How Young Sauropod Dinosaurs Shaped the Food Chain in the Morrison Formation

Posted on January 31, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

A recent research study by palaeontologists at University College London reveals that the long-necked giant hatchlings of the past frequently became prey to various carnivores, including the iconic tyrannosaurus rex.

A reconstruction of the Late Jurassic ecosystem at the Dry Mesa Dinosaur Quarry, approximately 150 million years ago in Colorado, USA. Image credit: Sergey Krasovskiy / Pedro Salas.

“Adult sauropods, such as diplodocus and Brachiosaurus, were larger than modern blue whales,” Dr. Cassius Morrison from University College London explains.

“The ground trembled when they moved. Yet, their eggs were merely a foot in diameter, taking years for the hatchlings to mature.”

“Given their immense size, it was challenging for adult sauropods to tend to their eggs without causing damage, suggesting that, like today’s baby turtles, young sauropods did not receive parental care.”

In this groundbreaking study, Dr. Morrison and his team examined fossils from the Morrison Formation dating back 150 million years and developed a detailed map of the ecosystem’s food web.

The fossils were sourced from a single site, the Dry Mesa Dinosaur Quarry, renowned for its rich assortment of dinosaur remains over a span of up to 10,000 years, including at least six sauropod species: diplodocus, Brachiosaurus, and Apatosaurus.

To analyze the dietary habits of these prehistoric creatures, paleontologists utilized various data, including dinosaur size, tooth wear, isotopic composition of remains, and, in some cases, fossilized stomach contents revealing their last meals.

With advanced software typically used in modern-day ecosystems, they visualized the intricate food web, mapping the interconnected relationships between dinosaurs, other fauna, and flora with unprecedented detail.

The findings underscored the significant ecological roles sauropods played, highlighting their closer associations with plants and animals compared to other major herbivorous dinosaur groups, such as the ornithischians (like the armored stegosaurus), which presented more formidable predation risks.

“Sauropods had a transformative influence on their ecosystems,” noted Dr. Morrison.

“This research provides a quantifiable measure of their ecological impact.”

“By reconstructing the food web, we can more effectively compare dinosaur ecosystems across different geological periods.”

Scientists suggest that the eventual decline of sauropods, which acted as readily available prey, may have influenced evolutionary adaptations in predators like tyrannosaurus rex, such as increased bite force, size, and enhanced vision. Moreover, larger and more dangerous creatures like triceratops evolved, possessing formidable defenses with their three large horns.

During the late Jurassic period, apex predators like Allosaurus or torvosaurus might have had easier access to food compared to their contemporaries like tyrannosaurus rex, according to Dr. William Hart, a paleontologist at Hofstra University.

“Fossils of Allosaurus display severe scars from encounters, including those inflicted by the spiky tail of a stegosaurus. Some injuries healed, while others did not,” he elaborates.

“However, an injured Allosaurus may have been able to survive due to the abundance of vulnerable young sauropods as easy prey.”

The team’s research findings will be published in the Bulletin of the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science.

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Cassius Morrison et al. 2026. “Size is No Accident Here”: A Novel Food Web Analysis of the Dry Mesa Dinosaur Quarry and Ecological Implications for Sauropod Fauna of the Morrison Formation. Bulletin of the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science

Source: www.sci.news

New Analysis of Lunar Regolith: Challenging Meteorite and Water Formation Theories

Posted on January 27, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Planetary scientists examining oxygen isotopes in lunar soil from the Apollo missions have determined that 4 billion years of meteorite impacts may have contributed only a minimal amount of Earth’s water. This insight prompts a reevaluation of established theories regarding water’s origins on our planet.

Close-up of a relatively new crater to the southeast, captured during Apollo 15’s third lunar walk. Image credit: NASA.

Previous research suggested that meteorites significantly contributed to Earth’s water supply due to their impact during the solar system’s infancy.

In a groundbreaking study, Dr. Tony Gargano from NASA’s Johnson Space Center and the Lunar and Planetary Institute, along with colleagues, employed a novel technique to analyze the lunar surface debris known as regolith.

Findings indicated that even under optimistic conditions, meteorite collisions from approximately 4 billion years ago may have delivered only a small percentage of Earth’s water.

The Moon acts as a historical archive, documenting the tumultuous events that the Earth-Moon system has endured over eons.

While Earth’s dynamic geology and atmosphere erase these records, lunar samples have retained valuable information.

However, this preservation is not without its challenges.

Traditional regolith studies have focused on metal-preferring elements, which can be obscured by continuous impacts on the Moon, complicating efforts to reconstruct original meteorite compositions.

Oxygen triple isotopes offer highly precise “fingerprints” since oxygen, being the most abundant element in rocks, remains untouched by external forces.

These isotopes facilitate a deeper understanding of the meteorite compositions that impacted the Earth-Moon system.

Oxygen isotope analyses revealed that approximately 1% of the regolith’s mass consists of carbon-rich material from meteorites that partially vaporized upon impact.

With this knowledge, researchers calculated the potential water content carried by these meteorites.

“The lunar regolith uniquely allows us to interpret a time-integrated record of impacts in Earth’s vicinity over billions of years,” explained Dr. Gargano.

“By applying oxygen isotope fingerprints, we can extract impactor signals from materials that have undergone melting, evaporation, and reprocessing.”

This significant finding alters our understanding of water sources on both Earth and the Moon.

When adjusted to account for global impacts, the cumulative water indicated in the model equates to only a minor fraction of the Earth’s oceanic water volume.

This discrepancy challenges the theory that water-rich meteorites delivered the bulk of Earth’s water.

“Our results don’t rule out meteorites as a water source,” noted Dr. Justin Simon, a planetary scientist at NASA Johnson’s Celestial Materials Research and Exploration Sciences Division.

“However, the Moon’s long-term record indicates that the slow influx of meteorites cannot significantly account for Earth’s oceans.”

While the implied water contribution from around 4 billion years ago is minimal in the context of Earth’s oceans, it remains notable for the Moon.

The Moon’s available water is concentrated in small, permanently shadowed areas at the poles.

These regions, among the coldest in the solar system, present unique opportunities for scientific research and exploration resources as NASA prepares for crewed missions to the Moon with Artemis III and subsequent missions.

The samples analyzed in this study were collected from near the lunar equator, where all six Apollo missions landed.

Rocks and dust gathered over half a century ago continue to yield valuable insights, albeit from a limited lunar area.

Future samples collected through Artemis are expected to unlock a new wave of discoveries in the years ahead.

“I consider myself part of the next generation of Apollo scientists, trained in the questions and insights enabled by the Apollo missions,” said Dr. Gargano.

“The Moon provides tangible evidence that we can examine in the lab, serving as a benchmark for what we learn from orbital data and telescopes.”

“I eagerly anticipate the information that upcoming Artemis samples will reveal about our place in the solar system.”

The findings of this study will be published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

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Anthony M. Gargano et al. 2026. Constraints on impactor flux from lunar regolith oxygen isotopes to the Earth-Moon system. PNAS 123 (4): e2531796123; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2531796123

Source: www.sci.news

Discovering the Formation Process of Common Planetary Systems in an Ultra-Low Density World

Posted on January 7, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Exploring a Low-Density Planet Compared to Earth

Image Credit: NASA

Comparison of Taurus and Earth — Exploring a Low-Density Planet Compared to Earth

Image Credit: NASA

Newly discovered planets orbiting V1298 Tau are unusually lightweight, possessing a density comparable to polystyrene. This discovery may bridge critical gaps in our understanding of planetary system formation.

Unlike most planets in our Milky Way galaxy, which are often larger than Earth and smaller than Neptune, this solar system showcases an uncommon configuration. Astronomers have cataloged numerous planetary systems that formed billions of years ago, complicating our understanding of their genesis.

The research team, led by John Livingstone from the Astrobiology Center in Tokyo and Eric Pettigura from UCLA, has identified four dense planets that likely formed recently around a young star, V1298 Tau, which is around 20 million years old.

“We are examining younger models of the types of planetary systems commonly found across our galaxy,” Pettigura remarked.

Initially discovered in 2017, V1298 Tau and its accompanying planets remained largely unstudied until now. Over five years, researchers utilized both terrestrial and space telescopes to observe tiny variances in orbital durations, revealing intricate gravitational interactions among the four planets. These measurements enable more precise calculations of each planet’s radius and mass.

To effectively employ this observational method, researchers required initial estimates of each planet’s orbital duration without gravitational interference. Lacking that data for the outermost planet, they relied on educated conjectures, risking inaccuracies in their calculations.

“I initially had my doubts,” Petitgras admitted. “There were numerous potential pitfalls… When we first acquired data from the outermost planet, it felt as exhilarating as making a hole-in-one in golf.”

By accurately measuring the orbital durations and subsequently estimating the radii and masses, the team determined the densities of the planets. They discovered these are the lowest-density exoplanets known, with radii spanning five to ten times that of Earth, yet only a few times its mass.

“These planets exhibit a density akin to Styrofoam, which is remarkably low,” Pettigura explained.

This low density can be attributed to the planets’ ongoing gravitational contraction, potentially classifying them as super-Earths or sub-Neptunes—types of planets typically formed during the evolutionary stages.

The planets of V1298 Tau operate in a so-called orbital resonance, indicating their orbital periods are harmonically related. This observation aligns with astronomers’ theories on the formation of most planetary systems, including our own solar system, which initially have tightly packed configurations that eventually evolve into less stable arrangements, according to Sean Raymond from the University of Bordeaux in France.

“This newly identified system of close, low-mass planets revolving around a relatively young star could provide insights into typical sub-Neptunian systems,” Raymond pointed out. “This discovery is remarkable due to the inherent challenges in characterizing such youthful systems.”

Caffeine Unveils New Insights into Star Formation in Dense Gas Environments

Posted on January 6, 2026 by Igor Mitreski

Astronomers reveal new insights into the factors influencing star formation efficiency in the densest regions of galaxies through Caffeine research.

GAL316: A massive star-forming region. Image credit: ESO / M. Matten / André et al. / VVV.

In this groundbreaking study, astronomer Michael Mattern from the University of Paris-Saclay and his team meticulously mapped dense gas across 49 giant star-forming complexes located approximately 3,000 parsecs away within our galaxy’s disk.

“Creating stars is a challenging endeavor, and the process lacks efficiency,” the astronomers stated.

“Current understanding indicates that a certain minimum density of gas and dust is necessary for stars to form.”

“Only about 1 to 2 percent of the gas and dust in these regions is utilized in the ignition of a star.”

“Could denser regions exhibit higher efficiency in star formation?”

“We are examining GAL316, one of the remarkable stellar nurseries we observed, to explore this question,” they elaborated.

The ongoing CAFFEINE survey employs the ArTéMiS camera on the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX), a state-of-the-art radio telescope situated on the Chajnantor Plateau.

“APEX, managed by the Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy, has successfully captured the faint emissions of cold gas clouds, visible as blue glows in GAL316 images,” the researchers revealed.

“This glow overlays a starry backdrop, successfully recorded by ESO’s VISTA telescope.”

They discovered that as gas density increases past a specific threshold, the efficiency of star formation – the conversion rate of gas into stars – does not proportionately escalate.

This observation contradicts existing models that suggest a continual rise in star formation with density increases.

Conversely, the efficiency remains nearly constant in extremely dense gas, reinforcing the notion that stars primarily form within filamentous structures in clouds, a process dictated by the fragmentation of these filaments into protostar cores.

The findings suggest a potential gas density threshold for efficient star formation, bolstering the hypothesis that the physics of dense filaments governs star formation, rather than turbulence or feedback from nascent stars alone.

This research represents one of the most thorough efforts to date in connecting the physical structure of dense gas with star formation efficiency, paving the way for future observations and simulations that aim to elucidate the emergence of Sun-like stars from interstellar clouds.

“Our results indicate that the densest regions observed in this Caffeine study show similar efficiencies in star production compared to other stellar nurseries, provided they exceed the minimum density,” the scientists remarked.

Their findings are detailed in a published paper in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.

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M. Mattern et al. 2024. Investigating star formation efficiency in dense gas: Initial results from the CAFFEINE survey utilizing ArTéMiS. A&A 688, A163; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202449908

Source: www.sci.news

An Unusual Lemon-Shaped Exoplanet That Challenges Planet Formation Theories

Posted on December 17, 2025 by

Artist impression of PSR J2322-2650b

NASA, ESA, CSA, Ralph Crawford (STScI)

Astronomers have identified what could be one of the most peculiar known exoplanets. This planet orbits a rapidly spinning neutron star known as a pulsar, which is just the beginning of its unusual characteristics.

Michael Chan and his team at the University of Chicago discovered this strange exoplanet located more than 2,000 light-years away from Earth using the James Webb Space Telescope. They quickly recognized that something was off when they analyzed the spectrum of light emitted by the planet. Instead of detecting the typical signatures of water or carbon dioxide, they unexpectedly found carbon molecules.

Carbon molecules are not commonly seen in planetary atmospheres as they typically bond with other elements rather than themselves. “For carbon to exist in the atmosphere, we would need to eliminate nearly all other elements, including oxygen and nitrogen, which is something we don’t understand how to achieve,” Zhang stated. “There aren’t any other known planetary atmospheres like this one.”

Due to its proximity to its star and the star’s significant mass, the pulsar’s gravity is believed to have distorted the planet into an elongated, lemon-like shape. A year on this exoplanet lasts just 7.8 hours, and even its coldest regions reach temperatures of approximately 650°C (1202°F). Unlike most gas giants, the winds on this planet blow contrary to its rotation. “You can envision this planet having graphite clouds in its atmosphere, giving it a striking red appearance, reminiscent of an ominous lemon,” Zhang remarked. “I consider it to be undoubtedly the most bizarre exoplanet known.”

These numerous anomalies pose a challenge in explaining the formation of PSR J2322-2650b, running counter to established models of planetary formation. For now, this utterly bizarre and remote world remains an enigma.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Three Key Factors That Likely Shaped the Moon’s Formation in Earth’s Early History

Posted on December 3, 2025 by

The moon may have had a more intricate formation than previously believed.

NASA/NOAA

Recent theories suggest that multiple collisions with Earth might better elucidate the Moon’s origin than the traditionally accepted single massive impact 4.5 billion years ago, potentially addressing one of its greatest enigmas.

