The recently uncovered theropod and sauropod footprints from the Late Jurassic Mahara Formation are the oldest dinosaur tracks documented in Chile and along the western edge of the ancient supercontinent Gondwana.
Palaeoartistic reconstruction of Quebrada Huatacon from the Late Jurassic period. Image credit: Nahuel Vazquez.
“The Late Jurassic fossil record highlights significant disparities in the density and distribution of dinosaur footprints between Laurasia and Gondwana,” stated Dr. Marco Yurac from the School of Paleontology and his colleagues.
“In Europe alone, numerous footprint sites have been identified, including regions in Italy, Croatia, Poland, Spain, Switzerland, France, Germany, and Portugal.”
“Moreover, North America boasts extensive track sites rich in ichthyological evidence.”
“Conversely, dinosaur footprints in Gondwana are relatively scarce and fragmentary, with notable exceptions like footprint-bearing outcrops in the High Atlas Mountains of Morocco.”
“Beyond these, ichthyological evidence is limited, with only a few records from Australia.”
“In South America, the majority of dinosaur footprints are found along the eastern coast, particularly in Brazil, Guyana, and Uruguay, with additional reports from northern locales like Colombia.”
“In contrast, on the western coast of South America, corresponding to Gondwana’s western boundary, Late Jurassic dinosaur footprints have only been discovered in Chile.”
A track consisting of four consecutive imprints from a large three-fingered dinosaur in the Mahalla Formation of Chile. Image credit: Yurac et al., doi: 10.1186/s13358-025-00419-9.
Paleontologists have discovered five distinct formations containing footprints within the Majara Formation in the Quebrada Huatacondo area of Chile.
These footprints were created by theropod and sauropod dinosaurs approximately 160 million years ago.
“Around 160 million years ago, northern Chile experienced cycles of flooding and drought,” explained the researchers.
“While the climate was primarily arid, temporary wetlands formed from seasonal water accumulation, attracting a variety of animals, from small theropods to massive carnivorous dinosaurs.”
“As dinosaurs traversed wet mud near these water sources, their footprints were imprinted into the soft sediment.”
“Subsequent flooding gently covered these tracks, preserving them for millions of years.”
The Majara footprints reveal the existence of giant (51-52.8 cm), large (43.5-46.5 cm), and medium-sized (25-27 cm) theropod dinosaurs.
One surface showcases over 25 footprints (ranging from 8 to 13 cm), attributed to microscopic theropods.
“These footprints represent the smallest theropod prints ever recorded in Chile, and likely extend across the entire western margin of Gondwana,” said the scientists.
Another surface is the only stratigraphic level exhibiting solely sauropod footprints (potentially undertracks).
“Due to their poor state of preservation, exact quantitative measurements were not feasible,” commented the authors.
“Nonetheless, analyses of the digital model suggest at least nine footprints with configurations indicative of potential movements.”
Paleontologists assert that this discovery represents the earliest known dinosaur footprints from Chile and the western margin of Gondwana.
“These footprints offer crucial insights for reconstructing the paleoenvironment and behavioral patterns of dinosaurs in northern Chile during the Late Jurassic, reflecting the temporary inhabitation of semi-arid floodplain and ephemeral wetland ecosystems,” the researchers concluded.
This significant finding is detailed in a research paper published in the Swiss Journal of Paleontology.
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M. Yurac et al. 2025. Upper Jurassic dinosaur footprints from the Mahara Formation of the Huatacondo region (Tarapaca Basin, Chile): Reassessment of known localities and discovery of new footprints. Swiss Journal of Paleontology 144, 72; doi: 10.1186/s13358-025-00419-9
The quantum computing industry is concluding the year with renewed hope, despite the absence of fully operational quantum systems. At December’s Q2B Silicon Valley Conference, industry leaders and scientists expressed optimism regarding the future of quantum computing.
“We believe that it’s highly likely that someone, or perhaps several entities, will develop a genuinely industrially viable quantum computer, but we didn’t anticipate this outcome until the end of 2025,” stated Joe Altepeter, program manager for the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency’s Quantum Benchmarking Initiative (QBI). The QBI aims to evaluate which of the competing quantum computing approaches can yield practical devices capable of self-correction or fault tolerance.
This initiative will extend over several years, involving hundreds of professional evaluators. Reflecting on the program’s initial six months, Altepeter noted that while “major roadblocks” were identified in each approach, none disqualified any team from the pursuit of practical quantum devices.
“By late 2025, I sense we will have all major hardware components in place with adequate fidelity; the remaining challenges will be primarily engineering-focused,” asserted Scott Aaronson, a key figure in the field, during his presentation at the University of Texas at Austin. He acknowledged the ongoing challenge of discovering algorithms for practical quantum applications, but highlighted significant progress in hardware developments.
Though quantum computing hardware advancements are encouraging, application development is lagging, according to Ryan Babush from Google. During the conference, Google Quantum AI alongside partners unveiled the finalists for the XPRIZE competition, aiming to accelerate application development.
The research by the seven finalists spans simulations of biomolecules crucial for human health, algorithms enhancing classical simulations for clean energy materials, and calculations that could impact the diagnosis and treatment of complex health issues.
“A few years back, I was skeptical about running applications on quantum computers, but now my interest has significantly increased,” remarked John Preskill, a pivotal voice in quantum computing at Caltech, advocating for the near-term application of quantum systems in scientific discovery.
Over the past year, numerous quantum computers have been employed for calculations, including the physics of materials and high-energy particles, potentially rivaling or surpassing traditional computational methods.
While certain applications are deemed particularly suitable for quantum systems, challenges remain. For instance, Pranav Gokhale at Inflection, a company manufacturing quantum devices from cryogenic atoms, is implementing Scholl’s algorithm—a classic method capable of breaking many encryption systems used by banks today. However, this initial implementation still lacks the computational power necessary to effectively decrypt real-world encrypted information, illustrating that significant enhancements in both hardware and software are essential.
Dutch startup Quantware has proposed a solution to the industry’s major hardware challenge, asserting that increasing quantum computer size can enhance computational capacity while maintaining reliability. Their quantum processor unit design aims to utilize 10,000 qubits, roughly 100 times the capacity of most current superconducting quantum computers. According to Matt Reilersdam, QuantWare anticipates having its first device operational within two and a half years. Other firms, such as IBM and Quantinuum, are working toward similar large-scale quantum systems, while QuEra aims to fabricate 10,000 qubits from ultra-cold atoms within a year, intensifying the competitive landscape.
Moreover, the quantum computing industry is projected to expand significantly, with global investments expected to rise from $1.07 billion in 2024 to approximately $2.2 billion by 2027, as noted in a Quantum Computing Industry Survey by Hyperion Research.
“More individuals than ever can now access quantum computers, and I believe they will accomplish things we can scarcely imagine,” said Jamie Garcia from IBM.
A recent study conducted by researchers from the University of Cambridge and La Trobe University questions the classification of the Littlefoot fossil, Australopithecus prometheus.
Littlefoot fossil from Sterkfontein Cave, central South Africa. Image credit: Purdue University.
The Littlefoot fossils were found in 1994 within a cave in Sterkfontein, central South Africa.
This specimen, referred to as StW 573, drew its name from the four small leg bones discovered in a box containing animal fossils, leading to the uncovering of the skeleton.
In the 2010s, paleoanthropologist Ronald Clark proposed that Littlefoot belonged to a hominin species known as Australopithecus prometheus.
Others argued that it was Australopithecus africanus, a hominid species first identified by Australian anatomist Raymond Dart in 1925 and already well-known in the region and across South Africa.
However, a new investigation by Dr. Jesse Martin and his team at La Trobe University has determined that Littlefoot does not exhibit a distinct set of traits linked to either species, suggesting it may be a completely new species.
“This fossil represents one of the most significant discoveries in human history, and its identity is crucial for understanding our evolutionary background,” stated Martin.
“We believe it’s evident that it does not belong to Australopithecus prometheus or Australopithecus africanus. This is likely a previously unidentified ancestor of humans.”
“Dr. Clark deserves recognition for discovering Littlefoot and for being among the few to suggest the presence of two hominin species in Sterkfontein.”
“Littlefoot indicates that this is likely true; there are indeed two species.”
Another forensic facial reconstruction of Australopithecus species – afarensis. Image credit: Cicero Moraes / CC BY-SA 3.0.
The researchers now intend to determine which species Littlefoot represents and how it fits within the human evolutionary tree.
Professor Andy Herries, a researcher at La Trobe University and the University of Johannesburg, remarked: “Littlefoot is one of the most complete and significant fossils ever discovered, providing valuable insights into early human diversity and how our ancestors adapted to various environments in southern Africa.”
“It is distinctly different from the designated specimen of Australopithecus prometheus, a classification based on the notion that early humans mastered fire, which we now understand was not the case.”
“Its unique significance compared to other contemporary fossils clearly indicates the necessity of defining it as a distinct species.”
Regarding this research, a paper was published in the December 2025 issue of the American Journal of Biological Anthropology.
