Astronomers have identified what could be one of the most peculiar known exoplanets. This planet orbits a rapidly spinning neutron star known as a pulsar, which is just the beginning of its unusual characteristics.
Michael Chan and his team at the University of Chicago discovered this strange exoplanet located more than 2,000 light-years away from Earth using the James Webb Space Telescope. They quickly recognized that something was off when they analyzed the spectrum of light emitted by the planet. Instead of detecting the typical signatures of water or carbon dioxide, they unexpectedly found carbon molecules.
Carbon molecules are not commonly seen in planetary atmospheres as they typically bond with other elements rather than themselves. “For carbon to exist in the atmosphere, we would need to eliminate nearly all other elements, including oxygen and nitrogen, which is something we don’t understand how to achieve,” Zhang stated. “There aren’t any other known planetary atmospheres like this one.”
Due to its proximity to its star and the star’s significant mass, the pulsar’s gravity is believed to have distorted the planet into an elongated, lemon-like shape. A year on this exoplanet lasts just 7.8 hours, and even its coldest regions reach temperatures of approximately 650°C (1202°F). Unlike most gas giants, the winds on this planet blow contrary to its rotation. “You can envision this planet having graphite clouds in its atmosphere, giving it a striking red appearance, reminiscent of an ominous lemon,” Zhang remarked. “I consider it to be undoubtedly the most bizarre exoplanet known.”
These numerous anomalies pose a challenge in explaining the formation of PSR J2322-2650b, running counter to established models of planetary formation. For now, this utterly bizarre and remote world remains an enigma.
A stunning view of Saturn and its rings as seen by the Cassini spacecraft
NASA/JPL-Caltech/Space Science Institute
New findings indicate that dust particles from Saturn’s rings are extended farther above and below the planet than previously assumed, implying that the rings might be shaped like large, dusty donuts.
The central structure of Saturn’s rings is remarkably thin, stretching out for tens of thousands of kilometers while only measuring around 10 meters in height, which gives Saturn its iconic look from Earth. However, variations exist, such as the outer E-ring that is inflated and replenished by ice ejected from Saturn’s moon Enceladus, which has an ocean beneath its surface.
In a recent study, Frank Postberg and his team at the Free University of Berlin examined data from NASA’s Cassini spacecraft, which completed 20 orbits in its final year of operation in 2017. During these orbits, the spacecraft took a steep trajectory through the rings, starting from a distance up to three times Saturn’s radius and moving downwards towards three times Saturn’s radius.
At the height of Cassini’s orbital path, its spectrometer, known as the Cosmic Dust Analyzer, detected hundreds of tiny rock particles with a chemical makeup similar to those found in the iron-deficient main rings. “This spectral type is genuinely unique within the Saturn system,” Postberg stated.
“While more material is near the surface of the rings, it is still astonishing that these particles are found so far above and below the ring surface,” he added.
Postberg and his collaborators determined that to reach heights greater than 100,000 kilometers from the main ring, the particles must be traveling at speeds exceeding 25 kilometers per second to break free from Saturn’s gravitational and magnetic forces.
Postberg noted that the exact mechanism achieving such speeds remains uncertain. The simplest explanation might be that a minor meteorite strikes the ring, scattering particles; however, this does not generate debris quickly enough.
New research suggests that when micrometeorites impact Saturn’s rings, they could generate sufficiently high temperatures to vaporize the rocks, implying that Saturn’s rings are older than once believed. Postberg and his team propose that this vaporized rock could exit the ring at much higher speeds than expected and then condense far from the planet.
It is surprising to find dust at such distances from the main ring. According to Frank Spahn from the University of Potsdam in Germany, who was not part of the study, this is significant because the particles in Saturn’s primary rings are small, collide rarely, and are sticky, leading to collisions that behave more like snowballs colliding than like billiard balls.
Micrometeorite impacts are prevalent throughout the solar system; hence, similar processes might be occurring on other ringed planets like Uranus. “If a ring of ice experiences a high-velocity impact, this phenomenon could be widespread; we would expect analogous dust rings above and below the other rings,” Postberg concluded.
Chile: The Global Center of Astronomy
Explore Chile’s astronomical wonders. Discover the most advanced observatory and gaze at the stars under the clearest skies on the planet.
Living in the UK, you might have observed a rise in the number of sport utility vehicles (SUVs) and large vehicles on our roads. These vehicles represented 63% of new car sales in the UK last year, a stark increase from just 12% in 2010.
On a global scale, this figure hovers around 48% and shows no signs of decreasing. This trend is concerning, as larger vehicles mean greater risks. My research focuses on the intersection of transportation and health, and recently, I collaborated on a study featured in BMJ. We believe regional, national, and international strategies are essential to limit the sale of these vehicles.
The principal health hazards associated with cars include road risks, pollution, and the tendency for people to choose driving over walking or cycling, which are more beneficial for health. Heavier cars negatively impact all these factors.
Intuitively, the risk of injury from a large vehicle is more pronounced. Their front ends are tall and blunt compared to standard cars; this is problematic for cyclists and pedestrians. Last year, I was involved in a review analyzing studies on the interactions between SUVs and vulnerable road users. The findings indicated that adults struck by SUVs face a 44% higher mortality risk than those hit by standard cars. The review also estimates that in the U.S., about 10% of pedestrian and cyclist casualties could be avoided by substituting SUVs with smaller vehicles—translating to roughly 1,700 preventable deaths or serious injuries annually.
Additionally, cars are becoming wider, a phenomenon dubbed “car spreading.” European new cars now grow, on average, by 0.5 cm each year. With limited road space devoted to cars, there’s increasingly less for cyclists and pedestrians. Encouraging more people to walk or bike would offer significant health benefits. Larger cars not only diminish these advantages but also contribute to urban congestion.
The larger size of these vehicles exacerbates air pollution issues. While the shift toward electric vehicles is promising for reducing emissions, it’s crucial to note that even electric SUVs create particulate pollution from tires and brakes, a major contributor to urban air quality concerns. Heavier vehicles produce more tire and brake wear, meaning electric SUVs may not offer the same air quality benefits as smaller electric cars.
So, what can we do to mitigate the proliferation of these large, hazardous, and polluting SUVs? My colleagues and I propose several strategies. Many cities now implement clean air zones—London’s Ultra Low Emission Zone is one example. While not specifically targeting vehicle size, such zones urge people to consider pollution from older, larger cars. Recently, the Cardiff council decided to charge extra for residential parking permits for SUV owners, joining cities like Paris and several in Germany and France that have raised parking costs for larger vehicles.
Beyond parking fees, governments might rethink car taxes to incentivize smaller vehicle purchases. Imposing higher taxes on heavier cars would align with societal costs related to road danger and pollution.
While some individuals may have legitimate needs for larger vehicles, with SUVs representing nearly half of all new car sales, we must recognize the health risks they pose. For improved road safety and cleaner air, buyers need to weigh these factors and governments must adjust regulations to reflect the dangers and environmental impacts of these vehicles.
Anthony Laverty is a student at Imperial College London School of Public Health.
Addressing climate change is a fundamentally collective effort. We share a single planet and atmosphere, meaning every emission of greenhouse gases impacts us all.
Notably, a small percentage of individuals have a disproportionate impact. The wealthiest 1% globally account for one-fifth of total emissions since 1990. A voluntary reduction in carbon footprints by the affluent could yield significant global benefits.
However, given our understanding of human behavior, such an outcome seems unlikely. But what if the affluent sought to balance carbon outputs through financing geoengineering projects designed to cool the planet? As explored in an exclusive survey of climate scientists (see “Exclusive: Climate scientists expect attempts to dim the sun by 2100”), there are unpredictable risks associated with such initiatives, potentially leading to adverse effects like droughts or ozone depletion.
Thus, if we are to engage in atmospheric modification, it must be pursued collectively. At present, there are no barriers preventing individuals or factions from attempting to unilaterally cool the Earth. This is why over 80% of respondents in our survey advocate for a global treaty to regulate potential climate interventions.
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The wealthiest 1% globally account for one-fifth of total emissions. “
Such a treaty would be among the many necessary updates to global governance in our era. Another domain where affluent individuals can exert significant influence is the night sky, which is increasingly cluttered with satellites that negatively affect the atmosphere (see How worried should we be about toxic chemicals from dead satellites?). With no global restrictions on satellite launches, the number has surged into the thousands, primarily driven by Elon Musk’s Starlink initiative.
International agreements lack the allure of dramatic, high-tech solutions often envisioned in science fiction, making it challenging to win support from billionaires. However, if they wish to contribute positively, endorsing international law would be a constructive starting point.
ALudus Huxley’s “Brave New World” unveils a society fixated on the principles of science and technology. Set in a futuristic world state, its inhabitants are scientifically engineered to conform to a hierarchical system. Tools of eugenics, psychotropic substances, and classical conditioning are utilized to enhance stability and well-being. Huxley’s narrative does not depict a conventional authoritarian regime, but rather a system in which the quest for freedom and dignity is wholly eradicated. The World State exemplifies a radical technocracy.
This narrative serves as a satire on the repercussions of integrating scientific reasoning into social policy. The World State’s administrators preside over a community governed by rationality and efficiency, and when these ideals clash with human instincts, it is humanity that must compromise. Instead of fostering societies that cultivate joyous individuals, leaders strive to engineer people capable of existing within the systems they are “incubated.”
The notion of reversing our connection to the world in this manner feels profoundly immoral, contrasting starkly with the essence of being human.
However, a parallel to this inverted logic is surfacing globally, especially within the discussions surrounding climate change.
After constructing frameworks that harm the environment around us, we are now suggesting alterations. In his dystopian exposition, Huxley conceived of a society that could only prosper if its inhabitants were rendered entirely non-human. Today, numerous scientists and engineers envision similarly transformed landscapes. In essence, nature itself must yield to the system; we require technology to repair.
The very destruction wrought by current technology propels us towards this technological remedy.
The powerful data centers necessary for artificial intelligence demand vast quantities of energy, a need that is anticipated to surge with the escalating rivalry between the United States and China. Consequently, it is unsurprising that Silicon Valley advocates find themselves leading a campaign to rejuvenate and reinvent the nuclear sector, a technology historically pivotal in reconfiguring nature’s core elements. This creates a totemic allure among those who aim to depend on it to confront the ecological crisis. The past couple of years have birthed a significant revival of commitment to nuclear power, with more than 120 energy and tech companies, 25 nations, and 14 major financial institutions backing nuclear expansion and advancement.
Spanning from liberal Europe to communist China, technologies perceived as detrimental to the planet are thought to be its salvation.
Nevertheless, ecomodernism is substantially more radical and heretical than this so-called “nuclear renaissance.”
Consider geoengineering, for instance. The concept involves managing the planet’s temperature by diminishing greenhouse gases, either by extracting them from the atmosphere and burying them beneath the ocean, or by reflecting sunlight back into space. A notable strategy proposes puncturing sulfates into the upper atmosphere to imitate the insolation effects of significant volcanic eruptions, thereby reducing the solar radiation captured by greenhouse gases rather than the gases themselves. (If your proof of concept is Krakatoa, you know there’s urgency.) Big tech entities are once again leading these initiatives, often experimenting with sulfates over California (regrettably too late for the Palisades) or spraying iron filings into the ocean to stimulate algae blooms that absorb carbon from the atmosphere.
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What further developments can we anticipate in this technologically governed future? The answer is staggering as biotechnology, nanotechnology, and artificial intelligence converge into a technoscience of extraordinary capability. Even now, there are indications that we may witness an unparalleled revolution in our relationship with the non-human realm.
And this doesn’t even address the notion of mining the moon and asteroids for water and precious minerals.
Thus, in every conceivable sense, we stand on the threshold of transformation. This change mirrors the reversal of our relationship with the world as illustrated in Huxley’s profound satire. Amid the absence of meaningful discourse regarding social and political transformation, our focus orbits solely around technological innovation. We are venturing into an astonishingly wild new frontier.
TThe dilemma with technofix ideology lies in the fact that the very concepts that have led us to this critical juncture are now perceived as the escape route. The environmental crises we confront are intricately linked to technology, yet our solutions are sought within the realm of technology. The causes are reframed as remedies.
Numerous scientists dismiss this notion as overly simplistic. They contend (not without justification) that irresponsible use of technology poses risks, and the optimal pathway forward lies in instilling a renewed sense of accountability in future endeavors. They argue technology is merely a “tool,” devoid of moral implications. Just as a hammer can be employed to drive in a nail or as a weapon against a neighbor, the hammer itself is neutral; it is one’s actions that matter.
This instrumental perspective on technology, prevalent in the scientific community and mainstream environmentalism, fundamentally misinterprets humanity’s relationship with technology. That relationship is unavoidable; teeth and homo sapiens cannot exist devoid of technology.
Evolving from tool-utilizing ancestors, humans depend on technology in unique ways that other species do not. However, adopting an instrumental view of this relationship is naive and ultimately perilous because it underrepresents the significant influence powerful technologies exert on human sensibility. When armed with that hammer, every issue tends to morph into a nail.
Technofixes represent not only scientific and engineering challenges but also psychosocial phenomena. We must consider the type of relationship we desire with the Earth we inhabit and the technologies proposed to alter it.
This is not a dismissal of technological progress. A holistic response to climate change and the environmental crisis will necessitate the utilization of new technologies such as solar panels, wind turbines, and optimized batteries for energy storage. Yet, to fully exploit these advancements, we must emphasize the vital distinction between viewing technological interventions as part of broader transformative initiatives and simply addressing climate change through a technical lens.
