beginnings and endings.
Science Photo Library / Alamy Stock Photo
However, string theorists have historically struggled to create universe models incorporating small positive cosmological constants. In research published in 2018 and 2019, Cumrun Vafa and his colleagues proposed a framework known as the Swampland conjecture, designed to differentiate between consistent theories of particles, forces, and space-time, and those that do not align with a coherent quantum gravity theory. They suggested that dark energy cannot remain a constant but should function as a field with fluctuating energy levels, similar to the phenomena believed to have induced inflation.
Initially, this idea contradicted widespread views regarding the constancy of dark energy over cosmic timescales. Vafa reflected on this by stating, “People used to argue that dark energy is constant, thereby discrediting string theory.”
Hidden Dimensions
Despite skepticism, Vafa and his team persisted. In 2022, they proposed a model involving a “big hidden extra dimension” estimated to be around the size of a micrometer, gradually evolving over cosmic time. As the geometry of this dimension varies, it alters the observable energy in the universe. “This isn’t an exotic scenario,” Vafa explained, adding, “[From a string theory perspective], as the hyperdimension changes, both dark energy and dark matter respond to it.”
It’s evident why DESI’s findings captivate string theorists. Vafa’s model predicts a slow decline of dark energy — a trend now being observed. When Vafa and his team analyzed DESI data in conjunction with other cosmological observations in 2025, their model aligned remarkably well with the data, surpassing Lambda CDM in fit, nearly mirroring earlier models that allowed for dark energy evolution. Vafa expressed enthusiasm, noting, “This is why I’m incredibly excited. I’m very satisfied.”
It is essential to recognize that the DESI results do not deliver unequivocal proof for string theory. The preference for evolving dark energy over a static cosmological constant hinges on the integration of other cosmological datasets. Furthermore, models unrelated to string theory that avoid hidden dimensions can equally accommodate current data.
Nevertheless, should the DESI findings be sustained, increasing statistical significance may eliminate an empirical hurdle for string theory and challenge claims that it fails to yield testable predictions. “We formulated this model years ago,” Vafa noted. “The data now reflects exactly what we expected.”
Hidden dimensions from string theory might indeed be real
Science Photo Library
To leverage the potential of observational evidence supporting string theory, theorists like Vafa must develop a more precise model that offers accurate predictions surpassing those of non-string theories and validates a wider array of cosmological data. Interestingly, this framework already indicates other testable signs, such as deviations from the standard understanding of dark matter’s evolution and differences from general relativity at micrometer scales.
While some cosmologists remain skeptical regarding the profound implications of DESI’s findings, others, such as Pedro Ferreira, a cosmologist at the University of Oxford, underscore that “dark energy operates within specific scales, and this discussion is valid.” Ferreira noted, “[When it comes to quantum interactions], we may not have the ability to delve that deeply.” In contrast, others acknowledge that these discoveries might extend far beyond cosmology and could offer insight into the intricate quantum structure of space-time. As Mike Turner, a cosmologist at the University of Chicago, remarked, “Cumrun Vafa’s work is the most intriguing I have encountered. Here is where cosmology converges with particle physics, studying fundamental concepts that could yield enormous implications.”
This year marks the rise of bunker-themed narratives dominating television.
Kicking off in January, season 2 of Fallout (available on Amazon Prime Video) immerses viewers in a colorful alternate reality set centuries post-nuclear devastation. Here, the privileged reside in underground “vaults,” while others navigate a perilous wasteland filled with monsters and mercenaries. Vault-dweller Lucy embarks on a quest to confront her nefarious father, Hank, alongside The Ghoul, a gritty radioactive gunslinger.
Following closely is the second season of Paradise (on Disney+), premiering this month. This tale unravels after a cataclysmic volcanic tsunami wipes out civilization, forcing America’s elite to seek refuge in Colorado’s mountains. Secret agent Xavier Collins, on a mission to uncover the truth behind U.S. President Cal Bradford’s murder, sets out to find his wife, Terry, all amid brewing political conflicts within the Corralado bunker.
Anticipation builds for season 3 of Silo (coming soon to Apple TV). Set in a dystopian future where Earth’s atmosphere becomes toxic, society collapses, leaving citizens confined to a structured, dark underground existence with no recollection of their past due to historical records being obliterated 140 years ago. When engineer Juliet discovers shocking evidence of a conspiracy within Silo’s leadership, she starts to question whether the surface is indeed as fatal as they’ve been led to believe.