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Jesse M. Martin et al. 2025. StW 573 Littlefoot fossil is Australopithecus prometheus. American Journal of Biological Anthropology 188 (4): e70177; doi: 10.1002/ajpa.70177
Inside a drawstring bag, you’ll find equipment like bug nets, tweezers, and small plastic vials. This may seem unusual for a photographer, but for Michael Benson, it’s just part of his routine. He dedicated over six years to gathering specimens for his latest publication, Nanocosmos: A Journey Through Electronic Space, a collection showcasing the microscopic realm in exquisite detail.
“I’m fascinated by the boundary between known and unknown territories—an area often linked to science,” he shares. “However, I approach it as an artist, not a scientist.”
That didn’t deter Benson from utilizing tools typically reserved for physicists and biologists. He produced all images for Nanocosmos using a formidable scanning electron microscope (SEM). This advanced technique employs a highly focused electron beam to intricately map surface contours. The resulting images portray submillimeter objects with such clarity that they appear almost extraterrestrial.
Take, for instance, the Acilidae musbifolia (as seen in the main image) alongside a flowering plant in Alberta, Canada. Even together, they span only slightly more than 1 cm. But with SEM technology, we can observe nearly every hair on the fly’s body, each claw on its legs, and even some of the countless individual receptors forming its bulging eyes.
Benson first utilized SEM in 2013 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Media Lab. “Learning to master SEM was challenging, requiring several years of practice,” he notes. Every specimen must be coated with “a molecularly thin layer of platinum to prevent charging by the electron beam,” and meticulously dried to maintain surface details.
Wing of the Erythemis simplicicollis dragonfly, approximately 3 mm wide, seen from the tip.
The image above showcases the wing feathers of the eastern pontaka dragonfly (Erythemis simplicicollis), captured from beneath at the wing tip. This species is found across the eastern two-thirds of the United States, as well as in southern Ontario and Quebec, Canada. The wings are about 3 mm wide.
Below are images of single-celled marine organisms, specifically Hexalonche philosophica, collected from the equatorial region of the Pacific Ocean, measuring just 0.2 millimeters from tip to tip.
Marine organism Hexalonche philosophica, about 0.2 mm in length
Another marine specimen, Ornithocercus magnificus (featured below), is a type of plankton discovered in the Gulf Stream off Florida’s coast, measuring approximately 0.1 mm in width.
Ornithocercus magnificus, with a width of about 0.1 mm.
The late Ian M. Banks, renowned author of the Culture science fiction series
Ray Charles Redman
As an author of space operas set in unique universes, I’ve always created detailed world-building documents—everything from character arcs to intricate plot outlines and comprehensive cultural entries. This is a crucial aspect of my writing process, and I’ve been studying exemplary models in world-building. One outstanding example is the late Ian M. Banks, who passed in 2013 and was an exceptional architect of worlds.
Best known for his Culture series, Banks portrayed this cultural civilization as a “secular paradise.” In his envisioned world, human, machine, and AI coexist in a post-scarcity utopia, managed by a benevolent AI known as the Mind, which oversees societal well-being. Unlike other science fiction narratives that depict AI as tyrants (think The Matrix), in the Culture, humans and machines enjoy equal rights and meaningful, trusting relationships. Ultimately, while machines govern, they generally make sound decisions, leaving the human population free from oppression.
Yet, it’s rarely that straightforward. In Banks’ The Player of Games (1988), the protagonist, Guruge, becomes disenchanted with his seemingly perfect life within the Culture. His visit to the whimsical Empire of Azad reveals a stark contrast as its inhabitants challenge their cultural utopia, driven by valid grievances. This world has a condescending and ethnographic view of other civilizations, leading to debates about whether to leave them be or assimilate them. In the novella Consider Phlebas, members of the Contact Service acknowledge that integrating Earth into their world could lead to billions of deaths, yet they deem it acceptable if it ultimately creates something better. This ongoing struggle between an idyllic culture and a supremacist empire is a recurring theme, skillfully explored by Banks. His world-building richly contributes to this exploration.
As someone fascinated by the intricacies of world-building, I recently immersed myself in Banks’ posthumously published work, Culture: Drawing, which compiles a collection of his handwritten sketches and notes.
In this book, he addresses a question that resonates with my own writing: What languages do my characters speak, and why? What naming customs do I follow for people and places? How does technology influence not just societal structures but everyday life? Banks’ sketches provide insights into these queries, featuring rough designs of ships, elaborate diagrams of weaponry, numerical calculations, and detailed maps that illustrate both the utopian and militaristic elements of the Culture. These documents reveal the depth of Banks’ writing process and how he achieved the distinctive universe and civilization.
Concept art of the Mini Drone Advanced Weapons System (M-DAWS) microdrone by Iain M. Banks
Ian M. Banks Estate 2023
Currently, I am working on a novel that involves an advanced extraterrestrial culture. I often think back to Octavia Butler’s Lilith’s Brood, where a benevolent alien race restricts humanity’s agency. Additionally, Jack Sternberg’s short story “So Far From Home” comes to mind, depicting aliens visiting Earth with a persistent disdain for humanity. And then there’s Banks. His writings serve as a comprehensive guide for crafting worlds that feel authentic and relatable, even amidst the unfamiliar. While I may lack Banks’ artistic prowess, I share his inclination to visualize societies, design blueprints for communal spaces, and create star maps to highlight significant locations.
This is the exhilarating allure of science fiction for me—an imaginative world waiting to be explored.
Octavia E. Butler, a source of inspiration for Bethany Jacobs
Malcolm Ali/Wire Image/Getty
However, Banks’ world-building extends beyond the overt. The reason I am drawn to Banks, as previously mentioned, is his work Consider Phlebas, where the protagonist is an alien visitor to Earth. This character approaches Earth’s culture and history with a mix of curiosity and horror, discovering the complexities of humanity’s past. While the narrative often maintains a light-hearted tone, Banks deftly injects darker undertones that illustrate cultural dilemmas.
A notable scene occurs during a dinner party where the character Lee makes absurd claims about Earth’s destruction. His friends tease him, yet their seeming lack of urgency contrasts with the gravity of historical atrocities, akin to the “Final Solution.” The moment peaks when Lee presents lab-grown human cells for consumption—a grotesque dish of human flesh. “If only they could see us now!” one character exclaims joyously. “Cannibals from outer space!”
This world-building instance captivates me.
Consuming a human steak cultivated in a lab starkly differs in magnitude from historical atrocities like the Holocaust, yet both reveal a chilling numbness toward human life—a farcical detachment from those perceived as lesser beings. This scene offers a glance at a culture that Banks’ illustrations of weaponry and colossal ships may suggest but cannot fully convey on an emotional level. Thus, in Banks’ novels, world-building encompasses more than geography, language, and technology; it embodies tone. His unique blend of levity and unease showcases his mastery of the craft.
If you are new to Banks, I highly recommend exploring his sketches and technical notes. They afford valuable insights into the construction and mechanics of creating new worlds. Pay attention to the inherent contradictions and uncertainties woven through character dialogues and introspections, an area where Banks excels particularly. Observe his tone. Appreciate his humor. For me, this is the most profound lesson.
Bethany Jacobs is the Philip K. Dick Award-winning author of novels.Burning Stars(Trajectory). Ian M. Banks Culture novelThe Player of Games(Orbit) is the December 2025 read for the New Scientist Book Club. Join us for the discussion here.
The above image displays untreated E. coli bacteria, with the lower image showing the effects of polymyxin B after 90 minutes.
Carolina Borrelli, Edward Douglas et al./Nature Microbiology
High-resolution microscopy unveils how polymyxins, a class of antibiotics, penetrate bacterial defenses, offering insights for developing treatments against drug-resistant infections.
Polymyxins serve as a last-resort option for treating Gram-negative bacteria responsible for serious infections like pneumonia, meningitis, and typhoid fever. “The priority pathogens identified by the top three health agencies globally are predominantly Gram-negative bacteria, highlighting their complex cell envelopes,” states Andrew Edwards from Imperial College London.
These bacteria possess an outer layer of lipopolysaccharides that functions as armor. While it was known that polymyxins target this layer, the mechanisms of their action and the reasons for inconsistent effectiveness remained unclear.
In a pivotal study, Edwards and his team employed biochemical experiments combined with nuclear power microscopy, capturing details at the nanoscale. They discovered that polymyxin B, amongst other treatments, actively targets E. coli cells.
Shortly after treatment commenced, the bacteria rapidly began releasing lipopolysaccharides.
Researchers observed that the presence of antibiotics prompted bacteria to attempt to assimilate more lipopolysaccharide “bricks” into their protective walls. However, this effort resulted in gaps, allowing antibiotics to penetrate and destroy the bacteria.
“Antibiotics are likened to tools that aid in the removal of these ‘bricks’,” Edwards explains. “While the outer membrane doesn’t entirely collapse, gaps appear, providing an entryway for antibiotics to access the internal membrane.”
The findings also elucidate why antibiotics occasionally fail: they predominantly affect active, growing bacteria. When in a dormant state, polymyxin B becomes ineffective as these bacteria do not produce armor strong enough to withstand environmental pressures.
E. coli images exposed to polymyxin B illustrate changes to the outer membrane over time: untreated, 15 mins, 30 mins, 60 mins, and 90 mins.
