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How Young Sauropod Dinosaurs Shaped the Food Chain in the Morrison Formation

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A recent research study by palaeontologists at University College London reveals that the long-necked giant hatchlings of the past frequently became prey to various carnivores, including the iconic tyrannosaurus rex.

A reconstruction of the Late Jurassic ecosystem at the Dry Mesa Dinosaur Quarry, approximately 150 million years ago in Colorado, USA. Image credit: Sergey Krasovskiy / Pedro Salas.

“Adult sauropods, such as diplodocus and Brachiosaurus, were larger than modern blue whales,” Dr. Cassius Morrison from University College London explains.

“The ground trembled when they moved. Yet, their eggs were merely a foot in diameter, taking years for the hatchlings to mature.”

“Given their immense size, it was challenging for adult sauropods to tend to their eggs without causing damage, suggesting that, like today’s baby turtles, young sauropods did not receive parental care.”

In this groundbreaking study, Dr. Morrison and his team examined fossils from the Morrison Formation dating back 150 million years and developed a detailed map of the ecosystem’s food web.

The fossils were sourced from a single site, the Dry Mesa Dinosaur Quarry, renowned for its rich assortment of dinosaur remains over a span of up to 10,000 years, including at least six sauropod species: diplodocus, Brachiosaurus, and Apatosaurus.

To analyze the dietary habits of these prehistoric creatures, paleontologists utilized various data, including dinosaur size, tooth wear, isotopic composition of remains, and, in some cases, fossilized stomach contents revealing their last meals.

With advanced software typically used in modern-day ecosystems, they visualized the intricate food web, mapping the interconnected relationships between dinosaurs, other fauna, and flora with unprecedented detail.

The findings underscored the significant ecological roles sauropods played, highlighting their closer associations with plants and animals compared to other major herbivorous dinosaur groups, such as the ornithischians (like the armored stegosaurus), which presented more formidable predation risks.

“Sauropods had a transformative influence on their ecosystems,” noted Dr. Morrison.

“This research provides a quantifiable measure of their ecological impact.”

“By reconstructing the food web, we can more effectively compare dinosaur ecosystems across different geological periods.”

Scientists suggest that the eventual decline of sauropods, which acted as readily available prey, may have influenced evolutionary adaptations in predators like tyrannosaurus rex, such as increased bite force, size, and enhanced vision. Moreover, larger and more dangerous creatures like triceratops evolved, possessing formidable defenses with their three large horns.

During the late Jurassic period, apex predators like Allosaurus or torvosaurus might have had easier access to food compared to their contemporaries like tyrannosaurus rex, according to Dr. William Hart, a paleontologist at Hofstra University.

“Fossils of Allosaurus display severe scars from encounters, including those inflicted by the spiky tail of a stegosaurus. Some injuries healed, while others did not,” he elaborates.

“However, an injured Allosaurus may have been able to survive due to the abundance of vulnerable young sauropods as easy prey.”

The team’s research findings will be published in the Bulletin of the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science.

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Cassius Morrison et al. 2026. “Size is No Accident Here”: A Novel Food Web Analysis of the Dry Mesa Dinosaur Quarry and Ecological Implications for Sauropod Fauna of the Morrison Formation. Bulletin of the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science

Source: www.sci.news

Ancient Wooden Tool: The Oldest Known Stick Shaped by Early Humans

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Reconstruction of a Paleolithic woman crafting wooden tools

Credit: G. Prieto; K. Harvati

Remarkably, some of the oldest known wooden tools have been unearthed in an open-pit mine in Greece, dating back 430,000 years. These artifacts were likely crafted by an ancient human ancestor, potentially related to Neanderthals.

Archaeologists note that prehistoric wooden artefacts are “extremely rare.” According to Dirk Leder from the Lower Saxony Cultural Heritage Office in Hannover, Germany, any new findings in this area are highly valued.

Evidence suggests our extinct relatives may have utilized wooden tools for millions of years. “This could be the oldest type of tool ever used,” states Katerina Harvati from the University of Tübingen, Germany. Unfortunately, the preservation of wooden artifacts is often poor, hindering our understanding of their use.

Harvati and her team discovered the tool at a site called Marathusa 1, originally confirmed in 2013 in the Megalopolis Basin of southern Greece. The open-pit lignite mine revealed sediment layers that are nearly a million years old, offering unprecedented access to date and research, as mentioned by researcher K. Harvati.

From 2013 to 2019, excavations yielded not only tools but also the skeleton of a straight-tusked elephant (Paleoloxodon antiquus), indicating a rich archaeological context with evidence of activity, including more than 2,000 stone tools and remains of varied flora and fauna, depicting an ancient lakeshore ecosystem.


To date Marathusa 1, researchers relied on various methods, including analyzing fossil footprints and historical changes in the Earth’s magnetic field. By 2024, they confirmed that the artefacts are around 430,000 years old, a time marked by challenging climatic conditions—the gravest ice age of the Pleistocene in Europe. The Megalopolis Basin likely provided refuge due to its relatively temperate climate.

The archaeological team identified two significant wooden tools among the 144 artifacts. The first, an 81 cm long pole made from alder, exhibits marks indicative of intentional shaping. One end appears rounded, possibly serving as a handle, while the other is flattened, hinting at potential use for digging underground tubers or perhaps for butchering elephant carcasses. Harvati admits uncertainty about its exact application.

Mysterious second wooden tool from Marathusa 1

Credit: N. Thompson; K. Harvati

The second tool remains enigmatic, measuring just 5.7 cm in length and made from willow or poplar. It also shows signs of intentional shaping after the bark was removed. According to Harvati, this represents a completely new type of wooden tool. While it might have served to modify stone tools, the specific purpose remains a mystery.