We must resist instrumentalist, techno-capitalist ideologies and articulate our vision in a manner that honors humanity. The needs we have – teeth of what is essential – must be the focal point of our discourse.
In a project that emphasizes the environmental consequences of technological consumption, artists have created pieces that illustrate the effects of the climate crisis on some of the world’s most renowned landscapes.
Locations such as Venice in Italy, the Giant’s Causeway in Northern Ireland, Iguazu Falls at the border of Argentina and Brazil, and the River Seine in Paris serve as study points for potential impacts from the climate crisis anticipated by the end of the century. An exhibition in London will showcase the findings.
Current status and visualization of the Giant’s Causeway. Written by Alex Griffiths
Mark Maslin, a professor of earth system science at University College London, employed climate modeling to evaluate the minimum and maximum damage at each site. A group of artists interpreted his findings for a display at Back Market’s Last Shot Gallery. The aim of the artwork is not to forecast exact conditions in these locations, but to elevate consciousness regarding the threats posed by climate change.
Maslin addressed the environmental repercussions of technological consumption. Estimations suggest that human actions account for 6% of the climate crisis, which is double that of the airline sector.
“There is an unawareness regarding how much the devices people constantly use and replace are contributing to overconsumption, vast pollution, and climate change,” he states. “We aim to raise that awareness. Many who utilize their phones daily are oblivious to the impact on the planet.”
Current status and visualization of Moraine Lake in Canada. Written by Hugh Jardine
The environmental damage from rapid technological advancement stems from the extraction of materials such as tantalum, cobalt, and tin—a process notoriously damaging socially and environmentally—and the disposal of e-waste, which emits harmful greenhouse gases like methane and carbon dioxide when burned or pollutes soil and water with toxins when irresponsibly discarded in landfills.
He mentioned that the EU is implementing legislation aimed at curbing built-in obsolescence, which includes regulations on universal chargers to reduce the chaos of myriad wires and plugs piling up in homes.
Tech companies are resisting accusations from Bullock and other lawmakers of disrupting the free market. In June 2024, the EU passed a directive that requires a broader selection of product repairs, extends legal guarantees, and forbids manufacturers from obstructing third-party components.
Iguazu Falls, present day and visualization by Osman G.
In the UK, regulations have been active since 2021 concerning certain household appliances. However, there are ongoing concerns about their overall effectiveness.
“Our studies indicate that while individuals are aware of the shifts occurring around them, many still lack an understanding of how their daily choices, particularly regarding technology, relate to the broader context,” stated Luke Forshaw, head of brand and marketing at Back Market, a global marketplace focusing on regenerative technology, which collaborated with Maslin to organize the exhibition.
Venice – present and visualization. Written by Archie McGrath and Josiah Naggar
A record was set in 2022 with 62 million tons of e-waste produced, marking it as one of the world’s fastest-growing waste streams. Forshaw points out that it’s crucial now more than ever to reevaluate our relationship with technology, opting for sustainability over contributing to landfills. “Making sustainable choices more affordable, accessible, and transparent is essential to bridging that gap,” he remarked.
5 Ways to Reduce Your Carbon Footprint
Your phone contains valuable materials that can be reused. Photo: Maxim Emelyanov/Alamy
Choose the technology that suits you and stick with it.
Remember that mobile phones hold valuable materials that should be reused, not discarded.
Sell your old device either to a reputable reuse shop or privately.
Maintain your phone’s battery between 20% and 80% for optimal longevity.
Keep your device clean, removing dust from charging ports.
The exhibition is at the Last Shot Gallery on October 17th in Fitzrovia, central London.
This image seems to show a Martian wrench, but it’s just a stone
Brian Cory Dobbs Productions
Blue Planet Red Directed by Brian Corrie Dobbs, available on Amazon Prime Video
Blue Planet Red is a documentary focused on Mars. The world depicted by director Brian Corrie Dobbs diverges from our understanding but certainly possesses its allure. It showcases an advanced civilization of pyramid builders that either failed to avert their world’s demise or destroyed it through a catastrophic nuclear conflict.
Dobbs presents his assertions regarding advanced Martian life directly to the audience, complete with expressive gestures and confident poses. I found him quite engaging. Yet, after viewing his work, I wasn’t surprised to discover that a section of his portfolio includes questionable content (referring to dubious videos concerning cell phones, electromagnetic fields, and cancer).
Whether by design or not, Blue Planet Red serves as a historical record. It is a testament to a generation of researchers and enthusiasts raised under the imposing shadow of a two-kilometer geological mound in the Martian region of Sidonia. Back in 1976, NASA’s Viking spacecraft took a blurry photo of what seemed to be a giant human face, known as the “Face of Mars,” at the intersection of Mars’ southern highlands and northern plains.
There’s no need to delve into debunking topics that have already been convincingly dismantled many times before. If you enhance the resolution of the image, the so-called face vanishes. Features resembling tools or bones are simply rocks. Additionally, the presence of xenon-129 in Mars’ atmosphere suggests an ancient nuclear war only if we disregard the well-understood decay process of the now-extinct isotope iodine-129 into xenon-129 within Mars’ cooling lithosphere.
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The ambiguous data from the Viking orbiters fostered the growth of fanciful ideas “
Yet, capturing this narrative holds a certain poignancy. Transforming Ideas gives voice to this generation of researchers. Individuals featured in the film include Richard Bryce Hoover, who led NASA’s astrobiology research at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Alabama until 2011, where he helped prove the existence of extremophiles on Earth. He is convinced he discovered microfossils in Martian meteorites. However, despite his enthusiasm, director Hoover fails to clarify in the film why these fossils rest atop the rock samples rather than embedded within them.
Contributor John Brandenburg is regarded as a respectable plasma scientist, provided he avoids discussing nuclear war on Mars. Mark Carlot, on the other hand, has dedicated 40 years to chronicling remnants of civilization on Mars while others merely see rocks. Upon returning to Earth, he proves to be an adept archaeologist.
After Apollo made its final moon landing in 1972, the initial thrill of the space race began to diminish. The images transmitted back by the Viking spacecraft signaled the next significant discovery. This hazy mixture of revolutionary yet unclear data served as a fertile ground for the emergence of fanciful ideas, particularly in the United States, where the Vietnam War and Watergate bred skepticism and paranoia.
Dobbs’ dynamic recounting of the Martian narrative frames it as a tale of an event occurring 3.7 billion years ago when the wet, warm planet transitioned into a barren dust bowl. For me, it resonates more with what happened to the passionate groups glued to their screens and magazines in the 1970s. Let us momentarily set aside our disdain and engage with this generation. Strong hope should never again hinder a kind heart like this.
American and German (and Nazi) rocket scientists drew inspiration from Antarctic exploration to draft this foundational technical specification for a manned mission to Mars.
Simon Ings is a novelist and science writer. X Follow him at @simonings
The findings of 1I/Oumuamua, 2I/Borisov, and 3I/ATLAS have revealed a substantial number of interstellar objects in the cosmos. Their widespread presence suggests that such objects are also found in protoplanetary disks, essential sites for planet formation. In these disks, interstellar objects could potentially bypass the 1-meter (3.3-foot) barrier in the traditional model of planet formation, initiating the creation of giant exoplanets.
This colorized image was taken by the CaSSIS instrument aboard ESA’s Trace Gas Orbiter on October 3, 2025, and displays the interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS. Image credit: ESA/TGO/CaSSIS.
Interstellar objects, including asteroids and comets, are those that have been expelled from their original star systems and are now traversing interstellar space, occasionally intersecting with other star systems.
Since 2017, astronomers have identified three interstellar objects passing through our solar system: 1I/’Oumuamua, 2I/Borisov, and the latest, 3I/ATLAS.
“Nevertheless, interstellar objects may exert a more significant influence than it appears at first glance,” states Professor Susanne Falzner, an astronomer at Jülich National Park.
“Interstellar objects could potentially incite planet formation, particularly around high-mass stars.”
Planets are formed from dusty disks that surround young stars through a process known as accretion. This theory posits that smaller particles gradually coalesce into larger objects, culminating in the formation of planet-sized bodies.
However, researchers have faced challenges in explaining how accretion can create objects larger than a meter amidst the chaotic collisions of planet-forming disks surrounding young stars. In simulations, the rocks tend to either bounce off each other or break apart upon collision, rather than adhering together.
Interstellar objects might help circumvent this issue. The researchers’ model illustrates how the dust-laden disks surrounding young stars can gravitationally capture millions of interstellar objects akin to 1I/’Oumuamua, which is estimated to be around 100 meters (328 feet) long.
“Interstellar space will supply ready-made seeds for the next phase of planet formation,” said Professor Falzner.
If interstellar objects could act as seeds for planets, it would also resolve another enigma.
Gas giant planets like Jupiter are scarce around smaller and colder stars, referred to as M dwarfs, but are more frequently found around larger stars similar to the Sun.
However, the lifespan of a planet-forming disk around a Sun-like star lasts only about 2 million years before dissipating, complicating the formation of gas giant planets in such a brief time frame.
That said, if captured interstellar objects serve as seeds for accretion, the planet-forming process could hasten, allowing giant planets to form within the lifetime of the disk.
“The more massive a star is, the more effectively it can capture interstellar objects in its disk,” Professor Falzner explained.
“As a result, planet formation seeded with interstellar objects should proceed more efficiently around these stars, offering a rapid pathway to forming giant planets.”
“And their swift formation is precisely what we’ve observed.”
Recent explosive growth has led to the “erroneous” planet achieving the title of the fastest-growing planet ever observed.
Several months ago, this planet started to rumble within the gaseous envelope surrounding it, and it is now consuming 6 billion tonnes (2.2 trillion pounds) per second. New research reveals it as the most voracious world recorded to date.
Known as Cha 1107-7626, this celestial body is 5-10 times larger than Jupiter and located 620 light-years away. As a “rogue” planet, it does not orbit a star but instead moves freely in its own path.
While the origins of these rogue planets remain a mystery, this finding suggests they may form more like stars than traditional planets.
“People often envision planets as tranquil, stable environments, but this discovery indicates that objects on planets drifting freely in space can lead to an exhilarating landscape,” said Dr. Victor Almendros-Abad, an astronomer at the National Institute of Astrophysics in Italy and the lead researcher on this study.
CHA 1107-7626 is enveloped by a disc of gas and dust, which is spiraling onto its surface and facilitating its growth through a process called accretion.
Last year, astronomers observed the planet’s increasing appetite for gas, leading to a situation where, by August 2025, it had ingested eight times more gas than it had just months prior.
“This represents the most intense accretion event ever documented for planetary mass objects,” stated Almendros-Abad.
Astronomers have uncovered hundreds of rogue planets, yet their origins remain elusive – Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech
The exact characteristics of these drifting worlds have puzzled astronomers for years. There are currently two primary theories: they may have originally formed around stars but were ejected, or they emerged from a collapsing gas and dust cloud like stars.
To gather insights, astronomers captured light from the planet both before and during its recent growth spurt. They detected indications of a robust magnetic field influencing the gas accretion onto the planet. Additionally, they noticed signs of water vapor present during the growth phase but absent before it. Both phenomena are typically associated with growing stars and have not been observed on young planets.
“The concept that planetary objects can function like stars is awe-inspiring, prompting speculation about what an early stage of such worlds might entail,” remarked Dr. Amelia Bayo, an astronomer at the Southern Observatory in Europe, who contributed to this study.
Artistic Representation of Cha 1107-7626, a rogue planet located roughly 620 light years from Earth
ESO/L. Calçada/M. Kornmesser
The voracious rogue planet consumes a staggering 6 billion tons of gas and dust every second. This peculiar behavior challenges the distinction between planets and stars, indicating that both may form via similar mechanisms.
It appears that free-floating gas bodies, not gravitationally bound to a parent star, are quite common, potentially outnumbering stars in galaxies. However, astronomers remain uncertain about whether these bodies will develop like planets orbiting stars, wander alone through galaxies, or independently emerge like stars.
Víctor Almendros-Abad from Palermo Observatory in Italy, and his team have observed remarkable growth of the rogue planet now known as CHA 1107-7626.
The planet garnered astronomers’ attention back in 2008 due to what appeared to be a disc of primitive planets around it. Almendros-Abad and his colleagues began monitoring these celestial objects in April this year using a sizable telescope in Southern Europe, but by June, the planet’s mass consumption rate surged to nearly ten times what it had been previously.
Such a growth rate aligns with what has only been previously observed in stars, including our own Sun.
“This indicates that the formation processes of stars and these objects are likely very similar,” says Almendros-Abad. “Thus, when considering star formation, we must also account for these rogue planets.”
To elucidate this unprecedented growth rate, Almendros-Abad and his team speculate that a mechanism akin to that observed in stars is likely at work; however, the reason and timing of the planet’s sudden surge in mass consumption remain unclear.
The similarities in their growth mechanisms imply that the line between stars and planets may be even hazier than previously believed, suggests Almendros-Abad. “Every time I observe these rogue planets, I see that the boundary between a star and a planet is not as defined as we thought. There must be chemical signatures, yet we have yet to discover the ‘Rosetta Stone’ that differentiates the formation processes.”
World Capital of Astronomy: Chile
Discover the astronomical marvels of Chile. Explore some of the most advanced observatories in the world and gaze at the star-studded sky beneath some of the clearest conditions on the planet.
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Jane Goodall revolutionized our understanding of chimpanzees
Europa Press Reportajes/Europa Press/Avalon
Jane Goodall, who passed away at 91, profoundly impacted the world through her perspective on animals, particularly chimpanzees.