Carolina Borrelli, Edward Douglas et al./Nature Microbiology
Interestingly, researchers found that introducing sugar to E. coli could awaken dormant cells, prompting armor production to resume within 15 minutes, leading to cell destruction. This phenomenon is thought to be applicable to other polymyxins, such as polymyxin E, used therapeutically.
Edwards proposes that targeting dormant bacteria with sugar might be feasible, though it poses the risk of hastening their growth. “We don’t want bacteria at infection sites rapidly proliferating due to this stimulation,” he cautions. Instead, he advocates for the potential to combine various drugs to bypass dormancy without reactivating the bacteria.
Can plants count from 1 to 10 using their root tendrils? No. However, researchers have discovered that some plants possess the fascinating ability to detect insect intruders and monitor their own food supply, allowing them to perform basic counting and mathematics.
Take, for instance, Venus flytraps, which are renowned for snapping shut when they detect movement from an insect or other triggers. Interestingly, this is only activated if the object moves twice within a time frame of approximately 15-20 seconds.
These movements are captured by delicate “trigger” hairs on the leaves, which convert the sensory input into electrical signals that travel through the plant as waves of charged atoms (ions). The leaves then close upon receiving two triggering electrical signals.
Additionally, a group of international scientists noted in a 2016 exhibition that Venus flytraps can tally multiple counts before reacting.
They wait to receive a minimum of three electrical signals before producing the necessary enzymes to digest their prey, potentially to avoid wasting energy on false alarms.
Even prior to this finding, scientists had proposed that the mustard plant (Arabidopsis), a common research subject, exhibits behaviors akin to division.
During daylight hours, plants harness sunlight to accumulate food stores (starches) through photosynthesis.
To sustain themselves overnight, they must establish a balanced starch consumption rate (starch divided by time) by gauging the starch stored in their leaves alongside their circadian rhythms.
Experts caution against labeling these unique counting abilities as “intelligent” or indicative of a primitive brain structure; instead, they are vital survival mechanisms that demonstrate remarkable sophistication.
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Paleontologists from the University of Leicester studied two immature fossilized skeletal remains of Pterodactylus antiquus, individuals whose wings were damaged and were discovered in Solnhofen limestone, southern Germany. Their findings reveal that these creatures were sadly victims of a powerful Jurassic storm, which created the perfect conditions for fossilization, leading to the preservation of hundreds of similar specimens.
Artistic representation of the hatchling Pterodactylus antiquus, inspired by fossil discoveries, struggling through a tumultuous tropical storm. Image credit: Rudolf Hima.
“Dating back 153-148 million years, the Jurassic Solnhofen limestone deposits in Bavaria, southern Germany, are renowned for their remarkably preserved fossils, including many examples of various pterosaurs, flying reptiles from the Mesozoic era.”
“A puzzling aspect of this site is that while Solnhofen is home to hundreds of pterosaur fossils, almost all are small, immature specimens that are remarkably intact.”
“In stark contrast, larger adult pterosaurs are infrequently found and typically represented by isolated fragments, such as skulls or limbs.”
“This trend contradicts expectations, as larger, more resilient animals should theoretically have a greater chance of fossilization than fragile juveniles.”
In their latest study, the researchers examined the fossilized remains of two immature pterosaurs from the Solnhofen limestone.
These individuals belong to Pterodactylus antiquus, a species that inhabited Germany during the late Jurassic period.
With a wingspan of under 20 cm (8 inches), these hatchlings represent the smallest known pterosaurs.
Both specimens exhibit identical injuries: a clean, sloping fracture in the humerus.
Newborn specimens of Pterodactylus antiquus from Solnhofen limestone, Germany. Scale bar – 20 mm. Image credit: Smyth et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.08.006.
One specimen’s left wing and another’s right wing appear broken in a manner consistent with a strong twist, likely caused by a sudden gust of wind rather than impact with a hard object.
The unfortunate pterosaur was likely submerged beneath the lagoon’s surface, overwhelmed by storm waves, and swiftly sank to the seabed, where it was quickly buried by a fine layer of mud stirred up by the tempest.
This rapid entombment facilitated the exceptional preservation observed in the fossils.
It’s reminiscent of a scene only days or weeks after the animals’ demise, with preservation so remarkable that while no significant skeletal trauma is evident, many other small, very young pterosaurs are found within the Solnhofen limestone.
These juvenile pterosaurs, unable to withstand the storm’s ferocity, were also drawn into the lagoon.
This discovery clarifies why smaller fossils are so well preserved—due to the direct aftermath of the storm, which was a common cause of death for pterosaurs in the region.
“For centuries, scientists believed the Solnhofen lagoon ecosystem was primarily composed of small pterosaurs,” stated Dr. Smith.
“However, we now recognize that this perspective was quite skewed; many of these pterosaurs were not lagoon dwellers.”
“Most were likely immature individuals that lived on nearby islands, inadvertently caught in a powerful storm.”
A study detailing these findings was published today in the journal Current Biology.
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Robert S. Smith et al. Fatal incidents in juvenile pterosaurs and selective sampling within fossil Solnhofen communities. Current Biology, published online September 5th, 2025. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2025.08.006
Pre-contact Central and South American dogs (Canis Familiaris) – These are all dogs that existed prior to the arrival of European settlers, originating from a single maternal lineage that spread into North America. A recent study led by researchers at Oxford University indicates that the divergence times of dog breeds in North, Central, and South America align with the agricultural expansion occurring between 7,000 and 5,000 years ago, particularly highlighting the adoption of corn in South America.
Manin et al. Illustrating the gradual southward spread of dogs alongside early agricultural societies. Artwork by John James Audubon and John Bachman.
“Dogs traveled with the initial waves of people entering North America at least 15,000-16,000 years ago,” stated Oxford University researcher Aurely Mannin and colleagues.
“They were the only type of livestock brought to America from Eurasia before the arrival of European settlers.”
“Archaeological and physical evidence suggests that Arctic dogs were utilized for sledding, aiding groups of humans traversing the frigid tundra of Siberia.”
“Analysis of ancient DNA indicates that all dogs before contact with European settlers possess mitochondrial DNA from a lineage unique to the Americas.”
“Dogs from this lineage disseminated throughout the Americas, with the exception of the Amazon Basin, suggesting they became known only following the arrival of Europeans in the 16th century.”
In this latest study, the authors sequenced 70 complete mitochondrial genomes from both archaeological and modern dogs collected from Central Mexico to Central Chile and Argentina.
The findings indicate that all pre-contact dogs in Central and South America descended from a singular maternal lineage that diverged from North American dogs when humans initially settled the continent.
Instead of a rapid spread, dogs exhibited a slower pattern known as “segregation by distance,” gradually adapting to new environments and migrating with people between 7,000 to 5,000 years ago, coinciding with the rise of corn cultivation in early agricultural communities.
The influx of Europeans brought new dog breeds that predominantly replaced indigenous strains; however, researchers discovered that modern Chihuahuas still retain maternal DNA from pre-contact Mesoamerican ancestors.
These rare genetic traces underscore the enduring legacy of the first American dogs and the deep roots of this iconic breed.
“This research emphasizes the significant role that early agricultural communities played in the dispersal of dogs worldwide,” Dr. Manin remarked.
“In the Americas, it reveals that dogs were able to adapt slowly enough to develop genetic distinctions between North, Central, and South America.”
“This is quite unusual for livestock and unveils new avenues for research into the relationships between dogs and early agricultural societies.”
“This study contributes a new chapter to the extensive shared history of dogs and humans, influenced by migration across continents, survival, and lasting relationships,” the scientists concluded.
Survey results are set to appear in Proceedings of the Royal Society b.
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Aurely Manin et al. 2025. Ancient dog mitogenomes support the double dispersion of dogs and agriculture into South America. Proc. R. Soc. b 292 (2049): 20242443; doi: 10.1098/rspb.2024.2443
“Come with me,” Nando instructed. “I know its location.”
It was late morning, warm, humid, and serene. As we made our way along the path filtered through the jungle’s trellis-like hue, beams of sunlight pierced through the foliage. A colossal cargo vessel, several hundred yards away, was laden with containers lining the Panama Canal. Yet, it felt like an entirely different realm.
We strolled alongside the verdant banks of the fragrant rainforest, home to countless birds. I was on a quest for something particular.
In a vibrant clearing of woodlands, it appeared just like all the others to me. Our guide paused.
“Who is, Who is, Who is,” he called softly, then listened intently.
“I can’t rely on my eyes,” he murmured. “You need to use your ears.”
When he called for the third time, I listened and responded softly. Who is, Who is, Who is.
It was incredible. Nando was communicating with birds.
A stout, small striped antpipit alighted on a branch nearby. I stood there, utterly mesmerized as the man and the bird gently exchanged calls.
“This is the same bird I’ve been calling for years,” Nando expressed with delight in his voice.
“You mean the same species?” I asked.
“No, no,” he grinned. “The very same individual. That bird has become very dear to me.”
In that brief moment, a profound connection blossomed between man and bird, creating lasting memories during our recent travels in Panama.