Reeder points out that while the first tool is a clear example of wooden craftsmanship, questions remain about the functionality of the second. “Is this a complete item or part of something larger?” he muses.

No hominid remains have been found at Marathusa 1. Given its age, it predates our species and is likely too early even for Neanderthals. “The prevailing hypothesis suggests this site might be associated with pre-Neanderthal humans or Homo heidelbergensis. However, Harvati cautions against making definitive conclusions, noting that Greece was frequented by various hominin groups.

Other ancient wooden tools, like the Clacton spear discovered in Britain, are estimated to be about 400,000 years old, while a wooden spear from Schöningen, Germany, has been dated using multiple methods to around 300,000 years. The only tools that predate those found at Marathusa 1 are from Kalambo Falls in Zambia, which date back 476,000 years and resemble remains of larger structures or buildings.

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How Plate Tectonics, Not Volcanoes, Shaped Earth’s Climate Over the Last 540 Million Years

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A revealing new study challenges traditional beliefs by showing that mid-ocean ridges and continental rifts, rather than volcanic eruptions, significantly influence atmospheric carbon fluctuations and long-term climate change in Earth’s geological history.

Cryogenic Earth. Image credit: NASA.

Over the past 540 million years, Earth’s climate has gone through dramatic shifts, alternating between icy icehouse conditions and warm greenhouse phases.

Icehouse conditions prevailed during key geological periods, including the Late Ordovician, Late Paleozoic, and Cenozoic eras.

Notably, warmer periods were associated with increased atmospheric carbon dioxide, while declines in greenhouse gases led to global cooling and extensive glaciation.

Research conducted by Ben Mather and a team at the University of Melbourne reconstructed carbon movements between volcanoes, oceans, and the deep Earth over the past 540 million years.

“Our findings challenge the long-accepted view that volcanic chains formed by tectonic plate collisions are the primary natural source of Earth’s atmospheric carbon,” Dr. Mather stated.

“Instead, it appears that carbon emissions from deep-sea crevices and mid-ocean ridges, driven by tectonic movements, have been crucial in shaping the transitions between icehouse and greenhouse climates throughout most of Earth’s history.”

“For example, we discovered that carbon released from volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire only emerged as a significant carbon source in the last 100 million years, prompting us to reevaluate current scientific understanding.”

This study presents the first robust long-term evidence indicating that Earth’s climate change is primarily driven by carbon released at divergent plate boundaries rather than convergent ones.

“This insight not only reshapes our understanding of past climates but will also enhance future climate models,” Dr. Mather noted.

By integrating global plate tectonics reconstructions with carbon cycle models, the research team traced the storage, release, and recycling of carbon as continents shift.

Professor Dietmar Müller from the University of Sydney remarked, “Our findings illustrate how variations in carbon release from plate spreading influenced long-term climate shifts, clarifying historical climate changes, such as the late Paleozoic ice ages, the warm Mesozoic greenhouse world, and the rise of present-day Cenozoic icehouses.”

This research holds vital implications for understanding the ongoing climate crisis.

“This study contributes to the growing body of evidence that atmospheric carbon levels are a significant factor driving major climate shifts,” Dr. Mather emphasized.

“Comprehending how Earth managed its climate historically underscores the extraordinary pace of current climate change.”

“Human activities are releasing carbon at a staggering rate, far surpassing any natural geological processes previously recorded.”

“The climate balance is tipping alarmingly fast.”

For more on this groundbreaking research, you can view the findings published in the journal Communication Earth and Environment.

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B.R. Mather et al. 2026. Carbon emissions along divergent plate boundaries influence climate shifts between icehouses and greenhouses. Communication Earth and Environment 7, 48; doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-03097-0

Source: www.sci.news

Sea Cow Populations Have Shaped the Arabian Gulf Seagrass Ecosystem for Over 20 Million Years

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Paleontologists have discovered a significant concentration of dugong fossils at Al Masjabiya, an early Miocene dam site in Qatar. These fossils indicate that the Arabian Gulf has undergone various species of sea cows over the past 20 million years. One of these species is Salvacillen catalensis.

An artistic rendering of a group of Salvacillen catalensis foraging on the ocean floor. Image credit: Alex Boersma.

It has a robust body and a downturned snout adorned with sensitive bristles. Dugongs (dugong dugong) are closely related to manatees.

A key distinction between these aquatic herbivores, often referred to as sea cows, is their tails. Manatees possess a paddle-like tail, whereas dugongs feature a fluke-like tail that resembles that of a dolphin.

Dugongs inhabit coastal waters stretching from western Africa through the Indo-Pacific to northern Australia.

The Arabian Gulf hosts the world’s largest dugong population, making sea cows critical to the ecosystem.

As they graze on seagrass, dugongs alter the ocean floor, creating feeding channels that release buried nutrients into the surrounding waters for use by other marine life.

“We uncovered a distant ancestor of the dugong in a rock formation less than 16 kilometers (10 miles) from a bay with seagrass meadows, which is currently the primary habitat for dugongs,” stated Dr. Nicholas Pienson, curator of fossil marine mammals at the National Museum of Natural History.

“This region has served as the main habitat for sea cows for the past 21 million years, with different species occupying this role over time.”

Few locations preserve as many bones as Al Masjabiya, a fossil site in southwestern Qatar.

The bone beds were initially identified in the 1970s during mining and oil exploration, when geologists found a large number of “reptilian” bones scattered across the desert.