“
No matter what flavor of bunker fiction you prefer, all roads lead to a hole in the ground. “
Additional fictional bunkers echo the disaster movie genre, such as Greenland 2: Immigration and the musical Of End. This resurgence in bunker-themed narratives is no coincidence, especially as the novel I Never Knew a Man, set in an underground prison, went viral on TikTok in 2024.
While the concept is not new—dating back to Arthur Conan Doyle’s The Poison Belt from 1913—its current popularity highlights widespread global anxiety. This anxiety reflects a world where responsibility is often outsourced and where the fortunate few seek safety from external threats; rumors abound of celebrities acquiring doomsday bunkers.
Ultimately, regardless of the flavor of bunker fiction, themes of violence and survival intertwine. Whether through the clever narrative of Fallout, the intricate murders in Paradise, or the convoluted conspiracies in Silo, all narratives converge in a metaphorical “hole in the ground,” illustrating our collective fascinations with dystopian endings and the shrinking horizon of the future.
Perspectives on this phenomenon diverge. Some view it as surrendering to our inherently selfish nature, resigning ourselves to the doom we envision. Alternately, others, including myself, interpret it as a call for meaningful change—a purifying fire that compels us to reconsider societal structures. The characters we cherish in bunker fiction could not emerge without such transformative events. I find relatable figures in Fallout, Paradise, and Silo, reinforcing the idea that bunker fiction mirrors real-life aspirations for change.
Bunker Bradley Garrett, Penguin Books This striking nonfiction guide explores the mindset of those preparing for an apocalypse, revealing a complex understanding of contemporary apocalypse culture.
Bethan Ackerley is an associate editor at New Scientist. With a passion for science fiction, comedy, and anything eerie, follow her on Twitter @inkerley.
Can Magnesium Supplements Improve Sleep and Energy Levels?
Maria Korneeva/Getty Images
In the 1600s, affluent individuals in England frequented the Epsom Common well, believed to contain healing waters. Despite its bitter taste, the water is recognized for its powerful laxative effects, which many found beneficial for relieving discomforts caused by a rich, meat-heavy diet. “Visitors drink several glasses of this unique water, noting the beneficial effects,” reported one satisfied customer . This was later attributed to the high concentration of magnesium sulfate, commonly known as Epsom salt.
Fast forward to today, and the health benefits of magnesium are once again in the spotlight, with many dubbing it “the supermineral of the modern era.” Social media is filled with testimonials claiming that magnesium supplements can enhance sleep quality, boost energy levels, improve mental clarity, promote healthy bowel movements, support heart health, and alleviate conditions such as muscle pain, anxiety, migraines, and PMS symptoms. However, with various forms of magnesium available, it’s essential to determine their efficacy.
Magnesium is undoubtedly crucial for health, participating in numerous enzymatic reactions and aiding in critical bodily functions. It stabilizes structures such as DNA and ATP (adenosine triphosphate), facilitates nerve signal transmission, muscle contraction, and regulates heart rhythm. Nutrition experts advocate obtaining magnesium from a balanced diet rather than relying solely on supplements, as whole foods also provide essential vitamins and minerals.
Rich sources of magnesium include nuts, seeds, leafy greens, whole grains, legumes, meats, seafood, dark chocolate, and some beers. Individuals with sufficient dietary magnesium likely won’t benefit from additional supplements, as their bodies may simply excrete the excess.
However, obtaining adequate magnesium from food sources is increasingly challenging due to the prevalence of processed foods lacking in this vital mineral. Furthermore, soil depletion from intensive farming practices has diminished magnesium levels in fresh produce, leading to studies indicating that around 35-50% of individuals in the UK, USA, and Australia are not receiving adequate magnesium.
Certain individuals are at an increased risk of magnesium deficiency, including those with conditions like celiac disease or Crohn’s disease that impede nutrient absorption, as well as people with diabetes or alcohol use disorders that lead to heightened magnesium excretion. During pregnancy, I experienced severe leg cramps due to diminished magnesium levels, which can hinder muscle relaxation post-contraction. Athletes are particularly susceptible, as intensive training and sweating can deplete magnesium reserves. Additionally, certain medications, including immunosuppressants and chemotherapy drugs, can also lead to magnesium loss.