This past December, my family and I ventured into birdwatching in Panama. The country is rapidly developing its ecotourism sector and operates in the same time zone as Chicago, minimizing jet lag for most Americans. The Panama Canal holds a rich cosmopolitan history, serving as a habitat for both immigrant and indigenous bird species, from magnificent frigatebirds soaring through the sky to charming forest birds, skillfully highlighted by Nando.
This is also why the Panama Canal was built in the early 20th century, revolutionizing global trade and accounting for the abundance of birdlife here. It lies in the isthmus between North and South America, bordered by the world’s largest oceans, the Pacific and Atlantic. With everything from sun-soaked beaches to cool, forested mountains reaching over 10,000 feet, this area showcases dramatically varying altitudes and climates.
Before Donald Trump took office, he proposed a trip to the canal, stirring discussions about reclaiming it. This topic didn’t gain much traction among the three birdwatching sites we visited. Fellow birdwatchers were too captivated by their sightings, and the locals we met largely dismissed the issue as bold and untroubling.
And as Nando remarked, “Everyone is aware of one aspect, but there’s so much more.”
I’ve learned to appreciate the nuances.
We began our journey in Panama City, established over 500 years ago and now a bustling trading hub. The old town is undergoing a renaissance, characterized by its red-brick streets. La Compania, once a monastery, now boasts a long bar beneath slowly swirling ceiling fans, offering cocktails that evoke a warm, romantic ambiance of old tropical charm. We also enjoyed delightful jazz music at Spikey’s, while Villaana reminded me of the elegant old houses of Savannah, Georgia.
Wildlife Amidst a Cargo Ship
On our first morning, we connected with Nando, whose full name is Ismael Hernando Kiros Miranda. He started his own birdwatching operation a few years ago, following a recommendation from someone in the hotel industry. As we journeyed from the city to the canal zone, he shared pieces of his life story.
“I was one of those who never had many opportunities,” he reflected.
He described how he cultivated crops and cut trees in his village after someone assaulted his father on their family farm. The natural world became his domain, and he dedicated years to learning about birds, trees, habitats, climate change, and Panama’s ecological systems.
Shortly after arriving at the canal zone, he and his son Ismael, who assists him, guided us to a red-lored parrot sailing through the sky—followed by a toucan that resembled a frog. We admired a brilliant social flycatcher and a pipit with striking yellow feathers. Nando ambled with his head slightly tilted, always listening intently. When he located a bird, he would use a laser pointer to help us focus on its position in the trees. By sunrise, golden rays touched the water, and by 9 AM, we had already spotted over 55 bird species.
However, our experience transcended mere birdwatching. My family are avid bird enthusiasts, and I realized that birdwatching opens the door to witnessing a plethora of other wonders. As we trailed behind Nando, we encountered vibrant blue morpho butterflies, odd-looking agoutis, leaf-cutter ants bustling across the jungle floor, and even wriggling red carpets. Off in the distance, the loud howls of monkeys echoed, although they remained hidden behind a thick curtain of cedar, ficus, giant fig trees, and towering bamboo.
“Oh, look at that,” my wife Courtney exclaimed, as a dragonfly buzzed around like a miniature helicopter.
“Helicopter dance fly,” Nando remarked. “Probably a female.”
His knowledge astounded me.
Magical Valley
After a successful day with Nando, we journeyed for two hours to a charming town called El Valle de Antón. Upon arrival, we noticed the homes were larger and the gardens even more enchanting. I spotted a traveler with a lovely backpack strolling along the main road, riding a few bicycles as we passed.
El Valle resembles a picturesque fairy tale, featuring a quaint hacienda with a red roof nestled among lush green mountains. At an elevation of 2,000 feet above Panama City, it boasts cooler temperatures and lower humidity, attracting travelers and affluent locals alike. New cafes with vibrant, painted tables lined the sidewalks. We indulged in delicious empanadas, and just thinking about their perfect crust and mouthwatering fillings makes me crave more. El Valle feels reminiscent of Bali Ubud two decades ago.
I spent two days at the Canopy Lodge, a cozy retreat crafted by birdwatchers for birdwatchers. On my first morning, I woke up early, grabbed my laptop, and tiptoed into the dining room.
“Hey!” a tall man exclaimed, appearing unexpectedly. “Did you spot the Rufous Motmot?”
It was 6:30 AM, and I was about to check my emails.
“It’s a stunning bird,” he remarked.
His outfit featured an impressive 3-foot-long camera rig, complete with a camouflage hood and a lens resembling a cannon.
The email waiting for me felt trivial and regretful. So, following his suggestion, I ventured through the bushes behind the kitchen and there it was: the Rufous Motmot, radiant in its deep colors—green, yellow, and blue feathers—and sporting a delicate racket tail swaying gracefully.
The Canopy Lodge forms part of a network of eco-friendly lodges initiated by Raul Arias de Para, an economist belonging to one of Panama’s notable families. “Panama,” he explained, “is a beautiful country, vastly different from the unfortunate stereotypes surrounding tax evasion and corruption.”
Raul collaborates with the Cornell Lab of Ornithology to establish a 24/7 Bird Camera behind the dining area. While dining and discussing birds, we observed tanagers, aracaris, woodpeckers, and barbets. Following this, we ventured into the nearby jungle for more birdwatching.
One highlight was visiting a banana farm, which turned a small, lush garden into a significant bird feeder. The farmer spoke little English, and my Spanish was lacking, so we quietly sat on his porch, eagerly watching colorful birds feast on bananas. My favorite was the red-legged honeycreeper, a diminutive wonder donned in vibrant blue with striking red legs.
Coconut Ice Cream, Caiman, Owl
Our final destination was Isla Palenque, a luxury resort on the Pacific coast of Panama. We returned to Panama City and caught a brief flight to the town of David. Here, with extended family, we enjoyed leisurely poolside moments, played soccer on the beach, and savored a sumptuous dinner (beef tenderloin stuffed with pasta in a delightful coffee sauce, fresh seafood, with lemon tart and coconut ice cream for dessert).
Beyond our villas, wildlife was abundant in the surrounding forest, and several resort staff members were naturalists like Nando. We continued to explore.
One evening, a young man named Francis took us on a walk where we encountered a rainbow beetle, a scorpion, a possum, and even a 3-foot-long caiman. At dawn, he led us to a palm grove, where a group of crested oropendolas were busy gathering long strands of grapes, floating gracefully, while crafting a nest that hung from trees like socks. I spent a delightful 15 minutes engrossed in their antics.
Francis mistakenly informed my 15-year-old son, Apollo, our family’s top birder, about the elusive and magnificent owls residing in the jungle. From that moment, Apollo consistently inquired of the resort staff about their sightings. On our final day, we embarked on a last-ditch effort to locate them.
Just minutes from our villa, we felt transported to a remote part of the jungle. We could hear birds but struggled to see them, as insects swarmed around us, and sweat dripped down our faces.
Francis raised his fist firmly, signaling us to stop suddenly as we seen in the military.
We halted immediately. He gestured subtly. I caught a glimpse of it.
Perched on a sunlit branch, the owl stared back at us with its large, radiant yellow eyes.
We were face to face with one of the most extraordinary creatures of the forest, led by sounds just as Nando had shown us on our first day.
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In March, Kat Bolstad returned from an Antarctic expedition, which used a new camera system specifically built to search for elusive giant squid.
No one had filmed footage of one of these animals swimming in the deep sea. She also found none of this voyage.
But the day she left the ship, Dr. Bolstad, a deep-sea cephalopod biologist, learned about a recent video taken from the South Sandwich Islands on March 9th. A team searching for new marine life and using Schmidt Ocean Institute’s submarines remotely was happening to young cephalopods.
The boy was about 30 centimeters (less than a foot) and had a clear body, delicate arms and brown spots. It was a huge squid.
“I knew as soon as I saw the footage there was a good opportunity,” said Dr. Bolstad, a cephalopod biologist at Auckland Institute of Technology in New Zealand. She discusses Schmidt’s Antarctica work remotely.
It has been 100 years since the giant squid was officially described in a scientific paper. In its adult form, the animal can grow to a massive squid or other invertebrates on Earth, growing to 6 or 7 meters long or up to 23 feet.
The first common sight of the species scientist in 1925 was incomplete. It’s just a fragment of the arm from the two squid on the belly of a sperm whale. It is believed that adults spend most of their time in the deep sea.
Dr. Bolstad said that huge, fully grown squids sometimes appear at sea level and are pulled up to the fishing boat while they are being pulled up. Young specimens appear in the trawl net.
However, up until now, humans had not witnessed any giant squid in their homes, swimming in the deep Antarctic ocean.
One of the reasons they are so elusive is the size of the house. Furthermore, squid is probably eschewing us, Dr. Bolstad said. “They know their surroundings very well, because the obstacles to the surrounding water column might mean predators.”
The sperm whales, the main squid predator, can dive up to 2 kilometers (1.25 miles). Perhaps to help them avoid whales, the giant squid has evolved its biggest eye in the world, much more than basketball.
They also have a unique combination of suckers and hooks in their arms and tentacles,” Dr. Bolstad said.