Tracing the Moon’s origin has proven challenging. The prevailing theory is that it formed early in the solar system’s evolution due to a catastrophic collision between Earth and Theia, a Mars-sized body, and its formation likely originated closer to the sun than Earth’s current position. This impact would have expelled debris that ultimately coalesced into the large natural satellite we recognize today. At that period, matter around the sun was highly intermixed, making collisions frequent.

However, this prevailing model encounters complications, as the chemical compositions of Earth and the Moon are remarkably similar, suggesting that the Moon should retain more material from Theia than our planet does. “This presents a significant dilemma for the standard model,” comments Philip Carter, a researcher at the University of Bristol, UK.

Carter and his team propose a paradigm shift, suggesting that a series of impacts with Earth over millions of years may provide a more coherent explanation for the compositional similarities between Earth and the Moon. They propose that three or more significant impacts in the early solar system, involving bodies from the size of the modern Moon to those approaching Mars in size, could account for the Moon’s creation as we observe it today.

In this revised model, each impact creates smaller moons, known as microsatellites, orbiting Earth. Over eons, these smaller bodies would progressively merge under gravitational attraction, forming a singular large entity. “They will be drawn to one another and collide,” explains Carter. “The probability of sustaining a stable system with multiple large moonlets is exceedingly low.”

Previous models also posited multiple impacts as the origin of the Moon; however, they typically required a more rigorous series of impacts than this current framework. “After three significant collisions, we introduced sufficient mass into orbit to form a full Moon,” stated Carter.

Robert Citron, a researcher at the Southwest Research Institute in Colorado, suggests that fewer impacts might be more favorable since too many collisions could displace smaller satellites from Earth’s orbit and hinder Moon formation. However, as more impacts occur, the compositional alignment between Earth and the Moon increases, accurately reflecting their current similarities. “When multiple impacts are involved, you are averaging out more influencing factors,” Citron notes.

The unique relationship between Earth and the Moon underscores the necessity of understanding the Moon’s formation. “It is a remarkably distinctive satellite,” Citron emphasizes. “Its size relative to Earth is vast, whereas the moons of Mars appear minuscule in comparison to Mars, and the moons of gas giants are diminutive compared to their planets.”

Establishing which hypothesis is correct necessitates more intricate modeling to assess the impact’s intensity on Earth and the volume of material expelled. Carter remarks, “Calculating all these details remains exceedingly complex.” He adds, “Personally, I prefer the multi-impact model over the traditional single-impact theory.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

The Crucial Role of Taxed Grain in the Formation of Indigenous Nations

Posted on November 25, 2025 by

Grain cultivation can produce excess food that can be stored and taxed.

Luis Montaña/Marta Montagna/Science Photo Library

SEI 275553130 — Grain cultivation can produce excess food that can be stored and taxed.

Luis Montaña/Marta Montagna/Science Photo Library

The practice of grain cultivation likely spurred the formation of early states that functioned like protection rackets, as well as the need for written records to document taxation.

There is considerable discussion on how large, organized societies first came into being. Some researchers argue that agriculture laid the groundwork for civilization, while others suggest it emerged from necessity as hunter-gatherer lifestyles became impractical. However, many believe that enhanced agricultural practices led to surpluses that could be stored and taxed, making state formation possible.

“Through the use of fertilization and irrigation, early agricultural societies were able to greatly increase productivity, which in turn facilitated nation building,” says Kit Opie from the University of Bristol, UK.

However, the timelines for these developments do not align precisely. Evidence of agriculture first appeared about 9,000 years ago, with the practice independently invented at least 11 times across four continents. Yet, large-scale societies didn’t arise until approximately 4,000 years later, initially in Mesopotamia and subsequently in Egypt, China, and Mesoamerica.

To explore further, Opie and Quentin Atkinson of the University of Auckland, New Zealand, employed a statistical method inspired by phylogenetics to map the evolution of languages and cultures.

They combined linguistic data with anthropological databases from numerous preindustrial societies to investigate the likely sequence of events, such as the rise of the state, taxation, writing, intensive agriculture, and grain cultivation.

Their findings indicated a connection between intensive agriculture and the emergence of states, though the causality was complex. “It appears that the state may have driven this escalation, rather than the other way around,” Opie notes.

Previous studies on Austronesian societies have also suggested that political complexity likely propelled intensive farming instead of being simply a byproduct of it.

Additionally, they observed that states were significantly less likely to emerge in societies where grains like wheat, barley, rice, and corn were not cultivated extensively; in contrast, states were much more likely to develop in grain-dominant societies.

The results suggested a frequent linkage between grain production and taxation, with taxation being uncommon in grain-deficient societies.

This is largely because grain is easily taxed; it is cultivated in set fields, matures at predictable times, and can be stored for extended periods, simplifying assessment. “Root crops like cassava and potatoes were typically not taxed,” he added. “The premise is that states offer protection to these areas in exchange for taxes.”

Moreover, Opie and Atkinson discovered that societies without taxation rarely developed writing, while those with taxation were far more likely to adopt it. Opie hypothesizes that writing may have been developed to record taxes, following which social elites could establish institutions and laws to sustain a hierarchical society.

The results further indicated that once established, states tended to cease the production of non-cereal crops. “Our evidence strongly suggests that states actively removed root crops, tubers, and fruit trees to maximize land for grain cultivation, as these crops were unsuitable for taxation,” Opie asserted. “People were thus coerced into cultivating specific crops, which had detrimental effects then and continues to impact us today.”

The shift to grain farming correlated with Neolithic population growth but also contributed to population declines, negatively affecting general health, stature, and dental health.

“Using phylogenetic methods to study cultural evolution is groundbreaking, but it may oversimplify the richness of human history,” notes Laura Dietrich from the Austrian Archaeological Institute in Vienna. Archaeological records indicate that early intensified agriculture spurred sustained state formation in Southwest Asia, yet the phenomena diverged significantly in Europe, which is a question of great interest for her.

David Wengrow points out, “From an archaeological perspective, it has been evident for years that no single ‘driving force’ was responsible for the earlier formation of states in different global regions.” For instance, he states that in Egypt, the initial development of bureaucracy appeared to be more closely related to the organization of royal events than to the need for regular taxation.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Surprising Formation Found in the Kuiper Belt of Our Solar System

Posted on November 19, 2025 by

Artist Perspectives on the Kuiper Belt

ESO/M.Kornmesser

Artwork depicting the Kuiper belt — Artist Perspectives on the Kuiper Belt

ESO/M.Kornmesser

The Kuiper Belt, the outer disk of icy rock in our solar system, has been found to exhibit more intricate structure than previously understood. In 2011, researchers unveiled a cluster of objects with similar orbits, referred to as the Kuiper Belt’s “kernel.” Recently, another group has identified an even more tightly groupedset of objects, termed the “inner kernel.”

The original kernel was identified through visual analysis of the orbits of 189 Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs). This cluster is positioned roughly 44 astronomical units from the Sun, with one astronomical unit representing the distance between the Sun and Earth. Since the kernel’s discovery, no additional structures in the Kuiper Belt have been found.

That is, until Amir Shirazi and his team at Princeton University undertook the meticulous effort of refining orbital data from 1,650 KBOs. They utilized clustering and structure-searching algorithms to analyze this data. By training the algorithm to identify kernels, they discovered that whenever the algorithm pinpointed a kernel, it also uncovered another grouping, as noted by Siraj.

The newly identified star cluster has been dubbed the Inner Kernel, located at approximately 43 astronomical units from the Sun. Objects within this cluster exhibit highly circular orbits that align almost perfectly with the solar system’s disk.

“Such orbital stability indicates ancient, undisturbed structures. These formations can unravel mysteries regarding the solar system’s evolution, the movement of giant planets, and the environments it encountered during its early history,” Siraj explained.

Understanding how Neptune migrated from the inner solar system, where it is believed to have originated, to its present position could be particularly revealing, according to David Nesvorny, one of the original discoverers of the kernel at the Southwest Research Institute in Colorado. Nesvorny suggests that as Neptune migrates outward, the kernels, along with the KBOs forming the Inner Kernel, may have been temporarily stabilized through gravitational interactions with the giant planet, creating the aggregation seen today, before being released as Neptune continues its trajectory.

Chile’s Vera C. Rubin Observatory, which commenced operations this year, is anticipated to unveil even more KBOs, enhancing our understanding of both the core and the inner core, and potentially revealing undiscovered structures at the solar system’s periphery. “The deeper we delve into the structure of the Kuiper Belt, the more we uncover about the solar system’s history,” Siraj stated.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

Astronomers Simulate Formation of Early Star Clusters – Sciworthy

Posted on November 17, 2025 by

The universe has undergone significant changes. Examining the contrasts between the universe as we perceive it today and its origin nearly 14 billion years ago is a crucial area of study for astrophysicists and cosmologists. Their focus is primarily on the first billion years following the Big Bang, when the first stars and galaxies began to emerge, marking the dawn of the universe. This was the initial phase when celestial objects began to emit light on their own rather than merely reflecting the remnants of the Big Bang, and it was also the first occurrence when elements heavier than helium started forming via nuclear fusion in stars.

In a recent study, a group of scientists utilized computer simulations to explore what star clusters looked like during the dawn of the universe. Their objective was to create models of star and galaxy formation that could be confirmed by new observations made by the JWST. This approach will enhance astronomers’ understanding of galaxy formation in the early universe, particularly the influence of galaxies on dark matter, which remains enigmatic, during the birth of the first stars from cosmic dust.

The research employed a cosmological simulation code called Arepo to recreate the dawn of the universe within a three-dimensional box measuring 1.9 megaparsecs on each side. This size converts to 60 quintillion kilometers or 40 quintillion miles. Within this box, the simulation contained 450 million particles representing early elemental matter, including hydrogen, helium, various isotopes, ions, and molecules that formed together. Additionally, it incorporated particles simulating known dark matter, which is affected by gravity but does not interact with other forces. When these aggregates of particles coalesced and surpassed a specific mass threshold known as jeans mass, the code indicated the formation of a star.

The team aimed to identify where the simulated stars and particles formed structures like star clusters, galaxies, and galaxy clusters. They implemented a method to group particles that were sufficiently adjacent to be considered connected, utilizing a friend of friends algorithm. By executing multiple iterations of this algorithm in the simulated universe—some focused on dark matter and others on ordinary matter such as stars, dust, and gas—the researchers sought to ascertain the arrangement of matter in the early universe.

The resulting simulated clusters were found to have dimensions comparable to actual clusters observed by astronomers in the early universe. However, no real clusters with metal-rich stars matching those in the simulations have yet been identified. Furthermore, the number of stars present in the simulated cluster was consistent with previous observations of distant star clusters recorded by the JWST. Many simulated star clusters were unstable, indicating they were not fully bound by their internal gravity. The team also found that as stable star clusters began merging into larger structures, such as galaxies, they became unstable once more.

An unexpected finding emerged from the study. The friend-of-a-friend algorithm produced varying results when assessing dark matter versus ordinary matter. The discrepancy reached up to 50%, implying that an algorithm targeting dark matter might detect only half the objects identified by an algorithm focused on regular matter. This variance depended on the mass of the identified star clusters or galaxies, particularly evident for objects within a moderate size range of 10,000 to 100,000 solar masses and very low masses around 1,000 solar masses.

The researchers could not ascertain the reasons behind this phenomenon, suggesting their simulations might be overly simplistic for accurately representing all conditions present during the universe’s dawn. Notably, they mentioned the absence of newly formed stars ejecting materials into space in their simulations. Consequently, they proposed treating their discovery as an upper limit on the frequency of star-like and, by extension, star-containing objects forming in the early universe. Their results might illustrate instances in nature where star formation occurs extremely efficiently, yet sorting out the roles of all involved processes remains necessary.

The conclusion drawn was that cosmic dawn clusters could have coalesced to create the foundations of modern galaxies or possibly evolved into the luminous cores of later galaxies. Additionally, the simulated clusters appeared to be strong candidates for forming medium-sized black holes, the remnants of which may be detectable with deep-space telescopes.

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Source: sciworthy.com

Interstellar Objects Such as 3I/ATLAS May Trigger Planet Formation Around High-Mass Stars

Posted on October 11, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

The findings of 1I/Oumuamua, 2I/Borisov, and 3I/ATLAS have revealed a substantial number of interstellar objects in the cosmos. Their widespread presence suggests that such objects are also found in protoplanetary disks, essential sites for planet formation. In these disks, interstellar objects could potentially bypass the 1-meter (3.3-foot) barrier in the traditional model of planet formation, initiating the creation of giant exoplanets.

This colorized image was taken by the CaSSIS instrument aboard ESA’s Trace Gas Orbiter on October 3, 2025, and displays the interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS. Image credit: ESA/TGO/CaSSIS.

Interstellar objects, including asteroids and comets, are those that have been expelled from their original star systems and are now traversing interstellar space, occasionally intersecting with other star systems.

Since 2017, astronomers have identified three interstellar objects passing through our solar system: 1I/’Oumuamua, 2I/Borisov, and the latest, 3I/ATLAS.

“Nevertheless, interstellar objects may exert a more significant influence than it appears at first glance,” states Professor Susanne Falzner, an astronomer at Jülich National Park.

“Interstellar objects could potentially incite planet formation, particularly around high-mass stars.”

Planets are formed from dusty disks that surround young stars through a process known as accretion. This theory posits that smaller particles gradually coalesce into larger objects, culminating in the formation of planet-sized bodies.

However, researchers have faced challenges in explaining how accretion can create objects larger than a meter amidst the chaotic collisions of planet-forming disks surrounding young stars. In simulations, the rocks tend to either bounce off each other or break apart upon collision, rather than adhering together.

Interstellar objects might help circumvent this issue. The researchers’ model illustrates how the dust-laden disks surrounding young stars can gravitationally capture millions of interstellar objects akin to 1I/’Oumuamua, which is estimated to be around 100 meters (328 feet) long.

“Interstellar space will supply ready-made seeds for the next phase of planet formation,” said Professor Falzner.

If interstellar objects could act as seeds for planets, it would also resolve another enigma.

Gas giant planets like Jupiter are scarce around smaller and colder stars, referred to as M dwarfs, but are more frequently found around larger stars similar to the Sun.

However, the lifespan of a planet-forming disk around a Sun-like star lasts only about 2 million years before dissipating, complicating the formation of gas giant planets in such a brief time frame.

That said, if captured interstellar objects serve as seeds for accretion, the planet-forming process could hasten, allowing giant planets to form within the lifetime of the disk.