In 1960, at just 26 years old, she observed a chimpanzee named David Graybeard using stripped leaves to fish for termites. “At that time,” she reflected, “we believed only humans used tools. I was taught that the best definition of humanity was being human; yet, I witnessed chimpanzees crafting and using tools.”
She relayed her findings to her mentor, paleontologist Louis Leakey, who subsequently reshaped the concept of what constitutes a ‘tool.’ His famous telegram proclaimed that we needed to redefine ‘tool’ and acknowledge the chimpanzee as having human-like traits.
Ultimately, the decision was made to explore how other species were unique. Goodall’s research played a critical role in challenging the notion of human superiority that had been entrenched in scientific and societal discourse.
Goodall in the TV special Miss Goodall and the Wild Chimpanzees, filmed in Tanzania and originally aired on CBS in December 1965.
CBS via Getty Images
Her research challenged the long-held beliefs of French philosopher René Descartes, who argued for animal exploitation and environmental degradation over 400 years. Descartes posited that animals lacked souls and functioned merely as machines. Goodall demonstrated that chimpanzees possess the intelligence and foresight to create and utilize tools, attributing such behaviors to their emotions and personalities. Some were gentle like David Graybeard, while others were curious and full of energy.
In this regard, she mirrored another pioneering scientist with remarkable observational skills. In his work Expressions of Human and Animal Emotions, Charles Darwin examined the evolution of facial expressions and linked them to emotional states: joy, anger, love, etc. However, he faced resistance not only regarding animal emotions but also in applying similar insights to humans.
Darwin’s work was not well received at the time and largely ignored for over a century. Similarly, Goodall’s early research from the 1960s faced skepticism and was even ridiculed. Her status as a young woman with lesser credentials did not help either. Both Darwin and Goodall were fueled by intense curiosity, patience, and keen observation—qualities that underpinned their achievements. When asked by New Scientist what was necessary for success, Goodall humorously replied, “Patience, a large stomach, and a bucket full of surprises.” Today, we recognize that both Darwin and Goodall were correct; many animals experience emotions and possess rich inner lives.
Goodall with chimpanzees, including David Graybeard, in 1965
Granger/Shutterstock
Goodall was selected by Leakey to study chimpanzees in Gombe, located in present-day Tanzania. Leakey aimed to explore human evolution and theorized that observing wild chimpanzees—something no one had done before—would be invaluable. He preferred individuals untainted by conventional scientific beliefs and believed that women could serve as more patient and empathetic field researchers. It’s unlikely a traditional biologist would have achieved the breakthroughs Goodall did.
Initially, her observations were made from a distance through binoculars, but as time progressed, she gained the chimps’ trust. The first to accept her was a male she named David Graybeard, recognized for the white hair on his chin. Although she later earned a PhD from Cambridge and faced criticism for naming animals instead of assigning them numbers, she felt naming them was more natural. David Graybeard demonstrated tool use, which Goodall described as a pivotal moment in her research.
She also became the first scientist to elucidate the mating rituals of chimpanzees, their reproductive cycles, and how mothers introduce their infants to their social groups.
Goodall at UNESCO headquarters in Paris, France, in February 2018
Agence 18/SIPA/Shutterstock
In the 1970s, the direction of her work shifted as she began advocating for the protection of chimpanzees. This marked the beginning of her second phase of global change. She founded the Jane Goodall Institute in 1977, which grew into a major nonprofit organization with offices in 25 countries. In 1986, she organized a conference for field biologists working with chimpanzees across Africa, highlighting the threats facing both the animals and the forests they inhabit. She also became aware of the challenges faced by local communities living near chimpanzee habitats.
In 1991, Goodall established Roots and Shoots, an initiative aimed at educating youth about conservation, which operates in over 75 countries. Continuously advocating for animal rights and conservation, she addressed around 300 audiences annually. In 2024, she visited Jane Goodall Institute offices to share her media insights about conservation efforts.
Goodall passed away in California while on a speaking tour. Throughout her life, she authored 32 books, including 15 for children. Her final work, Book of Hope, reflects her enduring commitment to conservation.
Goodall also spoke about the influence of 20th-century environmentalist Rachel Carson. At Cambridge University in the 1960s, she read Carson’s Silent Spring and was inspired by Carson’s courage in battling pharmaceutical companies, government, and scientific communities regarding the environmental risks of DDT.
“Carson knew the struggle would be long but never wavered, continuing to inspire,” Goodall remarked. “The same can be said for my journey.”
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Rocky, Earth-sized planets in our Milky Way may be surrounded by atmospheres, with new research indicating a strong possibility of liquid water on their surfaces, supporting the potential for life.
Two separate papers, to be released on Monday in the Astrophysical Journal Letters, focus on the TRAPPIST-1 system, which contains seven rocky planets orbiting a single star. Both studies present initial findings from NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope, suggesting that one planet, TRAPPIST-1e, could possess a nitrogen-rich atmosphere, although further research is necessary to confirm this.
These findings represent significant progress in the search for extraterrestrial life both within our solar system and beyond.
Recently, NASA revealed that rock samples from Mars may harbor evidence of ancient microorganisms. Presently, Mars has a thin atmosphere made primarily of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and argon, but billions of years ago, it likely possessed a much thicker atmosphere that allowed liquid water to exist on its surface.
For quite some time, scientists have maintained that water is a crucial element for life.
For a planet or moon to retain water in liquid form, it must have an atmosphere that prevents instant evaporation into space. This makes the search for exoplanet atmospheres one of the most exciting and promising areas of astronomical research.
“Ultimately, our goal is to identify planets that can support life,” stated Ryan McDonald, an exoplanet astronomer at St Andrews University, Scotland, and co-author of both studies. “To do this, we first need to identify whether these planets have atmospheres.”
The TRAPPIST-1 system is located 40 light-years from Earth and has been extensively studied since its discovery in 2016, as some of its planets may have conditions suitable for extraterrestrial life.
Specifically, TRAPPIST-1e is thought to reside in the so-called “habitable zone,” where liquid water could be present on the surface—not too close to the star to be scorching hot and not too far to freeze.
In a recent study, astronomers utilized NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope to observe four “transits” of TRAPPIST-1e, which occur when the planet passes in front of its star. While the telescope did not directly detect the planet’s atmosphere, it measured how light passing through the atmosphere was absorbed, if one is present.
Like a prism, light can be split into different color bands across the spectrum, and variations in how particular colors are filtered or absorbed can help identify the presence of specific atoms or gas molecules.
For instance, if a specific color is absorbed, it may indicate a high concentration of carbon dioxide, while other color changes could suggest the presence of hydrogen, oxygen, methane, or nitrogen.
“If no color variation is present, the planet is likely just a barren rock,” McDonald noted. “Barren rocks won’t show any color changes in response to light.”
During the four transits, researchers found no signs of a hydrogen-rich atmosphere surrounding TRAPPIST-1e, nor did they observe any indications of a carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere. However, observations from the Webb telescope suggest a potential nitrogen-rich atmosphere.
“This is an exciting development that will significantly narrow down the prospects for a more Earth-like atmosphere,” remarked Caroline Piaulett Graeb, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Chicago who was not involved in the new research.
Earth’s atmosphere is composed of a significant amount of nitrogen gas. Titan, one of Saturn’s moons, has an atmosphere primarily made of nitrogen and is believed by NASA to harbor a vast underground sea. Although it may be habitable, the methane-rich environment of the moon differs greatly from conditions on Earth.
Piaulet-Ghorayeb, the lead author of a study published last month in the Astrophysical Journal, focused on another planet in the TRAPPIST-1 system, TRAPPIST-1d. This planet is also located within the habitable zone, but the study found no evidence of common Earth-like molecules such as water, carbon dioxide, or methane.
Studying these distant worlds poses significant challenges.
The TRAPPIST-1 star is small and exceptionally active, producing considerable background noise that complicates researchers’ efforts. McDonald and his team dedicated over a year to analyzing data from the Webb telescope in order to isolate and identify chemical signatures from TRAPPIST-1e and its star.
To confirm the presence of an atmosphere, McDonald and his colleagues plan to observe TRAPPIST-1e during an additional 15 transits over the coming years.
They are also looking into three other planets, TRAPPIST-1f, TRAPPIST-1g, and TRAPPIST-1h, which are located further out in the system.
This research aims to bring scientists closer to answering some of the most persistent questions regarding exoplanets and the existence of life.
“We have not yet reliably confirmed the atmosphere of rocky planets outside our solar system, but it opens the door to studying temperate planets,” said Piaulett-Ghorayeb. “However, there is still much to explore.”
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope have discovered evidence of gaseous methane on the remote dwarf planet Macemeiki. This finding is detailed in a paper published in the Astrophysics Journal Letter. This discovery challenges the conventional perception of Makemake as a stable, frozen entity. Following Pltune, where gas presence was confirmed, it is now only the second Transneptune object to display this characteristic.
Protopapa et al. Methane gas was detected with Makemake using Webb observations (white). A sharp radiation peak near 3.3 microns reveals methane in the gas phase on the surface of Makemake. The continuum model (CYAN) is overlaid for comparison. An observable spectrum above the continuum indicates a gas emission peak. Image credit: S. Protopapa/I. Wong/SWRI/STSCI/NASA/ESA/CSA/WEBB.
Makemake, also referred to as FY9 and (136472), was identified in 2005 by a team of astronomers at the California Institute of Technology, led by Mike Brown.
This planet of War is situated in a region beyond Neptune, home to a small solar system.
Its radius measures approximately 715 km (444 miles), making it a dimmer and slightly smaller body than Pluto.
It takes around 305 Earth years for this dwarf planet to complete one orbit around the Sun.
Previously observed stellar occultations indicated that Makemake likely lacked a significant global atmosphere, although thin atmospheres could not be completely dismissed.
Meanwhile, infrared observations suggested mysterious thermal anomalies and peculiar characteristics of its methane ice, hinting at the possibility of local hotspots and potential outgassing on its surface.
“Makemake is one of the largest and brightest icy worlds in the outer solar system, with its surface predominantly comprised of frozen methane,” stated Dr. Sylvia Protopapa, an astronomer at the Southwest Institute.
“Webb has revealed that methane is also present in the gas phase above the surface, making Makemake an even more intriguing subject of study.”
“This indicates that Makemake is not an inert remnant of the outer solar system; rather, it is a dynamic body where methane ice is actively evolving.”
The detected methane spectral emission is interpreted as solar absorbing fluorescence, which occurs when sunlight is re-emitted after being absorbed by methane molecules.
The research team posited that this could either indicate a tenuous atmosphere in equilibrium with surface ice, akin to Pluto, or more transient activities such as comet-like sublimation or cryovolcanic processes.
Both scenarios are plausible and align with current data, given the signal-to-noise ratios and limited spectral resolution.
“The inclination to connect Makemake’s various spectra with thermal anomalies is compelling, but identifying mechanisms that enable volatile activities remains essential to interpreting these observations cohesively.”
“Future Webb observations at higher spectral resolutions will aid in determining whether methane originates from thin atmospheres or outgassing processes like plumes.”
“This discovery opens up the possibility that Makemake has a very thin atmosphere supported by methane sublimation,” noted Dr. Emmanuel Lelouch, an astronomer at the Paris Observatory.
“Our best model estimates a surface pressure around 40 K (minus 233 degrees Celsius) and about 10 picobars, which is a hundred billion times less than Earth’s atmospheric pressure, indicating a dilute surface pressure about ten billion times that of Pluto.”
“If this hypothesis is validated, Makemake will join a select group of outer solar system bodies where surface mass exchanges are still actively occurring today.”
“Another scenario proposes that methane is being expelled in plume-like eruptions,” Dr. Protopapa added.
“In this case, our model indicates that methane may be released at a rate of several hundred kilograms per second, comparable to the intense water plumes seen on Enceladus, Saturn’s moon, and significantly larger than the faint steam observed on Ceres.”
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Silvia Protopapa et al. 2025. JWST detection of hydrocarbon ice and methane gas on Makemake. apjl in press; Arxiv: 2509.06772
Could there be hidden planets in our solar system?
Peter Jurik/Alamy
At the far reaches of our solar system, there could be a new Earth-sized planet, referred to as Planet Y.
Astronomers have speculated for a long time about the existence of concealed planets past the Kuiper Belt, which is populated with frozen bodies, including UTO. Notable theories have included Planet X, a compelling candidate believed to be approximately seven times the mass of Earth and orbiting about 50 times the distance from the Sun, alongside at least 300 other solar masses.
Amir Shiraj from Princeton University and his team suggest the existence of Planet Y, distinct from other candidates, based on the warping observed in the orbits of some Kuiper Belt objects. “If that warp is confirmed, the simplest explanation is an undiscovered planet with a tilt,” Shiraj explains.
This hypothetical planet could have a mass comparable to that of Mercury or Earth and might orbit roughly 100-200 times the distance of genomic syndrome. The gravitational influence of this planet could cause certain Kuiper Belt objects to have orbits that are slightly inclined, mimicking the rippling effect in a body of water.
“The signals we’re detecting are subtle but trustworthy,” Shiraj remarks. “Previous hints of Planet Nine shared similar statistical probabilities.”
The orbital distortion conjectured for Planet Y differs from the rationale behind the potential existence of Planet Nine, which is thought to attract objects with its gravity. “The signatures indicate a different source,” Shiraj adds.
Johnty Horner at the University of South Queensland believes it is “plausible” that an unseen realm, like Planet Y, exists in the outer solar system. “It’s a reminder that we are still exploring what lies beyond Neptune; our understanding is still in its infancy,” he states.