The footage was filmed by a remotely operated submarine called Subastein, which the Schmidt Ocean Institute uses to explore the deep seas. This particular dive was a partnership with the Nippon Foundation-Nekton Oceansus, an initiative to discover unknown species. The submarine stopped for several minutes during the descent, photographing small, transparent cephalopods.
“I think it’s very exciting,” said Christine Haffard, a biologist at the Monterey Bay Aquarium Institute in California, who is not involved in the expedition.
Dr. Hafard uses other remotely operated submerges in her research. She said these exploratory missions have “incredible value.” For example, her observation of an octopus Walking two sides At the seabed, you can walk two arms and use the other six to camouflage yourself as a mass of algae or coconut. The findings are useful for soft robotics researchers, she said.
Capturing footage of rarely seen marine animals, such as giant squid, can also communicate decisions about human activities, such as deep sea mining, according to Dr. Huffard.
She said it will help you know where these animals spend their time, where they are, where they mate and spawn, and how long they have lived.
The young giant squid in the video was swimming about 600 metres below, Dr. Bolstad said it was not a deep water body that adults are likely to live in. Other deep-sea squids spend their early life in shallow waters, she said. Having a transparent body may help predators swim the baby before the baby descends from the dark ocean as an opaque, reddish adult.
Submersible’s camera detects squid and can instantly send images. Unlike scientists a century ago, they had to dig into a massacre partially digested in whale belly, so everyone was part of the moment when Schmidt saw a “dive stream” from their home and found a giant squid, Dr. Bolstad said. “It’s incredibly amazing that humans can do, in real-time, from anywhere on Earth, to help them participate in these explorations and discoveries.”
She continues to search for grown animals. “I can’t wait to see what a giant living adult squid looks like, in the deep sea house it belongs to,” she said.
However, she also said she was pleased that the first sightings of the wild species were not an adult version. Rather than a leviathan swinging a giant hook, it’s “this beautiful early life stage that looks like a small glass sculpture.”
“In fact, I love seeing the first glimpse of what this will become a true giant,” Dr. Bolstad said.
20 years ago Jaap de Roode made discoveries that changed his scientific career. While studying the ecology and evolution of parasites and their hosts, he came across something truly surprising. The butterfly of the monarch, whom he was studying, appeared to be using the medicinal properties of the plant to treat itself and its offspring.
At the time, the notion that insects might be able to receive self-medicine appeared to be far away. Currently, De Roode is a world expert in the fast-growing field of animal medicines, and has his own lab at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia. He spoke New Scientist about his work, his new book, Naturopathic Doctor: How Ants, Apes and Other Animals Heal themselves, and his belief that animals have medical knowledge that can be used to improve our own health.
Self-medical behavior of chimpanzees and wool bear caterpillars (bottom) is also being studied
Michael a Huffman
Graham Lawton: How did this realm go?
Jaap de Roode: It started out as a random observation while working in Tanzania in the 1980s. Kyoto University’s Michael Huffman was working with national park ranger Mohandi Seyf Kalunde to investigate the role of older chimpanzees in society. While tracking down something called Chausiku, they realized she had retreated, and she was taking a nap during the day and had diarrhea. They saw her go to the plant called Vernonia also known as bitter leaves. She stripped off the bark and began sucking on the pith. This is not usually part of their diet. Seifu, a traditional healer, told Huffman that he was using it as…
Feedback is the latest science and technology news of new scientists, the sidelines of the latest science and technology news. You can email Feedback@newscientist.com to send items you believe readers can be fascinated by feedback.
Retract action
On February 25th, one of the most epic withdrawal notices was the joy of reading feedback. The notice of withdrawal is when it determines that a research published by a scientific journal is highly flawed and unreliable and is effectively published.
With such a result, it is no wonder that Guéguen’s work has become a popular theme in news articles. Sadly, this includes New Scientist Covered in 2008 study Women (which has not yet been withdrawn) claim to be more embracing the chat upline at their peak monthly fertility.
It took almost ten years for the card house to start to shake. In 2017, researcher Nick Brown (People who write blogs as “Steamtraen”) and James Heathers I’ve started writing about Guéguen’s work. They found He was prolific and often “published more than ten prominent empirical articles a year, many of which include extensive fieldwork.” Immediately raise a question: How did he find time? They also began to doubt the great effects that are alleged.
And come now Latest withdrawal. The notifications explaining them are amazing, although I take them in academic language. They warn that “low confidence that the research design was implemented as described” and that “many of the data in these articles was incredible or misanalyzed.” In other words, we didn’t think he did what he said, and in any case, he made it wrong.
The editor says Guéguen did not respond to the query. Frankly, given the nature of his work, feedback suspects that he had only one reply: “Stigma! Stigma! They all got it for me!”
A few weeks ago, Feedback wrote about the troublesome Scunthorpe issue: The difficulty of blocking offensive words online is often seen in completely harmless words such as the names of British towns. Three readers were able to share with us about similar experiences without falling into our email filter.
Richard Black was in the early 2000s when he asked students to help set up a Hotmail email account. (Note for younger readers: Hotmail is the old name of Outlook. It is the email system that parents use at work as Microsoft is nervous in the business software market.) Richard writes: (Note to younger readers: Yahoo… ah, in fact Yahoo is still around.) Anyway, the student’s last name was Peacock.
At about the same time, Richard Hind was “given the budget to implement an email filtering solution.” It worked pretty well, except for “some curious slang terms for ours that were deemed uncomfortable.” However, many “innocent emails” have also been suspended. The only pattern was being sent by staff to friends elsewhere. “I finally clicked,” says Richard. All blocked emails were signed with three kisses or XS.
I also give my thoughts for Patricia Finney. Blog I explained about optimism in the face of climate change in Botticelli’s reenactment The birth of Venus. Facebook refused Nude and nipples” I’m still waiting for an apology,” she says.
Sweet snack
Feedback reading mountains Thunderbird Episode, so we are reluctant to add to it. But a A series of books caught our eye by food historians. The dark history of sugar It’s about colonial adventures that support the sugar industry, not colonial adventures. With a light note, Pudding Philosophy Sounds fun and we were impressed by the title Kneading to know: The history of baking. Author of all these fever-related books? Neil Butterly.
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You can send stories to feedback by email at feedback@newscientist.com. Please include your home address. This week and past feedback can be found on our website.
A new Pleciosaurus skeleton from Ulwerd Mushamhauf, Holzmaden, Germany
Klaus nilkens/urwelt-museum hauff
The soft tissue of the Pleciosaurus was first studied in detail, revealing that marine reptiles living in the dinosaur era and simultaneously extinct, had similar scales to modern sea turtles.
The 183 million years of 4.5 meters long Plesiosaurus fossil known as the MH7 was first excavated in 1940 from a quarry near Holzmadden, Germany, but was intended to protect it during World War II. He was buried in the museum garden. . It then spent the next 75 years in storage until it was finally assembled in 2020 and ready to study.
Miguel Marx Lund University in Sweden and his team provided thin sections of fossils. The minerals then melted and were treated with organic ruins. This allowed them to study the microscopic structure of fossil tissue.
Illustration of a plesiosaurus with smooth, unscaled skin along the scale and body on a flipper
Joshua Nuppe
Although at least eight other plesiosaurus fossils are known to have soft tissue conservation, most are historically important museum specimens and are used to study them using destructive sampling methods. It's impossible to do, says Marx. “This is the first time we have performed a detailed analysis of fossilized soft tissues from Plesiosaurus,” he says.
The team was surprised to find that the reptiles have both areas of smooth, scaly skin. “Together, this plesioaurus was an interesting chimera between a scaled green sea turtle-like thing and scale. [smooth-skinned] Leatherback turtle,” says Marx. “I would have expected this plesiosaurus to be as scaleless as modern Fischozard.”
The scaled skin of the flippers, he says, helped the plesiosaurus swim in the water, perhaps by providing stiffness, or migrated along the seabed while searching for food. Scaleless skins on the rest of the body would have reduced the impact of drag when swimming.
“The actual appearance of the long neck plesio sauce is truly everyone's guess, but thanks to this new fossil, we now have a better idea,” says Marx.
Bees are winged insects that feed on nectar and pollen from flowers and sometimes produce honey. There are around 20,000 species of honeybees, of which 270 live in the UK. More than 90% of honeybee species are solitary, but the remaining species, such as honeybees and bumblebees, live socially in colonies consisting of a single queen bee, female worker bees and male drones.
The largest wasp, Wallace's giant wasp, can grow up to 4cm in length, while tiny stingless wasp workers are smaller than a grain of rice. Wasps live on every continent except Antarctica, and in all habitats with flowering plants that are pollinated by insects.
Honeybees pollinate many of the plants we rely on for food, but their numbers are declining. Bee species numbers have been declining for decades and bees are now missing from a quarter of the places in the UK where they were found 40 years ago.
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How intelligent are honeybees?
Bees are highly intelligent creatures: they can count, solve puzzles and even use simple tools.
in An experimentIn a study, bees were trained to jump over three identical, evenly spaced landmarks to reach a sugar reward 300 meters away. When the number of landmarks was then reduced, the bees flew much farther; when the number of landmarks was increased, the bees landed a shorter distance away.
