The finest science is not just intelligent—it’s extraordinary. Don’t take our word for it! For 28 years, Wellcome has hosted its annual photography competition, showcasing impactful images that highlight health, science, and medicine.
The Wellcome Photography Prize delves into various topics, including mental health care and the everyday experiences of living with disabilities. This year, we’re thrilled to reintroduce the biomedical imaging category, offering a chance to appreciate the beauty of science alongside intricate medical visuals. Additional categories include “Solo Photography” and “Storytelling Series.”
Among the highlights is the first non-invasive image of microplastics buried within human skin and a poignant journey to the Peruvian Andes, where Indigenous farmers combine traditional wisdom with innovative science to combat water pollution.
The winners will be unveiled on July 16th, 2025, followed by a free public exhibition at the Francis Crick Institute in London from July 17th to October 18th.
A total of 25 images have secured the prestigious top prize this year. And here’s our favorite.
Blooming Barrier by Lucy Holland
Tissue samples taken from infants affected by Hirschsprung’s disease, a condition impacting goblet cell development and leading to long-term digestive issues. – Photo Credit: Lucy Holland/Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
From Butterflies to Humans by Amaia Alcalde Anton
This image captures the brain of a metamorphosing butterfly, where new neurons are generated through neurogenesis—a process observed in various species during growth and maturity. – Photo Credit: Amaia Alcalde Anton/Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
I Have You Under My Skin: Microplastics in Mammalian Tissues by P Stephen Patrick and Olumide Ogunlade
This groundbreaking non-invasive image reveals the presence of turquoise plastic particles deep within a living mouse. Biomedical researchers Patrick and Ogunlade have pioneered photoacoustic imaging techniques that utilize laser interactions with samples to visualize microplastics. – Photo Credit: P. Stephen Patrick and Olumide Ogunlade/Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
Liver Cholesterol by Steve Gschmeissner
This depiction by Steve Gschmeissner illustrates blue cholesterol crystals in a human liver, with lipid cell structures. The lipid droplet measures approximately 12 micrometers wide. – Photo Credit: Steve Gschmeissner/Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
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Submarine Heat by Jander Matos and Joaquim Nascimento
Captured by researchers Jander Matos and Joaquim Nascimento at the Bioimaging Lab in Brazil, this image reveals the egg (0.56 mm wide) of the Aedes aegypti mosquito, a known carrier of diseases such as dengue and Zika. The yellow details in the egg indicate nodules that provide nutrients for survival in water. – Photo Credit: Jander Matos and Joaquim Nascimento/Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
Organoids by Oliver Mex and Nicole Ottawa
Photographed by Oliver Mex alongside biologist Nicole Ottawa, this organoid mimics the uterine lining and is colored for realistic representation. The organoid measures 0.2 mm in width. – Photo Credit: Oliver Mex and Nicole Ottawa/Welcome Photography Award 2025
Brixton Road, Lambeth in Southern London by Marina Vitaglione
Created by Marina Vitaglione in collaboration with Joseph Levermore and scientists from the Imperial College Environmental Research Group, this image visualizes contaminating particles (less than 0.01 mm) magnified from Brixton Road, London. It highlights these “invisible killers.” – Photo Credit: Marina Vitaglione/Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
Ice and Fire Record by Ingrid Augusto, Kildare Rocha de Miranda, and Vania Da Silva Vieira
This image illustrates the internal structure of *Trypanosoma cruzi*, the parasite responsible for Chagas disease, which is transmitted through contaminated food or bites from certain insects. Untreated, it can lead to serious cardiac and digestive conditions. – Photo Credit: Ingrid Augusto, Kildare Rocha de Miranda, Vania Da Silva Vieira/Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
Nemo’s Garden by Giacomo D’Orlando
Nemo’s Garden is the pioneering underwater greenhouse system located in Liguria, Italy, designed to explore agricultural solutions for regions facing challenges in plant cultivation. The findings showcase how submerged plants possess higher antioxidant levels than their land-grown counterparts, aiding in drug development. – Photo Credit: Giacomo D’Orlando/Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
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Ciril Jazbec’s Dream of Curing Water
This series by Slovenian documentary photographer Ciril Jazbec investigates the health impacts of rapidly melting glaciers in the Cordillera Blanca Mountain Range, threatening water supplies with heavy metals accumulated over centuries. Peru houses most of the world’s tropical glaciers, vital for mountain farming communities. Climate change has led to a 40% reduction in glacier surface area since the 1970s. – Photo Credit: Ciril Jazbec / Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
Stereo EEG Self-Portrait by Muir Vidler