“The more massive a star is, the more effectively it can capture interstellar objects in its disk,” Professor Falzner explained.

“As a result, planet formation seeded with interstellar objects should proceed more efficiently around these stars, offering a rapid pathway to forming giant planets.”

“And their swift formation is precisely what we’ve observed.”

Professor Falzner presented her findings in September 2025 during the EPSC-DPS2025 joint meeting in Helsinki, Finland.

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S. Falzner. 2025. Interstellar objects primarily function as seeds for planet formation surrounding high-mass stars. EPSC abstract 18: EPSC-DPS2025-1927; doi: 10.5194/epsc-dps2025-1927

Source: www.sci.news

The Formation of the Moon’s Largest Crater Was Surprising

Posted on October 9, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

The Antarctic Aitken Basin (the predominantly blue region in the center of this topographic representation) is an impact feature roughly 2500 kilometers in diameter, covered by smaller craters.

NASA/GSFC/MIT

An in-depth investigation of its morphology reveals that the moon’s oldest and largest crater formed differently than previously believed, altering our understanding of lunar history.

The South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin emerged around 4.3 billion years ago, occurring hundreds of millions of years after the moon’s initial formation. Scientists theorize it was created when a colossal asteroid grazed the moon’s surface, producing a crater thousands of kilometers wide and 12 kilometers deep.

This crater, located on the moon’s far side, displays a substantial accumulation of ancient debris near its northern edge. This debris pattern aligns with what would be expected if an asteroid struck the Earth from a southerly trajectory, below the South Pole.

However, new findings indicate a different scenario. Jeffrey Andrews-Hanna from The University of Arizona and his team discovered that the crater narrows towards the south. Andrews-Hanna noted that this teardrop shape implies the asteroid originated from the north, with the cataclysmic impact occurring from the opposite direction.

Mapping the basin’s shape is challenging due to the erosion of its ancient boundaries from later impacts. “We traced the contours of the Antarctic Aitken Basin using every conceivable method,” states Andrews-Hanna. “Models of topography, gravity, and crustal thickness were employed. We explored various approaches for tracing the basin, but with every method, it consistently tapered to the south.”

The researchers then contrasted its shape to well-studied craters on other celestial bodies, such as Mars’ Hellas and Utopia Craters. This comparison has provided clearer geological evidence on how these craters formed, leading them to conclude that the SPA basin’s shape likely resulted from an asteroid impacting from the north.

This new understanding will significantly affect how the moon’s internal material is distributed, aiding scientists in comprehending the moon’s cooling process from a massive ocean of magma during its formative years. It also suggests that some rocks around the SPA basin’s perimeter originate from the moon’s deep interior, which remains otherwise inaccessible.

This insight will enhance NASA’s forthcoming Artemis III mission, which aims to deploy astronauts to the SPA basin’s edge in search of potential water ice, as highlighted by Mahesh Anand from the Open University, UK. “This will provide opportunities to learn more about the moon’s interior, despite the lack of available samples,” he adds. “It’s a significant advantage.”

Ultimately, however, the true nature of the crater’s formation will only be clarified when samples from the SPA basin are returned to Earth, according to Anand.

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How Galactic Clusters Influence Star Formation – Sciworthy

Posted on August 25, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

A multitude of objects inhabit space, from tiny dust grains to enormous black holes. However, the focus of astronomers is primarily on these objects’ formations, held together by gravity. At the smaller scale are planets and their moons; planetary system. Then there are stars and their respective planets, forming a planetary system. Beyond that, we encounter stars, black holes, along with gas and dust in between, referred to as a galaxy. On a grander scale, the assembly of very large objects that creates larger patterns throughout the universe is termed structure. An example of such a structure is a galaxy cluster, composed of hundreds to thousands of galaxies.

Astronomers are keen to understand the influence that being part of a larger structure, such as a galaxy cluster, has on its individual objects, especially as these structures evolve over time. One research team investigated what transpires when a galaxy encounters the Abel 496 cluster, which harbors a mass approximately 400 trillion times that of the Sun and is relatively nearby, at about 140 megaparsecs or approximately 455 million light-years away from Earth.

Their goal was to study how the galaxy evolved after joining the cluster. They observed 22 galaxies within Abel 496 to identify any differences in star formation rates post-infall. Specifically, they aimed to pinpoint the last billion years, focusing on when the cluster’s regular star-forming galaxies ceased creating new stars.

The research team merged two distinct types of data regarding light emissions from the observed galaxies. The first is the long-wavelength emissions from neutral hydrogen atoms present in the interstellar dust; H I, pronounced “H One”. Analyzing these emissions helps determine how much the galaxy is being influenced by its neighboring galaxies and how much gas remains for star formation. These H I emissions were observed using the National Radio Astronomy Observatory’s Very Large Array.

The second dataset comprised short-wavelength emissions from recently formed stars, which have a mass between two to five times that of the Sun. These stars are short-lived, averaging a lifespan of less than 1 billion years. Researchers utilized luminosity patterns from these ultraviolet measurements to calculate the star formation frequency within the galaxies. These observations were conducted using the Ultra Violet Imaging Telescope aboard the AstroSat Satellite.

By combining this data, the team could delineate the history of each galaxy, assessing how long star-forming gas reserves persist and when star formation starts being influenced by the presence of other galaxies. The spatial positioning of each galaxy within the cluster was also examined to understand how the process of falling into the cluster altered their evolutionary trajectories.

The researchers found that galaxies located at the cluster’s edge experience star formation rates perceived as undisturbed, consistent with the Main Sequence. Additionally, it was noted that over half of the 22 galaxies under study reside at the center of the cluster, closely bound by gravitational forces and subject to secondary effects. Nevertheless, none of these central galaxies have fallen into the cluster for the past hundreds of millions of years, implying that they have not yet reached the region closest to the actual center of the cluster.

The team developed a five-stage evolutionary model for galaxies falling into clusters. Initially, galaxies begin their descent into clusters and continue their standard main sequence star formation, termed pre-trigger. In the second stage, other galaxies within the cluster disrupt the neutral hydrogen of the falling galaxies, triggering increased star formation.

The third stage sees a significant disturbance of the galaxy’s neutral hydrogen, escalating star formation to peak levels, designated as star formation peak. Next, during the fourth stage, the emissions of newly formed stars decline, though the galaxies are still quite disturbed, referred to as star-forming fading. The researchers estimate that these first four stages could span hundreds of millions of years. In the fifth stage, the depletion of neutral hydrogen leads star formation rates to fall below the pre-trigger main sequence, termed extinction.

In conclusion, the researchers asserted that their methodology successfully reconstructed the evolutionary history of galaxy clusters. However, they encouraged future teams to develop accurate measurement methods for both star formation and neutral gas within distant galaxies. They recommended utilizing larger samples of galaxies within clusters for more robust statistical analyses and investigating multiple clusters across various local environments to gain deeper insights into how galaxies evolve within vast structures.

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The Earliest High-Speed Radio Burst Illuminates Early Star Formation

Posted on August 15, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

A magnetar, a type of neutron star, can be the source of fast radio bursts

Science Photo Library/Alamy

A peculiar burst of light from the early universe aids astronomers in mapping elusive gases found between galaxies, much like flashlights in dark spaces.

The Fast Radio Burst (FRB) is an extremely brief yet potent burst of radio frequency emissions that has puzzled astronomers since its discovery in 2007. Currently, we know of only a few thousand instances in the universe, leaving much still to be understood about them, especially as most originate from galaxies neighboring the Milky Way.

Now, Manisha Kaleb from the University of Sydney, Australia, along with her research team, has identified a remarkably distant FRB, tracing back to a galaxy that existed merely 3 billion years post-Big Bang.

Kaleb and her collaborators first detected a burst designated 20240304B using the South African Meerkat Radio Telescope in March 2024, corroborating their findings with observations from the James Webb Space Telescope. They determined that the burst originated from a small, faint galaxy that appeared relatively youthful, characterized by rapid star formation.

“This discovery is extraordinarily distant,” stated Jason Hessel from the University of Amsterdam, Netherlands. The FRB 20240304B is from an epoch in the universe’s timeline known as the ‘midday’ of the universe, a period when the rate of new star formation peaks. This hints that during the galaxy’s formative years, this FRB—and possibly others—may have stemmed from a young star that underwent a supernova and collapsed into a magnetar, according to Hessel.

A key reason astronomers focus on FRBs lies in their ability to shine a light on ionized gases and lost electrons from radiation emitted by stars, which constitute most of the universe’s matter. Understanding its distribution is crucial for unraveling how larger structures—such as stars and galaxies—form. However, like the FRB, this gas remains largely invisible unless illuminated by a light source.

“This luminous flash reveals all the ionized material between us and the origin of the flash, allowing us to map both the gas and the magnetic fields amidst the stars and galaxies,” Hessel added.

The discovery of FRB 20240304B implies that the universe’s first stars were actively ionizing their surroundings, which can help establish a timeline of when these stars first ignited, according to Anastasia Fialkov from Cambridge University. The insights gleaned will only enhance with the detection of even more distant FRBs.

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Understanding Frost Formation on Mars – Sciworthy

Posted on August 4, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Picture a winter morning where everything glistens in white. The morning frost serves as a testament to Earth’s water cycle, with dew forming from the chilled air overnight. A similar phenomenon occurs on Mars, situated 63 million miles (or 102 million kilometers) away, presenting scientists with a unique opportunity to understand how water behaves on the red planet.

A group of researchers led by Dr. Valantinus from the University of Bern has uncovered evidence suggesting that morning frost may indeed exist on Mars. They identified this potential frost in bowl-shaped formations known as Calderas at the summit of the Tharsis Volcano. Among these volcanoes, Olympus Mons stands out as it towers over Mount Everest—more than double its height—reaching 21 km (approximately 13 miles) above sea level, making it the tallest volcano in the solar system.

Earlier studies estimated that around 1 trillion kilograms (approximately 2.2 trillion pounds) of water vapor cycles through Mars’ atmosphere annually between its northern and southern hemispheres. The massive Tharsis volcano disrupts this water flow due to its significant elevation, creating areas with lower pressure and wind speed referred to as Microclimates. The Valantinus team concentrated on this region, which produces optimal conditions for frost development in the microclimate above the volcano, increasing the likelihood of water vapor condensing to form frost.

To search for potential frost, the team analyzed thousands of spectral images captured by a color and stereo surface imaging system called Cassis, part of the European Space Agency’s Trace Gas Orbiter satellite orbiting Mars. They noted that the bright bluish tint in the area might indicate frost. By focusing on images with cooler tones, they set out to gather more evidence supporting the presence of frost.

To accomplish this, the team utilized a tool capable of detecting the composition of materials based on light wavelengths, known as a Spectrometer. A spectrometer onboard the Trace Gas Orbiter, named NOMAD, yielded ice readings concurrent with Cassis images. By combining Cassis imagery with NOMAD spectrometer data and additional high-resolution stereo camera images, the researchers pinpointed frosts in 13 distinct locations related to Mars’ volcanoes.

The Valantinus team anticipated that observations would reveal frost, but they needed to identify its type. Mars possesses a carbon dioxide atmosphere, which means carbon dioxide frost can naturally appear on the planet’s surface. To differentiate between carbon dioxide and water frost, researchers analyzed the surface temperatures on Mars.

They noted that the temperature at which carbon dioxide frost forms on Mars is around -130°C (-200°F), resulting in the conversion of solid carbon dioxide to gas as temperatures rise. Conversely, water frost appears at about -90°C (-140°F). Using a general circulation model, the team estimated that the average surface temperature in the areas where frost was discovered is roughly -110°C (-170°F), a temperature too warm for carbon dioxide frost but sufficiently cool for water frost.

Observations revealed frost deposits along the floors and edges of the volcanic calderas, while bright, warm areas inside the caldera lacked these deposits. The team also observed that some frost partially rested on dust-like particles on the ground, which cool down more at night and warm gradually in the morning, providing an ideal surface for frost. Additionally, frost was only evident during the early mornings on Mars, likely due to the daily warming cycle of the planet’s surface, similar to Earth.

The Valantinus team utilized imaging and chemical measurements on Mars to track the exchange of water between the planet’s surface and atmosphere. They recommend that future researchers continue to monitor Cassis images in these regions to deepen understanding of how morning frosts develop on Mars.

For alternative perspectives on this article, please see summary by Paige Lebman, a University of Delaware student.

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Breakthrough Study Unveils First Accurate Explanation of Lightning Formation in Nature

Posted on July 29, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

A recent study by Professor Victor Pasco from Pennsylvania and his team reveals the method for determining the robust electric field associated with thunder, which collides with molecules such as nitrogen and oxygen, resulting in x-rays that trigger intense storms through additional electrons and high-energy photons.

NASA’s high-population ER-2 plane is equipped with instruments for the fly-eye Earth Intake Mapper Simulator and the Ground Gamma Ray Flash (ALOFT) Mission, which records gamma rays from ThunderClouds (illustrated in purple). Image credit: NASA/ALOFT team.

“Our research provides an accurate and quantitative explanation of the initial processes leading to lightning,” stated Professor Pasco.

“It connects the underlying physics of X-rays, electric fields, and electron avalanches.”

In their study, Professor Pasco and colleagues employed mathematical modeling to validate and elucidate field observations related to photoelectric phenomena within the Earth’s atmosphere.

This phenomenon, known as terrestrial gamma-ray flashes, consists of invisible, naturally occurring bursts of x-rays along with their associated radio emissions.

“By creating a simulation that mirrors the observed field conditions, we offered a comprehensive explanation of the x-rays and radio emissions occurring inside Thunderclouds,” added Professor Pasco.

“Our research illustrates how electrons, accelerated by lightning’s strong electric field, can generate x-rays upon colliding with air molecules like nitrogen or oxygen, leading to an avalanche of electrons that create high-energy photons to initiate lightning.”

Through their model, the researchers analyzed field observations gathered by various research teams utilizing ground-based sensors, satellites, and high-altitude surveillance platforms to simulate thunderstorm conditions.

“We elucidated the mechanisms of photoelectric events, the triggering conditions for electron cascades in thunder, and the sources of diverse radio signals detected in clouds preceding a lightning strike,” explained Professor Pervez.

“To validate the lightning initiation explanation, I compared our findings with previous models, observational studies, and my own investigations into lightning bolts, specifically intercompact cloud discharges that typically occur within limited regions of Thunderclouds.”

This process, termed photoelectric feedback discharge, models the physical conditions where lightning is likely to happen.