Such a planet might have been ejected from the inner solar system to the outer reaches. “Scattering appears more likely,” Horner suggests.
With the Vera C. Rubin Observatory’s decade-long survey of the skies, our perception of the outer solar system is expected to transform significantly in the coming years. Should Planet Y, Planet Nine, or other candidates exist, Rubin may directly observe them.
“Rubin is rapidly expanding our catalog of well-studied trans-Neptunian objects,” remarks Shiraj. If Planet Y is indeed lurking out there, Rubin might identify it “within the initial years of the survey,” Shiraj adds, or at least provide further evidence of the observed warping effect.
While there is no conclusive evidence of microorganisms on Ceres, recent research bolsters the theory that this dwarf planet may have once harbored conditions conducive to single-cell life.
An illustration of Ceres’ interior, highlighting the movement of water and gas from the rocky core to the saltwater reservoir. Carbon dioxide and methane are chemical energy carriers beneath Ceres’ surface. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech.
Previous scientific data from NASA’s Dawn Mission indicated that bright reflective areas on Ceres’ surface were formed from salt left behind by liquid that seeped from below ground.
A subsequent 2020 analysis identified that this liquid originated from a vast reservoir of subsurface brine.
Additional studies found organic materials in the form of carbon molecules on Ceres. While this alone doesn’t confirm the existence of microbial life, it is a crucial component.
Water and carbon molecules are two fundamental aspects of the habitability puzzle for this distant world.
The latest findings suggest that ancient chemical energy on Ceres could have supported the survival of microorganisms.
This does not imply that Ceres currently hosts life, but if it did, “food” sources are likely to have been available.
In a new study led by Dr. Sam Courville from Arizona State University and NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a thermal and chemical model was developed to simulate the temperature and composition within Ceres over time.
They discovered that approximately 2.5 billion years ago, Ceres’ underground oceans possibly maintained a stable supply of warm water with dissolved gases emanating from metamorphic rocks in the rocky core.
The heat originated from the decay of radioactive elements within the planet’s rocky interior, a process typical in our solar system.
“On Earth, when hot water from deep underground interacts with ocean water, it frequently creates a fertility hotspot for microorganisms, releasing a wealth of chemical energy,” stated Dr. Courville.
“Therefore, if Ceres’ oceans experienced hydrothermal activity in the past, it would align well with our findings.”
As it stands, Ceres is not likely to be habitable today, being cooler and having less ice and water than it once did.
At present, the heat from radioactive decay in Ceres is inadequate to prevent water from freezing, resulting in highly concentrated saltwater.
The timeframe during which Ceres was likely habitable ranges from 5 billion to 2 billion years ago, coinciding with when its rocky core peaked in temperature.
This is when warm liquid water would have been introduced into Ceres’ groundwater.
Dwarf planets generally lack the benefit of ongoing internal heating due to tidal interactions with larger planets, unlike Enceladus and Europa, moons of Saturn and Jupiter, respectively.
Thus, the highest potential for a habitable Ceres existed in its past.
“Since then, Ceres’ oceans are likely to be cold, concentrated saltwater with minimal energy sources, making current habitability unlikely,” the authors concluded.
A paper detailing these findings was published today in the journal Advances in Science.
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Samuel W. Courville et al. 2025. Core metamorphosis controls the dynamic habitability of the medium-sized marine world – the case of Ceres. Advances in Science 11 (34); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adt3283
In the heart of the Milky Way, the stars appear younger than expected.
NASA, Caltech, Susan Stolovy (SSC, Caltech)
Stars in the core of our galaxy may indeed be nearly immortal, harnessing dark matter for energy.
Over two decades ago, astronomers observed oddities among the stars at the Milky Way’s center. Their emitted light suggests they are younger than their mass would indicate; this phenomenon is termed the “Youth Paradox.” Furthermore, there’s a surprising scarcity of older stars in this region, referred to as the “aging difficulty problem.”
Currently, Isabelle John from the University of Stockholm and her team employed computer simulations to propose that dark matter might hold the key to resolving both issues.
It’s established that the centers of galaxies possess high densities of dark matter. The researchers simulated the interactions of dark matter particles with stars and found that upon collision with a star’s atomic nucleus, a particle loses energy and can become trapped there. If other dark matter particles are also present at the same site, they can annihilate each other, generating bursts of energy that illuminate the stars.
Stars typically age due to a lack of fusion fuel, but dark matter could serve as an extra energy source, extending their longevity. Given the substantial amount of dark matter surrounding the galactic center, this mechanism may effectively grant stars a form of immortality, according to John.
She notes that the team’s simulations are based on broad assumptions regarding dark matter and align qualitatively with historical observations. However, further empirical data could enhance our understanding, prompting additional telescope observations to gather fresh insights on dark matter and verify if the stars at the Milky Way’s core can indeed achieve eternal life, as their nature remains poorly understood.
Mark Pinne from Ohio State University emphasizes the importance of interpreting simulations of stars situated away from the galaxy’s center. He points out that since there exists comprehensive observational data on stars near Earth, the anticipated impacts of dark matter should be cross-verified with this information.
The beauty industry often resists trends. From campaigns on aging to home LED masks, consumers have encountered a range of innovations. However, one particularly enduring trend over the last decade is the shift towards “natural” or “organic” beauty products.
At first glance, this sounds appealing: fewer plant ingredients, minimal processing, and no synthetic pesticides. What could be wrong with that? The reality is more complex.
Choosing “natural” beauty products may feel like a wise choice when considering our planet.
Yet, as the beauty industry comes under scrutiny for its environmental impact, we must move beyond greenwashing and evaluate whether relying on naturally grown resources is truly sustainable within a billion-dollar industry.
Growth Market
The global natural and organic beauty sector is currently seeing robust growth driven by heightened consumer interest, with projections estimating gross revenues of approximately £11.3 billion ($14.9 billion) by 2025.
In the UK alone, the natural cosmetics market is expected to reach around £210 million ($278 million) in 2025, with annual growth rates of about 2.74% over the next five years.
From ingredient-light serums to zero-waste shampoo bars, the diversity and volume of products available have never been greater. While this thriving market is exciting, it also presents challenges.
More products lead to increased material extraction, mining, and synthesis, as well as greater packaging and emissions throughout the supply chain.
This intricate situation can easily confuse well-meaning consumers, who may get caught up in labels like “natural” or “organic” without fully understanding their implications.
Steam distillation is a traditional method of extracting oil from flowers used to make rose water – Photo credit: Getty Images
There’s a common belief that if something is labeled “natural,” it must be beneficial for the environment. However, whether it’s Moroccan argan oil or Mexican aloe vera, obtaining natural ingredients often comes at a high price.
Crops require extensive land, water, and energy for cultivation.
Many high-demand crops are susceptible to climate change and, regrettably, are often linked to unethical labor practices. While we aspire for organic farming to represent a more sustainable approach, it can also lead to unintended negative outcomes.
For instance, many organic agricultural practices may yield lower crop outputs while occupying more land. This can result in deforestation as farmers seek additional land to maximize production of slowly-growing crops.
Naturally derived pesticides used in organic agriculture can also harm the soil.
Copper sulfate, commonly used in the wine industry’s “Bordeaux mixture,” has long been approved for use in organic farming but has recently faced regulation due to its negative effects on soil microbiomes and potential threats to local insect populations.
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Lab-grown Materials
This is where biotechnology enters the conversation. While it may not have the allure of “Wild Harvest Lavender,” biotechnology could ultimately prove to be one of the planet’s most eco-friendly resources.
In simple terms, biotechnology utilizes scientific methods (often involving fermentation with yeast, plant sugars, or bacteria) to cultivate ingredients in laboratories, as opposed to sourcing them from nature. Think of it like brewing beer, but instead of a refreshing pint, you yield powerful active ingredients for moisturizers and shampoos.
These lab-generated components are molecularly identical to their natural counterparts and can be produced without ecosystem emissions, using significantly less water, land, and energy.
This highly controlled process can also be scaled efficiently while maintaining consistent quality.
For example, swapping “wild harvested lavender” for biotechnologically produced lavender essential oils can lead to substantial reductions in energy and water usage.
Producing 1g (0.04oz) of natural lavender oil requires about 20L (approximately 5 gallons) of water and about 4 megajoules of energy—roughly equivalent to watching TV for 20 hours.
In contrast, if biotechnologically produced, the same 1g can potentially require just 2-5L (0.5-1.3 gallons) of water and 1 megajoule of energy (the equivalent needed to boil a kettle).
Biotechnology has advanced significantly in recent years, although companies have yet to replicate every component of these unique essential oils.
Laboratory-grown cosmetic ingredients are molecularly identical to natural ingredients and could become a more sustainable alternative – Photo Credit: alamy
One ingredient successfully replicated is bisabolol, known for its soothing properties in the cosmetics field. It’s utilized in a diverse range of products, from hormone-related creams to sun care and baby products.
To extract natural bisabolol, it must be derived from Candea trees native to Brazil. This cultivation can lead to deforestation, biodiversity loss, and ecosystem strain, with natural harvest quality varying based on weather conditions.
To obtain 1kg (2.2 pounds) of natural bisabolol, cutting down around 1-3 trees is necessary, with each tree taking 10-15 years to mature.
To create one ton (2,204 pounds) of bisabolol, approximately 3,000 to 5,000 trees are needed—a staggering statistic given the global demand is around 16 tons (35,000 pounds) annually.
Each tree consumes about 36,000 liters (9,500 gallons) of water over its lifetime (equivalent to 72,000 500ml bottles) and 75 megajoules of energy (approximately analogous to charging a smartphone 2,500 times).
Givaudan, a Swiss ingredient manufacturer, has already developed bisabolol through biotechnological means, resulting in a much higher specification than what natural agriculture can achieve.
Comparatively, biotechnological yields of bisabolol can utilize 90-95% less water and 50-60% less energy than natural Candeia tree yields, not to mention the hectares saved from potential deforestation.
Brands like Boots and Estée Lauder are investing in biotechnology.
Even smaller indie brands are beginning to highlight fermented or lab-grown ingredients. Eco Brand Biossance uses a similar moisturizing ingredient to squalene, but instead of harvesting it from shark fins, they derive it from sugarcane, claiming to save an estimated 20-30 million sharks each year.
Moreover, biotechnology ingredients tend to be purer, more stable, and often more effective than their natural counterparts, meaning your product will last longer, perform better, and evoke less guilt regarding the environment.
What Should I Look For?
For consumers, all this information can feel daunting, especially with packaging filled with misleading marketing buzzwords. However, here are a few straightforward tips for choosing cosmetic products that align with your values.
Seek out biotechnology or lab-grown ingredients, often labeled as “fermented origin,” “biodesign,” or “bioidentical” on ingredient lists.
Be cautious of common marketing greenwash terms like “eco-friendly,” “clean beauty,” “sustainable,” and “biodegradable.” Look for tangible values, timelines, or explanations backing these claims.
Avoid brands that shift their focus away from sustainability to other concerns, such as “opposing animal testing,” which has been banned by the EU since 1998 for British cosmetics.
While the notion that beauty should be “natural” is comforting, this approach isn’t necessarily the most sustainable choice, especially as the UK lacks a legal definition of what “natural” cosmetics entail.
If you genuinely want to protect the planet for future generations, it’s essential to move past the notion of nature as an infinite resource and start supporting smarter scientific innovations that collaborate with nature rather than oppose it.
In the initial two billion years of Earth’s existence, our planet was dominated by a combination of bacteria and their relatives, the Archaea. This period can be described as “slimeball Earth,” marked by a critical merger that shaped the future of life on our planet.
This article is part of our special concept series, showcasing how experts approach some of the most unexpected concepts in science. Click here for additional insights.
One of these ancient cells engulfed a bacterial cell, and remarkably, the bacterium survived. Together, they replicated, leading the engulfed bacteria to evolve into mitochondria, which serve as the energy source for these early cells.
Nick Lane from University College London discovered that mitochondria enabled these cells to express an extraordinary 200,000 times more genes, fostering growth and the emergence of varied life forms. This new combination eventually evolved into complex eukaryotic cells, resulting in nearly every organism observable without a microscope, including humans.
Coexistence is fundamental to our existence, a factor that continues to sustain us today. Over 80% of terrestrial plant species engage in symbiotic relationships with mycorrhizal fungi, which provide essential nutrients while plants supply the fungi with carbohydrates. Without this interaction, oxygen as we know it would be nonexistent. The soil itself is a product of symbiosis among fungi, bacteria, and plants—an ecological partnership that took root when life transitioned from sea to land roughly 500 million years ago.
When many think of “symbiosis,” they often envision entities coexisting peacefully, like the clownfish and anemone or the vibrant ecosystems of coral reefs. Lichens, too, symbolize the intimate connections among distinct life kingdoms. Generally, we perceive symbiosis as a benevolent arrangement characterized by mutual benefit.
However, experts suggest viewing symbiotic relationships on a spectrum, ranging from parasitism to mutualism. Katie Field from the University of Sheffield, UK, points out that reciprocity isn’t always altruistic; partners often give in hopes of future benefits.
To illustrate this spectrum, consider the diverse strategies employed by orchids. Their minuscule seeds contain very few resources and must parasitize mycorrhizal fungi to access the sugars and nutrients needed for germination. As they develop leaves, some species begin to establish a more reciprocal relationship with the fungus, shifting from parasitism to mutual benefit.
Conversely, older orchids might provide sustenance for younger ones, while certain species may remain parasitic indefinitely, never developing photosynthetic leaves. “There’s a whole cycle of different stages of symbiotic interactions,” Field remarks.