Paleontologists revisited the area in the early 2000s and soon realized that these fossils belonged to sea cows, not ancient reptiles.

Using the surrounding rock layers as a guide, Dr. Pienson and his team dated the bone bed to the early Miocene, approximately 21 million years ago.

They found fossils indicating that this area was once a shallow marine habitat teeming with sharks, barracuda-like fish, prehistoric dolphins, and sea turtles.

Researchers identified over 170 different sites containing sea cow fossils throughout the Al Masjabiya location.

This renders the bone bed the richest trove of fossilized sea cow remains globally.

The fossilized bones from Al Masjabiya bore a resemblance to modern dugongs, although ancient sea cows still had hind limb bones, which contemporary dugongs and manatees have lost through evolution.

The prehistoric sea cows found here exhibited straighter snouts and smaller tusks compared to their living counterparts.

Researchers classified Al Masjabiya’s fossil sea cow as a new species: Salvacillen catalensis.

“Using a national name for this species seemed fitting, as it clearly indicates the location where the fossil was discovered,” said Dr. Ferhan Sakal, a researcher at Qatar Museums.

Estimated weight: 113 kg (250 lbs), Salvacillen catalensis would weigh as much as an adult panda or a heavyweight boxer.

Nonetheless, it was among the smaller sea cow species ever found, with some modern dugongs weighing nearly eight times as much as Salvacillen catalensis.

Based on the fossils, scientists theorize that the region was rich in seagrass beds more than 20 million years ago, during an era when the bay was a hotspot of biodiversity, supported by sea cows nurturing these aquatic meadows.

“The density of al-Mashabiya’s bone bed provides a significant clue. Salvacillen catalensis acted as seagrass ecosystem engineers in the early Miocene, much like dugongs do today,” Dr. Pienson added.

“Though the evolutionary agents have completely changed, the ecological roles have remained the same.”

The findings are documented in a published paper available at: Peer J.

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ND Pienson et al., 2025. The abundance of early Miocene sea cows from Qatar demonstrates the repeated evolution of eastern Tethyan seagrass ecosystem engineers. Peer J 13: e20030; doi: 10.7717/peerj.20030

Source: www.sci.news

Three Key Factors That Likely Shaped the Moon’s Formation in Earth’s Early History

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The moon may have had a more intricate formation than previously believed.

NASA/NOAA

Recent theories suggest that multiple collisions with Earth might better elucidate the Moon’s origin than the traditionally accepted single massive impact 4.5 billion years ago, potentially addressing one of its greatest enigmas.

Tracing the Moon’s origin has proven challenging. The prevailing theory is that it formed early in the solar system’s evolution due to a catastrophic collision between Earth and Theia, a Mars-sized body, and its formation likely originated closer to the sun than Earth’s current position. This impact would have expelled debris that ultimately coalesced into the large natural satellite we recognize today. At that period, matter around the sun was highly intermixed, making collisions frequent.

However, this prevailing model encounters complications, as the chemical compositions of Earth and the Moon are remarkably similar, suggesting that the Moon should retain more material from Theia than our planet does. “This presents a significant dilemma for the standard model,” comments Philip Carter, a researcher at the University of Bristol, UK.

Carter and his team propose a paradigm shift, suggesting that a series of impacts with Earth over millions of years may provide a more coherent explanation for the compositional similarities between Earth and the Moon. They propose that three or more significant impacts in the early solar system, involving bodies from the size of the modern Moon to those approaching Mars in size, could account for the Moon’s creation as we observe it today.

In this revised model, each impact creates smaller moons, known as microsatellites, orbiting Earth. Over eons, these smaller bodies would progressively merge under gravitational attraction, forming a singular large entity. “They will be drawn to one another and collide,” explains Carter. “The probability of sustaining a stable system with multiple large moonlets is exceedingly low.”

Previous models also posited multiple impacts as the origin of the Moon; however, they typically required a more rigorous series of impacts than this current framework. “After three significant collisions, we introduced sufficient mass into orbit to form a full Moon,” stated Carter.

Robert Citron, a researcher at the Southwest Research Institute in Colorado, suggests that fewer impacts might be more favorable since too many collisions could displace smaller satellites from Earth’s orbit and hinder Moon formation. However, as more impacts occur, the compositional alignment between Earth and the Moon increases, accurately reflecting their current similarities. “When multiple impacts are involved, you are averaging out more influencing factors,” Citron notes.

The unique relationship between Earth and the Moon underscores the necessity of understanding the Moon’s formation. “It is a remarkably distinctive satellite,” Citron emphasizes. “Its size relative to Earth is vast, whereas the moons of Mars appear minuscule in comparison to Mars, and the moons of gas giants are diminutive compared to their planets.”

Establishing which hypothesis is correct necessitates more intricate modeling to assess the impact’s intensity on Earth and the volume of material expelled. Carter remarks, “Calculating all these details remains exceedingly complex.” He adds, “Personally, I prefer the multi-impact model over the traditional single-impact theory.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Lead Exposure Could Have Shaped Human Brain Evolution, Behavior, and Language Development

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Several hominid species — Australopithecus africanus, Paranthropus robustus, early homo varieties, Gigantopithecus brachy, Pongo, papio, homo neanderthalensis, and homo sapiens — have undergone significant lead exposure over two million years, as revealed by a new analysis of fossilized teeth collected from Africa, Asia, Oceania, and Europe. This finding challenges the notion that lead exposure is merely a contemporary issue.

Lead exposure affecting modern humans and their ancestors. Image credit: J. Gregory/Mount Sinai Health System.