This suggests that the bees were counting landmarks to decide where to land.
in Another studyScientists have created a puzzle box that can be opened by twisting the lid to access sugar. Solution: Press the red tab to rotate the lid clockwise. Press the blue tab to rotate it counterclockwise. Not only can bees be trained to solve puzzles, they can also learn to solve problems themselves by watching other bees solve them.
In terms of tool use, Asian honeybees have been known to collect fresh animal waste and smear it around the hive entrance to repel predatory Asian giant hornets. This may smell a bit, but it also counts as tool use.
Scientists have previously shown that honeybees can learn to use tools in the lab. Fecal discovery in 2020 This is the first observation of tool use by wild honeybees.
Honeybee Anatomy
Image credit: Daniel Bright
The head includes:
1. Two compound eyes 2. Three small, lenticular eyespots (called ocelli) 3. Antennae that detect smell, taste, sound, and temperature 4. Chewing jaws, often used as nest building material 5. A proboscis that sucks up nectar, honey, and water
The thorax consists of:
6. Bee body 7. 3 pairs of legs 8. Two pairs of wings
The abdomen contains the following:
9. An esophagus, or honey stomach, for transporting nectar to the nest 10. Stinger – A sharp organ used to inject venom
How do bees communicate?
Honeybees have two primary modes of communication: expressive dance and expressive olfaction.
Honeybees use their famous “wag dance” to guide hive-mates to nectar- and pollen-rich flowers. Returning from a successful scouting mission, a worker bee scurries to one of the hive's vertical combs and begins tracing a figure-eight pattern.
Honeybees doing the “tail dance” – Photo credit: Kim Taylor / naturepl.com
When it reaches the straight center of its shape, it vibrates its abdomen and flaps its wings, a motion that makes the bird's wings wag like a tail.
The length of the tail flick indicates the distance to the flower, with each second increasing the distance traveled by 100 metres.Communicating direction is more complicated but can be done by the bee orienting its body in the direction of the food, relative to the sun.
The intensity of the dance indicates the abundance of food sources, and the dancers also release a cocktail of pheromones that spur nestmates into action: Colony members watch the dance, smell it with their antennae, and then set off in search of flowers.
There are other dances too, such as the “round dance” where the hips are not shaken and is used to indicate the position of flowers. Nearby, forager bees perform their “trembling dance” to gather their swarm members together to collect nectar from worker bees.
How do bees travel?
A honeybee can travel miles to find food in distant flower fields, yet still reliably find its way home – and with a brain the size of a sesame seed! So how does it do this?
First, they use the sun as a compass. Honeybees' eyes are sensitive to polarized light and can penetrate thick clouds, meaning that even on cloudy days, honeybees can “see” the sun and use it as a guide. Combining the position of the sun with the time indications of the animals' internal clocks allows honeybees to figure out both direction and distance.
Bees also monitor how much the sun moves while they are migrating, so that when they return to the hive they can tell their hive-mates where the food is relative to the sun's current position, rather than where it was when they found it.
Finally, honeybees are known to be able to sense magnetic fields through some sort of magnetic structure in their abdomen, so researchers believe they may also use the Earth's magnetic field to help them navigate.
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What does a bumblebee nest look like?
Bumblebees are plump, hairy bees that look like they can't fly. There are 24 species in the UK, of which 6 are parasitic and 18 are social.
Social species, such as garden bumblebees, form colonies and nest in protected places out of direct sunlight – good places include abandoned rodent burrows, compost piles, birdhouses, tree holes and spaces under sheds.
Photo credit: John Waters / naturepl.com
Unlike honeybee nests, which are elaborate structures with hexagonal cells, bumblebee nests are messy structures of cells, often insulated with leaves or animal fur, and designed to house small numbers of bees (about 40 to 400) during one nesting season.
In contrast, a honeybee hive can house up to 40,000 bees and last for many years.
Parasitic bumblebees, such as the giant cuckoo bee, don't build their own nests – instead, the queen invades other bumblebee nests, kills the queen and lays her own eggs, which are then raised by the local worker bees.
When did honeybees evolve?
Hornets are said to be cruel and are universally disliked, while honeybees are seen as benevolent and widely revered, yet honeybees evolved from hornets.
Bees belong to the order Hymenoptera, which also includes sawflies, ants, and wasps. The oldest Hymenoptera fossils date to the Triassic Period, about 224 million years ago. Wasps appeared in the Jurassic Period, 201 to 145 million years ago, and honeybees appeared in the Cretaceous Period, 145 to 66 million years ago.
Trigona prisca was one of the first species. Stingless bees discovered immortalized in amber in New JerseyThey flew about 85 million years ago, and the key specimens were female, worker bees with small abdomens, indicating that some bee species had already formed complex social structures.
The first animal-pollinated flowers had already evolved by this time and were pollinated by beetles, but the evolution of bees prompted the evolution of flowering plants, which prompted the evolution of bees, and so on.
This is one of the best examples of co-evolution: flowers evolved nectar and a funnel-shaped head, while bees evolved a long tongue to drink the nectar and specialized hairs to transport the pollen.
Can humans survive without bees?
Probably not, but the disappearance of honeybees would pose a serious threat to global food security and nutrition.
One third of the food we eat relies on insects like bees to pollinate the plants they grow, transporting pollen between them – from staples like potatoes and onions to fruits like apples and watermelon to condiments like basil and coriander.
For example, coffee and cocoa trees depend on honeybees for pollination, as do around 80% of Europe's wildflowers.
Bees are also a food source for many birds, mammals and insects, so if they were to disappear, their role in the ecosystem would be lost, with knock-on effects for many other animals and plants.
It's bad news, then, that honeybees are in global decline due to habitat loss, intensive farming, pollution, pesticide use, disease and climate change. Recent studies have found that the global decline of pollinating insects is already causing around 500,000 premature human deaths per year by reducing healthy food supplies.
What should I plant to make my garden bee-friendly?
Bees navigate by their position relative to the sun. – Photo credit: Getty Images
Most bee species aren't too picky about where they get their pollen and nectar from, so plants like lavender, hollyhocks and marigolds attract a variety of bees.
But other species are more specialized and depend on fewer plants. These bees are often rare, and if the plants they need to survive disappear, local bee populations can be at risk.
Raise yellow-flowered bees for yellow-flowered bees. Yellow-flowered bees are medium-sized bees that frequent this plant in search of pollen and aromatic oils. Females use the oils to waterproof their nests, which are often found on the banks of ponds and rivers.
Lamb's ear is an easy-to-grow evergreen perennial that is a favorite of wool-carder wasps. Female wool-carder wasps use the soft, hairy leaf fibers to line their nests, and males defend territories that contain these plants.
Another easy way is to let your grass grow long and embrace the weeds.
Dandelions and related plants like honeysuckle and chickweed are favorites of pantaloon bees, so named because the long hairs on the female's hind legs, covered with pollen, look like clown trousers. Buttercups, in turn, attract large pincer bees and sleepy carpenter bees.
5 Common Myths About Bees…Bullshit
1. Bees are too heavy to fly – This myth dates back to the 1934 publication of Antoine Magnin's “Book of Insects.” Magnin mistakenly believed that bees' wings were too small to generate the lift needed for flight. Obviously, he was wrong.
2. All bees sting – Male honeybees cannot sting; the stinger is a modified egg-laying organ that only females have. There are also about 550 species of stingless bees, but their stingers are too small to be used for defense.
3. If a bee stings, it will die. – Of all the bees that can sting, only the honeybee dies after stinging. The barbs on the bee's stinger get stuck in the victim's skin and when the bee tries to escape, its abdomen bursts, causing a fatal injury.
4. All bees make honey – Most bees don't make honey. In fact, there are only eight species of bees that produce large amounts of sweet nectar. There are hundreds of other species of bees that produce honey, but in much smaller amounts.
5. All bees are hard workers – As busy as honeybees are, aren't they? The queen bee lays up to 1,500 eggs a day. The worker bees forage, feed the larvae, and clean the hive. But the drones don't have as much work to do in a day. Their only role is to mate with the virgin queen bee.
Robots that can peel vegetables as easily as humans can, demonstrating a level of dexterity that could be useful for moving delicate objects on production lines.
Prototype robots are often tasked with peeling vegetables to test their ability to carefully handle tricky objects, but these tasks are typically simplified, such as immobilizing the vegetable or testing only a single fruit or vegetable, like peeling a banana.
now, Pulkit Agrawal Researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have developed a robotic system that can rotate different types of fruits and vegetables using the fingers of one hand and peel them with the other arm.
“This extra step of rotating is something that's very easy for humans to do and they don't even think about it,” Agrawal says, “but it makes it difficult for a robot.”
First, the robot was trained in a simulated environment, where the algorithm rewarded it for correct turns and punished it for turning in the wrong direction or not turning at all.
The robot was then tested in real-world conditions peeling fruits and vegetables, including pumpkins, radishes, and papayas, using feedback from touch sensors to rotate the vegetables with one hand while a human-operated robotic arm did the peeling.
The robot can grab and spin vegetables with one hand and peel them with the other.