The equations employed to develop the model are available in the published papers, enabling other researchers to apply them in their own studies.

Besides elucidating the onset of lightning, the scientists clarified why ground-level gamma-ray flashes can often occur without the accompanying light and radio emissions that signify lightning in rainy conditions.

“In our simulations, the high-energy X-rays generated by relativistic electron avalanches create new seed electrons driven by photoelectric phenomena in the air, rapidly amplifying these avalanches,” Professor Pasco remarked.

“Moreover, while this runaway chain reaction is generated in a compact volume, it can happen across a varied range of intensities, often with minimal optical and radio emissions but detectable X-ray levels.”

“This explains why these gamma-ray flashes originate from regions that are visually dim and appear silent in wireless frequency.”

The team’s findings will be published in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres.

____

Victor P. Pasco et al. 2025. The photoelectric effect in the air accounts for the initiation of lightning and the occurrence of terrestrial gamma rays. JGR Atmosphere 130 (14): E2025JD043897; doi: 10.1029/2025JD043897

Source: www.sci.news

Metastones Reevaluate the Formation Timeline of Our Solar System

Posted on July 4, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Northwest Africa 12264 Meteorite Stones Are Older Than Anticipated

Ben Hofnagers

SEI 257814052 — Northwest Africa 12264 Meteorite Stones Are Older Than Anticipated

Ben Hofnagers

Tiny chips from a singular meteorite may completely challenge our current understanding of the solar system’s formation, as it has proven to be older than initially thought.

Earlier research indicated that small, rocky entities known as protoplanets formed relatively later, scattered across the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Interestingly, it is believed that the inner regions formed around 4.563 billion years ago, a slightly older timeline compared to the inner protoplanet’s age of 4.566 billion years. This age discrepancy was presumed to be due to the outer regions containing more water and ice, which would have slowed the inner core’s melting process.

This timing gap, while brief in the grand scheme of cosmology, was long accepted as a component of our cosmic history. Now, according to Ben Ryder Stokes from the Open University in Milton Keynes, UK, this notion needs reevaluation.

Planetary formation is typically thought to occur through accretion, where dust and gas are pulled in by gravitational forces, followed by differentiation—where the accumulated material heats up, melts, and separates into cores, mantles, and crusts. This process was previously thought to unfold at slightly divergent times for the early solar system’s internal and external protoplanets, but that view is now under scrutiny.

The team’s pivotal finding centers on a small meteorite named Northwest Africa 12264. Weighing around 50 grams, it was acquired in 2018 from a dealer in Morocco. Researchers obtained consent from the owner to analyze fine particles shaved from the meteorite, revealing that the ratio of chromium to oxygen—which varies in known patterns throughout our solar system—indicated the stones originated from the outer regions.

The meteorite’s composition also indicated that it came from the area between the core and crust, specifically the mantle, marking the first sample found from the outer solar system’s mantle. “This planet must have undergone significant upheaval to expose material from such depths,” states Ryder Stokes. “There surely must have been a colossal impact involved.”

Crucially, however, the age determined through lead isotopes contradicts the prevailing belief that the outer protoplanet should be younger. “This finding is astonishing, as it implies some of the oldest materials in the solar system,” he explains. “It suggests that rocky planets formed simultaneously in both the inner and outer solar system.”

Sebastiaan Krijt from the University of Exeter in the UK notes that shifts in events occurring over millions of years may not seem exigent at the time, yet could have profound implications. Understanding the sequence of events that shaped the solar system and the interactions of the various processes involved is essential for studying both solar systems and star systems throughout the universe.

“These stages of formation are considerably brief, and a mere million years can create significant distinctions,” Krijt remarks. “Getting the chronology and sequence of events correct is of utmost importance.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

What Led to the Formation of Venus’ Ishtar Highlands?

Posted on May 26, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Venus is one of the four terrestrial planets in our solar system. Geologists suggest that the geological activity on Venus today mirrors that of Earth around 4.5 billion years ago, shortly after Earth’s formation. The Ishtartera Highlands of Venus is a vast region comparable in size to Australia, marked by a rich crust and encircled by a long mountain range that reaches approximately 10 km (or 6 miles) in height, rising about 4 km (or 2.5 miles) above Venus’ surface. These highlands bear a resemblance to the Tibetan Plateau, the planet’s largest plateau, standing roughly 4.5 km (or 3 miles) high and spanning about 2.5 million square kilometers (or 1 million square miles).

While the Tibetan Plateau and the Ishtar Terra Highlands exhibit similar topographical features, researchers suspect that their formation processes differ significantly. Evidence suggests that the Tibetan Plateau emerged from the collision of tectonic plates on Earth, whereas Venus lacks a structured plate system. An examination of the geophysical aspects of the Ishtar Highlands revealed that it is underpinned by buoyant rocks. Scientists theorize that this buoyant rock could be remnants from the magmatic processes that formed the thick crust, though this remains uncertain. Understanding how Venus’ highlands formed is crucial for gaining insights into the evolution and transformation of rocky planets like Earth.

Previous research has primarily concentrated on Venus’ magmatism or structural dynamics to elucidate the development of the highlands, yet no models have effectively integrated these processes. Fabio Capitanio and his colleagues sought to create such a model. Geodynamic model.

To evaluate the large-scale processes responsible for the formation of the Ishtar Highlands, the team employed a geodynamic model that had previously simulated the formation of Earth’s thick crust. This model, known as a 3D Cartesian Model, was modified to cover an area of 3,650 x 3,650 km (or 2,268 x 2,268 miles) and extend 730 km (or 453 miles) deep, approximating the characteristics of the Ishtar Highlands.

The parameters for each model, including density and viscosity, were based on Earth’s conditions but adjusted for Venus’ higher surface temperature, which is around 450°C or 840°F. They executed 34 simulations of the Ishtar Highlands over a billion years, tracking changes in elevation, gravity characteristics, and temperature over time. This modeling successfully replicated the altitude and gravitational features observed in the Ishtar Highlands.

Subsequently, the team analyzed various model outcomes to identify how these features evolved over time. They determined that the most accurate simulations of Venus’ highlands corresponded to the outermost layer of the planet’s structure, known as the lithosphere, which is estimated to be 10 to 50 times thicker than that of Earth. In this model, extremely hot rocks from within the planet rise, resulting in a gradually thinner lithosphere.

The team clarified that as the strong lithosphere of Earth stretches, it can create slight openings, leading to the formation of volcanoes that release small amounts of lava on the surface. In contrast, as Venus’ weaker lithosphere stretches, it can fracture over much larger areas. When the lithosphere breaks apart, the rock that has accumulated pressure melts and rises to the surface, converting into magma.

The researchers proposed that this stretching and melting scenario could account for the formation of the Ishtar Highlands on Venus. Once the magma in this region solidifies, it forms a new, very thick crust. Unlike the current lithosphere, this new crust behaves like putty, making it challenging to move.

The team suggested that this scenario may clarify the presence of buoyant rocks beneath the Ishtar Highlands. The newly formed crust supports deeper rocks within the thickened Venus, resulting in a higher elevation for the crust. Meanwhile, the older lithosphere, having fractured, compresses the surface of Venus and its surrounding rocks. They postulated that the uplift associated with this process could be responsible for the long mountain range found at the periphery of the Ishtar Highlands.

In conclusion, the researchers indicated that the disintegration of the weak lithosphere and the melting of subsurface rock contributed to the formation of Venus’ highlands. Other highlands on Venus might have developed through similar processes. While the modern plateau on Earth formed differently from the Ishtar Highlands, it supports the idea that early Earth, with its hotter and weaker lithospheres, shares similarities with Venus.

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Magnetic Flares Could Be Key to the Formation and Distribution of Gold and Other Heavy Elements

Posted on May 8, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Since the Big Bang, the early universe has contained hydrogen, helium, and a minimal amount of lithium. Heavier elements, such as iron, were formed within stars. Yet, one of astrophysics’ greatest enigmas is how the first elements heavier than iron, like gold, were created and dispersed throughout the cosmos. A recent study by astronomers at Columbia University and other institutions suggests that a single flare from a magnetar could generate 27 equivalent masses of these elements simultaneously.

Impressions of Magnetar artists. Image credit: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center/S. Wesinger.

For decades, astronomers have theorized about the origins of some of nature’s heaviest elements, like gold, uranium, and platinum.

However, a fresh examination of older archival data indicates that up to 10% of these heavy elements in the Milky Way may originate from the emissions of highly magnetized neutron stars, known as magnetars.

“Until recently, astronomers largely overlooked the role that magnetars, the remnants of supernovae, might play in the formation of early galaxies,” remarked Todd Thompson, a professor at Ohio State University.

“Neutron stars are incredibly unique, dense objects known for their large size and strong magnetic fields. They are similar to black holes but not quite the same.”

The origin of heavy elements has long been a mystery, but scientists have understood that these elements can only form under specific conditions through a process known as the R process (or rapid neutron capture process).

This process was observed in 2017 when astronomers detected a collision between two super-dense neutron stars.

This event was captured using NASA telescopes and the LIGO gravitational wave observatory, providing the first direct evidence that heavy metals can be produced by celestial phenomena.

However, subsequent evidence suggests that neutron star collisions may not form heavy elements swiftly in the early universe, indicating that additional mechanisms might be necessary to account for all these elements.

Based on these insights, Professor Thompson and his colleagues realized that powerful magnetar flares could act as significant ejectors of heavy elements. This conclusion was validated by the observation of the SGR 1806-20 magnetar flare that occurred 20 years ago.

By analyzing this flare event, the researchers found that the radioactive decay of the newly formed elements aligns with theoretical predictions concerning the timing and energy released by magnetar flares after ejecting heavy R-process elements.

“This is the second time we’ve observed direct evidence of where these elements are produced, first linked to neutron star mergers,” stated Professor Brian Metzger from Columbia University.

“This marks a significant advancement in our understanding of heavy element production.”

“We are based at Columbia University,” mentioned Anildo Patel, a doctoral candidate at the institution.

The researchers also theorized that magnetar flares generate heavy cosmic rays and very fast particles, the origins of which remain unclear.

“I am always excited by new ideas about how systems and discoveries in space operate,” said Professor Thompson.

“That’s why seeing results like this is so thrilling.”

The team’s paper was published in The Astrophysical Journal Letters.

____

Anirudh Patel et al. 2025. Direct evidence for R-process nuclear synthesis in delayed MeV radiation from SGR 1806-20 magnetar giant flares. ApJL 984, L29; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ADC9B0

Source: www.sci.news

New Insights into the Formation of Giant Stars

Posted on May 7, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Astronomers utilizing the very large array (VLA) from NSF have made a significant discovery of a massive gas flow near HW2. Cephaus A enables rapid protostar growth.

Ammonia gas falls into the accretion disk that feeds Protostar HW2. Image credits: NSF/AUI/NSF/NRAO/B. SAXTON.

Extensive reservoirs of interstellar gas are essential for forming giant stars, several times the size of our Sun, accumulating over a vast scale of approximately Parsec (3.26 light years).

Ultimately, gas collects in a local area several hundred times larger than the Astronomical Unit (AU) to attach to small protostars nearly one million kilometers wide.

The flow, originating from very young stars to hundreds of AU away, has long presented observational challenges, particularly for the largest stars distant from solar-type stars.

“Our observations present direct evidence that giant stars can form with masses reaching dozens of solar masses through disks,” stated Dr. Alberto Sanna, an astronomer from INAF and the Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie.

“The exceptional wireless sensitivity of the VLA enabled us to discern features on a scale as small as 100 AU, giving us unprecedented insights into this formation process.”

Cephaus A represents the second closest star-forming region where large young stars of over 10 solar masses have been observed, providing an ideal setting for investigating these complex processes.

Dr. Sanna and colleagues employed ammonia, a common molecule in interstellar gas clouds, widely used on Earth as a tracer mapping gas dynamics around stars.

VLA observations revealed a dense ring of high-temperature ammonia gas with a radius of 200-700 AU surrounding HW2.

This structure was recognized as a component of the accretion disk, a crucial feature in star formation theory.

Astronomers found that the gas in this disk flowed inward and rotated around a young star.

Remarkably, the mass accreting onto HW2 was measured at one-two-thousandth of a solar mass annually.

These findings confirm that accretion disks can sustain such extreme mass transfer rates, even while the central star’s mass reaches 16 times that of the Sun.

The researchers also compared their findings with advanced simulations of large-scale star formation.

“The results align closely with theoretical predictions, suggesting that ammonia gas near HW2 nearly collapses at free-fall speeds and rotates at sub-critical speeds.

Interestingly, the asymmetry of the disk structure and turbulent flow indicate the presence of an external gas stream, known as a streamer, potentially supplying new material to one side of the disk.

Such streamers have been detected in other star-forming regions and may be significant in refreshing accretion disks around giant stars.

This discovery resolves decades of debate about whether HW2 and protostars can similarly form accretion disks capable of sustaining rapid growth.

It also reinforces the concept that similar physical mechanisms drive star formation across various mass categories.

“This research enhances our comprehension of how large stars are formed and influences broader inquiries into the evolution and chemical enrichment of galaxies in the universe,” the author remarked.

“Massive stars function as essential cosmic engines, generating winds and explosions that distribute heavy elements throughout the galaxy.”

Their paper will be published in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.

____

A. Sanna et al. 2025. Gas infall through accretion disk feeding Cephaus A HW2. A&A in press; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202450330

Source: www.sci.news

What is the Formation Process of Super Jupiter?

Posted on March 24, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

scientist First discovered outside our solar systemcalled Planet1990s. Since then, scientists have found some strange systems. Turn robing from the first recorded exoplanet Neutron Star Jupiter-sized Exoplanet brings host stars into orbit Puts the sun in orbit nearly 20 times more than the Earthastronomers continue to find distant planetary systems that look very different from ours. It is a relatively easy exoplanet to find for astronomers. The gas giant is more than twice the mass of Jupiter, or more than 600 times the mass of Earth. Super Jupiter.

Astronomers have proposed two hypotheses on how some exoplanets can make this bigger. The first is that they form this size or grow from the gas and dust around the star’s first surroundings. Protoplanetary disc. The second is that it arises from collisions between two or more small gas giants. Scientists acknowledge that these hypotheses are not mutually exclusive, so some superjupiters can begin their size, while others can be formed by conflict.