Professor Renaud Joannes Boyau from Southern Cross University remarked: “Our findings indicate that lead exposure has been integral to human evolution, not just a byproduct of the industrial revolution.”

“This suggests that our ancestors’ brain development was influenced by toxic metals, potentially shaping their social dynamics and cognitive functions over millennia.”

The team analyzed 51 fossil samples globally utilizing a carefully validated laser ablation microspatial sampling technique, encompassing species like Australopithecus africanus, Paranthropus robustus, early homo variants, Gigantopithecus brachy, Pongo, papio, homo neanderthalensis, and homo sapiens.

Signs of transient lead exposure were evident in 73% of the specimens analyzed (compared to 71% in humans). This included findings on Australopithecus, Paranthropus, and homo species.

Some of the earliest geological samples from Gigantopithecus brachy, believed to be around 1.8 million years old from the early Pleistocene and 1 million years old from the mid-Pleistocene, displayed recurrent lead exposure events interspersed with periods of little to no lead uptake.

To further explore the impact of ancient lead exposure on brain development, researchers also conducted laboratory studies.

Australopithecus africanus. Image credit: JM Salas / CC BY-SA 3.0.” width=”580″ height=”627″ srcset=”https://cdn.sci.news/images/2015/01/image_2428-Australopithecus-africanus.jpg 580w, https://cdn.sci.news/images/2015/01/image_2428-Australopithecus-africanus-277×300.jpg 277w” sizes=”(max-width: 580px) 100vw, 580px”/>

Australopithecus africanus. Image credit: JM Salas / CC BY-SA 3.0.

Using human brain organoids (miniature brain models grown in the lab), researchers examined the effects of lead on a crucial developmental gene named NOVA1, recognized for modulating gene expression during neurodevelopment in response to lead exposure.

The modern iteration of NOVA1 has undergone changes distinct from those seen in Neanderthals and other extinct hominins, with the reasons for this evolution remaining unclear until now.

In organoids with ancestral versions of NOVA1, exposure to lead significantly altered neural activity in relation to Fox P2 — a gene involved in the functionality of brain regions critical for language and speech development.

This effect was less pronounced in modern organoids with NOVA1 mutations.

“These findings indicate that our variant of NOVA1 might have conferred a protective advantage against the detrimental neurological effects of lead,” stated Alison Muotri, a professor at the University of California, San Diego.

“This exemplifies how environmental pressures, such as lead toxicity, can drive genetic evolution, enhancing our capacity for survival and verbal communication while also affecting our susceptibility to contemporary lead exposure.”

Gigantopithecus blackii inhabiting the forests of southern China. Image credit: Garcia / Joannes-Boyau, Southern Cross University.” width=”580″ height=”375″ srcset=”https://cdn.sci.news/images/2024/01/image_12599-Gigantopithecus-blacki.jpg 580w, https://cdn.sci.news/images/2024/01/image_12599-Gigantopithecus-blacki-300×194.jpg 300w, https://cdn.sci.news/images/2024/01/image_12599-Gigantopithecus-blacki-84×55.jpg 84w” sizes=”(max-width: 580px) 100vw, 580px”/>

An artistic rendition of a Gigantopithecus brachy herd in the forests of southern China. Image credit: Garcia / Joannes-Boyau, Southern Cross University.

Genetic and proteomic analyses in this study revealed that lead exposure in archaic variant organoids disrupts pathways vital for neurodevelopment, social behavior, and communication.

Alterations in Fox P2 activity indicate a possible correlation between ancient lead exposure and the advanced language abilities found in modern humans.

“This research highlights the role environmental exposures have played in human evolution,” stated Professor Manish Arora from the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai.

“The insight that exposure to toxic substances may conjure survival advantages in the context of interspecific competition introduces a fresh perspective in environmental medicine, prompting investigations into the evolutionary origins of disorders linked to such exposures.”

For more information, refer to the study published in the journal Science Advances.

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Renaud Joannes Boyau et al. 2025. Effects of intermittent lead exposure on hominid brain evolution. Science Advances 11(42); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adr1524

Source: www.sci.news

Ancient Lead Exposure Could Have Shaped Brain Evolution

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Homo sapiens may have developed greater tolerance to lead exposure compared to other hominids

frantic00/Shutterstock

Research on fossilized teeth indicates that ancient humans were exposed to harmful lead for over two million years, suggesting that modern humans might have adapted to handle this toxic metal more effectively than their predecessors.

Traditionally, lead poisoning was associated with modern issues such as industrialization, poor mining techniques, and lead additives in fuels. Fortunately, efforts to phase out lead exposure have been underway since the 1980s.

This toxin is particularly harmful to children, hindering physical and cognitive growth, while adults may experience a range of serious physical and mental health issues.

Dr. Renaud Joanne Bois and colleagues from Southern Cross University in Lismore, Australia, aimed to investigate whether our ancient ancestors faced similar lead exposure.

They examined 51 fossilized hominin teeth, representing species such as Australopithecus africanus, Paranthropus robustus, Gigantopithecus black, Homo neanderthalensis, and Homo sapiens. The fossils were sourced from regions including Australia, Southeast Asia, China, South Africa, and France.

The research team utilized laser ablation techniques to identify lead concentrations in the teeth, revealing layers of lead that accumulated during the growth of these hominids. This exposure could be attributed to environmental contaminants, such as polluted water, soil, or volcanic eruptions.

Dr. Joanne Boyau noted the surprising levels of lead discovered within the teeth. For instance, Gigantopithecus, a massive ancestral relative of today’s orangutans, primarily lived in what is now China. “If current humans exhibit similar lead levels, it indicates considerable exposure from industrial activities,” she remarked.