This self-portrait by UK photographer Muir Vidler captures his experience after electrode implantation into the brain for epilepsy treatment—a procedure used when medication fails. He documented this photo on the first day following electrode insertion, which he had to keep for a week. – Photo Credit: Muir Vidler / Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
Find a Life by Sandipani Chattopadhyay
This poignant image shows locals gathering water from the riverbed in Purulia, West Bengal, India. Climate change has disrupted the monsoon patterns, leading to dry rivers and forcing many communities to search for drinkable water. – Photo Credit: Sandipani Chattopadhyay / Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
This Is Endometriosis – 2014 – 2022: Five Years by Georgie Wilman
This self-portrait by UK photographer Georgie Wilman notes the dates of her scars resulting from endometriosis surgery. Affecting one in ten women and females assigned at birth, endometriosis is often downplayed as “painful periods,” a phrase that fails to encapsulate its severity, which causes internal bleeding and damage to organs. Wilman’s imagery powerfully conveys the struggles and impacts of living with endometriosis. – Photo Credit: Georgie Wileman / Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
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Beautiful Disasters by Alexandru Popescu
This aerial view depicts a former village in the Loopa area, Transylvania, Romania. In 1977, Nicolae Ceaușescu forcibly relocated its 1,000 residents to create a toxic waste lake linked to Roșia Poieni copper mine. The lake grows approximately 100 cm annually, jeopardizing local groundwater quality. – Photo Credit: Alexandru Popescu / Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
A recent study by paleontologists integrated data on the ancient climate of a specific region with fossil distribution information regarding Triassic eye pteraurauromorphs (pterosaurs + lagerpetids).
Foffa et al. Lagerpetids, alongside overall pterygoid morphospace, likely thrived in southwestern Pangaea (i.e. modern-day South America), indicating that pterosaurs may have originated at lower latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere. Image credit: James Kuether.
“Pterosaurs were the first vertebrates to evolve powered flight more than 60 million years ago—the oldest known birds,” stated Davide Foffa, a paleontologist from the University of Birmingham.
“Nevertheless, our comprehension of early pterosaur evolution is constrained by significant temporal and anatomical gaps separating these highly adapted flying reptiles from their closest terrestrial relatives.”
“The fossil records for pterosaurs and their related species remain incomplete, and fundamental aspects of early evolution, including timing, domains of existence, initial radiation, and the ecological context of paleontology, are not well understood compared to other contemporary groups such as dinosaurs.”
The researchers concentrated on the distribution of two closely related groups: Pterosaurs and Lagerpetids.
“Lagerpetids existed roughly 240 million years ago as a group of agile reptiles that lived in smaller land areas and among trees,” they noted.
“These small terrestrial reptiles are now recognized as the closest relatives to pterosaurs, and this study shows they endured a wider range of climatic conditions than their aerial counterparts, including the arid landscapes of ancient Pangaea.”
“This adaptability resulted in a broader distribution of this group.”
“Conversely, pterosaurs seemed to be restricted to humid environments found in limited regions of the ancient world, as evidenced by fossils discovered in modern-day Italy, Austria, and the southwestern United States.
During the late Triassic period, global climatic conditions began to change, with an increase in warm and humid environments outside the equatorial region.
This shift provided an opportunity for flying reptiles to expand across the globe, including present-day high-latitude areas such as Greenland and South America.
“While dinosaurs roamed the Earth, I find it fascinating to envision that these formidable reptiles ruled the skies during that era,” remarked Dr. Foffa.
“However, the origins of pterosaurs remain cloaked in mystery. Our research contributes new insights into this puzzle, proposing that early evolution among groups was likely influenced by shifting climates and environments during the Triassic.”
“Climate change significantly affects biodiversity, both today and throughout geological history,” stated Dr. Emma Dunn, a paleontologist at Friedrich Alexander Universitat Erlangen Nurnberg.
“Recent advancements in modeling techniques have enabled paleontologists to better understand how climate change has shaped the biodiversity of significant fossil groups like pterosaurs in just the past few years.”
“The combination of ecological models and fossil data is emphasized by Dr. Alessandro Chiarenza, paleontologist at University College London, who noted:
“Lagerpetids flourished as generalists, while pterosaurs, initially constrained to a humid tropical niche with possibly limited flight capabilities, occupied equatorial territories.”
“As the climate transformed and forest corridors emerged, their wings propelled them to every corner of the planet, ultimately allowing them to survive one of Earth’s greatest extinctions.”