Symptoms of magnesium deficiency may include muscle soreness, fatigue, cognitive difficulties, irritability, and sleep disturbances, but these can arise from various other issues, thereby facilitating marketing for magnesium supplements.
Understanding the Various Types of Magnesium Supplements
Magnesium Taurate: One of the Four Supplement Forms Enriched with Amino Acids
Stepan Popov/Alamy
Magnesium supplements are available in numerous forms, including magnesium salts combined with various anions. For example, magnesium’s interaction with sulfates in Epsom salt enhances bowel movement by drawing water into the intestines, similar to magnesium oxide and magnesium citrate. In contrast, supplements that merge magnesium with amino acids and other organic compounds present mixed evidence regarding benefits for mental clarity, muscle health, and cardiovascular function. These include magnesium glycinate, L-threonic acid, malate, and taurate. However, it’s crucial to note the amino acids in these supplements can also be sourced easily through a nutritious diet.
Magnesium lotions or skin sprays, as well as Epsom salt baths, present alternative methods of magnesium absorption, although they may not be as effective as oral supplementation, with debates ongoing regarding skin permeability . The efficacy of magnesium absorption through the skin remains unclear. Some propose that the perceived relief from Epsom salt baths is due to the warm water rather than magnesium itself.
Personally, I opt out of magnesium supplements as I believe a well-rounded diet suffices. Nonetheless, evidence suggests they may benefit conditions such as insomnia and mild anxiety for individuals lacking magnesium-rich foods in their diet, and they might also relieve muscle pain for athletes under higher magnesium demands.
Conversely, there’s a lack of substantial studies regarding magnesium’s effects on energy and concentration. If you find magnesium supplements beneficial, it’s generally safe to continue their use, even if merely a placebo effect, but exercise caution against excessive intake. A historical note: Richard Evelyn, an English lord, died in 1670 from consuming too much Epsom salt. His brother, diarist John Evelyn, reported that the cause was due to “drinking excessive Epsom water when in good health.”
Mehdi Namazi aims to revolutionize communication through quantum entanglement.
Along with his team at Qunnect, he has dedicated nearly a decade to developing a device that enables the sharing of quantum-entangled light particles (photons), making secure communication a reality.
Located at Qunnect’s headquarters in Brooklyn, New York, a state-of-the-art table is filled with lasers, lenses, special crystals, and other components essential for manipulating light. All of this technology will be elegantly packaged in striking magenta boxes and dispatched to those advancing future communication technology.
Against the backdrop of the iconic New York skyline, Namazi unveils an electronic device that may seem unremarkable at first. However, when stacked, these boxes form what the company refers to as the Carina rack, capable of performing extraordinary quantum functions.
In February, the Qunnect team used these racks for “entanglement swapping” over a 17.6-kilometre fiber-optic connection between Brooklyn and Manhattan through commercial data centers.
Entanglement exchange involves transferring entangled properties from one photon pair to another. Once photons are entangled, they demonstrate extreme sensitivity to tampering, making it exceedingly difficult to steal information without detection. This swapping technique extends the essence of unhackable communication to long-distance quantum internet applications.
Qunnect successfully exchanged quantum entanglements among 5,400 photon pairs every hour while the network operated autonomously for several days. Previously established experiments recorded significantly lower rates of entanglement exchange.
Before the Carina Rack can perform its magic, entangled photons must be generated using another device. At the heart of this “entanglement source” lies a glass and metal box containing rubidium atoms vapor, illuminated by laser light to produce photon pairs. Namazi recounts how precise adjustments to the laser beam’s angle increased the number of entangled photons produced.
Once generated, the Carina Rack transmits these photons through a fiber network to laboratories across New York City, including prestigious institutions like New York University and Columbia University.
Namazi illustrates how one might set up a personal entanglement sharing system to send super-secure messages. “With two Carina racks, we can distribute entanglements within hours,” he states.
Qunnect maintains one such rack in a Manhattan-based commercial data center managed by QTD Systems. When asked, QTD’s Peter Feldman echoed Namazi’s assurance: “You don’t need to know anything about quantum physics.” The systems that sustain photon entanglement in Qunnect’s network can be operated remotely, allowing autonomous function for weeks.