The research then shifted focus to understanding how both modern humans and Neanderthals managed lead exposure. The team created lab-grown brain models called organoids to analyze differences in the NOVA1 gene in both species, subsequently assessing the effects of lead neurotoxicity on these organoids.

“Our findings indicate that modern NOVA1 is significantly less impacted by lead neurotoxicity,” states Joannes Boyau.

Crucially, when archaic organoids expressed NOVA1 under lead exposure, another gene, Fox P2 exhibited notable differences.

“These genes are linked to cognitive functions, language, and social bonding,” explains Joannes-Boyau. “The diminished neurotoxicity in modern humans compared to Neanderthals could provide a crucial evolutionary advantage.” This suggests that lead exposure has influenced our evolutionary history.

However, Dr. Tanya Smith from Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia, remains cautious about the conclusions drawn by the researchers regarding lead exposure levels or potential evolutionary benefits inferred from their organoid studies.

“This paper is complex and makes speculative claims,” Smith emphasizes. “While it seems logical that ancient humans and wild primates faced some level of lead exposure, the limited scope and variety of fossils studied do not necessarily demonstrate that our ancestors were consistently exposed to lead over two million years.”

Exploring Neanderthals and Ancient Humans in France

Join New Scientist’s Kate Douglas on an engaging exploration of significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, spanning from Bordeaux to Montpellier.

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  • Human Evolution/
  • Ancient Humans

Source: www.newscientist.com

Two Similar Jurassic Mammals Featured Distinctively Shaped Jaw Joints

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According to recent analyses of fossils from two mammalian forms, the development of jaws in modern mammals proves to be more intricate than previously understood. (i) Polystodon chuananensis, a mid-Jurassic herbivorous tritylodont known for its relatively large size and possibly fossilized lifestyle, and (ii) Camulochondylus rufengensis, a newly identified Morganucodontan from the Early Jurassic.

Reconstructed illustration of Polystodon chuananensis. Image credit: Chuang Zhao / PNSO.

“In mammals, the joint connecting the skull to the lower jaw consists of two bones: the squamous bone and the dentary bone, where the lower jaw teeth are situated,” stated Dr. Jin Meng, a curator at the American Museum of Natural History and a researcher at the City University of New York, along with colleagues.

“This configuration replaced the older temporomandibular joint seen in reptiles, which is composed of two different bones: the quadrate and the articular bone.”

“As organisms transitioned from early mammal-like reptiles to true mammals, various ‘experimental’ versions of this new temporomandibular joint arose to withstand the forces of mastication.”

“Ultimately, this culminated in the formation of the bimandibular joint, with the new dentosquamous joint handling most of the chewing pressure, maintaining the joint functionality in reptiles, and establishing an initial system for detecting airborne sounds.”

“Over time, the dentate squamosal became the sole joint, transforming the quadratoid joint into a diminutive bone within the mammal’s middle ear, a critical feature that aids in hearing.”

However, scientists still lack a comprehensive understanding of how this new temporomandibular joint evolved, primarily due to the scarcity of fossils from this era.

“The evolution of the mammalian temporomandibular joint represents one of the most fascinating yet incomplete chapters in vertebrate history, with gaps in fossil records obscuring significant transitions,” remarked Dr. Meng.

Researchers utilized high-resolution computed tomography scans from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology at the Chinese Academy of Sciences.

One of these species, Polystodon chuananensis, is an opossum-sized creature featuring “horns” potentially used for digging.

The other, Camulochondylus rufengensis, is a newly described squirrel-sized animal that lived during the Early Jurassic, approximately 174 to 201 million years ago.

Paleontologists identified new jaw structures in both ancient species.

In Polystodon chuananensis, they discovered a uniquely formed secondary temporomandibular joint located between the zygoma and dentary. This marks the first identification of this joint structure in a tetrapod.

In Camulochondylus rufengensis, they characterized a simple articular head of the dentary bone that likely indicates an evolutionary step towards a morphology adaptable to the new temporomandibular joint socket.

“These discoveries enhance the diversity of temporomandibular joints in mammalian evolution and broaden our comprehension of the evolutionary lineage of key mammalian features crucial for understanding how mammals process food and perceive airborne sounds,” the authors concluded.

Their study was published in the journal Nature in September 2025.

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F. Mao et al. Convergent evolution of diverse temporomandibular joints in mammals. Nature published online on September 24, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09572-0

Source: www.sci.news

“Embracing Our JRPG Passion: How Nostalgia from Gaming’s Golden Age Shaped Their Latest Singles”

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IIf you were a fan of electropop in the early 2010s, there’s a good chance that Purity Ring holds a special place in your nostalgia playlist. Being a young adult during that time, it’s also likely you indulged in Japanese role-playing games as a teen. Their new single Many Lives aims to recapture the RPG vibes you embraced at 12, which became a defining part of your identity. Drawing inspiration from classics like Skies of Arcadia, Phantasy Star Online, and Secret of Mana, they are ready to resonate with fans from that era.

This marks a bold move for the band, who previously collaborated with Defoons, covering a Eurodance classic. Nonetheless, members Megan James and Corin Roddick possess the background needed to pull it off. “We are avid fans of the JRPG genre,” they share. Their recent tracks have drawn significant influence from titles like Nier: Automata and Final Fantasy X. “Now, we’re navigating metaphorically, crafting an imaginative take on the Persona Formula.”