Another significant perspective on symbiosis is its potential as a key to a sustainable future. Leguminous plants such as pulses, beans, and lentils utilize symbiotic bacteria to convert atmospheric nitrogen into fertilizer. Recent studies indicate that these plants have adapted mechanisms from existing cellular structures for this purpose.
This revelation could pave the way for other crops, notably grains like wheat and corn—staples that account for half of human caloric intake—to produce their fertilizers. Giles Oldroyd from the Crop Science Center at Cambridge University is exploring this avenue, with hopes of significantly reducing the reliance on chemical fertilizers in agriculture.
Oldroyd is conducting field trials using modified crops to harness the power of symbiosis, with a clear mission to minimize the use of chemical fertilizers. “I’m committed to this goal,” he states.
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A potential new dwarf planet has been identified at the distant fringes of our solar system, taking approximately 25,000 years to complete one orbit around the Sun.
This celestial object, designated 2017, was discovered by a team from the Advanced Research Institute and Princeton University who were searching for a “Planet 9,” a hypothesized planet larger than Earth that is believed to orbit beyond Neptune. Some astronomers suspect that this elusive Ninth planet could shed light on the peculiar clustering of various objects and other oddities observed in the outer solar system.
While in pursuit of the elusive Planet Nine, researchers instead came across another resident of our cosmic neighborhood.
“It’s similar to the way Pluto was discovered,” remarked Sihao Cheng, a member of the Advanced Research Institute that spearheaded the research team. “This endeavor was a real adventure.”
If validated, the newly found dwarf planet could be what Chen refers to as Pluton’s “extreme cousin.” The findings were published on the Preprint site arXiv and have yet to undergo peer review.
Cheng and his colleagues estimate that 2017 measures approximately 435 miles in diameter.
Dwarf planets are categorized as celestial bodies orbiting the Sun that possess enough mass and gravity to be nearly round, yet unlike typical planets, they do not clear their orbital paths of asteroids and other objects.
Eritayan, a co-author of the study and a graduate student at Princeton University, noted that one fascinating characteristic of 2017 is its highly elongated orbit. At its most distant points from the Sun, it lies over 1,600 times farther than Earth does from the Sun.
The potential dwarf planets were discovered through a meticulous examination of a vast dataset from a Chilean telescope that was scanning the universe for signs of dark energy. By compiling observations over time, the researchers identified moving objects exhibiting clear patterns.
While 2017 may be one of the most distant known objects in the solar system, its discovery suggests that other dwarf planets may exist in that vast region of space.
“We used public data that had been available for some time,” explained Jiaxuan Li, a graduate student and co-author of the research at Princeton University. “It was just hiding in plain sight.”
Li mentioned that the object is currently located near the Sun, necessitating a wait of about a month for researchers to conduct follow-up observations using ground-based telescopes. They also hope to eventually study the object with the Hubble Space Telescope or the James Webb Space Telescope.
In the meantime, Chen stated he remains committed to the quest for Planet Nine. However, new findings may complicate long-held theories about the existence of such a planet.
The hypothesis surrounding Planet Nine suggests that planets several times Earth’s size in the outer solar system might clarify why certain groups of icy objects seem to have unusually clustered orbits.
“Under the influence of Planet Nine, any object lacking a specific orbital geometry would eventually become unstable and be expelled from the solar system,” Yang explained.
Despite 2017’s long orbit leading it away from clustered objects, Yang’s calculations indicate that its path will remain stable for the next billion years.
In essence, if Planet Nine existed, 2017 would not persist. Yet, Yang emphasized that further research is essential, and the discovery of a new dwarf planet candidate does not definitively rule out Planet Nine’s existence.
For one thing, the simulations currently utilize a single hypothetical location for Planet Nine, and scientists do not all agree on the locations of these planets.
Konstantin Batygin, a planetary science professor at the California Institute of Technology, first proposed the existence of Planet Nine in a 2016 study co-authored with Mike Brown from Caltech.
He remarked that the discoveries related to 2017 neither confirm nor deny the theory. Batygin noted that outer solar system objects that might demonstrate gravitational influences of Planet Nine must have their closest points of orbit remain sufficiently distant and not interact significantly with Neptune.
“Unfortunately, this object does not fall into that category,” Batygin told NBC News. “It’s in a chaotic orbit, so the implications are not significant, as it complicates the scenario.”
Batygin expressed excitement about the new research for providing additional context regarding how objects evolve in the outer solar system, praising the researchers’ efforts in mining public datasets as “heroic.”
Chen, however, remains optimistic about finding Planet Nine.
“The entire project commenced as a search for Planet Nine, and I’m still in that mindset,” he remarked. “This, however, is an enthralling tale of scientific discovery. Whether or not Planet Nine exists, the pursuit is a captivating venture.”
Orbits of the potential dwarf planet known as 2017 OF201 and the dwarf planet Sedna
Tony Dunn
A newly discovered distant dwarf planet lies beyond Neptune, challenging the existence of the hypothetical Planet 9 or Planet X.
Sihao Cheng and colleagues first spotted this object, initially recognized in 2017, while reviewing data from the Victor M. Blanco telescope in Chile.
The 2017 OF201 measures roughly 700 km in diameter, qualifying it as a dwarf planet similar to Pluto, which is about three times larger. Currently, it is positioned approximately 90.5 astronomical units (AU) away from Earth, roughly 90 times the distance from the Earth to the Sun.
Classified as a Trans-Neptunian Object (TNO), 2017 OF201 has an average orbital distance from the Sun that exceeds Neptune’s orbit. It travels beyond Neptune and through the Kuiper Belt, a region of icy bodies on the outskirts of the solar system.
Researchers analyzed 19 observations collected over seven years at the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope. They determined that the next close approach of 2017 OF201 to the Sun would occur at perihelion, positioned at 44.5 AU, which is reminiscent of Pluto’s orbit. Its furthest point from the Sun lies at about 1600 AU, beyond our solar system.
This distant orbit may have resulted from an encounter with a large planet that ejected the dwarf planet from the solar system, according to researchers.
“This is a fascinating discovery,” says Kevin Napier from the University of Michigan. He explains that objects can interact with various stars in the galaxy as they move beyond our solar system and can also interact within our own solar system.
Many extreme TNO trajectories seem to be converging toward a specific direction, which some interpret as evidence for a hidden ninth planet within the Oort Cloud—a vast shell of icy rocks that surrounds the solar system. The speculation is that the gravitational pull of this ninth planet may be influencing TNOs into specific orbital paths.
However, the trajectory of 2017 OF201 does not align with this observed pattern. “This object is certainly an outlier among the observed clustering,” notes Erita Yang at Princeton University.
Cheng and his team also conducted simulations of object orbits concerning Planet 9. “With Planet 9, objects get ejected over hundreds of millions of years. Without it, they remain stable,” states Napier. “This is not evidence supporting the existence of Planet 9.”
Nevertheless, until more data is available, the matter remains unsettled, according to Cheng. “I hope that Planet 9 is real because it would be even more intriguing.”
This candidate dwarf planet takes approximately 25,000 years to complete its orbit, meaning we detect it for only about 1% of that time. “These objects are faint and very challenging to locate, and their elongated orbits make them visible only when they are near the Sun, resulting in a brief window for observation,” explains Napier.
It is possible that hundreds of such objects exist in the outer solar system. The upcoming Vera C. Rubin Observatory is expected to start operating later this year and may delve deeper into the universe to find more objects like this.
We have confirmation that a strange planet orbits between two stars
Aaron Alien/Shutterstock
Following extensive observation, scientists are on the verge of unraveling how pairs of stars engage in stable orbital dynamics surrounding elusive planets.
In 2004, David Lamb from the University of Canterbury, New Zealand, identified a puzzling repeating signal while monitoring the motion of a star pair in the Nu Octantis system. This initiated an ongoing discussion about whether planets twice the size of Jupiter exist in that system. Now, along with Ram Mann Whiley from the University of Hong Kong and his colleagues, they present strong evidence suggesting that Nu Octantis is a trio rather than a binary system.
A significant discovery was that the Nu Octantis planet is moving in reverse. The planet and one star orbit the second star in opposite directions, with the planet maintaining a close orbit around the latter. Lee observes that this is an unusual occurrence, but the system is stable. His team reached this conclusion thanks to enhanced measurement tools, like the HARPS spectrometer on the 3.6-meter telescope at the European Southern Observatory in Chile. The persistence of the planetary signal across years of observation reinforced their findings. “We’re pretty sure [the planet] is genuine. If it were related to stellar activity, it shouldn’t exhibit such consistency over years of data,” remarks Lee.
Nonetheless, this retrograde planet is not an uncommon feature of Nu Octantis. Researchers utilized a large telescope at the Southern European Observatory to determine that one of the stars is a white dwarf. Lee explains this complicates the history of Nu Octantis, as it suggests that the planet’s current orbit was impossible when it was younger, larger, and brighter.
Thus, the planet initially orbited both stars simultaneously but fundamentally changed its trajectory when one of the stars became a white dwarf, or it formed from a mass expelled when the stars transitioned to white dwarfs. Continued observations and mathematical modeling may clarify which scenario occurred, but both possibilities are novel, notes Lee.
For centuries, astronomers believed that all planets orbit the central star in the same direction, with regular intervals governing the orbital arrangement. However, Nu Octantis challenges these conventions, according to Manfred Kunz from the University of Texas at Arlington. “Scientists are urging us to broaden our understanding of star and planetary scenarios, in terms of both formation and evolution,” he states.
The two central stars of the NGC 1514 are displayed as one of the images from the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope, forming this scene for thousands of years and maintaining it for thousands more.
This web image shows the planetary nebula NGC 1514. Image credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/STSCI/Michael Ressler, JPL/Dave Jones, IAC.
NGC 1514 It is about 1,500 light years away from the Taurus sign.
The object, also known as the Crystal Ball Nebula, was discovered on November 13th, 1790 by German and British astronomer William Herschel.
He pointed out that NGC 1514 was the first deep sky object that really looked cloudy. He couldn’t resolve what he saw on individual stars in the cluster, like other objects he catalogued.
The ring around NGC 1514 was discovered in 2010, but Webb is now allowing astronomers to comprehensively examine the nature of the turbulent flow of this nebula.
“This scene has been formed for at least four,000 years and will continue to change over a thousand years,” Webb Astronomers said in a statement.
“In the center there are two stars that appear as one in Webb observations, caused by vivid diffraction spikes.”
“The star follows a solid, elongated nine-year orbit, covered in an arc of dust, represented by orange.”
“One of these stars, once a massive scale several times larger than our sun, played the lead role in producing this scene.”
“When the outer layers of the star were exhausted, only the hot, compact core was left behind.”
“As a white dwarf star, its winds rose sharply and weakened, and could have blown away the material into a thin shell.”
New Webb observations show that the nebula is at a 60-degree angle, which makes it appear that the can is poured in, but it is much more likely that the NGC 1514 took the shape of an hourglass and dropped the edges.
“Look for pinchwaist hints near the top left and bottom right. The dust is orange and drifts in a shallow V-shaped shape,” the astronomer said.
“When the star reached its peak of losing material, our peers may have become very close and have had these unusual shapes.”
“Instead of creating a sphere, this interaction may have instead formed a ring.”
“The NGC 1514’s outline is most clear, but the hourglass also has some sides of the 3D shape.”
“Look for a dim, translucent orange cloud between the rings that give to the nebula body.”
Nebula’s two rings are illuminated unevenly by Webb’s observations, appearing to be more diffused at the bottom left and top right.
Researchers believe that the rings are primarily made up of very small dust grains. This will get hot enough for Webb to detect when hit by ultraviolet rays from a white star star.
“In addition to dust, Webb revealed oxygen in its chunky pink center, especially at the edges of the bubbles and holes,” they said.
Officially named Kohoutek 4-55, this little-known planetary nebula is located within our Milky Way galaxy.
This Hubble image shows Kohoutek 4-55, a nebula of planets 4,600 light years away in the Cygnus constellation. Image credits: NASA/ESA/Hubble/K. Noll.
“The Nebula of Planets is a spectacular final exhibition at the end of the life of a giant star,” Hubble Astherm said in a statement.
“When the giant red star runs out of available fuel and flows the final gas layer, its compact core shrinks further, allowing for a final burst of fusion.”
“The exposed core reaches very high temperatures and emits very energetic UV rays, activating a huge cloud of casting gas.”
“Molecules in the gas are ionized and brighten.”
“Here, red and orange represent nitrogen molecules, green represent hydrogen, and blue represent nebulae oxygen.”
Kohoutek 4-55 is located approximately 4,600 light years away from the Cygnus constellation.
Also known as UHA 15 or G084.2+01.0, this nebula has an unusual multilayered form.
“The bright inner ring of the Kohoutek 4-55 is surrounded by a loose layer of gas, all wrapped in a wide halo of ionized nitrogen,” the astronomer said.
“The view is bittersweet. The short phase of the fusion of the cores ends tens of thousands of years, leaving behind a white dwarf who will never illuminate the surrounding clouds again.”
This image of Kohoutek 4-55 was captured by Hubble’s Widefield and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2).
“Installed in 1993 to replace the original Widefield and Planetary Camera (WFPC), WFPC2 was responsible for some of Hubble’s most persistent images and fascinating discoveries,” the researchers said.
“It was replaced in 2009 by Widefield Camera 3 (WFC3) during Hubble’s final service mission.”