However, scientists also say that the larger the Super Jupiter, the longer the longer, or Eccentric The formation mechanism should explain this observation, as its trajectory tends to be. They all agree that there is an answer to how planets interact. Collision advocates point out that hypothetical conflicts can distort Super Jupiter’s trajectory. Supporters of the high early mass say that gravitational pull from adjacent planets can also distort Super Jupiter’s orbit.

A team of astronomers recently tested these hypotheses on the Xplanet TOI-2145B and its host star TOI-2145. This exoplanet has a mass of about six times the mass of Jupiter and more than 1800 times the mass of Earth. They used accurate and detailed data collected by previous researchers from multiple sources. These included observations of the period, width, and distance from the star of the exporanet orbit. Passing an exoplanet survey satellite or Tess, and its mass and orbital eccentricity from Keck Observatory. High resolution Echelle spectrometer Or hire. This team collected their own data using Wiyn Telescope To enhance previous existing recruitment data. All the information was then combined to create a complete image of the stellar, orbital, and planetary properties of this system.

They discovered that TO-2145 stars are about 1.7 times the mass of the Sun, exceeding 1.5 billion years. Its exoplanet orbital is the Earth orbiting the Sun at a distance of over 1/10, causing a complete revolution in about 10 days, with a highly distorted orbit with an eccentricity of 0.2. For reference, Venus orbitalmost perfect circle and has an eccentricity of 0.007. Furthermore, the TOI-2145B’s trajectory is roughly aligned with the host star, with an axial tilt of approximately 7.o. For reference, the Earth has an axial tilt of 23.5othat causes our seasons. They also discovered that the system did not have any other measurable ex-man or nearby stars that could destroy the orbit of TOI-2145B.

The next step for astronomers was to use mathematical simulations to see if they could replicate a Super Jupiter with similar properties to the TOI2145B. Collision dynamics code was used rebound It models how a planetary system with a protranetary disc of a particular size and four starting planets has changed over 10 million years. They changed several parameters into the simulation, including the total mass of the four planets, how the masses were distributed between the planets, how far they were from each other, and the mass of the disc. They have the results of a few dozen simulations. Gaia Archives Check if you can replicate general trends in the Super Jupiter system.

To test the origin hypothesis of Super Jupiter, astronomers used simulations of relatively low protranetary disc masses to represent systems grown through collisions, and systems launched by Super Jupiter on a large scale using simulations of relatively high protranetary disc masses to represent systems started by Super Jupiter on a large scale. They found that the simulated Super Jupiter was consistently similar to the TOI2145B in terms of orbital size and eccentricity, whether the protranetary disc mass is high or low. However, their low-disk mass collision simulations replicated the trends of high-mass planets with more eccentric orbits, but at first, higher-disk mass simulations did not.

The team concluded that Super Jupiter is likely to originate from interplanetary collisions. However, they acknowledged that it is certainly possible for some exoplanets to begin their own lives several times larger than Jupiter.

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Source: sciworthy.com

Researchers find unusually high levels of cosmic formation beryllium in the Pacific Ocean

Posted on February 12, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

A team of scientists from Helmholtz Senturm Dresden Rossendorf, Tad Dresden Institute of Technology, and the Australian National University have discovered an “unexpected” accumulation of Beryllium-10 from the bottom of the central and North Pacific Oceans.

Col et al. Report on the discovery of anomalies in the beryllium-10 concentration profiles of several deep-sea ferromanganese crusts (stars) from the late Miocene central and North Pacific Oceans. The main bottom (blue line) and surface (red line) ocean currents of the thermal halin circulation are shown. Image credit: Koll et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-55662-4.

Radionuclides are types of nuclei (isotopes) that decay into other elements over time.

They are used to date archaeological and geological samples, and radiocarbon dating is one of the best-known methods.

“The major ocean floors on Earth show one of the most pristine geological archives documenting environmental conditions and changes over millions of years, the ferromanganese crust,” Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf and his colleagues.

“Dating these marine archives can be achieved through fossils through changes in biostratigraphy, isotope, or elemental composition. Alternatively, we can analyze the imprinted changes in the Earth's magnetic field due to magnetic stratigraphy. Masu.”

“Another commonly employed technique is dating space-forming nuclides,” they added.

“The radionuclide Beryllium-10 is continuously produced in the upper atmosphere, primarily through cosmic ray spallation for nitrogen and oxygen.”

“The residence time of Beryllium-10 in the atmosphere is about 1-2 years for it to adhere to the aerosol and precipitate.”

“In the ocean, atmospheric beryllium-10 mixes with the stable beryllium-9 of the lithosphere, which is transported to the ocean by river runoff and river dust, primarily after erosion of terrestrial minerals.”

Dr. Koll and co-authors have discovered long-term cosmicogenic beryllium-10 anomalies in central and North Pacific samples.

Such anomalies can be attributed to changes in ocean currents or astrophysical events that occurred during the late Miocene era around 10 million years ago.

The findings have the potential to serve as a global time marker for promising advances in dating geological archives over millions of years.

“For a period of millions of years, such space-forming time markers still do not exist,” Dr. Koll said.

“However, this beryllium abnormality can act as such a marker.”

result It will be displayed in the journal Natural Communication.

____

D. Koll et al. 2025. Cosmic genome ¹⁰It becomes abnormal in the late Miocene as an independent time marker for marine archives. Nut commune 16, 866; doi:10.1038/s41467-024-55662-4

Source: www.sci.news

What caused the formation of the Super Massive Black Hole?

Posted on January 30, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Black hole is a spots in the universe that cannot be escaped by light because the gravity is very strong. One of the black holes that confuses astronomers is how large they are. Researchers explain one category of black holes over 100,000 to 10,000,000,000,000,000 times, like the sun. Super Massive Black Hall。 These black holes are very large, so Whole galaxy! It generally exists in the center of the galaxy, including ourselves milky wayOur thing is a modest 4,000,000 sun. Scientists are wondering if the universe, which was formed only in the universe, has grown very much. 13.7 billion years ago Big bang.

Considering that the earth is only growing, it may seem like enough time for a huge heavenly object to grow. 4.5 billion years old. However, when they are formed, black holes can only be enlarged by fusing with others or waiting for things to fall. Astronomer estimates it Many black holes are fused every yearbut Only Super Massive Black Hall will join Rarely. Astronomers who use mathematics models for these events calculate that they can be taken. There were more time than the universe.。

Gas and dust falling in the black hole, Light flashing attachedIt also occurs slowly to explain the growth of the ultra -high MASSIVE black hole. For example, our Galaxy's super huge black hole grows with just one sun. 3,000 years。 However, assuming that the black hole grows at a constant speed, the huge hole has had to increase the mass of the sun more than the value of the sun every year since the Big Bang.

To solve this problem, astronomers theorize how Black Hall was born in the early universe. Super Massive Black Hall requires a good start compared to the conventional black hole cousin. There is a sun from 10S to 100 years。 Thus, astronomers assume that many black holes and many 100,000 solar sun must have been formed early in the universe. They call these early black holes seed。 Roughly speaking, astronomers propose two potential origin, a black hole species. Giant clouds of dust It collapses directly into the black hole Population III star explosion.

Columbia University's astronomers have recently explored how the seeds have grown to grow to today's size, and how they have appeared in a very large black hole. The first step of the astronomer was to find an appropriate formula to calculate the initial quantity of black holes. Researchers have indicated that black hole growth is almost completely exponential. Therefore, this astronomer began with a modified index growth ceremony, like the calculation. Compound interest。 He took this type of derivative and determined how fast the black hole grew. Astronomers have assumed that all super -large black holes formed between the Big Bangs between 100 and 200 million years will be formed.

Astronomers selected 132,539 ultra -large black holes with sufficiently measured mass, and calculated the characteristics of seeds using his new formula. He discovered that 54 % of the seeds could be less than 350 times the mass of the sun, and could occur from the explosion of the individual group III stars. Another 40 % was 350-2,000 times the mass of the sun, and only 2,000 to 30,000 times the mass of the sun was about 6 %. He suggested that the latter two categories could cause small seeds that fuse immediately after being formed. He pointed out that these results did not directly exclude the collapse of the dust in black holes, indicating that there was no need to explain the ultra -large black hole we are looking at today. I mentioned.

Astronomers suggested that these ultra -large black holes have accumulated most of their mass in the first 1.5 billion years of the universe. 。 He explained that the universe was very dense at the time. Later, the galaxies were approaching each other, so a large amount of materials could fall into the black hole. He concludes that the ultra -large black hole is ultimately the relic of the primitive universe, and has been in a very different way than today's organic stars, dust clouds, and galaxies. I did it.

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Source: sciworthy.com

The mysterious process of fog formation

Posted on January 16, 2025 by Igor Mitreski

Fog consists of water vapor molecules that float as tiny water droplets in the air but remain near the ground. Essentially, fog is a cloud touching the Earth’s surface, forming similar to clouds. High humidity plays a significant role in fog formation, and depending on its rate and temperature, fog can appear and vanish suddenly.

Water in its vapor state is transparent and invisible. The higher the air’s temperature, the greater its kinetic energy, allowing more water molecules to exist as vapor.

When warm, moisture-rich air cools abruptly, the water molecules slow down too much to maintain their vapor form and combine into small liquid droplets. These droplets, while still small enough to float in air currents, appear opaque as light reflects off the air-water interface.

radiation fog

Radiation fog © Dan Bright

Radiation fog forms on the ground during calm, clear nights when heat absorbed by the Earth’s surface during the day radiates into the air. As the heat rises, the air near the surface cools until it becomes saturated.

Cold air holds less water vapor than warm air, causing the water vapor to condense into fog. Radiation fog typically dissipates as the ground warms up again, but it can persist all day in the winter.

Radiation fog is also known as shallow fog or ground fog when it occurs in a narrow layer below average eye level on land and below about 10 meters at sea.

valley fog

Valley fog develops at the bottom of valleys as cold, dense air settles and condenses to form fog. It is restricted to local terrains like hills and mountains and can persist for several days.

advection fog

Advection fog forms when horizontal winds push warm, moist air onto cold surfaces, leading to fog formation through condensation. This phenomenon is common at sea, where warm tropical air interacts with cold water. Advection fog can cover large areas, with the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco Bay often obscured by it.

Sea fog, a type of advective fog, occurs when warm, moist air descends from land into chilly oceans, or when warm fronts clash with cold ocean currents. The northeast coast of the UK is particularly prone to sea fog due to the cold waters of the North Sea.

uphill fog

Uphill fog, a type of hill fog, occurs when moist air is pushed up a slope, hill, or mountain by wind, cooling and condensing to form fog as it descends down the slope.

evaporation fog

Evaporative fog is akin to advection fog, forming when cold air passes over moist land or warm water. When warm water evaporates into the lower atmosphere, it warms the air, causing it to rise. This upward movement of warm, moist air mixes with cooler air until reaching 100% humidity, resulting in fog formation. Evaporative fog is commonly observed at lakes, ponds, and outdoor pools.

Why does altitude affect temperature?

Consider the atmosphere as consisting of air masses. The higher an air parcel, the less compressed it is due to the weight of the atmosphere above, allowing for greater volume. This expansion requires energy, leading to sacrifice of thermal energy and a decrease in temperature.

Does sound travel further on foggy days?

“Sound propagates through the air as pressure waves move air molecules back and forth. In fog, water droplets scatter more sound energy, attenuating the sound and reducing the distance it can travel,” explains physicist Robert Matthews.

However, the complete impact of fog formation conditions on sound travel is not fully resolved. “On warm, highly humid days, smaller droplets have minimal effect on sound waves,” he adds.

“Moist air, being denser than dry air, allows sound waves to travel more effectively and be heard over greater distances,” Matthews further explains.

Does sound travel farther on foggy days? ©Getty Images

About our expert Professor Robert Matthews

After completing his physics studies at Oxford, Robert ventured into science writing. He currently serves as a visiting professor of science at Aston University.

Explore more about fog:

Submitted by: Rich French, London

To submit a question, please email questions@sciencefocus.com (remember to include your name and location)

Source: www.sciencefocus.com

Webb finds evidence of active formation of low-mass galaxies in the early universe

Posted on December 12, 2024 by Igor Mitreski

The newly discovered galaxy, called the Firefly Radiance, existed about 600 million years after the Big Bang and consisted of at least 10 star clusters.

The Firefly Sparkle galaxy is in the process of gathering and forming new stars, exists about 600 million years after the Big Bang, and would weigh about the same as the Milky Way if we could turn back the clock and watch the galaxy develop . Image credits: NASA / ESA / CSA / STScI / C. Willott, NRC-Canada / L. Mowla, Wellesley College / K. Iyer, Columbia.

The most distant galaxies detected date from when the universe was about 5% of its current age.

However, the mass of these galaxies is about 10,000 times smaller than that of the Milky Way, making them difficult to observe.

The Firefly Sparkle galaxy was first observed by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, but detailed new observations by the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope shed more light on its formation.

“We never thought it would be possible to resolve galaxies that existed so early in the universe into so many different components, much less that their mass would be comparable to the mass of our galaxy in the process of forming. “I never thought it would be possible to discover similarities between the two,” he said. Dr. Ramiya Moura, astronomer at Wellesley College.

“There’s so much going on inside this small galaxy, including various stages of star formation.”

Webb was able to image the Firefly Sparkle galaxy in sufficient detail for two reasons.

One is the blessings of the universe. A massive galaxy cluster in the foreground, called MACS J1423.8+2404, radically enhanced the appearance of distant galaxies through a natural effect known as gravitational lensing.

And when combined with the telescope’s specialization in high-resolution imaging in infrared light, Webb provided unprecedented new data on the contents of galaxies.

“Without the benefit of this gravitational lensing, we would not have been able to understand this galaxy,” said Columbia University astronomer Karltej Ayer.

“We knew that was expected based on current physics, but to actually witness it was surprising.”

Astronomers also observed two neighboring galaxies they named Firefly Best Friend and Firefly New Best Friend. These galaxies are located 6,000 and 40,000 light-years from Firefly Sparkle, respectively, and are smaller than the present-day Milky Way.

The authors propose that the firefly glow could be a young, gas-rich galaxy in the early stages of formation.

These show that Firefly Sparkle’s mass is concentrated in 10 star clusters, with a total mass about 10 million times the mass of the Sun.

As such, Firefly Sparkle is one of the lowest-mass galaxies to have resolved into star clusters observed at the dawn of the universe, when galaxies began to form, and its mass is similar to that of the progenitor Milky Way. is.