After five years since their last studio album and a decade honing their craft through remixes, Purity Ring operates independently under their own label, The Fellowship. Their forthcoming album, set for release in September, is described as the “soundtrack to an imaginary RPG… A narrative following two unfortunate characters striving to create a kinder world amidst the remnants of a broken man.”

The album didn’t initially start as a video game soundtrack, but as production progressed, the vision became clear. This realization gave birth to “Many Lives” and its B-side, Part II. “Many Lives serves as a gateway to this imaginary realm and its nucleus—akin to the beginnings of most JRPGs, where characters embark on their adventures.”

https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/OcVFFpaVfck?wmode=opaque&feature=oembed" title="Purity Ring – Many Lives + Part II (Official Video)" height="480" width="854" allowfullscreen="

The “Many Lives” video features cel-shaded graphics directed by Mike Sunday.

The narrative revolves around the authentic experiences of Purity Ring during the album’s development, intertwined with the duo’s “memories, fears, and comforts.” “This album,” they explain, “explores how gaming provides a journey that facilitates creative renaissance.”

Upon first listen, what captivates in “Many Lives” is the hauntingly beautiful choir, reminiscent of the iconic soundtrack from Ghost in the Shell. This chilling introduction transitions into an energetic breakbeat, delivering tracks perfect for revisiting classic anime while immersed in Jet Set Radio. Purity Ring expresses their fondness for this era: “The Ghost in the Shell soundtrack masterfully combined visuals. Experiencing it as a child was unforgettable.” For this project, the duo revisited the anime, creating music that embodies the world alongside the beloved game Nier: Automata.

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Canadian electropop duo Purity Ring. Photo: Yuniverse

Much like a Kawai soundtrack, “Many Lives” features unforgettable vocals alongside Bulgarian folk music, enriched by James’s vocoded lyrics. Purity Ring is unafraid to explore unconventional instruments for inspiration. They state they aren’t reliant on hardware synths and don’t consider themselves technical gearheads. “The Legend of Zelda series has consistently inspired us,” they mention. “Particularly, the Ocarina music from the N64 title.” A hint of the 1998 Ocarina of Time melody resonates throughout the tracks, akin to a half-remembered tune that lingers in your mind.

If the nostalgic vocals and retro Casiotone MT-240 sound aren’t enough to transport you back to gaming’s golden days, the accompanying cel-shaded graphics in the video showcase the duo’s deep admiration for all RPGs. Directed by Mike Sunday, the visuals are inspired by GameCube’s Daydream, harking back to an era when game developers embraced style over realism. A blend of Shinjuku and Hyrule evokes the opening map of classic JRPGs. Purity Ring draws inspiration from their favorite titles from the PS2 and GameCube eras while also paying homage to the PlayStation Portable. The imaginary RPG UI seamlessly fits within some of the bestsellers of handheld gaming.

For me, “Many Lives” feels like the soundtrack to afternoons spent playing Baten Kaitos (a sequel is still on my wishlist). For Purity Ring, the track “evokes a blend of past, present, and future—nostalgia for something you’ve never experienced but somehow still recall.” They aim to position this upcoming album as a new chapter, capturing the essence of the era while evoking the sensation of experiencing a life-altering game for the first time.

Purity Ring will release their fourth self-titled album on September 26th.

Source: www.theguardian.com

How Symbiosis Shaped Our Planet and Why It Holds the Key to Our Future

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In the initial two billion years of Earth’s existence, our planet was dominated by a combination of bacteria and their relatives, the Archaea. This period can be described as “slimeball Earth,” marked by a critical merger that shaped the future of life on our planet.

This article is part of our special concept series, showcasing how experts approach some of the most unexpected concepts in science. Click here for additional insights.

One of these ancient cells engulfed a bacterial cell, and remarkably, the bacterium survived. Together, they replicated, leading the engulfed bacteria to evolve into mitochondria, which serve as the energy source for these early cells.

Nick Lane from University College London discovered that mitochondria enabled these cells to express an extraordinary 200,000 times more genes, fostering growth and the emergence of varied life forms. This new combination eventually evolved into complex eukaryotic cells, resulting in nearly every organism observable without a microscope, including humans.

Coexistence is fundamental to our existence, a factor that continues to sustain us today. Over 80% of terrestrial plant species engage in symbiotic relationships with mycorrhizal fungi, which provide essential nutrients while plants supply the fungi with carbohydrates. Without this interaction, oxygen as we know it would be nonexistent. The soil itself is a product of symbiosis among fungi, bacteria, and plants—an ecological partnership that took root when life transitioned from sea to land roughly 500 million years ago.

When many think of “symbiosis,” they often envision entities coexisting peacefully, like the clownfish and anemone or the vibrant ecosystems of coral reefs. Lichens, too, symbolize the intimate connections among distinct life kingdoms. Generally, we perceive symbiosis as a benevolent arrangement characterized by mutual benefit.

However, experts suggest viewing symbiotic relationships on a spectrum, ranging from parasitism to mutualism. Katie Field from the University of Sheffield, UK, points out that reciprocity isn’t always altruistic; partners often give in hopes of future benefits.

To illustrate this spectrum, consider the diverse strategies employed by orchids. Their minuscule seeds contain very few resources and must parasitize mycorrhizal fungi to access the sugars and nutrients needed for germination. As they develop leaves, some species begin to establish a more reciprocal relationship with the fungus, shifting from parasitism to mutual benefit.

Conversely, older orchids might provide sustenance for younger ones, while certain species may remain parasitic indefinitely, never developing photosynthetic leaves. “There’s a whole cycle of different stages of symbiotic interactions,” Field remarks.