Qunnect’s Advanced Quantum Network
Knecht
The quest for an unhackable quantum internet is not confined to New York City. Numerous metropolitan quantum networks are emerging globally, including those in Hefei, China, and Chicago, Illinois. However, challenges remain, particularly in addressing the loss of photons over extensive distances.
Namazi emphasizes that quantum entanglement could have immediate applications. By integrating entangled photons into classical light streams, malicious interception attempts can be detected, serving as a quantum tripwire.
Another practical use is authenticating the identity of individuals exchanging sensitive information based on their location. Collaborating with Alexander Gaeta at Columbia University, Qunnect is actively exploring these capabilities. In a single New York borough, numerous financial institutions could significantly benefit from such advancements, as indicated by Javad Shabani at New York University. “Once the infrastructure is established, the demand will follow, probably from just across the street.”
While the quantum internet is still in its infancy, I was impressed by the extent of operational technology during my drive from Qunnect’s headquarters to QTD’s data center. As I crossed one of New York’s bridges, I pondered the multitude of entangled photons traversing the city—a bustling metropolis with endless potential.
Applying crushed silicate rocks, like basalt, in agricultural fields could potentially eliminate up to 1.1 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere each year while simultaneously enhancing crop yields, according to global assessments of this innovative method. Nevertheless, some scientists express skepticism about the feasibility of these claims.
This approach, termed enhanced rock weathering, accelerates the natural process of rock breakdown by rain. For millions of years, this mechanism has facilitated the transfer of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to oceans, helping to regulate Earth’s climate during historical greenhouse periods. Farmers, for generations, have employed crushed limestone to enrich soil nutrient uptake in crops.
“The primary benefit of this method is its ability to mitigate atmospheric CO2 through a chemical reaction,” states Chuan Liao, a researcher at Cornell University, New York. “It also offers additional advantages such as the potential introduction of magnesium and calcium, aiding in soil nutrient enhancement.”
As global emissions persist in escalating, the United Nations climate agency emphasizes the necessity for effective carbon removal solutions to limit warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius over pre-industrial temperatures. Countries like Brazil are advocating for enhanced rock weathering as a strategy to mitigate emissions and reduce fertilizer expenses. Mati Carbon, an Indian startup, achieved the top award of $50 million in Elon Musk’s XPRIZE competition last year, showcasing the large-scale potential for carbon removal through this technique.
Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere undergoes dissolution in rain, forming carbonic acid, which reacts with silicate rocks to trap CO2 in bicarbonate ions. These ions can flow into rivers and oceans, either remaining dissolved for extensive periods or being absorbed into the calcium carbonate structures of marine life such as clams, corals, and sea urchins. Fragmenting the rock enlarges its surface area, enhancing carbon dioxide absorption.
According to the study, considering the volume of rock that farms can accommodate, accelerated rock weathering could contribute significantly, potentially saving up to 5 billion tons of CO2 annually this century. Liao and his colleagues conducted a “reality check” on these estimates by evaluating the rate at which farmers have adopted other innovations like irrigation, and how effectively weathering can occur in various regions.
The models explored limited versus extensive implementation of enhanced weathering and identified a potential removal range of 350 million to 750 million tons of CO2 annually by 2050, escalating to 700 million to 1.1 billion tons by 2100. For context, global fossil fuel CO2 emissions are projected to reach approximately 38 billion tons by 2025.
Initially, Europe and North America will lead this removal effort, but as supply chains for silicate rock are established and costs decline, regions in Asia, Latin America, and sub-Saharan Africa may emerge as frontrunners. Increasing temperatures and precipitation patterns could further accelerate weathering processes in these areas, providing farmers with the opportunity to monetize carbon removal credits for each ton of rock applied.
“For future farmers in the Global South, there will be fewer obstacles to sustainable practices,” notes Liao.
However, Marcus Siedung and colleagues from the Thünen Institute for Climate and Smart Agriculture in Germany raise essential concerns in their recent paper. They highlight significant uncertainties surrounding the accelerated rock weathering estimates; for instance, drought conditions can amplify carbon release, undermining the intended benefits. Siedung suggests that the estimation of 1.1 billion tons being removed is likely overstated.
In calcium-rich soils, rainfall may weather the carbonate instead of the crushed rock, resulting in a reversal of carbon absorption back into the ocean, leading to CO2 release instead of removal. Furthermore, low pH soils can react with crushed rock, resulting in negligible carbon uptake. As acidity diminishes, CO2 emissions from soil microbes may intensify.