“It has long been predicted that galaxies in the early universe formed through continuous interactions and mergers with other smaller galaxies,” says Yoshihisa Asada, a doctoral student at Kyoto University.

“We may be witnessing this process in action.”

“We have just started using space microscopy, so this is only the first of many such galaxies that Webb will discover,” said Dr. Marcia Bradač, an astronomer at the University of Ljubljana.

“Just as we can see pollen grains on plants with a microscope, the incredible resolution of the Webb and the magnifying power of gravitational lenses allows us to see tiny pieces inside galaxies.”

“Our team is currently analyzing all the early galaxies, and the results all point in the same direction. We still don’t know much about how these early galaxies formed. .”

of study Published in a magazine nature.

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L. Mora others. 2024. Low-mass galaxies were formed from star clusters in the Universe 600 million years ago. nature 636, 332-336; doi: 10.1038/s41586-024-08293-0

Source: www.sci.news

Revisiting the Formation of Galaxies in the Early Universe: New Research Inquiries

Posted on November 12, 2024 by Igor Mitreski

The Standard Model predicted that the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope would observe a faint signal from a small protogalaxy. However, the common hypothesis that invisible dark matter contributed to the clumping of early stars and galaxies is not supported by the data. In fact, a new study led by astrophysicists at Case Western Reserve University says that the fact that the oldest galaxies are larger and brighter is consistent with another theory of gravity.

This artist's impression shows the evolution of the universe, starting with the Big Bang on the left and continuing with the emergence of the Cosmic Microwave Background. The formation of the first stars ends the Dark Ages of the universe, followed by the formation of galaxies. Image credit: M. Weiss / Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.

“What dark matter theory predicts is not what we're seeing,” says Case Western Conservancy Professor Stacey McGaw.

“Instead of dark matter, modified gravity may have played a role. A theory known as MOND (Modified Newtonian Mechanics) proposed in 1998 that structure formation in the early universe would have occurred very quickly. It's much faster than the cold dark matter theory known as lambda CDM predicted.

The Webb is designed to answer some of the universe's biggest questions, such as when and how stars and galaxies formed.

Until its launch in 2021, there was no telescope that could peer deep into space and far back in time.

Lambda CDM predicts that galaxies formed by the gradual accretion of matter from smaller structures to larger structures due to the extra gravity provided by the mass of dark matter.

“Astronomers invented dark matter to explain how we went from a very smooth early universe to the large galaxies we see today with lots of space in between.” Professor McGough said.

Smaller pieces clustered into larger structures until galaxies formed. Webb should be able to see these tiny galaxy precursors as dim lights.

“All the large galaxies we see in the nearby universe were expected to have started from these tiny pieces,” Professor McGough said.

But even at higher and higher redshifts, the signal is larger and brighter than expected, even from this early stage of the universe's evolution.

MOND predicted that the mass that would become galaxies would rapidly aggregate and initially expand outward with the rest of the universe.

The stronger gravity slows the expansion, which then reverses and the matter collapses on itself to form galaxies. In this theory, dark matter does not exist at all.

“The large, bright structures that Webb saw in the very early days of the universe were predicted by MOND more than a quarter of a century ago,” Professor McGough said.

“The bottom line is, “I told you so.'' I was raised to think it was rude to say that, but that's the whole point of the scientific method, to make predictions and find out which ones. Let's see if it becomes a reality.”

“Finding a theory that fits both MOND and general relativity remains a major challenge.”

of the team paper will appear in today's astrophysical journal.

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Stacey S. McGaw others. 2024. Accelerating structure formation: The early emergence of massive galaxies and galaxy clusters. APJin press. arXiv: 2406.17930

This article is a version of a press release provided by Case Western Reserve University.

Source: www.sci.news

Most fast radio bursts come from galaxies with high star formation rates

Posted on November 7, 2024 by Igor Mitreski

Fast radio bursts (FRBs) are millisecond-long events detected from beyond the Milky Way. The radiative properties of FRBs favor magnetars as their source, as evidenced by FRB-like outbursts from the Milky Way's magnetars and the star-forming nature of FRB host galaxies. However, the process that generates the FRB source remains unknown. FRBs are more likely to occur in massive star-forming galaxies, according to a new study. The study also suggests that magnetars, whose magnetic fields are 100 trillion times stronger than Earth's, are often formed when two stars merge and later explode in a supernova.

This photo montage shows the Deep Synoptic Array-110 antenna used to locate and determine the location of Fast Radio Bursts (FRBs). Above the antenna are several images of the FRB's host galaxy appearing in the sky. These galaxies are very large and challenging models to describe FRB sources. Image credit: Annie Mejia/California Institute of Technology.

“Magnetars' immense power output makes them one of the most fascinating and extreme objects in the universe,” said lead author Kriti Sharma, a graduate student at Caltech.

“Little is known about what causes magnetars to form during the extinction of massive stars. Our work helps answer this question.”

To search for FRBs, Sharma and his colleagues used Deep Synoptic Array-110 (DSA-110) at the Owens Valley Radio Astronomical Observatory near Bishop, California.

To date, this sprawling radio array has detected 70 FRBs and located their specific source galaxies (only 23 other FRBs have been located by other telescopes). is).

In the current study, the researchers analyzed 30 of these local FRBs.

“DSA-110 more than doubles the number of FRBs containing known host galaxies, which is what we built the array for,” said Dr. Vikram Ravi of the California Institute of Technology.

FRBs are known to occur in galaxies that are actively forming stars, but the authors were surprised to find that FRBs are more frequent in massive star-forming galaxies than in low-mass star-forming galaxies. I've found that this tends to happen.

This alone was interesting because astronomers had previously thought that all types of active galaxies generate FRBs.

Armed with this new information, they began pondering what the results revealed about the Fed.

Metals in our universe (elements manufactured by stars) take time to accumulate over the course of the universe's history, so large galaxies tend to be rich in metals.

The fact that FRBs are more common in these metal-rich galaxies means that the magnetars from which they originate are also more common in these types of galaxies.

Stars rich in metals (astronomical terminology for elements heavier than hydrogen or helium) tend to be larger than other stars.

“Over time, as the galaxy grows, successive generations of stars evolve and die, enriching the galaxy with metals,” Dr. Ravi said.

Additionally, massive stars that can go supernova and become magnetars are more commonly found in pairs.

In fact, 84% of massive stars are binaries. So when one massive star in a binary swells with extra metal content, that extra material is pulled into its partner, which facilitates the eventual merger of the two stars.

These merging stars will have a combined magnetic field that is larger than the magnetic field of a single star.

“Stars with more metallic content swell, promoting mass transfer and eventually reaching mergers, resulting in even more massive stars with a total magnetic field greater than what any individual star would have.” is formed,” Sharma said.

In summary, since FRBs are preferentially observed in massive, metal-rich star-forming galaxies, magnetars (which are thought to cause FRBs) are also probably located in metal-rich environments that promote the merger of two stars. It is thought that it is formed by.

Therefore, this result suggests that magnetars in the universe originate from the remains of stellar mergers.

In the future, the team plans to use the DSA-110 and eventually the DSA-2000, an even larger wireless array to be built in the Nevada desert and expected to be completed in 2028, to connect more FRBs and their We would like to track the location of the occurrence.

“This result is a milestone for the entire DSA team. Many of the authors of this paper helped build DSA-110,” said Dr. Ravi.

“And the fact that DSA-110 is so good at localizing FRBs bodes well for the success of DSA-2000.”

of findings Published in today's magazine nature.

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K. Sharma others. 2024. Preferential occurrence of fast radio bursts in massive star-forming galaxies. nature 635, 61-66; doi: 10.1038/s41586-024-08074-9

Source: www.sci.news

Astronomers create a map of star formation in the heart of NGC 1386

Posted on October 29, 2024 by Igor Mitreski

NGC1386 is a spiral galaxy located 53 million light years away in the constellation Eridanus.

This image of NGC 1386 combines data from VST and ALMA. Image credits: ESO / ALMA / National Astronomical Observatory of Japan / NRAO / Prieto others. / Deep investigation of Fornax.

Dr. Almudena Prieto of the Canarias Institute for Astronomy and colleagues observed the central region of NGC 1386 as part of an experiment. PARSEC projecta parsec-scale multiwavelength survey of the nearest galactic center.

“Stars often form in star clusters, which are collections of thousands of stars that originate from giant clouds of molecular gas,” the astronomers said.

“The blue ring at the center of this galaxy is ripe with star clusters filled with young stars.”

To examine this ring in more detail, Dr. Prieto and his co-authors used data from ESO's Very Large Telescope (VLT) and the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope.

The data shows that these clusters all formed around the same time 4 million years ago.

“This is the first time that synchronous star formation has been observed in a galaxy containing mainly old stars,” the researchers said.

They used the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA) to uncover further secrets of NGC 1386.

“The new images show numerous gas clouds as golden rings, ready to form a second wave of young stars,” the scientists said.

“But we still have to wait five million years for these to emerge.”

“Even though it is old, NGC 1386 continues to rejuvenate,” the researchers added.

of findings Published in September 2024. Royal Astronomical Society Monthly Notices.

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Almudena Prieto others. 2024. PARSEC's view of star formation at the galactic center: from primordial clusters to star clusters in early-type spirals. MNRAS 533 (1): 433-454;doi: 10.1093/mnras/stae1822

Source: www.sci.news

Webb finds mysterious cosmic question mark in distorted galaxy formation

Posted on September 6, 2024 by Igor Mitreski

Seven billion years ago, the universe’s star formation boom began to slow. What did our Milky Way galaxy look like at that time? Astronomers using the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope have discovered a clue in the form of a cosmic question mark, the result of an unusual alignment in space spanning several light-years.

Galaxy cluster MACS-J0417.5-1154 is so massive that it warps the fabric of space-time and distorts the appearance of galaxies behind it. This phenomenon is known as gravitational lensing. This natural phenomenon magnifies distant galaxies, sometimes causing them to appear multiple times in the image, as Webb saw here. Two distant interacting galaxies (a spiral galaxy seen face-on and a dusty red galaxy seen edge-on) appear multiple times, tracing a familiar shape across the sky. Active star formation and the remarkably perfect spiral shape of the galaxy seen face-on indicate that these galaxies are just beginning to interact. Image credit: NASA/ESA/CSA/STScI/V. Estrada-Carpenter, Saint Mary’s University.

“There are only three or four known examples of similar gravitational lensing configurations in the observable universe, so this discovery is exciting as it demonstrates the power of Webb and suggests that we may find more like it in the future,” said Dr Guillaume Despres, from St Mary’s University.

The region has previously been observed by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, but Webb was the first to spot the dusty red galaxy forming an intriguing question mark shape.

This is because the wavelengths of light that Hubble detects are trapped in space dust, while longer wavelengths of infrared light pass through Webb’s instruments and can be detected.

Astronomers used both telescopes to observe the galaxy cluster. MACS-J0417.5-1154The cluster is so large that it distorts the fabric of space-time, acting like a magnifying glass.

This will allow astronomers to see clearer details of the much more distant galaxies behind the cluster.

But the same gravitational effects that expand galaxies also cause distortions, which can result in galaxies appearing spread out in an arc across the sky, or appearing multiple times.

This optical illusion in space is called gravitational lensing.

The red galaxy Webb uncovered, along with the spiral galaxy it interacts with, previously detected by Hubble, is magnified and distorted in an unusual way that requires a special and rare alignment between the distant galaxy, the lens, and the observer — something astronomers call hyperbolic umbilical gravitational lensing.

This explains five images of the galaxy pair seen in the Webb image, four of which trace the top of the question mark.

The question mark points are, from our perspective, unrelated galaxies that happen to be in the right place and spacetime.

In addition to developing a case study for Webb, Niris Noting the ability of their infrared imaging device and slitless spectrometer to detect star formation locations in galaxies billions of light years away, the research team also couldn’t help but notice the shape of the question mark.

“This is really cool. I got interested in astronomy when I was younger because I saw amazing images like this,” said Dr Marcin Sawicki, also from Saint Mary’s University.

“Knowing when, where and how star formation occurs in galaxies is crucial to understanding how galaxies have evolved throughout the history of the universe,” said Dr Vicente Estrada Carpenter from Saint Mary’s University.

“The results show that star formation is widespread in both. The spectral data also confirm that the newly discovered dusty galaxy is located at the same distance as the frontal spiral galaxy, suggesting that the two are probably starting to interact.”

“Both galaxies in the question mark pair show several dense regions of active star formation, likely the result of the gas in the two galaxies colliding.”

“But neither galaxy seems particularly disturbed, so perhaps we are seeing the beginning of an interaction.”

“These galaxies, seen billions of years ago when star formation was at its peak, are similar in mass to the Milky Way at that time,” Dr Sawicki said.

“Thanks to Webb, we can now study what our galaxy was like in its teenage years.”

Team paper Published in Monthly Bulletin of the Royal Astronomical Society.

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Vicente Estrada Carpenter others2024. CANUCS JWST/NIRISS We will use grism spectroscopy to investigate when, where and how star formation occurs in a pair of galaxies at cosmic noon. MNRAS 532 (1): 577-591; doi: 10.1093/mnras/stae1368

This article is based on a press release provided by NASA.

Source: www.sci.news

Earthquakes as a possible explanation for the formation of giant gold nuggets in quartz rock

Posted on September 2, 2024 by Igor Mitreski

A replica of the “Welcome Stranger,” a 100 kg gold nugget discovered in Australia in 1869.

Ian Dagnall/Alamy

Earthquakes can create electric fields that attract gold dissolved in liquids pushed up from deep within the earth, causing gold nuggets to form in the quartz.

Giant gold nuggets are often associated with quartz, a ubiquitous but chemically inert mineral. The world's largest gold nuggets can weigh nearly 100 kilograms, but until now no one has been able to explain how such masses of precious metal formed.

“The mystery was how someone could create such a large nugget of gold in one place without any obvious chemical or physical traps,” he said. Chris Voysey At Monash University, Melbourne.

Voysey and his colleagues discovered a possible mechanism: applying pressure to the quartz creates a voltage that attracts gold dissolved in water.

The secret lies in the structure of quartz, Voysey explains. Quartz is the only abundant mineral whose crystals have no center of symmetry. This means that when these crystals are strained or stressed by seismic activity, their internal electromagnetic makeup changes, generating electricity. Electricity generated in response to mechanical stress is known as piezoelectricity.