Another significant perspective on symbiosis is its potential as a key to a sustainable future. Leguminous plants such as pulses, beans, and lentils utilize symbiotic bacteria to convert atmospheric nitrogen into fertilizer. Recent studies indicate that these plants have adapted mechanisms from existing cellular structures for this purpose.

This revelation could pave the way for other crops, notably grains like wheat and corn—staples that account for half of human caloric intake—to produce their fertilizers. Giles Oldroyd from the Crop Science Center at Cambridge University is exploring this avenue, with hopes of significantly reducing the reliance on chemical fertilizers in agriculture.

Oldroyd is conducting field trials using modified crops to harness the power of symbiosis, with a clear mission to minimize the use of chemical fertilizers. “I’m committed to this goal,” he states.

Explore more stories in this series through the links below:

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Source: www.newscientist.com

How Dining “Family Style” Shaped Life as We Know It

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The Stentor, a giant in the world of single-celled creatures, is a trumpet-shaped organism that ranks among the largest of its kind, stretching to the size of a sharp pencil tip. Despite its impressive size, the Stentor sometimes struggles to capture the swimming bacteria and microscopic algae it feeds on.

A recent study reveals that Stentors, part of the Protist group, have found a way to overcome this challenge by adopting a “family style” approach to feeding. In a paper published in the journal Natural Physics on Monday, scientists shared their discovery that Stentor colonies can create currents to draw in prey more efficiently.

These new findings suggest that Stentors are capable of cooperation despite lacking neurons and brains.

“These single-cell organisms exhibit behaviors that we typically associate with more complex life forms,” said Shashank Shekhar, a biophysicist at Emory University and lead author of the study. “They form these higher structures, much like we do as humans.”

Scientists believe that the ability of single-cell organisms to form groups is a critical step in the evolution towards multicellular life on Earth. Recent discoveries emphasize the role of physical states and predator-prey interactions in these cellular collaborations.

In their natural habitat, Stentors are commonly found near the surface of ponds. They have cilia at the wider ends of their bodies that wave in patterns, creating water streams to capture prey.

To observe these currents in a laboratory setting, Dr. Shekhar placed a drop of milk in a Petri dish with a Stentor and watched the fluid movements under a microscope. “You can see them creating swirls around their mouths,” he described, likening it to the swirling cosmos in Van Gogh’s “Starry Night.”

When food is abundant, Stentors often come together in clusters, but little research has been done to explore the reasons for this colony formation.

Dr. Shekhar and his team observed the interactions between pairs of Stentors by analyzing microscope video footage of the organisms in a Petri dish capturing food particles to measure liquid dynamics.

The video unveiled intriguing patterns as the Stentors were drawn towards each other before moving apart, resembling a magnetic repulsion. “They seem to oscillate between ‘I like you’ and ‘I don’t like you,'” explained Dr. Shekhar.

Further analysis revealed that Stentor pairs often had unequal connections, with one organism producing stronger currents. When they gathered, the combined streams benefited both creatures, allowing weaker Stentors to benefit from the stronger ones.

These dynamics among Stentors lead to what Dr. Shekhar terms “indiscriminate behavior.” By forming colonies and choosing stronger partners, Stentors enhance their feeding efficiency, increasing the overall flow rate and enabling them to capture prey faster and from greater distances, ultimately boosting nutrient intake for the group.

The grouping behavior of single-cell organisms like Stentors to enhance survival represents a crucial stage in the evolution towards multicellularity. Uniting against single-cell prey makes them more formidable as predators, prompting vulnerable prey to band together for survival.

According to evolutionary biologist William Ratcliffe from Georgia Tech, who was not involved in the study, the improved feeding efficiency of group predators like Stentors can drive the evolution of multicellularity in prey organisms. “As a single cell, you’re vulnerable to being consumed. But as part of a larger group of cells, you become a less appealing target for predators,” Dr. Ratcliffe explained.

These new discoveries underscore the significance of physical forces in shaping biological evolution.

“While we often focus on genes and chemicals, the role of physics in the development of multicellular life is equally important,” noted Dr. Shekhar. “Even simple factors like water flow can influence evolutionary pathways.”

Source: www.nytimes.com

The seven pivotal moments that shaped history

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If there is one word related to scientific curiosity, it is “why”. Why is the universe expanding? Why are the rise in cancer cases among young people? Why is the sky blue?

In contrast, it is rare to pay much attention to questions that begin with “when.” Certainly, the universe began 13.8 billion years ago, our planet began 4.5 billion years ago, or Homo sapiens It evolved 300,000 years ago. However, these confident statements hide a lot of scientific conspiracy, mystery, and uncertainty. That may all be strange, well, why? Why not focus on “when” a little more?

Ask when we force us to sharpen our thinking, carefully define our terminology, and think about what the beginnings really look like. In this spirit, addressing seven of the most important “when” questions in a special package that begins here is “When did time begin? Tip: It wasn’t a big bang.” Each piece indicates “When?” It could be one of the most interesting questions you can ask.

Ask when we have already taught us so much about the epic sweep of universe history

To give an example, I’ve recently begun to see that the first galaxy appeared much earlier than you could imagine. The “when” here dramatically changes not only the early universe but also how the chemical elements that took place in order to create life were born. Without “when,” there is no “way,” and certainly no “why.”

Science is increasingly well equipped to investigate when things happened. Distant past dates can be inferred using evidence from radioisotopes or by extrapolating from known points in history. Our special feature reminds us that we have already asked what we have told you about the epic sweep of space and earthly history, from the switch on the first star to the first life of this planet. It’s something.