“The data in this image was collected 10 days before the instrument was removed from the telescope, as a proper postponement for WFPC2,” he said.
“The latest and most advanced processing techniques are used to bring data to life once more, creating this breathtaking new view of Kohoutek 4-55.”
Observe the night sky tonight to witness a rare event known as the “Planet Parade,” where the planets in our solar system align in a row. This phenomenon involves Mars, Jupiter, Mercury, Venus, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune appearing in a straight line for a unique celestial display. This rare occurrence will not happen again until 2040.
The best time to view this spectacular event is on the evening of Friday, February 28th, 2025, when all seven planets will be visible in the sky. Astrophysicists like David Armstrong emphasize the significance of this planetary alignment and the rarity of such an occurrence.
To best observe this phenomenon, head outdoors just after sunset to catch a glimpse of Mercury, Mars, Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn. For a more detailed view, consider using binoculars or a telescope to see the distinctive features of each planet. Find a dark, remote spot away from city lights for the optimal viewing experience.
Where should I look to see the planets?
Identifying the planets in the sky can be challenging, but each has its unique brightness and position. Look for Venus in the west, the brightest object after sunset, followed by Jupiter overhead. Keep an eye out for Mercury, the closest planet to the sun, as it remains low on the horizon. The planets’ loose alignment creates a visual path across the sky, making it easier to track their movements.
Why is this planetary parade happening?
The alignment of planets is a result of their orbits in the zodiac plane, creating the illusion of alignment from Earth’s perspective. While this alignment is purely visual and does not have a significant impact on Earth, it provides a fascinating celestial display for observers to enjoy.
Meet our experts
Dr. Sham Balaji: A researcher at King’s College London, specializing in cosmic particle physics and cosmology.
Matt Burley: An astronomer and reader at the University of Leicester’s Department of Physics and Astronomy.
David Armstrong: An associate professor at Warwick University focusing on planet detection and the Neptinia desert.
All of our solar system planets line up in the night sky once this week. This extraordinary celestial event will see the sky scattered with seven visible planets in what is called a great planet alignment, or what is called a “planet parade.”
The eight planets in our solar system first formed from the same disc of debris around the sun, thus bringing the sun into orbit on roughly the same plane. The lines that line this plane appear along the zodiac when the sun crosses the daytime sky, as the sun crosses the daytime sky, appear all along the zodiac when the planets appear in the sky. The orbit is slightly tilted, so it’s not the perfect line of the planet, but it’s pretty close.
This is less obvious than during planetary alignment. Normally, only a few planets share the night sky, but the unusual alignment of all seven planets will be visible around a few nights, around February 28, depending on your location.
The best time to see is right after sunset, and you will have the opportunity to see all the planets arching in the sky, but all of them are near the horizon except Mars, Jupiter and Uranus. These three will continue to stroll all night, but by the time the sky is completely dark, Mercury and Saturn will sink below the horizon, and Neptune and Venus will soon follow.
The main thing that prevents such alignments from being invisible all the time is the difference in orbital periods between planets, except for the weather. Mercury closest to the Sun takes about 88 Earth days to complete its orbit, but Neptune, most of the distant planets, takes nearly 165 Earth years.
It is only possible to have a large alignment if the planets are all relatively far from the Sun, so they can be seen at night, so they are all in roughly the same half of the sky, so they can be seen at the same time. It’s a coincidence of an astonishing trajectory. Sometimes there are multiple large alignments per year, sometimes even if there are no more than one year, it can pass. A similar event is not scheduled to occur until 2040.
“It’s great to see the interest that Planet Parade is creating.” David Armstrong At the University of Warwick, UK. “It’s all great to be involved in astronomy, look up at the sky and evaluate the wonders of our solar system. I encourage anyone interested in going out and looking at the planets with their own eyes if they get the chance in the next few days.”
Three layers of the atmosphere of a giant tyro gas
ESO/m. Cone Messer
The atmosphere of a distant world is mapped in detail for the first time, revealing a strange, dizzy weather system, and the fastest winds ever blew inexplicably around the Earth's stratosphere.
Astronomers have been studying the WASP-121B, also known as Tylos, since 2015. A planet 900 light years away is a vast ball of gas twice the size of Jupiter, and the stars orbit very closely and complete their perfect orbit. Only 30 Earth Time. This close orbit heats the planet's atmosphere to a temperature of 2500°C, and is hot enough to boil iron.
now, Julia Seidel Chile and her colleagues' observatory in southern Europe use a very large telescope at the observatory to see in the burnt, hot atmosphere of Tyros, with at least three different layers of gas in different directions around the planet. I found out there. I've seen it before. “It's absolutely crazy, it's a science fiction-like pattern and behavior,” Seidel says.
The atmosphere of our solar system planets is driven by the internal temperature difference, whereas the winds in the upper layers are more affected by the temperature difference, and the strong wind flows are more affected by the temperature difference. shares a similar structure to Created by the heat of the sun, it warms the daylight side of the planet, while the other warms.
However, in the atmosphere of Tyros, it is driven by heat from the planetary stars, and it is the lower wind that moves away from the warm surface, but the jetstream is primarily in the middle layer of the atmosphere, surrounding the equator of Tyros. It looks like it's moving. In the direction of the planet's rotation. The upper layer also exhibits jetstream-like characteristics, but hydrogen gas floats outward from the planet. This is difficult to explain using current models, Seidel says. “What we're looking at now is actually the opposite of what comes out of theory.”
Furthermore, Tylos' jetstream is the most powerful ever, blasting at about 70,000 km/h on half the planet. This is almost twice as much as the previous record holder. It is unknown what exactly drives this velocity, but researchers believe it is caused by the planet's strong magnetic field or by ultraviolet rays from the stars. “This could change the flow pattern, but this is all very speculative,” Seidel says.
The vast alien planet has fierce winds blowing around its equator at nearly 30 times the speed of sound on Earth.
Lisa Nortman He and his colleagues at the University of Göttingen in Germany used the European Southern Observatory’s Very Large Telescope in Chile to observe WASP-127b, a gas giant exoplanet more than 500 light-years from Earth. Although slightly larger than Jupiter, it is one of the least dense planets we know of.
The researchers expected the light signal from the planet’s atmosphere to have one distinct peak, but instead they found two distinct peaks.
“It was a little confusing,” Nortman says. “But when we analyzed the data a little more carefully, it became clear that there were two signals. I was very excited – my first thought was that it must be some kind of super-rotating wind. I thought that right away.”
The researchers concluded that the two mountains were caused by rapid winds from the jet stream near the equator, with half of the wind moving toward Earth and the other half moving away from it. The wind appears to be made up of water and carbon monoxide, and appears to be moving at 33,000 kilometers per hour, the fastest wind ever measured on Earth.
“We’re talking about nine kilometers per second. Even Jupiter’s wind speeds are on the order of a few hundred meters per second, so this is actually an order of magnitude bigger.” vivian parmentier at Oxford University.
He says that if you were in this wind, you wouldn’t be able to feel such extreme speeds because it would be moving around you at the same speed. But because the wind moves from the hot side of the Earth, which is always facing the star, to the cold side, which is always in darkness, you will experience a temperature difference of several hundred degrees in a few hours.
Researchers don’t know why WASP-127b has such extreme winds, but Nortman said the planet has certain peculiarities, including a low density and an unstable orbit around its star. It is said that there are certain characteristics that may play a role. “However, no clear connection has been established between those facts and particularly strong winds.”
Most of us are aware that our planet is constantly spinning around its own axis as it orbits the sun. However, the Earth actually rotates around a tilted axis of 23.44°, leading to changes in its slope over time due to natural oscillations and cycles.
Human activities, such as global warming and groundwater extraction for irrigation, are causing significant changes in Earth’s tilt. Scientists have found that as polar ice melts and water redistributes, it can affect the planet’s rotation.
Researchers estimate that pumping large amounts of groundwater for irrigation purposes has led to significant changes in Earth’s tilt over recent decades. This redistribution of water mass is impacting the planet’s rotation, with measurable effects on sea levels and pole shifts.
Experts like Professor Seo Ki-won note that even small changes in water mass can affect Earth’s rotation, leading to shifts in its axis. These changes have been observed over the past few decades, indicating the impact of human activities on a global scale.
While these changes may not directly impact the climate, they do have implications for systems that rely on precise measurements and timing, such as GPS and financial markets. As Earth’s rotation slows due to mass redistribution, adjustments will need to be made to prevent system failures.
It is becoming increasingly clear that human activities are influencing not just the climate, but also the fundamental movements of Earth within space. As we continue to alter the planet’s mass distribution, we must be prepared to adapt our technologies and systems to accommodate these changes.
Saturn’s icy rings may be much older than they appear, as they are resistant to contamination from collisions with rocky debris.
Hyodo others. This suggests that the apparent youthfulness of Saturn’s rings may be due to resistance to pollution, rather than an indication that they were formed at a young age. Image credits: NASA / ESA / Hubble / A. Simon, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center / MH Wong, University of California, Berkeley / OPAL team.
Saturn’s rings were once thought to be ancient, perhaps forming at the same time as Saturn itself, about 4.5 billion years ago.
Over time, it is thought that the rock and ice particles that make up the ring become dirty and darkened by micrometeorite impacts.
However, when NASA’s Cassini spacecraft reached Saturn in 2004, it observed that Saturn’s rings appeared relatively bright and clean.
“According to the hypothesis that non-icy micrometeorite impacts act to darken Saturn’s rings over time, Saturn’s rings are estimated to be approximately 100 million to 400 million years old. “Cassini observations show that the particles in the rings appear to be relatively clean,” said Dr. Tatsuki Hyodo of Tokyo University of Science and colleagues.
“These younger age estimates assume that the rings formed from pure water ice particles with high accretion efficiency impacting non-ice micrometeorite material.”
In the new study, researchers used a computer model to simulate the collision between a micrometeorite and an ice ring particle.
They found that high-velocity collisions can cause the micrometeorite to evaporate, and that vapor can expand, cool, and condense in Saturn’s magnetic field to form charged nanoparticles and ions.
The researchers’ simulations showed that these charged particles could either collide with Saturn, be dragged into the atmosphere, or escape Saturn’s gravity altogether.
As a result, scientists suggest that little of this material builds up on the rings, keeping them relatively clean.
They say very low pollution levels mean Saturn’s rings are actually billions of years old and are simply maintaining a more youthful appearance. suggests that it is possible.
Although more research is needed, this process may also occur in the rings of Uranus and Neptune, as well as in the icy moons around the giant planets.
“High-velocity collisions leading to the production of charged nanoparticles and ions could potentially occur in places such as the rings of Uranus and Neptune or the icy moons around the giant planets,” the authors said.
“While this mechanism may not change the bulk composition of the impacted target, it suggests that the surface composition may change.”
“Furthermore, the new material from the impactor may not be efficiently incorporated into the satellite’s rings or surface and may be transported elsewhere.”
“Thus, most of the compositional differences observed in the various ring systems of giant planets may be due to their formation processes, for example when building materials come from outside the system, rather than to their post-formation dynamics.” There is a sex.”
of study Published in this week’s magazine natural earth science.
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Takashi Hyodo others. Pollution resistance of Saturn’s ring particles during micrometeoroid impact. nut. earth sciencepublished online on December 16, 2024. doi: 10.1038/s41561-024-01598-9
The impacts of climate change are widespread, ranging from biodiversity loss to extreme weather events, rising sea levels, wildfires, and mass human migrations. Each year reveals more about our impact on the environment, with some discoveries more surprising than others.
One of the most shocking revelations to join this list is the recent discovery that our greenhouse gas emissions are altering the Earth’s rotation.
As a result, Earth days are gradually becoming longer, potentially leading to significant changes in how we experience time in the future.
“It’s fascinating how our actions as humans can have such a profound impact on the entire planet through the extensive climate change we’ve triggered over the last century,” says Professor Benedict Soja, a scientist at ETH Zurich who contributed to uncovering this concerning trend.
“This effect may surpass previous significant influences on Earth’s rotation.”
Could we see more hours in a day?
We are familiar with the greenhouse effect, where gases like carbon dioxide trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere, leading to a rise in temperatures.
Last year, global temperatures were 1.18 degrees Celsius above the 20th-century average, approaching the 1.5 degrees Celsius target set in 2015 as a limit to avoid the worst consequences of climate change.
Record melting of Swiss glaciers in 2022 – Credit: Getty Images
The primary consequence of this warming is the melting of large ice areas in the Arctic and Antarctic, with Switzerland losing 10% of its glacier mass in the last two years, Antarctica shedding 150 billion tons of ice annually, and Greenland losing 270 billion tons.
While many are concerned about the impact of this melting on coastal areas, Soja and his team posed a different question: Will this significant mass redistribution likely prevail? What will be its broad-scale impact on the planet? In a recent study published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), they provided an answer.
“As the ice melts, the Earth’s mass shifts from the polar regions to the oceans,” Soja explained. “This results in the Earth becoming flatter and more oblate, with its mass moving further from the rotation axis.”
Understanding the Mechanism
Similar to any rotating object, the Earth adheres to the law of momentum conservation. Simply put, momentum must be preserved, and it depends on the moment of inertia and rotational speed. As mass moves away from the rotation axis due to melting ice, the moment of inertia increases.
Therefore, to uphold its momentum despite ice melting, the Earth’s rotation slows down, elongating our days.
Soja likens this concept to a figure skater performing a spin, where extending the arms slows down the rotation, while pulling them in speeds it up.