Gold-bearing hydrothermal fluids rise up through fissures during seismic activity from the mid-to-lower crust, 15-20 km below the surface, but gold is so dilute that it would take the equivalent of five Olympic swimming pools of hydrothermal fluid to produce 10 kg of gold.

Voysey and his colleagues hypothesized that the piezoelectric properties of quartz would cause the gold to concentrate in nodules within the veins during repeated earthquakes. To test this idea, the team performed experiments in which they placed quartz crystals in a gold-containing solution and applied moderate pressure from an actuator.

Quartz samples that were not subjected to pressure did not attract gold, but samples subjected to force generated a voltage and attracted the metal. Some of the samples were coated with iridium to accentuate the piezoelectric response of the quartz and artificially mimic the expansion of seismic activity. In these samples, large gold flakes grew, over 6000 nanometers, compared to 200-300 nanometers in uncoated quartz.

Once gold starts to deposit on the quartz, it quickly attracts other gold, Voysey says. “Gold is a conductor, so gold in solution tends to deposit on top of existing gold,” he says. “It becomes like a lightning rod that attracts more gold.”

topic:

Source: www.newscientist.com

Research indicates TRAPPIST-1 system developed through a two-stage formation process

Posted on August 22, 2024 by Igor Mitreski

TRAPPIST-1 is an ultracool dwarf star located 38.8 light-years away in the constellation Aquarius that hosts seven planets. The period ratios of the neighboring planets are closer as they move away from the star: 8:5, 5:3, 3:2, 3:2, 4:3, 3:2. This compact resonant configuration is a clear indication of disk-driven migration, but the desired outcome of such an evolution would be the establishment of a first-order resonance, rather than the higher-order resonances observed in the inner system. Astronomer Gabriele Pichierri of the California Institute of Technology and his colleagues explain the orbital configuration of the TRAPPIST-1 system with a model that is largely independent of the specific disk migration and orbital circularization efficiency. Two key elements of the team's model are that, along with the migration, the inner boundary of the protoplanetary disk retreated over time, and that the TRAPPIST-1 system initially separated into two subsystems.

This artist's rendering shows TRAPPIST-1 and its planets as seen on the surface. Image courtesy of NASA / R. Hurt / T. Pyle.

“When all we had to analyse was the solar system, we could simply assume that planets formed where we see them today,” Dr Pichieri said.

“But when the first exoplanet was discovered in 1995, we had to rethink this assumption.”

“We're developing better models of how planets form and how they come to be oriented in the way that we found them.”

Most exoplanets are thought to form from a disk of gas and dust around a newly formed star, and then migrate inwards, approaching the inner boundary of this disk.

This results in a planetary system assembled much closer to the host star than is the case in our solar system.

In the absence of other factors, planets tend to move away from each other at characteristic distances based on their mass and the gravitational force between them and their host star.

“This is the standard transition process,” Dr. Pichieri said.

“The positions of the planets form resonances between their respective orbital periods. If you divide the orbital period of one planet by the orbital period of its neighbor, you get a simple integer ratio like 3:2.”

For example, if one planet takes two days to orbit a star, the next planet further away takes three days.

If the second planet and a more distant third planet were also in 3:2 resonance, the third planet's orbital period would be 4.5 days.

“The exoplanets behave nicely in simpler predicted resonances, so to speak,” Dr Pichieri said.

“But the inner ones have slightly more exciting resonances. For example, the orbital ratio of planets b and c is 8:5, and the ratio of c and d is 5:3.”

“This subtle difference in the outcome of TRAPPIST-1 assembly is puzzling and represents a unique opportunity to tease out in detail what other processes were at work in its assembly.”

“Moreover, most planetary systems are thought to have begun in such resonances, but have experienced significant instabilities during their lifetimes before we observe them today.”

“Most planets would become unstable or collide with each other, and everything would be in chaos. For example, our solar system was affected by such instability.”

“But we know there are some systems that are more or less pristine specimens that have remained stable.”

“They effectively represent a record of its entire dynamical history, and we can try to reconstruct it. TRAPPIST-1 is one of them.”

The challenge then was to develop a model that could explain the orbits of the TRAPPIST-1 planets and how they got to their current configuration.

The resulting model suggests that the inner four planets evolved alone within the originally predicted 3:2 resonant chain.

As the disk's inner boundary expanded outward, the orbits loosened from the tighter 3:2 linkage into the configuration observed today.

The fourth planet was originally located on the inner boundary of the disk and moved outward with the disk, but was pushed back inward at a later stage when three more outer planets joined the planetary system.

“By observing TRAPPIST-1, we were able to test an exciting new hypothesis about the evolution of planetary systems,” said Dr Pichieri.

“TRAPPIST-1 is very interesting because it's a very complex, long chain of planets, and it's a great example for testing alternative theories about the formation of planetary systems.”

of Survey results Published in a journal Natural Astronomy.

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G. Pichieri othersDuring the recession of the inner edge of the disc, the TRAPPIST-1 system forms in two steps. Nat AstronPublished online August 20, 2024, doi: 10.1038/s41550-024-02342-4

Source: www.sci.news

Astrophysicists find denser molecular clouds do not increase efficiency of star formation.

Posted on August 20, 2024 by Igor Mitreski

Despite recent progress, the question of what controls the star formation efficiency in galaxies remains one of the most debated in astrophysics. According to the dominant view, star formation is controlled by turbulence and feedback, with a star formation efficiency of 1-2% per local free-fall time. In an alternative scenario, the star formation rate in the Galactic disk is proportional to the mass of dense gas above a critical density threshold. In a new study, astrophysicists from Université Paris-Sacra show that Michael Mattern and his colleagues aimed to distinguish between the two images with high-resolution observations. Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX) tracks dense gas and young stars in a comprehensive sample of 49 nearby dense molecular clouds.

This composite image shows RCW 106, a star-forming region in the southern constellation Norma, about 12,000 light-years from Earth. The image overlays a red map of dense gas taken by APEX’s ArTéMiS camera on top of an optical image taken by ESO’s VLT Survey Telescope. Image credit: ESO / M. Mattern others.

Understanding what controls the efficiency of star formation in galactic giant molecular clouds is a fundamental unsolved problem in star formation research.

The star formation rate at multiple scales in galaxies is known to be strongly correlated with the mass of available molecular gas.

Overall, star formation is observed to be a very inefficient process.

“The glowing red clouds seen in the image above indicate regions of dense gas where new stars are being born in the RCW 106 region,” the astronomers said in a statement.

“But only 1 percent of this gas actually forms stars, and we don’t know why this percentage is so low.”

“We know that star formation occurs when regions of these giant clouds of cold gas come together and eventually collapse, and new stars are born. This happens at a critical density.”

“But beyond that density, could even more stars be formed in even denser regions? And could this help explain the 1% mystery?”

Their new results suggest that this is not the case: the dense regions are not efficient for star formation.

According to the team, this can probably be explained by these dense clouds breaking up into filaments and nuclei from which stars form, but many questions remain.

“Our results suggest that the star formation efficiency does not increase as the density passes a critical threshold, supporting a scenario in which the star formation efficiency in dense gas is nearly constant,” the researchers said.

“However, measurements of star formation efficiency tracked by young class I stars in nearby clouds are inconclusive, as they are consistent with both the existence of a density threshold and its dependence on density above the threshold.”

“Overall, we suggest that the efficiency of star formation in dense gas is determined primarily by the physics of filament fragmentation into protostellar cores.”

of study will be displayed in journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.

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M. Mattern others2024. Understanding star formation efficiency in dense gas: Initial results from the ArTéMiS CAFFEINE survey. A&Ain press; arXiv: 2405.15713

Source: www.sci.news

New Study Reveals Further Insights into Ice’s Unique Formation

Posted on July 29, 2024 by Igor Mitreski

Ice 0 is Ice Shape If it is possible to induce the formation of ice crystals in supercooled water, University of Tokyo.

Ice nucleation in water nanodroplets at 180 K (minus 93.15 degrees Celsius, minus 135.76 degrees Fahrenheit). Image courtesy of G. Sun & H. Tanaka, doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-50188-1.

“Ice crystallization, known as ice nucleation, usually occurs heterogeneously, in other words, on solid surfaces,” said University of Tokyo researchers Gan Song and Hajime Tanaka.

“This is typically expected to occur at the surface of a container of water, where the liquid and solid meet.”

“But our study shows that ice crystallization can also occur just below the water surface, in contact with the air.”

“Here, ice nucleates around a small precursor that has the same characteristic ring-like structure as ice-0.”

“Simulations show that under isothermal conditions, water droplets are likely to crystallize near the free surface,” Dr Sun added.

“This settles a long-standing debate about whether crystallization occurs more easily on the surface or in the interior.”

The precursor to ice-0 has a structure very similar to supercooled water, which allows water molecules to crystallize more easily without having to form directly into the structure of regular ice.

These form naturally as a result of the negative pressure effect caused by the surface tension of water.

When crystallization begins from these precursors, the ice-0-like structure rapidly rearranges into the more typical ice-I.

“Our discovery of the mechanism behind water surface crystallization is expected to make significant contributions to various fields, such as climate research and food science, where water crystallization plays an important role,” said Dr. Tanaka.

“Understanding ice in more detail and how it forms can provide valuable insights into many different fields of research.”

“This work may be particularly important in meteorology, because the formation of ice from precursors such as ice-0 may have a much more pronounced effect on tiny water droplets such as those found in clouds.”

“Understanding ice also has benefits in technology, from food science to air conditioning.”

Team paper Published online in the journal Nature Communications.

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G. Sun & H. Tanaka. 2024. Surface-induced water crystallization driven by precursors formed in a negative pressure region. Nat Community 15, 6083; doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-50188-1

This article is based on a press release from the University of Tokyo.

Source: www.sci.news

Lunar samples shed light on the formation of the Moon’s largest crater

Posted on July 24, 2024 by Igor Mitreski

Lunar samples collected by NASA's Apollo missions continue to enable new discoveries.

NASA/ESA

The Moon's largest crater is thought to have formed 4.338 billion years ago when a huge rock struck the lunar surface, leaving behind a swirling pool of magma, suggesting that Earth was experiencing extreme cosmic upheaval at the same time.

Chemical analysis of tiny zircon crystals found in lunar samples revealed that many of them solidified from magma about 4.3 billion years ago, but without measuring whether they all formed at precisely the same time, there was no way to know for sure whether many small impacts or one giant one melted the lunar crust into magma.

Melanie Balboni Balboni and her colleagues at Arizona State University solved this problem by measuring with extreme precision the ages of 10 zircon crystals that were brought back to Earth as part of NASA's Apollo missions. “To do this kind of dating, you have to melt the zircon,” Balboni says. “The lunar material is so precious, and there are so few reliable labs in the world that can do that, so no one has dared to do it. When I first did it, I was so scared.”

The researchers found that the crystals all formed at the same time, 4.338 billion years ago, which indicates that they likely formed in one giant impact. The same impact that created these crystals probably also formed the South Pole-Aitken Basin, the largest crater on the Moon, unless that impact crater was subsequently obscured by shifting sand or other impactors, Balboni says.

Not only is this a pivotal event in the history of the Moon, but it also tells us something about the space environment on Earth at that time. “The Moon is a very small object compared to Earth, so it was very likely that something very big struck Earth at that time,” Balboni said. “That big rock could have left behind cosmic gifts, like water, that might have helped the birth of life.”

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Source: www.newscientist.com

New JWST images confirm accuracy of theories on young star formation

Posted on June 21, 2024 by Igor Mitreski

Serpens Nebula: A row of jets appears as red streaks in the upper left corner

NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, Klaus Pontoppidan (NASA-JPL), Joel Green (STScI)

Astronomers have captured a star alignment: New images from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) show jets emanating from a young star lining up in a straight line, finally proving a phenomenon that has long been suspected but never before been observed.

As a giant gas cloud collapses and begins to form stars, its rotation accelerates — similar to how an ice skater pulls their arms in closer to their body to spin faster. This rotation causes a disk of dust and gas to form around the young star at the cloud's center, feeding the cloud itself.

Strong magnetic fields in the disk send jets of material along the star's rotation axis, which can be used to measure the young star's rotation direction. The JWST image of the Serpens Nebula, about 1,400 light-years away, shows 12 baby stellar clumps. All the jets are pointing in roughly the same direction..

“Astronomers have long assumed that when clouds collapse and stars form, the stars tend to rotate in the same direction,” he said. Klaus Pontoppidan At NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California statement“But we've never seen it so directly before.”

The new observations suggest that these stars all inherit their rotation from the same long string of gas. Over time, this rotation may change as the stars interact with each other and other space objects. This is evident from the fact that another group of younger, possibly older, stars in the same image of the Ophiuchus Nebula do not have aligned jets.

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Performer/
James Webb Space Telescope

Source: www.newscientist.com

Study: Io, Jupiter’s moon, has been erupting volcanically continuously since its formation

Posted on April 24, 2024 by Igor Mitreski

Sulfur and chlorine isotopes in Io’s atmosphere indicate that Io has been volcanically active throughout the solar system’s 4.57 billion-year history.

This global map of Io was obtained in January 1999 by NASA’s Galileo spacecraft. Image credit: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona.

Jupiter’s moon Io is the most volcanically active body in the solar system.

Io’s volcanic activity is the result of tidal heating due to friction that occurs within the moon’s interior as it is pulled between Jupiter and its neighboring moons Europa and Ganymede.

However, it is not fully understood how long this moon has hosted such extensive volcanic activity.

Due to the Moon’s current level of volcanic activity, Io’s surface is constantly being reworked, leaving only the most recent 1 million years of its geological record.

Stable isotope measurements of volatile elements in Io’s atmosphere could provide information about Io’s volcanic history.

“Io is a moon of Jupiter and is the most volcanically active body in the solar system,” says Dr. Ellie Hughes, a volcanic fluid geochemist at GNS Science.

“Io is in orbital resonance with Jupiter’s other two large moons, Europa and Ganymede.”

“For every time Ganymede orbits Jupiter once, Europa orbits twice and Io orbits four times.”

“This configuration causes Io’s orbit around Jupiter to be elliptical rather than circular, causing Jupiter’s gravity on Io to change periodically.”

“This change in gravity causes something called tidal heating on Io, just as the moon causes ocean tides on Earth, which causes volcanic activity.”

“However, it is unclear whether volcanic activity has occurred on Io over a long period of time or how this activity has changed over Io’s 4.57 billion year history.”