“What started as a tale of lost fossils is evolving into a paradigmatic example of how paleoclimate, past climate, and evolutionary innovations intertwine, illuminating the complex history that has fascinated paleontologists for over two centuries.”
Study published in the journal Natural Ecology and Evolution.
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D. Foffa et al. Paleobiogeography of climate drivers and lagerpetids and early pterosaurs. Nat Ecol Evol published online on June 18th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41559-025-02767-8
Here’s a piece of scriptwriting advice: simplify the plot while adding complexity to the characters.
The narrative of 28 Years Later can be summarized in a few sentences. This long-awaited third chapter of the series that began in 2002 with 28 Days Later revolves around a neurotoxic virus that has spread uncontrollably across Europe, turning people into an army of infected (which some might call zombies, though the term isn’t explicitly used). The infection ultimately becomes contained within the UK, safeguarded by the International Fleet to prevent anyone from escaping the island.
A young boy named Spike (played by newcomer Alfie Williams) resides in the relative safety of a small northern island linked to the mainland by a causeway that is passable only at low tide. At 12 years old—an age his father thinks makes him ready—Spike ventures onto the mainland in search of adventure. He navigates through the possibly long-abandoned woods. While there may not be much tracking after 28 years, the film showcases Spike skillfully battling slow-moving zombies and avoiding the much quicker ones, all while providing some context for these encounters.
Upon his return, despite his mother (Jodie Comer) being bedridden with an unknown illness, Spike is hailed as a hero, while his father, Jamie (Aaron Taylor-Johnson), seeks comfort with another woman. Determined, Spike sneaks out to find the only doctor he knows about to help his mother.
Let’s throw in a twist. However, introducing a twist often implies that there isn’t one. Author Alex Garland, who set the rules of the world in 28 Days Later, stays true to his vision. The world is thriving yet shadowed by the remnants of an earlier outbreak, where some zombies have mutated, growing larger and posing new challenges. These are not just recycled dangers but add complexity within Spike’s idyllic yet troubled village.
Visually, the film offers a unique experience. Boyle incorporates elements reminiscent of Laurence Olivier’s Henry V wartime newsreels and original footage of the 28 Weeks Later outbreak, providing a contemplative layer to the community’s defenses. It evokes a sense of folk horror, nodding to films like Apocalypse Now and Alien 3. Yet, despite its depth, the film remains accessible, conveying themes of loss, disillusionment, and personal growth through the relatable actions of its characters.
The budget is reasonable (estimated between $60 million and $75 million), with a keen eye for casting (like Christopher Fulford as Spike’s grandfather, who brings depth to a tragic backstory). Don’t be mistaken: 28 Years Later is filled with clever nods and callbacks that will engage fans. However, there is no unnecessary complexity. No contrived MacGuffins, pointless quests, or mystical items. Spike’s journey, portrayed expertly by Alfie Williams, is a relatable and poignant evolution, where he learns that to grow into manhood, he must let go.
The acclaim for 28 Days Later back in 2002 still resonates, as does its 2007 sequel 28 Weeks Later, which was equally impressive. The crown for this genre, at least for now, belongs to 28 Years Later.
Boyle and Garland have triumphantly revisited the territory they first explored over two decades ago.
The CEO of Amazon informed the company’s office workers that opportunities in artificial intelligence will be available in the upcoming years.
Andrew Jassy advised his team that AI agents—tools designed to perform tasks autonomously—will lead to a reduction in workforce in specific AI areas, including chatbots.
“As we integrate more generative AI and agents, our work dynamics will transform,” he mentioned in a note to the team. “There will be fewer individuals in some existing roles, while others will shift to different types of work.
“It’s hard to predict the exact trajectory of this change, but we anticipate a decrease in our overall workforce in the coming years.”
Amazon currently employs 1.5 million individuals globally, with around 350,000 in corporate positions such as software engineering and marketing.
Recently, the CEO of BT, a UK telecommunications firm, stated that advancements in AI might lead to deeper job cuts in their company. Conversely, Dario Amodei, CEO of AI research firm Anthropic, noted that AI could potentially eliminate half of all entry-level office jobs.
Jassy projected that billions of AI agents will become integral to the everyday operations of companies and individuals alike soon.
“These AI agents will be present in virtually every company and industry. From shopping to handling daily tasks, many of these agents will assist in various aspects of life outside of work. Although not all of these agents have been developed yet, there is no doubt about their future impact.”
Jassy concluded his message by urging employees to engage with AI, emphasizing the importance of self-education and participating in training programs.