The study indicated that from 1900 to 2000, the climate’s impact on the length of Earth’s day ranged from 0.3 to 1.0 milliseconds per century. Since 2000, accelerated melting has raised this rate to 1.3 milliseconds per century, with a potential increase to 2.6 milliseconds per century by 2100 if emissions remain unchecked.
While these changes may seem small in our daily lives, they could have significant effects on a globally synchronized technological network.
Considerations on Time Management
Three main timescales play crucial roles in timekeeping: International Atomic Time (TAI), Universal Time (UT1), and Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). TAI relies on atomic clocks, UT1 is determined by Earth’s rotation, and UTC synchronizes the two.
Leap seconds were introduced in 1972 to align UTC with UT1 within 0.9 seconds.
Unlike predictable leap years, leap seconds are added irregularly as needed. Since 1972, 27 leap seconds have been added, with the most recent in 2016. Disruptions from leap seconds have caused issues in the digital age, impacting technology companies striving for synchronization.
Atomic clock made in Germany – Credit: Alamy
The recent discovery of Earth’s core slowing down further complicates matters. If the planet’s rotation continues to accelerate, a negative leap second may need to be introduced to UTC. This unprecedented situation poses substantial challenges as systems are unprepared for negative adjustments.
“This has never occurred before, and frankly, I don’t think anyone anticipated it,” Agnew remarked. He compares this scenario to the Y2K scare when concerns about potential computer errors surfaced at the end of the 20th century.
“The critical aspect is that we don’t know the consequences of introducing a negative leap second,” he cautioned. “The negative impacts could be unforeseen.”
According to Agnew, if the effects of climate change had not slowed down, a negative leap second would have been necessary in 2026. “Global warming might postpone negative leap seconds and eliminate their need entirely,” he noted.
While this discovery regarding climate change may offer a positive effect, considering less necessity for negative leap seconds, the implications of further greenhouse gas emissions outweigh any potential benefits. As the situation stands, negative leap seconds may still be required in 2029.
Perhaps it’s time to reconsider the current system?
Agnew proposed a solution to reduce the required precision between timescales, eliminating the need for negative leap seconds and allowing for more predictable positive adjustments.
“It could resemble a leap year. You add a fixed number of seconds at a specific time and accept that it may not be exact but is tolerable,” suggested Agnew.
This proposition aligns with the dominance of slowing over longer timescales, rather than the complex interactions involving Earth’s core or ice melting.
Efforts are reportedly underway to implement this system, with a target to eliminate the need for leap seconds by 2035. However, international agreement hurdles must be overcome. Failure to adapt before requiring a negative leap second could lead to unprecedented chaos, highlighting the urgency of the situation.
Meet the Experts
Benedict Soja: Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geoengineering at ETH Zurich.
Duncan Agnew: Professor Emeritus at Scripps Institution of Oceanography, specializing in crustal deformation measurement and geophysical data analysis.
Oriental hornet (Vespa orientalis) may drink you under the table
Vladimir Kazachikov/Shutterstock
One species of wasp, which often eats alcohol-containing foods, can retain alcohol at levels that other known animals cannot tolerate without causing side effects.
‘This is crazy,’ says study author Sofia Bucebuti at Ben-Gurion University in the Negev, Israel.
Oriental wasp diet (vespa orientalis) consists of ripe fruit containing nectar and grapes. This fruit contains sugar, which is converted to ethanol through natural fermentation over time.
While ethanol is highly nutritious for animals, it is also highly intoxicating. Even animals that routinely eat fermented fruit, such as fruit flies and shrews, cannot have more than 4% ethanol in their diet, Bucebuti and his colleagues say.
But when Bucebuti’s team fed the hornets nothing for a week other than various sugar solutions containing varying amounts of ethanol from 1 to 80 percent, the hornets seemed unaffected. Neither their behavior nor their lifespans changed. What makes this particularly surprising is that a solution containing 80% ethanol contains four times the alcohol content of what occurs in nature.
“We initially experimented with only 20%. [ethanol] And we are already surprised,” say study authors Elan Levin At Tel Aviv University, Israel. The 80% ethanol figure is “even more incredible.”
Analysis of the genomes of several wasp species suggests that the insects have two to four copies of the gene that produces NADP+, which helps break down alcohol. Researchers think this may help explain why the oriental hornet, and perhaps other wasp species, can process such large amounts of alcohol.
These findings “remind us that we’re not the only ones who like alcohol.” james fry at the University of Rochester in New York. However, because data from other animal studies are difficult to compare, researchers are not convinced that wasps are the only organisms that can process such large amounts of alcohol.
Wasps’ love of alcohol may give them a competitive advantage when it comes to eating nutritious, highly fermented foods, researchers say. Irene Stefanini At the University of Turin, Italy. She believes that the wasp’s resistance is probably related to the mutualistic relationship between the animal and fermenting brewer’s yeast. budding yeastWhich her study They have been shown to live in the intestines of wasps, survive, and even mate. Perhaps the wasp helps the yeast move from fruit to fruit, and the yeast helps the wasp find energy-rich food.
The frozen River Thames is being hit by cold winds, the Mersey docks are blocked by ice floes, and crops are failing in the UK. Meanwhile, rising sea levels are flooding the east coast of the United States, and the Amazon ecosystem is experiencing disruptions due to changing seasons. The world has undergone significant changes. What has caused this?
These events may seem like scenes from a disaster movie, but a recent scientific study focusing on the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) warns that these scenarios could become a reality as early as 2050. Learn more.
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What is AMOC, why is it vital, and what changes can we expect? Will disruptions lead to catastrophic events, and how can we address the situation?
The Importance of AMOC and Expected Changes
The AMOC, also known as the “Great Ocean Conveyor,” is a vast ocean current system that includes the Gulf Stream. It transports warm, salty water from the tropics northward into the North Atlantic Ocean. As this water cools and becomes denser, it sinks, flows back southward at depth, and eventually rises to the surface, creating a continuous circulation loop.
This circulation system moves significant amounts of heat around the Atlantic Ocean, equivalent to boiling approximately 100 billion kettles. The AMOC plays a crucial role in distributing heat input to the Northern Hemisphere and affects climate zones worldwide. Any weakening of the AMOC could lead to shifts in global climate patterns, impacting various regions.
Direct measurements of AMOC strength started in 2004 using the RAPID array across the Atlantic Ocean. Observations indicate a 10% decline in intensity over nearly two decades, but year-to-year variations pose challenges in determining a clear long-term trend.
Past indirect measures, such as cooling trends in southern Greenland, suggest a weakening AMOC. Salt accumulation in the South Atlantic further supports the notion of reduced heat and salt transport due to system weakening.
By studying marine sediment cores and ancient shells, paleoclimatologists have discovered that the current AMOC weakening is unparalleled in the last 1,600 years, indicating a potential 15% decline in the system’s strength.
Future Outlook for AMOC
Climate models predict a 30-50% weakening of AMOC by the end of the century if greenhouse gas emissions continue. This could result in altered weather patterns, increased extreme events, and sea level rise along certain coastlines.
A small increase in global temperatures might trigger a swift shutdown of the AMOC, leading to severe climate impacts. Understanding the potential collapse mechanisms, such as “salt feedback,” highlights the need for immediate climate action to prevent such scenarios.
Managing AMOC Risk
To mitigate the risks associated with AMOC collapse, we must urgently reduce greenhouse gas emissions, enhance climate resilience, and prepare for potential disruptions in food and water supplies. Addressing the root cause of global warming and implementing sustainable practices are crucial in safeguarding the stability of the Earth’s climate system.
Artist’s impression of Barnard’s b, a planet orbiting around Barnard’s star
ESO/M.Kornmesser
Barnard’s star, one of the Sun’s closest neighbors, appears to have at least one planet orbiting around it, and possibly three more that require further confirmation.
Astronomers have been searching for planets around Barnard’s star, 5.96 light-years away, since the 1960s. Barnard’s star is the next closest star to us after the three stars in the Alpha Centauri star system.
In 2018, researchers claimed to have discovered a planet at least three times the size of Earth called Barnard Star B, but subsequent analysis revealed that the apparent planet’s signal was actually a larger-than-expected star. Turns out it was caused by activity. .
now, Jonay González Hernández Researchers at the Canary Islands Institute of Astrophysics have announced the discovery of a new Barnard star b, which has about 40 percent the mass of Earth.
The planet is much closer to its star than any other planet in our solar system, completing an orbit in just over three Earth days. This also means that its surface temperature is around 125°C (257°F), too hot for liquid water or life to exist.
Using an instrument called Espresso on the European Southern Observatory’s Very Large Telescope in Chile, González Hernández and his team observed tiny wobbles in Barnard’s star’s position caused by the orbiting planet’s gravity. I discovered this star.
They also found evidence of three more planets orbiting the star. However, the signal wasn’t strong enough to be certain, so more observations will be needed to confirm that.
“These detections are very tricky and always difficult because there is stellar activity, the magnetic field of the star that rotates with the star,” he says. Rodrigo Fernando Diaz at the National University of San Martin, Argentina. González Hernández and his team have thoroughly checked whether the observations are from a planet, but there could always be “unknown unknowns,” Fernando Díaz said. says. To really confirm this, he says, data from other telescopes is needed, which could take years of observations.
Astronomers have discovered six new worlds that look like planets but formed like stars. These so-called “rogue worlds” are between five and 15 times the mass of Jupiter, and one of them may even host the beginnings of a miniature solar system.
Ray Jayawardene Using the James Webb Space Telescope, a researcher from Johns Hopkins University in Maryland and his colleagues discovered these strange worlds in the NGC 1333 star cluster. Despite being planet-sized, none of these worlds orbit a star. This indicates that they likely formed by the collapse of a cloud of dust and gas, similar to how stars like our Sun are born. These objects that form like stars but are not massive enough to sustain the fusion of hydrogen are called brown dwarfs, or failed stars.
“In some ways, the most shocking thing is what we didn't find,” Jayawardene says. “Even though we had the sensitivity to do so, we couldn't find anything with a mass less than five times that of Jupiter.” This may indicate that brown dwarfs can't form at lower masses — that is, they are the smallest objects that can form like stars.
From their observations, the researchers found that about 10 percent of the objects in NGC 1333 are made up of brown dwarfs — a much higher number than expected based on star formation models — and that additional processes, such as turbulence, may be driving the formation of these nomadic planets.
One of the brown dwarfs is particularly unusual, with a ring of dust around it similar to the ones that formed the planets in our solar system. At about five times the mass of Jupiter, it's the smallest planet with such a ring ever found and may mark the beginning of a strange, shrunken planetary system around a dysfunctional star.
“From the miniature world around these objects, [brown dwarf] “It will glow mostly in the infrared, with a very reddish glow, and over hundreds of millions of years it will gradually fade away and become invisible,” Jayawardene says. As the brown dwarf fades, any planets that form around it will freeze out completely, darkening the entire system and making it a less than promising world for searching for life.
Many years ago, at that time david kipping When he lived in London, he would walk home through the city and look up at the moon. For astronomers, its dimly glowing presence was a nightly source of inspiration. “It reminded us that satellites are waiting for us around exoplanets,” he says. “It made sense that we should look for them.”
It would be exciting to discover an exomoon, a natural satellite of a world outside our solar system. First, the moon may play a key role in determining the habitability of its host planet by dampening its wobble and promoting a stable climate, in the same way it did for Earth. there is. There may also be strange and wonderful configurations, such as a lunar ring or a moon with its own moon. But the most interesting thing is that some of them may be more suitable for life than exoplanets.
Kipping, now at Cornell University in New York, is part of a small community of astronomers exploring solar moons. At least statistics are on your side. About 5,500 exoplanets have been discovered so far, some of which may have dozens of moons. The problem is that it’s not easy to prove its existence. Two previous sightings of Kipping have been hotly debated.
But now there’s hope on the horizon, with many new ways to explore these objects, from monitoring rogue planets that have abandoned their stars to monitoring exoplanets’ gravitational wobbles. Armed with these new technologies, and new telescopes also in development, the Moon will…
Artist’s impression of WD 0816-310. Astronomers have discovered scars imprinted on the surface left when a star swallows a planet.
ESO/L. Calzada
Astronomers have discovered a white dwarf star with strange metallic scars on its surface. The scar likely formed when the star tore apart and ate a small planet in its orbit.
Researchers often find white dwarfs with traces of metal in their atmospheres that came from planets that fell into the star. It has long been thought that metals should be evenly distributed across the surfaces of these so-called contaminated white dwarfs; Jay Farihi Researchers at University College London have discovered a strange concentration of metal debris.
Researchers monitored the star, called WD 0816-310, for two months using the Very Large Telescope in Chile. They discovered that the white dwarf had an opaque piece of metal on top of one of its magnetic poles, blocking some of the star’s light as it rotated. This position indicates that material may have been funneled into the star by its magnetic field. “This is the same process that causes auroras on Earth: charged particles follow magnetic fields to the surface,” Farihi said.
The planet that WD 0816-310 destroyed was small, probably about the same size as the solar system’s asteroid Vesta, which is about 525 kilometers in diameter. Its interior is now prominently displayed on its host star, which could make it relatively easy to study what its geochemistry was like before it was engulfed. Such studies may even be one of the best ways to observe small worlds outside our solar system, even after they disappear.
And there may be many other stars that have been similarly damaged. “When we find something outlandish, it’s often because they all looked that way and we just weren’t asking the right questions,” Farihi says. “This is the first, but it probably won’t be the last.” In fact, researchers have already discovered two white dwarfs that appear to have similar scars. If we go back and observe similar stars over and over again, we may discover even more stars.