Moreover, the carbon released during the mining and transportation of rocks to farms may surpass the amount removed, according to Siedung.
“I approach this with skepticism,” he asserts. “It’s crucial to ensure that CO2 is genuinely captured; otherwise, we risk miscalculating the benefits of carbon removal.” He emphasizes the complexities of the geochemical processes involved.
Others warn that weathering rocks could introduce toxins into the food chain. The olivine used in Liao’s projections entails heavy metals such as nickel and chromium.
Most residual rock from current mines is also likely polluted with metals, states David Manning from Newcastle University, UK. Countries may need to open numerous basalt quarries, which could be a lengthy and costly endeavor.
“To eliminate one gigaton of CO2 annually, approximately five gigatons of rock would be needed each year, and it remains unclear where this rock will be sourced from—this poses a significant challenge to scalability,” Manning concludes.
Discover the latest science fiction novel by Adrian Tchaikovsky
Roberto Ricciuti/Getty Images
March brings exciting new releases for science fiction enthusiasts. This month, we revisit Adrian Tchaikovsky’s acclaimed Children of Time series, featuring a giant mantis shrimp. The narrative even offers a unique retelling of Moby Dick(), set against a cosmic backdrop. Fans of cozy sci-fi mysteries, horror, or thrilling European adventures will find plenty to enjoy!
Emily H. Wilson, a noted science fiction critic, praises Tchaikovsky’s latest work, emphasizing its gripping premise. Set centuries in the future, it follows scientist Alice and Cato, a human-sized mantis shrimp, as they explore a distant planet fraught with danger, in search of their missing crew member.
In a bold reinvention of Moby Dick, our protagonist navigates a post-apocalyptic Earth, relying on “cerebrospinal fluid harvested at great risk from a leviathan-like space creature” for survival. This imaginative twist promises to captivate audiences!
Capturing Moby Dick’s iconic breach in the 1956 adaptation
Snap/Shutterstock
Originally published in 1936, this gripping detective novel envisions an alternate 1985 Britain, where a women-only survivor emerges from a toxic pandemic. TV presenter Graham Norton introduces this thought-provoking addition to 20th-century science fiction.
Author Ober, known for his work on the Netflix series OA, narrates the tale of The Thinker. After her home is destroyed by a floating machine named The Construct, she escapes into a void. Six months later, as The Construct approaches, she rallies to confront its threat. The depiction of this mystical void, filled with intriguing landscapes, is captivating.
In a narrative intersecting with Interview with a Vampire and Wolf Company, the story unfolds in 2084, where librarian Christian Cartwright safeguards humanity’s painful memories. After the tragic loss of his lover Isolde, he resurfaces her digital consciousness, unraveling a long-standing conspiracy.
Book enthusiasts will appreciate this engaging blend of horror and science fiction. Set in 1899, creative illustrator Sonia Wilson is tasked with cataloging an extensive insect collection owned by enigmatic scientist Dr. Halder. Yet, as she ventures into the North Carolina woods, she stumbles upon Halder’s eerie research on flesh-eating parasites.
Explore Cecile Pin’s new novel featuring Jupiter’s moon Europa
NASA/JPL-Caltech/SETI Institute
After being nominated for the Women’s Fiction Award with her debut novel Wandering Soul, Cecile Pin’s second science fiction endeavor sounds equally thrilling. The narrative follows Ollie, born during the Challenger disaster of 1986, as he embarks on a decade-long mission to Europe as an astronaut. What challenges await him upon his return?
This “mystery fiction intertwined with social commentary” is set in a futuristic world where technological advancements allow for incubation in lieu of pregnancy, empowering women to control their reproductive choices. As Larkin’s second daughter grows, Eva questions the decisions that shaped her existence.
An intriguing mystery unfolds aboard an interstellar vessel in Olivia Waite’s new novel
Freestylephoto/iStockphoto/Getty Images
This sequel to a cozy sci-fi mystery series is set aboard the interstellar cruise ship Fairweather. Follow detective Dorothy Gentleman as she unravels the case of a mysterious baby left on her nephew’s doorstep. With the ship cruising through the stars, fertility-related dilemmas take a backseat.