Tao Chen, Eric Cousineau, Naveen Kuppuswamy, Pulkit Agrawal
Agrawal said the algorithm struggles with small, awkwardly shaped vegetables like ginger, but the team hopes to expand its capabilities.
Grasping and orienting an object is a difficult task for any robot, but the speed and firm grip of this robot are impressive, he said. Jonathan Aitken Researchers at the University of Sheffield in the UK say the technology could be useful in factories where objects need to be moved from machine to machine in the correct orientation.
But Aitken said it was unlikely to be used industrially to peel vegetables because other methods already exist, such as automated potato peelers.
Florida carpenter ants are unique in their behavior, as they have been observed selectively cutting off the injured limbs of their nestmates. This unusual behavior was discovered in a study published in Current Biology, where researchers found that the ants use this “surgery” as a form of treatment for their injured companions. The ants were observed to carefully evaluate each injury and decide whether to clean the wound or amputate the leg entirely, based on the extent of the injury.
Lead author David Levine, a behavioural ecologist at the University of Würzburg, described this behavior as unique in the animal kingdom, as it involves one ant surgically treating another without the use of any tools. Unlike other ants that have specialized glands for wound treatment, Florida Carpenter ants rely solely on mechanical means to care for their injured nestmates.
The study found that the ants have a high success rate in treating femoral injuries, where amputation is required, compared to tibial injuries that can be treated with a simple mouthwash. This indicates that the ants have a sophisticated system for evaluating and treating wounds effectively to improve the chances of survival for the injured ants.
Credit: Bert Zielstra
The researchers believe that the ants’ ability to diagnose and treat wounds in such a precise manner is comparable to the human medical system. Further research is being conducted to understand if similar behavior exists in other ant species and to explore the ants’ tolerance to pain during these prolonged surgical procedures.
The forests of the Late Carboniferous Period (about 300-320 million years ago) were home to a wide variety of arachnids. In addition to the familiar spiders, harvestmen, and scorpions, there were other strange kinds of spider-like animals. new paper this month, paleontology journal a pair of paleontologists explained. douglas sarachne echinopod a large spider-like arachnid with highly spiny legs (presumably to deter predators) from the world-famous Mason Creek fossil site in Illinois, USA.
douglas sarachne echinopod. Image credit: Paul Selden and Jason Dunlop, doi: 10.1017/jpa.2024.13.
“douglas sarachne echinopod “It comes from Illinois' famous Mason Creek and is approximately 308 million years old,” said Dr. Paul Selden, a paleontologist at the University of Kansas and the Natural History Museum in London.
“This compact arachnid, about 1.5 cm long, has surprisingly strong, spiny legs, and is completely unlike any other known arachnid, living or extinct.”
“Coal measurements are an important source of information about fossil arachnids and represent the first time in Earth's history that most living groups of arachnids arose together. However, the fauna remains quite different from what it is today. It was different.”
Dr Jason Dunlop, a paleontologist at the Berlin Museum of Nature, said: 'Spiders are a fairly rare group, only known from primitive lineages at the time, and they are similar to a variety of long-extinct arachnids and these. They shared a shared ecosystem.”
“douglas sarachne echinopod is a particularly striking example of one of these extinct forms. ”
“Although this fossil's highly spiny legs are reminiscent of modern harvesters, its body structure is quite different from harvesters and other known arachnid groups.”
douglas sarachne echinopod The researchers discovered that it does not belong to any known order of Araneidae.
“Unfortunately, we can't see details such as the mouth parts, so it's difficult to say exactly which group of arachnids are our closest relatives,” Dr Selden said.
“It may belong to a broader group that includes spiders, whip spiders and whip scorpions.”
“Whatever their evolutionary similarities, these spiny arachnids likely come from a time when arachnids were experimenting with different body plans.”
“Some of these later became extinct, probably shortly after the Mason Creek era, during the so-called 'Carboniferous rainforest collapse,' when coal forests began to fragment and disappear. Or perhaps these strange arachnids are hanging on until the mass extinction at the end of the Permian?”
Specimen douglas sarachne echinopod It was discovered in clay and ironstone concretions by Bob Macek in the 1980s.
Macek introduced a common method of cracking stones by leaving them outdoors in water over the winter, allowing frost to penetrate the natural cracks in the stones along the fossil-containing surface.
A sharp hammer blow split the stone along a plane, exposing the fossil.
Around 1990, David Douglas acquired a specimen from Bob, at which point it became part of the David and Sandra Douglas Collection and was displayed in the Douglas Family Museum of Prehistoric Life.
In 2023, when it became clear that the specimen was a new species, David Douglas donated it to the Field Museum of Natural History for study.
“Genus name douglas sarachne We recognize the Douglas family,” Dr. Dunlop said.
“after that, echinopods “Refers to the animal's unique and distinctive spiny legs.”
_____
Paul A. Selden and Jason A. Dunlop. A remarkable spiny arachnid from Mason Creek Lagerstätte, Pennsylvania, Illinois. paleontology journal, published online on May 17, 2024. Doi: 10.1017/jpa.2024.13
Dozens of African raptor species are in sharp decline, and many are now considered at risk of extinction, according to an analysis of data from across Africa.
Populations of nearly all 42 species studied have declined due to the spread of agriculture, pesticide use, poisoning by poachers, and infrastructure such as power lines that are deadly to the birds.
These include the secretary bird (sagittarius the serpent), decreased by 85 percent over three generations. Marshall Eagles (Polemaetus bellicosus), reduced by 90% on the same basis.Teratopius Exaudatus), decreased by 87 percent.
Secretary birds decline by 85% in 3 generations
Darcy Ogada
A study has found that some birds that were previously thought not to be in danger of extinction are now on the verge of extinction. For example, the African goshawk (Aquila Spirogaster) is now listed as 'least concern' by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and is estimated to have declined by 91 percent.
Some have called for the list of such species to be moved higher in the conservation rankings to reflect this change. “We definitely expect this paper to put pressure on the rest of the papers to pull it up.” [of the surveyed species now facing threats]sooner or later,” say the study authors. Darcy Ogada from the Peregrine Fund, a US-based organization.
Data was collected from more than 53,000 sightings of 42 species on approximately 100,000 kilometers of surveyed roads in Burkina Faso, Niger, Mali, Cameroon, Botswana and Kenya between 1969 and 2020.
Additional data came from the latest South African Bird Atlas project, a citizen science-led survey.
The researchers found that population declines for 42 species were more than twice as severe in unprotected areas than in protected areas, and that well-managed national parks and reserves have long-term implications for bird species. shown to be important to aid survival.
Further research is needed to understand the fate of these birds. “There is an urgent need to increase research that estimates raptor population trends based on loss of habitat for endangered species, such as forests, wetlands, and grasslands, or modeling loss and mismanagement of protected areas.” Mr. Ogata says.
This photo of Saturn was taken by NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope on , when the ringed planet was about 850 million miles from Earth. Hubble’s razor-sharp vision reveals a phenomenon called ring spokes.
Saturn’s spokes are temporary features that rotate with the rings. Their ghostly appearance only lasts for two or three revolutions around Saturn. During the active period, newly formed spokes continually add to the pattern.Credit: NASA, ESA, STScI, Amy Simon (NASA-GSFC)
Floating Dust rides a merry-go-round around a huge ring world
However Saturn
Its unusual-looking “cup-handle” feature was first noted by Galileo in 1610, but it took another 45 years before it was described by Christian Huygens as a disk surrounding Saturn. Ground-based telescopes were then able to identify only four unique concentric circles, labeled A, B, C, and D. It could not be identified until the 1980s. NASA
The two Voyager spacecraft will fly close to Saturn and photograph thousands of concentric ringlets. An even bigger surprise for Voyager scientists was the dark, radial, spoke-like pattern on the ring’s surface that moved back and forth as it orbited Saturn.
Over the past 30 years, hubble space telescope Voyager picked up where it left off. Hubble’s ultra-clear vision is the next best thing to being there. Hubble follows a “merry-go-round” of ring spokes every year. The black spokes are believed to be dust particles suspended by static electricity above the ring surface. They seem to vary richly depending on the seasons of Saturn’s seven years. And this may be related to changes in Saturn’s magnetic field, which is influenced by the solar wind.
This is an annotated version of the image above. Credit: NASA, ESA, STScI, Amy Simon (NASA-GSFC)
Hubble Space Telescope observes Saturn’s ‘spokes season’
This photo of Saturn was taken by NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope on , when the ringed planet was about 850 million miles from Earth. Hubble’s razor-sharp vision reveals a phenomenon called ring spokes.
Saturn’s spokes are temporary features that rotate with the rings. Their ghostly appearance only lasts for two or three revolutions around Saturn. During the active period, newly formed spokes continually add to the pattern.
In , NASA’s Voyager 2 took the first photo of a ring spoke. NASA’s cassini The orbiter also sighted spokes during its 13-year mission, which ended in 2017.
Hubble continues to observe Saturn every year as its spokes come and go. This cycle is captured by Hubble’s Outer Planet Atmospheric Legacy (OPAL) program, which was launched nearly a decade ago to annually monitor weather changes on all four gas giants.