Its mauve, suction cup-covered arms gently unfold to grab an egg shaped like an elongated ping-pong ball. A jet of water from a siphon next to the octopus's head ensures that the unhatched cubs get enough oxygen.
From a distance, she is surrounded by hundreds of females, living up to her nickname. The pearl octopus (Muusoctopus robotus) resembles a spherical gem that sits on the ocean floor. This is the largest known assemblage of eight-armed molluscs on Earth, numbering approximately 20,000 individuals, and has been witnessed by people all over the world in astonishingly high resolution. “Oceans” episode BBC series Planet Earth III.
This view would have been amazing enough even if it were from shallow water, including tropical coral reefs and kelp forests. But these octopus mothers tend to their eggs in freezing cold and darkness, about 2 miles below the surface. of the deep sea.
“The fact that there is life there is amazing in itself,” says the producer and director. Will Ridgeon They spent two years photographing the octopus, collaborating with scientists and technicians at California's Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI).
The aptly named pearl octopus rears its eggs in an octopus garden surrounded by flower-like anemones. – Credit: Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
The octopus farm, as the site is now known, is located on a hill in the eastern Pacific Ocean, 160 km (100 miles) southwest of Monterey Bay, near a giant underwater mountain called Davidson Seamount. This place was discovered during his expedition in 2018. live streamed over the internet.
It was the first time I had ever seen so many creatures in one place, let alone in the deep sea. (Octopuses are notoriously solitary animals and tend to be cannibalistic when kept together in captivity.) ).
Ridgeon watched the livestream of the discovery and immediately knew it was a story to be filmed in a new BBC series.he teamed up with Dr. Jim Barrya senior scientist at MBARI, began regularly visiting octopus farms in 2019 to learn more about why so many octopuses congregate in certain areas.
“The question is, why is it there?” Barry says. Barry and his colleagues gathered specialized tools and began a series of detailed studies. They created a photomosaic of his 2.5-hectare (about 27,000 square feet2) portion of the property and stitched together high-resolution images that allowed them to count the octopus population.
They also installed time-lapse cameras on the ocean floor, taking close-up photos every 20 minutes at a time for months to show what the octopuses were doing, and Barry's team gradually expanded the octopus park's largest began to unravel some of the mysteries.
Octopus farm location. – Image credit: MBARI
work remotely
Ridgeon took part in an expedition to an octopus farm early on. Initially, filming took place during lockdown, so he participated via live video link from his bedroom in Bristol, England (with occasional interruptions from his five-year-old daughter).
Once COVID-19 restrictions allowed, Ridgeon joined Barry and his team aboard MBARI's vessel, the research vessel Western Flyer. However, no one visited the octopus farm directly. All surveys and filming were done using a car-sized remotely operated vehicle (ROV) equipped with a camera and a robotic arm.
The dive began around 6 a.m., and the ROV was lowered into the ocean through a hole in the Western Flyer's hull called the moonpool. “It's very James Bond,” Ridgeon says. The descent to the octopus garden can take up to two hours, and the ROV will remain there all day.
The pilot controls the ROV via a cable connected to a control room on the ship on the ground, and everyone watches the video feed to see what's happening below.
Researchers survey the octopus farm from the Western Flyer's ROV control room. – Credit: Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
“You forget you're looking at a screen,” Ridgeon says. “You think you're there,” says the MBARI engineer. He worked with the BBC to find the ideal camera setup to photograph the octopus garden. It was not possible to use footage from a camera fixed to the ROV due to too much vibration.
“I think the BBC will do a little bit about that.” [shivering]“But not as much as we had,” Barry says. ROVs “shudder” not because of the cold temperatures of the deep ocean, but because the thrusters must be activated constantly to ensure they stay close to the ocean floor (ROVs are positively buoyant, so if they fail they will ). .
To get around this, Barry and Ridgeon used a separate 4K camera mounted on a specially designed stand that could be placed on the ocean floor.
“I think that's the secret behind the images,” Ridgeon says. Unlike the ROV cameras used by scientists, which can only reach within a few meters of objects on the ocean floor, the 4K camera's focal length of about 20 centimeters (7 to 8 inches) allows it to precisely navigate between octopuses. can be captured.
But it was difficult to use. It took up to 40 minutes to get into position, and the team had to hope it wouldn't fall over and the action would happen in front of it. Ridgeon operated the camera from the ship using his PlayStation controller, which MBARI engineers adapted for the job. “At first it's like trying to film him with his hands tied behind his back,” Ridgeon said.
Another challenge with deep-sea photography is light. “Put the light as far away from the camera as possible, ideally around the sides so it’s three-quarters backlit. [the scene]That way, there are no reflections from any debris in the water,” explains Ridgeon.
The octopus garden provides insight into the life and reproduction of molluscs. – Credit: Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
Those “fragments” are marine snow. These are organic particles that constantly rain down from the shallow ocean above. Marine snow is made up of dead plankton and their feces stuck together by microbial glue, and is the main food source for deep-sea animals. However, it makes filming difficult as the movie can look like it was shot in a snowstorm.
To see through the snowstorm and achieve the desired three-quarters backlighting effect, the MBARI team built a lighting system that the ROV could hold on its side, away from the camera. “That's how we got some really great shots,” Barry says.
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Accelerate development
As Barry's investigation and BBC filming progressed, the team made some surprising discoveries. First, no medium-sized octopus ever visited this location, and there were no signs of it feeding. It was only a fully grown adult octopus.
They were here to breed and for no other purpose. It may be called an octopus farm, but this place is definitely an octopus farm. The researchers also collected evidence that incubating females use on-site hot springs to speed up the development of their offspring.
For octopuses, there is a strong relationship between temperature and hatching time. The colder it is, the longer it will take and the more dangerous it will be. This is because there are scavengers that prey on unborn, unprotected octopus eggs.
Temperature studies have shown that the seawater surrounding each octopus nest can reach 10°C (50°F), much warmer than the 1.6°C (34°F) seawater just a few meters away. It was shown. By observing specific octopuses (identifiable by scratch and scar patterns) in the field, Barry and his colleagues determined that their eggs take an average of 1.8 years to hatch.
During this time, the female does not move but is constantly fighting off predators and guarding her approximately 60 eggs. “Once you plant an egg on a rock, that's it. You can't leave that spot,” Barry says. At just under two years, it's not the longest parenting period for an octopus. This record is given to another species that other MBARI scientists discovered nearby, Graneledon boreopafica, clinging to the sides of Monterey She Canyon 1.4 km (just under a mile) deep. I did.
Researchers watched one female incubate her eggs for four and a half years, longer than any other recorded animal. However, she was growing her eggs in water that was much warmer than the octopus park's ambient temperature of 1.6 degrees Celsius. Without the hot springs, the eggs in the octopus garden would take more than 10 years to hatch. When this site was discovered, biologists were surprised to find octopuses nesting there.
But geologists were fascinated by warm water seeping through the ocean floor, something they had never seen before. These springs are much cooler than the red-hot hydrothermal vents that form at the edges of tectonic plates where new molten ocean floors are created.
Although the enormous pressure will not cause the water to boil, the temperature around the vent can reach hundreds of degrees. These were first discovered in his 1970s, and plumes of hydrothermal water rise up to hundreds of meters in the water column, making them relatively easy to detect with temperature probes. In contrast, hot springs are more difficult to find because they form away from these tectonically active regions and have much cooler temperatures.
But geologists believe they could exist in the thousands and are highly stable, likely remaining in the same location for hundreds or even thousands of years. Therefore, biologists believe that more octopus farms may be established around these springs.
birth and death
In the final scene of the “Octopus Garden” episode Planet Earth III, a cluster of tiny sucker-like arms appears beneath the brooding female, then a wobbling young octopus swims away into the darkness like a mini-umbrella. More chicks follow and begin life at sea.
No one knows where they're going…yet. “That's what I want to understand next,” Barry says. The hatchlings are large for a newborn octopus, at about 6 cm (2 inches), so they have the best chance of survival. But as anyone who has seen the Octopus documentary knows, this comes at a heavy cost to mothers.
“These mothers are trying so hard to protect their bloodlines, and they're just dying out,” Barry says. Her father died a few years ago, shortly after mating. On the screen, we see the women's eyes cloudy and their bodies wrinkled. Ridgeon saw what happened next, but she decided it was not suitable for an evening television audience.
Dead octopuses are quickly attacked by scavengers such as fish, snails, sea anemones, and shrimp. For Barry, this is another important part of his discovery at the octopus farm. The nesting season is asynchronous, with octopuses hatching and mothers dying throughout the year. Approximately 9 each day. The female octopus' body nourishes the rest of the ecosystem and helps supplement the energy input from marine snow by 72 percent.
Graneledon boreopafica (a species of octopus that incubates eggs in cold water) has a 4.5 year rearing period, which holds the record for the longest rearing period of any animal. – Credit: Alamy
“This is clearly a huge food subsidy for the local ecosystem,” Barry says. “That wouldn't happen in shallow water,” he added. Because there is a lot of food around. But in the more barren depths, nothing goes to waste.
The BBC has finished filming at the octopus farm, but Barry's research continues. One of the things he wants to know is the age of the sea anemone. These are giant orange flower-like animals that make the octopus garden look like a real garden.
Barry studies sea anemones, which live for decades in shallow coastal waters, and finds that deep-sea species can survive for centuries, in contrast to octopuses, which are relatively short-lived. That's what I'm thinking.
“They're like sentinels that just sit there while the octopus cycles,” he says. There are many more questions Barry would like to answer. “Are octopuses confined to this breeding form in warm areas, or are they able to breed elsewhere with cooler ambient temperatures? Is there fidelity to specific nest sites? ?Will they return to their place of birth?'' he asks.
No one knows how far the octopuses travel before they reach the garden or how they found them, but Barry said he was surprised by the large number of dead and dying octopuses floating around. I suspect I smelled it. “We'll definitely be back,” he says.
When I found out the date of the end of the Earth, everything seemed so simple. Five billion years from now, the solar system will have changed dramatically. Instead of the gentle presence we are accustomed to, the sun will become a behemoth, hundreds of times larger than it is today. In the process, it will wipe out the rocky inner planets, including our own.
Or will it be? We recently witnessed the death stages of another star for the first time. And miraculously, it seems some planets will be able to survive this apocalyptic era. Observations like these call into question the story of how the Earth will die, and give us hope that somehow the Earth may outlast the Sun. Even if it doesn’t, all is not lost. The study also provides clues as to where humans might best seek refuge.
How does the sun die?
The sun is powered by nuclear fusion. In nuclear fusion, hydrogen atoms fuse into helium, releasing a huge amount of energy in the process. However, the fate of our star is determined by one fact. This means that the supply of hydrogen is limited. As this energy begins to deplete, in about another 5 billion years, the Sun’s internal structure will change and it will expand to about 200 times its current size. It will change from the current yellow dwarf to a red giant. After another billion years, the star shrinks and expands again, before disappearing and becoming a stellar corpse called a white dwarf.
Recent observations of the young star DG Taurus reveal a smooth protoplanetary disk in which no planets have yet formed, suggesting that it is on the brink of this process. The findings show unexpected dust grain growth patterns and provide new insights into the early stages of planet formation. Credit: SciTechDaily.com
Astronomers have become very good at finding signs of planet formation around stars. However, to fully understand planet formation, it is important to examine cases where this process has not yet begun.
Looking for something and not finding it can sometimes be even more difficult than finding it, but new detailed observations of the young star DG Taurus reveal that the planet is a smooth protoplanet with no signs of planet formation. It was shown that it has a system disk. This lack of detected planet formation may indicate that DG Taurus is on the eve of planet formation.
Image of radio radiation intensity from a disk near DG Taurus observed with ALMA. Rings have not yet formed within the disk, suggesting that planets are about to form.Credit: ALMA (ESO/National Astronomical Observatory/NRAO), S. Obashi et al.
Protoplanetary disk and planet growth
Planets form around protostars, which are young stars that are still forming, in disks of gas and dust known as protoplanetary disks. Planets grow so slowly that it is impossible to observe their evolution in situ. Therefore, astronomers observe many protostars at slightly different stages of planet formation to build theoretical understanding.
This time, an international research team led by Satoshi Ohashi of the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ) has developed the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (alma telescope) will conduct high-resolution observations of the protoplanetary disk surrounding the relatively young protostar DG Taurus, located 410 light-years away in the direction of Taurus. The researchers found that DG Taurus has a smooth protoplanetary disk and no rings that would indicate planet formation. This led the research team to believe that the DG Taurus system could begin forming planets in the future.
Unexpected discoveries and future research
The researchers found that during this pre-planetary stage, dust particles are within 40 astronomical units (about twice the size of Earth’s orbit). Uranus The radius of the central protostar is still small, but beyond this radius the dust particles begin to grow, which is the first step in planet formation. This goes against the theoretical expectation that planet formation begins inside the disk.
These results provide surprising new information about dust distribution and other conditions at the beginning of planet formation. Studying more examples in the future will further deepen our understanding of planet formation.
Reference: “Dust concentration and particle growth in the smooth disk of a DG tau protostar revealed by ALMA triple-band frequency observations” Satoshi Ohashi, Munetake Momose, Akiraka Kataoka, Aya Higuchi E, Takashi Tsukagoshi, Takahiro Ueda, Claudio Codella, Linda Podio, Tomoyuki Hanawa, Nami Sakai, Hiroshi Kobayashi, Satoshi Okuzumi, Hidekazu Tanaka, August 28, 2023, of astrophysical journal. DOI: 10.3847/1538-4357/ace9b9
This research was funded by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, the German Foundation, and the European Union.
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