Lastly, while not strictly science fiction, a fascinating exploration of modern sci-fi and fantasy writing is available. Walton and Palmer delve into the essence of these genres, examining their creation and perception—essential reading for science fiction aficionados!
Optimize Your Sleep: Load Your Plate with Fiber and Plants
Source: Olga Pankova/Getty Images
Boosting your fiber intake can significantly enhance your sleep quality. Consuming a diverse array of fruits, vegetables, and nuts may help you fall asleep faster and experience deeper sleep. This finding emerges from the most comprehensive study to date examining how our dietary choices impact sleep quality.
“Incorporating more dietary fiber and a variety of plant-based foods is already recommended for overall health, poses minimal risks for most individuals, and may enhance sleep quality,” says Hagai Rothman at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel.
While previous research indicated a relationship between fiber-rich, plant-based diets and improved sleep, those studies often relied on participants recalling meals from surveys, sometimes weeks or months later. Additionally, typical sleep measurements, usually obtained through movement trackers, struggle to differentiate between deep and light sleep, both vital for assessing sleep quality.
By analyzing sleep and dietary data from over 3,500 adults, averaging 53 years old and older, Rothman and his team offer the clearest insights yet. “Past research did not take into account this breadth of dietary and sleep variables,” notes Marie-Pierre Saint-Onge at Columbia University in New York City.
Participants documented their food intake using a mobile app immediately after meals over two consecutive days. At night, they wore a device approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for sleep tracking, equipped with sensors that monitored snoring, blood oxygen levels, heart rate, and breathing patterns.
These measurements allowed researchers to estimate the duration of different sleep stages: light sleep (N1 and N2), deep recovery (N3), and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep—where dreams occur.
The study employed a computational model to predict the effects of 25 dietary factors on nightly sleep quality while controlling for variables such as age, gender, caffeine consumption, and previous day’s dietary and sleep data. “By controlling for the previous day, we were able to explore how that day’s choices influenced sleep the following night,” Rothman explains.
Participants consuming more than the cohort average of 21 grams of fiber daily—a quantity comparable to about 2.5 cups of peas—often reported better sleep quality than those with below-average fiber intake. For instance, those with higher fiber intake spent 3.4% more time in deep sleep (N3) and 2.3% less time in light sleep, enhancing restorative sleep vital for a healthy brain and body, according to St. Onge.
Although the exact mechanism behind fiber’s effects remains uncertain, research indicates that gut bacteria ferment fiber into short-chain fatty acids like butyrate, which alters gut-brain signaling, reducing inflammation and promoting deeper sleep, Rothman suggests.
Additionally, individuals with higher fiber intake exhibited slightly lower heart rates at night compared to those with lower levels. A lower nighttime heart rate generally signifies deeper rest and repair, easing the heart’s workload. “Even a one beat-per-minute difference [seen between high and low fiber groups] might seem minor, but persisting over years can substantially impact cardiovascular health,” emphasizes St. Onge.
Further analysis showed that those who consumed five or more plant-based foods daily fell asleep slightly faster and had lower heart rates during sleep compared to individuals eating fewer plant-based items. A wider variety of plants offers diverse vitamins, minerals, and beneficial molecules like polyphenols that contribute to reduced inflammation and promote a restful state, Rothman adds.
To verify these findings, further clinical trials are required, ideally conducted in sleep clinics where participants are randomly assigned to varying levels of fiber intake and consumption of a wider or narrower array of plant-based foods, St-Onge suggests.
Electron Microscopy Reveals Ants Transforming CO2 into Dolomite
Credit: Li Hongjie
The remarkable ability of certain ants to convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into dolomite stones within their exoskeletons offers potential insights into innovative methods for humans to sequester greenhouse gases and mitigate climate change.
Fungi-farming ants, like Acromyrmex echinathiol, forage for vegetation to nourish the fungi cultivated in their colonies, which serve as their primary food source. High ant and fungal densities can lead to elevated levels of CO2 within their nests.
Research in 2020 by Cameron Currie at the University of Wisconsin-Madison discovered that this species incorporates carbonate biominerals into their exoskeletons through a unique symbiotic relationship with specific bacteria. These bacteria facilitate the conversion of CO2 into rock using a somewhat enigmatic chemical process.