“Io has experienced so much volcanic activity that its surface is constantly being updated, leaving little trace of its past.”

“Fortunately, we can study Io back in time by studying sulfur and its isotopes.”

In the new study, Hughes, Caltech researcher Catherine de Clare, and colleagues used the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA) to observe gases in Io’s tenuous atmosphere. , we measured stable isotope radio waves of sulfur and chlorine. Carries molecules.

Scientists believe that both elements have lower concentrations of heavier isotopes compared to the solar system average due to the loss of lighter isotopes from the upper atmosphere as material is continually recycled between Io’s interior and atmosphere. I discovered that it is very plentiful.

The findings show that Io lost 94% to 99% of its sulfur through this outgassing and recycling process.

This would require that Io maintained its current level of volcanic activity throughout its lifetime.

“Sulfur is released into the atmosphere from Io’s interior by tidal heating from volcanic activity,” Hughes said.

“Some of the sulfur is lost to space by Jupiter’s magnetosphere, a bundle of charged particles swirling around Jupiter that continuously bombards Io’s atmosphere.”

“The sulfur that is left behind will eventually be buried back inside Io, ready to start the cycle again.”

“Isotopes of the same element have different weights from each other, so they can behave slightly differently during this cycle.”

“We found that the sulfur lost to space on Io is a little lighter isotopically than the sulfur that is recycled into Io’s interior.”

“Thus, over time, the sulfur left on Io becomes isotopically heavier and heavier. How heavy it gets depends on how long the volcanic activity has been occurring.”

“We found much more isotopically heavy sulfur in Io’s atmosphere than the solar system average. This requires that Io has lost almost all of its original sulfur.”

“Based on numerical modeling, this means that Io has been volcanically active for billions of years, and that tidal heating and orbital resonance have also occurred for most of Io’s history.”

“In the future, variability in atmospheric sulfur isotopic composition may help quantify Io’s average tidal heating rate.”

of study appear in the diary science.

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katherine de clair other. Isotopic evidence for long-lived volcanism on Io. science, published online on April 18, 2024. doi: 10.1126/science.adj0625

Source: www.sci.news

Blue Compact Dwarf Galaxy: Low Metallicity and Rapid Star Formation in Web Image

Posted on April 3, 2024 by Igor Mitreski

Astronomers using NASA/ESA/CSA’s James Webb Space Telescope have discovered a typical extremely metal-poor, star-forming, blue, compact dwarf galaxy in the constellation Ursa Major, I. Zwicki 18 (abbreviated). I took a stunning image of I Zw 18).

This web image shows I Zwicky 18, a blue, compact dwarf galaxy about 59 million light-years away in the constellation Ursa Major. I Zwicky 18’s nearby companion galaxy can be seen at the bottom of the image. This companion star may be interacting with the dwarf galaxy and may have triggered the galaxy’s recent star formation. Image credits: NASA / ESA / CSA / Webb / Hirschauer other.

I Zw 18 It is located approximately 59 million light years away in the constellation Ursa Major.

This galaxy, also known as Mrk 116, LEDA 27182, and UGCA 166, discovered It was discovered in the 1930s by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky.

At only 3,000 light years in diameter, it is much smaller than our own Milky Way galaxy.

I Zw 18 has experienced several bursts of star formation and has two large starburst regions at its center.

The wispy brown filaments surrounding the central starburst region are bubbles of gas heated by stellar winds and intense ultraviolet light emitted by hot, young stars.

“Metal-poor star-forming dwarf galaxies in the local universe are close analogs of high-redshift dwarf galaxies,” said Dr. Alec Hirschauer of the Space Telescope Science Institute and colleagues.

“Because the history of enrichment of a particular system tracks the accumulation of heavy elements through successive generations of stellar nucleosynthesis, low-abundance galaxies are likely to be more likely to be affected by a common phenomenon in the early Universe, including the global epoch of peak star formation. It mimics the astrophysical conditions where most of the cosmic star formation and chemical enrichment is expected to have taken place.”

“Thus, at the lowest metallicities, we may be able to approximate the star-forming environment of the time just after the Big Bang.”

“I Zw 18 is one of the most metal-poor systems known, with a measured gas-phase oxygen abundance of only about 3% of solar power production,” the researchers said. added.

“At a distance of 59 million light-years and with global star formation rate values measured at 0.13 to 0.17 solar masses per year, this laboratory is designed to support young stars in an environment similar to the one in which they were discovered. It’s an ideal laboratory for studying both the demographics and the demographics of stars that evolved in the very early days of the universe.”

Dr. Hirschauer and his co-authors used Webb to study the life cycle of I Zw 18 dust.

“Until now, it was thought that the first generation of stars began forming only recently, but the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope found “The dimmer and older red stars in the galaxy suggest that their formation began at least 1 billion years ago, and possibly 10 billion years ago,” the researchers said.

“Therefore, this galaxy may have formed at the same time as most other galaxies.”

“New observations by Webb reveal the detection of a set of dust-covered evolved star candidates. They also provide details about Zw 18’s two main star-forming regions. To do.”

“Webb’s new data suggests that major bursts of star formation in these regions occurred at different times.”

“The strongest starburst activity is now thought to have occurred more recently in the northwestern lobe of the galaxy compared to the southeastern lobe.”

“This is based on the relative abundance of young and old stars found in each lobe.”

of findings will be published in astronomy magazine.

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Alec S. Hirschauer other. 2024. Imaging I Zw 18 with JWST: I. Strategy and first results for dusty stellar populations. A.J., in press. arXiv: 2403.06980

Source: www.sci.news

New Middle Cretaceous paleoclimate insights from dinosaur footprints in the Nanushuk Formation

Posted on March 14, 2024 by Igor Mitreski

Paleontologists investigated dinosaur footprints and large assemblages of fossilized plants. Nanushuk FormationIt extends over much of the northern slope of central and western Alaska, varying in thickness from 1,500 to 250 m (4,921 to 820 ft) from west to northeast.

Theropod dinosaur footprints in the Nanushuk Formation, Alaska, USA. Note the sinusoidal shape of the metatoe impression. Scale bar – 10 cm.Image credit: Fiorillo other., doi: 10.3390/geosciences14020036.

“For the past 20 years, Alaska has been working on projects that integrate sedimentology, dinosaur paleontology, and paleoclimate indicators,” said Paul McCarthy, a professor at the University of Alaska Fairbanks.

“We've been studying the other three formations, Denali, the North Slope, and southwestern Alaska, and they're about 70 million years old.”

“This new one is in strata that are about 90 million to 100 million years old.”

“What we were interested in looking at rocks from this age is that this is about the same time that people thought the Bering Land Bridge connecting Asia and North America began.”

“We want to know who was using it, how they were using it, and what the circumstances were.”

“The mid-Cretaceous period was the hottest period of the Cretaceous period.”

“The Nanushuk Formation gives us a snapshot of what high-latitude ecosystems look like on a warm Earth.”

The Nanushuk Formation dates from the mid-Cretaceous period, approximately 94 to 113 million years ago, at the beginning of the Bering Land Bridge.

The field survey was conducted between 2015 and 2017, focusing on the Cork Basin, a circular geological feature of the formation.

The basin is located at the base of the Delong Mountains along the Kukpouluk River, approximately 100 km (60 miles) south of Point Rey and 32 km (20 miles) inland from the Chukchi Sea.

In the area, paleontologists found about 75 fossilized footprints and other traces of dinosaurs believed to have lived along rivers and deltas.

“This place had so many dinosaur footprints. One site stands out,” said Dr. Anthony Fiorillo, a researcher at the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science.

“We eventually realized that we were walking over an ancient landscape for at least 400 yards (366 meters).”

“In that landscape, we found large upright trees with smaller trees between them, with leaves on the ground. There were footprints on the ground, and there was fossilized feces.”

“We found numerous fossilized tree stumps about 60 centimeters (2 feet) in diameter. It felt like we were walking through a forest that was millions of years old.”

Although the Nanushuk Formation includes rocks of marine and non-marine characteristics and composition, the new study focuses primarily on non-marine sediments exposed along the upper Kukpouluk River.

“One of the things we did in our paper was look at the relative frequencies of different types of dinosaurs,” Dr. Fiorillo said.

“What was interesting to us was that bipedal plant-eating animals were clearly the most common.”

Two-legged plant-eating animals accounted for 59% of all footprints discovered. 17% were four-legged plant-eating dinosaurs, 15% were birds, and 9% were non-avian, mainly carnivorous bipedal dinosaurs.

“One of the interesting things is the relative frequency of bird tracks,” Dr. Fiorillo said.

Carbon isotope analysis of wood samples revealed that the area received approximately 70 inches (178 cm) of rainfall per year.

This record of increased precipitation during the Mid-Cretaceous provides new data supporting global precipitation patterns associated with the Mid-Cretaceous. Cretaceous thermal maximum.

The Cretaceous thermal maximum was a long-term trend about 90 million years ago, during which average global temperatures were significantly higher than today.

“Temperatures were much warmer than today, and perhaps more interestingly, we had a lot of rain,” Dr. Fiorillo said.

a paper Survey results are published in a magazine earth science.

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Anthony R. Fiorillo other. 2024. New dinosaur ichthyological, sedimentological, and geochemical data from the Nanushuk Formation of Alaska's North Slope, a Cretaceous high-latitude terrestrial greenhouse ecosystem. earth science 14(2):36; doi: 10.3390/geosciences14020036

Source: www.sci.news

Unusual rainfall leads to temporary lake formation in extremely arid Death Valley

Posted on February 21, 2024 by Igor Mitreski

View from a kayak on Death Valley Temporary Lake, February 9, 2024

Michael Kohler/NPS

Heavy rain has fallen in California in recent weeks, resulting in the remarkable formation of a rare temporary lake in Death Valley, the driest place in the United States.

Record levels of rain have flooded California over the past month. Numerous atmospheric river storms (narrow bands of highly concentrated moisture in the air) worsen wet conditions, putting up to 37 million people at risk of flooding.

Heavy rainfall also hit Death Valley National Park along the California-Nevada border. In fact, it rained so much that the park's Badwater Basin, normally a dry salt flat, temporarily turned into a shallow lake.

At 86 meters below sea level, the basin is the lowest point in North America and was home to an ancient body of water that researchers named Lake Manly tens of thousands of years ago.

Over the past few decades, the lake has been backfilled several times. In August 2023, rains associated with Hurricane Hillary formed a lake 11.3 kilometers long and 0.6 meters deep, which shrank in the following months. Well, it has been replenished once again. The current maximum length of the lake is nearly 10 kilometers and the depth is approximately 0.3 meters.

Last year, Death Valley National Park Closed for several weeks after Hurricane Hillary This is because flooding damaged the road network and limited opportunities for visitors to explore the temporary lake. This time, the park opened and the re-emergence of Lake Manly attracted tourists, including swimmers and kayakers.

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Source: www.newscientist.com

The Formation and Potential Destruction of the Himalayas by Earth’s Tectonic Plates

Posted on February 6, 2024 by Igor Mitreski

Deep underground in the heart of Asia, two giant plates are colliding with each other. Violent, slow-motion collisions between the geological plates are continuously shaping the towering Himalayas. However, newly discovered research suggests that this ongoing tectonic collision is also dividing Tibet in half.

A group of Chinese and American scientists conducted a study of underground seismic waves from earthquakes in and around Tibet and analyzed the geochemical composition of gases in surface hot springs. They found evidence that the Indian plate may be behaving unexpectedly as it collides with the Eurasian plate.

This research, which has not yet undergone peer review, was presented at the American Geophysical Union’s annual meeting in December. The scientists theorize that as the Indian plate continues its thrust beneath the Eurasian plate, it may be splitting apart beneath Tibet, separating the eastern and western halves of the slab. This fissure could have significant implications for the stability of the region, increasing the risk of earthquakes and other hazards.

The findings of the study provide an interesting and plausible explanation for the dynamic activity in this region, according to Barbara Romanowitz, a professor at the University of California, Berkeley. She also suggests that this potential split in the Indian plate may create a zone of weakness that could lead to large earthquakes.

The study proposes that the lithospheric mantle, one of the hard parts of the Earth’s crust, are sloughing off, leaving the crust behind, causing controversy within the scientific community as to how the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates would occur or what it would mean for the Earth.

The region where this collision is occurring is unique and serves as a natural laboratory for scientists to understand the process of continental collision in real time. It is compared to a game of hide-and-seek, providing a brief snapshot of a particular process of continental collision.

Source: www.nbcnews.com

Unexpected star formation driven by dwarf galaxies discovered

Posted on December 23, 2023 by Igor Mitreski

A University of Michigan astronomer, Sally Ooi, led a study on the star-forming regions of the host galaxy NGC 2366, a typical dwarf irregular galaxy. This study was credited to the Observatorio de Calar Alto, J. van Eymeren (AIRUB, ATNF), and Á.R. López Sánchez. As it turns out, dwarf galaxies such as NGC 2366 experience a delay in expelling gas, which allows for the star-forming regions to hold onto gas and dust longer, promoting the formation and development of more stars. This delays the onset of strong superwinds by 10 million years, resulting in more active star formation. This discovery was published in the Astrophysical Journal.

This delay offers astronomers a unique opportunity to study a scenario similar to the dawn of the universe, when ultraviolet light begins to ionize hydrogen, changing the universe from opaque to transparent. By observing low-metallicity dwarf galaxies with large amounts of ultraviolet radiation, scientists can gain insight into these early stages of the universe. The use of new technology from the Hubble Space Telescope allows researchers to observe the light of triple ionized carbon in these galaxies. This observational evidence supports the delayed onset of strong superwinds and a greater amount of ultraviolet radiation in these galaxies.

Thanks to these discoveries, scientists may gain a better understanding of the nature of galaxies seen at the dawn of the universe. This information could be important for the upcoming James Webb Space Telescope. The study was published in the Astrophysical Journal and the Astrophysics Journal Letter. The research team involved in these studies included Michelle C. Jecmen, MS Oey, Amit N. Sawant, Ashkviz Danekar, Sergiy Silic, Linda J. Smith, Jens Melinder, Klaus Reiter, Matthew Hayes, Anne E. Jascott, Daniela Calzetti, Yu-Hua Chu, and Bethan L. James. Ultimately, these findings provide valuable insight into the formation and development of stars in low-metallicity dwarf galaxies.

Source: scitechdaily.com