Hubble’s clear images show that the frequency of the spokes’ appearance is seasonal, and they appeared in the OPAL data for the first time in , but only on the morning (left) side of the ring. Long-term monitoring has shown that both the number and contrast of spokes change with Saturn’s seasons. Saturn’s axis is tilted like Earth’s, and its seasons last about seven years.
“We’re heading towards the Saturn equinox, when the spokes are expected to be at their most active, and will remain active for several years to come,” said Amy Simon, OPAL program principal scientist at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. “We expect higher frequencies and darker spokes to appear.” .
This year, these ephemeral structures will appear on both sides of the Earth simultaneously, rotating around the giant world. Although it appears small compared to Saturn, its length and width can extend to more than Earth’s diameter.
“The leading theory is that the spokes are connected to Saturn’s strong magnetic field, and that the Sun is somehow interacting with that field to create the spokes,” Simon said. As Saturn approaches its vernal equinox, Saturn and its rings tilt less away from the Sun. In this configuration, the solar wind could hit Saturn’s massive magnetic field even harder, promoting spoke formation.
Planetary scientists believe that the electrostatic forces generated by this interaction cause the dust and ice to float above the ring, forming the spokes, but even after decades, no theory can fully predict the spokes. . Continued Hubble observations may ultimately help solve the mystery.
The Hubble Space Telescope is an international cooperative project between NASA and ESA. NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, manages the telescope. The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) in Baltimore, Maryland, conducts science operations for Hubble and Webb. STScI is operated for NASA by the Association of Universities for Astronomical Research in Washington, DC.
For the past 40 years, scientists have been using infrared space telescopes to study the universe, including NASA missions such as the Infrared Astronomy Satellite (IRAS) launched in 1983, the Spitzer Space Telescope launched in 2003, and the James Webb Space Telescope launched in 2021. Although the Webb Telescope has opened a new window to the universe, it builds on missions from 40 years ago, including Spitzer and the Infrared Astronomy Satellite. The James Webb Space Telescope is the largest and most powerful space observatory in history, celebrating its second anniversary since its launch. Its clarity of images has inspired the world, and scientists are just beginning to study its scientific benefits.
The success of Webb builds on four decades of work with space telescopes that also detect infrared light. Telescopes such as the IRAS and the Spitzer Space Telescope provide crucial insights into star formation, cosmic gas and dust clouds, and the existence of exoplanets. These telescopes have contributed to groundbreaking discoveries about the universe and have paved the way for future infrared missions, such as NASA’s upcoming SPHEREx and Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope.
The legacy of these infrared space telescopes is reflected in the images of star-forming regions, such as Rho Ophiuchus and Fomalhaut, which have revealed previously hidden features and provided insight into the formation of stars and planets. Infrared light has become an essential tool for understanding the universe on various scales, from the study of galaxy evolution to the detection of exoplanets and the investigation of dark energy.
The Webb Telescope is paving the way for complex and diverse scientific questions by building upon the knowledge gained from previous infrared telescopes such as IRAS and Spitzer. Its success is fueling the anticipation of future infrared missions that will continue to expand our understanding of the universe.
A groundbreaking study has revealed that great apes possess exceptional social memories, allowing them to recognize former mates over 25 years later. This discovery indicates that there are significant cognitive similarities between humans and great apes, emphasizing the depth and longevity of social connections among these close animal relatives. Published today in the Journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, this research demonstrates the longest-lasting non-human social memory ever recorded.
The study, led by Christopher Krupenier, assistant professor at Johns Hopkins University, explores the remarkable social memory capabilities of great apes, particularly chimpanzees and bonobos. The research team found that these animals can recognize individuals even after decades of separation, and exhibit heightened responses to individuals with whom they had positive relationships.
To conduct the study, the researchers worked with chimpanzees and bonobos at various zoos, collecting photos of apes that had left the zoos or passed away. They then presented these photos to the apes and measured their response using non-invasive eye-tracking equipment. The results indicated that the apes displayed enduring social memory, as they looked longer at their former group members and friends, despite prolonged periods of separation. One notable example was a bonobo named Louise, who showed a strong bias toward her sister and nephew, despite not having seen them for over 26 years.
The findings suggest that great apes possess social memories that may persist for over 26 years, similar in duration to human social memory. This suggests that such memory was likely already present in the common evolutionary ancestor of humans and great apes. Moreover, these long-lasting social memories may have played a crucial role in the evolution of human culture, influencing unique forms of social interaction and relationships.
According to the researchers, this study also raises questions about the emotional impact of separation on great apes, highlighting the potential negative consequences of poaching and deforestation on their social relationships. Going forward, the team hopes to further investigate the unique social memory capabilities of great apes and examine how it may compare to other primate species.
This research, made possible by the Templeton Global Philanthropic Foundation grant TWCF-20647 and the CIFAR Azrieli Global Scholars program, offers valuable insights into the social cognition of great apes and underscores the importance of preserving their social networks and relationships.
Researchers have made significant progress in understanding neuromuscular diseases by developing a two-dimensional neuromuscular junction model using pluripotent stem cells. This model enables high-throughput drug screening and complements previously developed three-dimensional organoids. (Artist’s concept) Credit: SciTechDaily.com
Scientists have developed a groundbreaking two-dimensional model to study neuromuscular diseases. This has enabled efficient drug testing and improved our understanding of diseases such as spinal muscular atrophy and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
Researchers have so far identified about 800 different neuromuscular diseases. These conditions are caused by problems with how muscle cells, motor neurons, and peripheral cells interact. These diseases, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and spinal muscular atrophy, can cause muscle weakness, paralysis, and even death.
“These diseases are very complex and the causes of dysfunction are diverse,” said Dr. Mina Gouti, head of the Max Delbrück Center’s Developmental Stem Cell Modeling and Disease Laboratory. The problem could be in the neurons, the muscle cells, or the connections between the two. “To better understand the causes and find effective treatments, we need human-specific cell culture models that allow us to study how motor neurons in the spinal cord interact with muscle cells.”
Innovative research using organoids
Researchers working with Gouti had already developed a three-dimensional neuromuscular organoid (NMO) system. “One of our goals is to use our cultures for large-scale drug testing,” Gouti says. “Three-dimensional organoids are so large that they cannot be cultured for long periods of time in the 96-well culture dishes we use to conduct high-throughput drug screening studies.”
Human self-assembling 2D neuromuscular junction model. Immunofluorescence analysis of the whole dish shows myocytes (magenta) organized into bundles surrounded by spinal neurons (cyan). Credit: Alessia Urzi, Max Delbrück Center
For this type of screening, an international team led by Gouti has now developed a self-organizing neuromuscular junction model using pluripotent stem cells. The model includes neurons, muscle cells, and chemicals. synapse It is called the neuromuscular junction, which is necessary for two types of cells to interact. The researchers have now published their findings in the journal. nature communications.
“The 2D self-assembled neuromuscular junction model allows us to perform high-throughput drug screening for various neuromuscular diseases and study the most promising candidates in patient-specific organoids,” says Gouti. .
2D neuromuscular model development
To establish a 2D self-organizing neuromuscular junction model, the researchers first needed to understand how motor neurons and muscle cells develop in the embryo. Although Minas’ team does not conduct embryo research themselves, they use a variety of human stem cell lines and induced pluripotent stem cell lines (iPSCs), which are allowed for research purposes under strict guidelines.
“We tested several hypotheses. We found that the cell type required for functional neuromuscular connections is derived from neuromesodermal progenitor cells,” says doctoral student and author of the paper. says lead author Alessia Urzi.
Urji discovered the right combination of signaling molecules that allow human stem cells to mature into functional motor neurons and muscle cells, and the necessary connections between them. “It was very exciting to see muscle cells contracting under the microscope,” Urji says. “That was a clear sign that we were on the right path.”
Another observation was that upon differentiation, cells organized into regions containing muscle cells and nerve cells, rather like a mosaic.
Optogenetic advances in neuromuscular research
Myocytes grown in culture dishes contract spontaneously as a result of their connections with neurons, but without any meaningful rhythm. Urji and Guti wanted to solve it. In collaboration with researchers at the Charité University of Berlin, they used optogenetics to activate motor neurons. Neurons activated by the flash of light fire and contract muscle cells in synchrony, causing them to move in a way that mimics the physiological conditions of an organism.
Modeling and testing for spinal muscular atrophy
To test the effectiveness of the model, Professor Urji used human iPSCs taken from patients with spinal muscular atrophy. Spinal muscular atrophy is a serious neuromuscular disease that affects children during their first year of life. Neuromuscular cultures generated from patient-specific induced pluripotent stem cells showed severe problems with muscle contraction similar to the patient’s disease state.
For Gooty, 2D and 3D cultures are important tools to study neuromuscular diseases in more detail and test more efficient and personalized treatment options. As a next step, Gouti and her team hope to conduct high-throughput drug screens to identify new treatments for patients with spinal muscular atrophy and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. “We want to start by using new drug combinations to see if we can achieve more successful outcomes to improve the lives of patients with complex neuromuscular diseases. ” says Gooty.
Reference: “Efficient Generation of Self-Assembling Neuromuscular Junction Models from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells,” Alessia Urzi et al., December 19, 2023. Nature Communications. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43781-3
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