Recently, the research team identified another species, Sericomyrmex amabilis, residing in Central and South America, capable of achieving this remarkable feat without the assistance of symbiotic bacteria. This makes it the first known animal to evolve such an ability.
Interestingly, the mineral produced by these ants is dolomite, which is notoriously challenging for chemists to synthesize in laboratory conditions. The formation of dolomite rocks, such as those in the Italian Dolomites, requires millions of years and intricate geological processes for the calcium and magnesium atoms to align properly. In stark contrast, ants can accomplish this swiftly and effortlessly, according to Li Hongjie from Zhejiang University in China.
Dolomite is a composite of calcium, magnesium, and carbonate. Its laboratory formation is difficult due to magnesium’s strong bonding with surrounding water molecules, which hinders the integration of magnesium into the calcium carbonate structure, as indicated by Currie. Typically, scientists employ high temperatures and pressures to facilitate this process. The next step for researchers is to unravel how these ants master this extraordinary capability.
For fungi-farming ants, the transformation of CO2 into stone not only strengthens their exoskeletons but also neutralizes detrimental CO2 accumulation within their hives.
“We uncovered a natural system that has evolved over millions of years to mitigate the buildup of harmful atmospheric carbon dioxide in ant colonies,” Currie remarked.
In their quest to combat global warming, scientists are investigating techniques to convert atmospheric CO2 into carbonate minerals, essentially solidifying carbon into stone. “These ants represent the first known animals to partake in such processes, providing exciting potential as models for human applications,” asserts Currie.
Cody Freas, a professor at the University of Toulouse in France not involved in the study, hailed the ants’ capability to transform CO2 into dolomite as an “extraordinary adaptation.” “These ants function as living carbon scrubbers, converting atmospheric CO2 into a protective mineral armor. This dual strategy aids them in regulating the nest atmosphere and crafting bioengineered physical defenses,” Freas elaborated.
For over a century, humanity has been on a quest to find signs of intelligent life beyond Earth. This endeavor, best illustrated by the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI), gained notoriety thanks to Carl Sagan’s 1985 novel, Contact, which was later adapted into a film. Like Sagan’s protagonist, many SETI researchers utilize telescopes to capture radio signals from distant civilizations. However, radio waves are merely one of the tools scientists employ in the ongoing search for extraterrestrial life.
Astronomers look for measurable indicators of advanced technologies, known as technosignatures. In 1906, astronomer Percival Lowell mapped what he thought were numerous man-made structures, specifically Mars’ canals. Then, in 1960, physicist Freeman J. Dyson suggested that advanced civilizations might construct massive structures around stars to harvest energy, now referred to as a Dyson Sphere. Although Lowell’s canals were later attributed to natural erosion and Dyson’s idea remains a hypothesis, the quest for technosignatures persists.
Currently, astronomers analyze the chemical signatures in distant planetary atmospheres for indicators of life or advanced technologies. Researchers advocate measuring industrial gases like:CFCs or hydrofluorocarbons to help detect extraterrestrial civilizations on exoplanets. However, given their low atmospheric concentrations on Earth, detecting these gases on other worlds poses a challenge. Optimal conditions may require up to 500 hours of observation time with the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), the largest telescope ever constructed.
The team led by Sarah Seager at MIT proposed nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) as potential technosignature gases. Both substances are industrially produced on Earth; NF3 is utilized for cleaning semiconductors and solar panels, while SF6 is used in insulating transformers and high-voltage equipment, with its atmospheric concentration increasing significantly in recent decades.
Interestingly, the research team initially ruled out biological sources for these gases, as living organisms can produce false positives for technosignatures. Their investigation into Earth’s biogenic chemical database revealed no known organisms that generate NF3 or SF6. In fact, no life forms are recognized to create molecules with nitrogen-fluorine or sulfur-fluorine bonds.
The researchers proposed that Earth’s life forms may deliberately avoid using fluorine-based molecules due to fluorine’s propensity to bind within minerals, making extraction challenging. Moreover, these molecules possess unique chemical properties that complicate their utilization by biological systems. Specifically, their strong electron affinity leads to violent reactions with other molecules, resulting in robust bonds that are hard to break. This, they argued, suggests that fluoride may be unsuitable for extraterrestrial life.