Of course, why is a key part of scientific curiosity, and asking what we do frequently, but let us not give it all the glory. If not now…

This article is part of a special series that explores seven of the biggest chronological challenges of all time. To read other stories in this series, come back today later:

When did the time begin? Tip: It wasn’t a big bang

Why it’s so difficult to know why Homo sapiens became a clear species

When did the first galaxy form? Much faster than we thought

tomorrow:

When did life begin on Earth? New evidence reveals shocking stories

When did plate tectonics begin? Problems are very important for childhood

We reveal a fundamentally different view of the origins of civilization.

Why geologists cannot agree when the Anthropocene era began

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Source: www.newscientist.com

A breeding revolution 4,200 years ago shaped the origins of the modern horse.

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Horse domestication began on the Eurasian steppes

Lina Shatalova/iStockphoto/Getty Images

A genetic study of hundreds of ancient horses suggests that ancient breeders dramatically shortened the horse’s natural development period, starting around 4,200 years ago. This intense breeding allowed the lineage to rapidly expand across Eurasia within a few centuries, according to researchers led by Ludovic Orlando at the Centre for Human Biology and Genomics in Toulouse, France.

“In other words, they controlled horse breeding,” he says, “so this tells us something about the breeding processes behind the success of horse breeding around the world.”

Horses were first domesticated 5,500 years ago by the Botai people in what is now Kazakhstan. The Botai, however, did not spread their horse culture to other regions and eventually went extinct. Horses released back into the wild.

More than 1,000 years later, a different lineage of horse was domesticated in the Pontic-Caspian steppes of southern Russia. This lineage eventually spread worldwide, giving rise to all the domesticated horses we see today, according to Orlando.

To trace the history of horse domestication, Orlando and his team analyzed the genomes of 475 ancient horses dating back 50,000 years in Eurasia. They compared these genomes with those of 71 modern domestic horses representing 40 breeds from around the world, along with six species of the endangered mullein genus (a separate subspecies).

The research found that, except for the Botai, horses were not domesticated before the third millennium BCE, indicating that horses did not play a significant role in early human migration or cultural expansion, as previously suggested, Orlando explained.

DNA analysis showed that horses in the Pontic-Caspian steppe underwent significant inbreeding around 4,200 years ago, likely in an effort to develop specific traits for high-quality riding or chariot horses, according to Orlando.

Through a combination of genome sequencing and carbon dating, scientists estimated that the average time between two successive horse generations, called the generation time interval, was significantly shortened during the same period of inbreeding in the Pontic-Caspian steppes, halving the interval seen in the wild.

“During the domestication bottleneck around 2200 BCE, breeders were able to control horse reproduction so well that generations became faster and faster,” Orlando said.

Orlando suggests that breeders may have achieved this shortening of generation times not by breeding horses at a younger age, but by increasing survival rates. Unlike wild horses, horses in human care are less susceptible to deaths among mares and newborn foals, as they are protected from predators and disturbances that could jeopardize their survival, according to researchers at the University of Veterinary Medicine in Vienna led by Kristin Orlich.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Future of Climate-Tolerant Plants to be Shaped by New Discoveries

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Researchers at the University of Nottingham have discovered an important role for diligent proteins in plant roots, regulating water and nutrient uptake by controlling the endothelial lignin barrier. This discovery has important implications for the development of drought-tolerant crops that require fewer resources. The researchers also emphasized the importance of this discovery in adapting agriculture to changing climate conditions and ensuring future food security.

Researchers have identified the role of proteins that seal plant roots and control the uptake of nutrients and water from the soil. This breakthrough could lead to the development of climate-resilient crops that require less water and less chemical fertilizers.

researchers University of Nottingham We have identified a new component of the plant root lignin barrier and a specific function of diligent proteins (DPs) located in the root endodermis that control water and nutrient uptake. Their research results are science.

Root function and endothelium

Plant roots function by absorbing mineral nutrients and water from the soil and controlling the proper balance within the plant. This control is carried out by a specialized layer of root tissue called the endothelium.

The endodermis contains a barrier to solute and water movement made of lignin, the same substance found in wood. This impermeable barrier blocks uncontrolled movement of substances into the roots by forming a tight seal between cells. This seal ensures that the only route for nutrients and water to enter the roots is through the endothelial cells. This gives the cells complete control over what enters and exits the plant through the roots.

Role of Diligent Protein

This study identified a new component of the lignin deposition machinery, focusing on the function of diligent proteins (DPs) present in the root endothelium. These proteins act in conjunction with other described root control components to direct and organize the correct deposition of lignin into the endothelium, ensuring that the plant receives an optimal balance of nutrients from the soil. will do so.

Dr Gabriel Castrillo, from the School of Biological Sciences at the University of Nottingham, one of the study’s leaders, said: They can be future-proofed to secure future food supplies. This study shows how plant roots regulate water and nutrient uptake through DP-regulated lignin deposition. Without these proteins, proper root sealing is not completed and the nutritional balance within the plant is compromised. This knowledge can be used to engineer plants to grow with less water and chemical fertilizers. ”

Reference: “Diligent protein complexes direct lignin polymerization and construction of root diffusion barriers” Yi-Qun Gao, Jin-Quan Huang, Guilhem Reyt, Tao Song, Ashley Love, David Tiemessen,
Pei-Ying Xue, Written by Wen-Kai Wu, Michael W. George, Xiao Ya
Chen, Dai Ying Chao, Gabriel Castrillo, David E. Salt, October 26, 2023. science.
DOI: 10.1126/science.adi5032

Source: scitechdaily.com