Next, they examined potential non-biological, or abiotic sources for these gases, such as tectonic and various geological processes. While NF3 has no known abiotic sources on Earth, volcanic activity does generate minute quantities of SF6. They theorized that volcanic eruptions releasing SF6 would also emit silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4), a more prevalent volcanic gas, enabling astronomers to detect both SiF4 and SF6 simultaneously, thus strengthening the case for technosignatures if SF6 is found without corresponding SiF4.
Finally, the scientists evaluated the feasibility of distinguishing these gases from other atmospheric components on exoplanets. To achieve this, astronomers monitor the exoplanet’s transit in front of its star, measuring the light’s wavelengths that pass through its atmosphere, generating patterns known as a transmission spectrum. Ideally, each peak in the spectrum corresponds to a unique atmospheric gas; however, overlapping or obscured gases can complicate detection.
Utilizing a computer model called Simulated Exoplanet Atmospheric Spectra, the research team generated a transmission spectrum for a rocky exoplanet approximately five times the mass of Earth, termed a super-Earth, orbiting a M-dwarf star. They simulated three atmospheric compositions dominated by H2, N2, and CO2. Their findings revealed that both NF3and SF6 display spectral signatures distinct from those of the predominant atmospheric gases, and could theoretically be detected by the James Webb Space Telescope, albeit at concentrations much higher than those found in Earth’s atmosphere. Next-generation telescopes, such as the Habitable Worlds Observatory and the Large Interferometer for Exoplanets, are optimized for detecting such signatures.
While Seager and her team view NF3 and SF6 as promising technosignature gases, many uncertainties remain. Our understanding of how these gases behave in Earth’s atmosphere is limited. Additionally, the potential overlap of their transmission spectra with chlorofluorocarbon gases necessitates further studies for signal separation. Scientists also noted the unpredictability of byproducts from extraterrestrial biology. If astronomers were to observe a steady increase in technosignature gases on an exoplanet over a century, it could indicate the presence of an industrialized alien civilization. Astronomers hope to be fortunate enough to witness this evidence.
At some point, many of us yearn to be perceived as cool. This pursuit significantly influences our purchases, fashion choices, hobbies, social circles, and even our vocabulary.
The idea of coolness has historical roots, with parallels in cultures worldwide, including West Africa and China. In Europe, the concept traces back to the 16th century Italian term sprezzatura, embodying a refined and effortless style (think of the Mona Lisa—her enigmatic smile and poise exemplify this ideal). This form of coolness hinges on nonchalance and mastering the art of making challenges appear effortless.
Perhaps one key to being cool is to be effortlessly yourself. We all recognize the discomfort of trying too hard to impress others (just recall former British Prime Minister Theresa May’s infamous dance video).
Being cool often stems from confidence and a sense of adventure.
Cool slang evolves over time, from rad and hip to swell, dope, fresh, and light, but “cool” remains timeless.
This term, signifying “fashionable,” originates from African American culture in the 1930s and 1940s, particularly in the jazz music scene.
Jazz musicians with a relaxed playing style were labeled as cool, a term later embraced by bohemian groups like beatniks and hippies in the 1950s and 1960s. Subsequently, the concept of coolness became commercialized, with businesses exploiting it to market everything from apparel to cars.
So, what might define coolness in 2026? A recent study involving around 6,000 participants from six continents outlined the characteristics of individuals considered cool. Findings revealed six core traits: power, hedonism, adventure, autonomy, openness, and extroversion. However, balance is crucial; excessive hedonism or a desperate pursuit of power can disrupt credibility.
The consistency of these traits across cultures suggests that coolness fulfills a universal social function.
Individuals embodying these traits are more likely to challenge the status quo, innovate, and inspire others to embrace new perspectives.
Moreover, simply being perceived as cool can elevate a person’s social status by showcasing their creativity and promoting cultural evolution.
But what if you don’t identify as cool or prefer not to chase that label? The same study identified personality traits regarded as “good” rather than cool, such as kindness, sincerity, friendliness, and warmth. Pursuing these qualities can also leave a lasting impression.
This article responds to the query (posed by Jonathan Schaefer of Wakefield): “What truly makes someone cool?”
This website uses cookies so that we can provide you with the best user experience possible. Cookie information is stored in your browser and performs functions such as recognising you when you return to our website and helping our team to understand which sections of the website you find most interesting and useful.
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Strictly Necessary Cookie should be enabled at all times so that we can save your preferences for cookie settings.