“Those who adapt to this change and familiarize themselves with AI—by developing and enhancing AI capabilities internally and delivering them to our customers—will play a crucial role in redefining the company,” he asserted.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), an influential international policy body, estimates that this technology could lead to job losses among skilled white-collar professionals in fields like law, medicine, and finance. According to the International Monetary Fund, 60% of jobs in advanced economies such as the US and the UK could be vulnerable to AI, with half at risk of being adversely affected.
On the other hand, the Tony Blair Institute advocates for broader AI adoption across public and private sectors, suggesting that while the private sector could see job reductions of up to 3 million in the UK, net losses will be counterbalanced by the creation of new positions thanks to technological advancements.
Tracing the world’s oldest cheese is challenging, but direct evidence shows that humans have been consuming milk for millennia.
Archaeologists have discovered milk residues in ancient pottery from various locations worldwide.
Research on carbon isotopes of fatty acids from pot residues reveals that humans have been consuming milk in the UK since 4000 BC. However, in Anatolia, a region in Türkiye noted for its Neolithic agriculture, evidence suggests milk consumption dates back even earlier to around 7000 BC.
Farmers in Anatolia were widely mobile. Although milk fat residues often degrade over thousands of years underground, the sheer number of ceramic pieces found leads scientists to speculate that these early peoples were likely producing long-lasting dairy products like cheese.
When milk is transformed into cheese, lactose levels decrease, helping to mitigate lactose intolerance, which was common across Europe. It wasn’t until approximately 3,000 years ago that genetic mutations became prevalent, enabling adults to produce lactase.
A 2023 study from York University found protein structures in a Polish late Neolithic pot, suggesting it contained cheese made from the milk of cows, goats, and sheep.
The oldest surviving cheese sample dates back about 3,500 years – Illustration credits: Jessley
The oldest cheese sample still known today is approximately 3,500 years old and was found around the neck of a Bronze Age mummy in the Xiaohe Cemetery in northwestern China.
A team at the Chinese Academy of Sciences conducted an analysis of this specimen, identifying it as kefir cheese (fermented bacterial milk). The scientists found DNA from various bacteria and yeast species, including Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens and Pichia kudriavzevii, which are present in kefir today.
They hypothesize that the lump could represent a kefir starter grain, a concentrated bacterial colony used to initiate cheese fermentation. These grains were likely regarded as valuable offerings for the afterlife in ancient times.
This article addresses the question, “What is the oldest cheese in the world?” posed by Scott Mills of Watford.
Feel free to reach out with your questions atQuestion @sciencefocus.com or message us onFacebook,Twitter, orInstagram(please include your name and location).
Discover more in our ultimateFun fact and explore more fascinating science pages.
The electric vehicle (EV) revolution is new research published in Cell Reports Sustainability.
The accelerating demand for lithium, an essential element of EV batteries, is expected to outstrip domestic supply in major markets by the decade’s end.
This analysis highlights China, the US, and Europe, which collectively represent 80% of current EV sales. Researchers caution that without significant changes, these regions may not fulfill their lithium requirements from local sources by 2030, leading to an increased reliance on imports and a heightened risk of global shortages.
“Many previous studies have examined the lithium necessary for low-carbon transitions,” said Dr. Andre Manberger, a co-author of the new study, in an interview with BBC Science Focus.
“The issue is that often we compare projected lithium demand with current mining rates and existing reserves. However, there’s a gap in the existing literature concerning mining feasibility.”
Globally, EV sales surpassed 17 million in 2024, marking a 25% increase from the previous year.
The International Energy Agency forecasts that electric vehicles could represent 40% of all car sales by 2030. However, this expansion hinges on a stable supply of lithium carbonate equivalents (LCE).
The study indicates that by 2030, annual LCE demand will reach 1.3 million tonnes in China, 792,000 metric tonnes in Europe, and 692,000 in the US. Yet, even if all current and planned mining projects are considered, domestic supply remains inadequate: China could produce up to 1.1 million tonnes, the US 610,000, and Europe only 325,000.
This shortfall could intensify global competition for lithium, primarily sourced from Australia, Chile, and Argentina. In 2023, these three countries accounted for nearly 80% of the world’s lithium.
Almost 50% of the world’s lithium was mined in Australia in 2023.
China currently dominates the global lithium market, and an increase in its imports could negatively impact other buyers. Researchers found that should China’s imports rise by 77%, the US and European imports could drop by 84% and 78%, respectively.
“Commodity trading tends to have a lot of continuity and path dependence,” Månberger explains.
“This is due to the established supply chain, contracts, and overall inertia in the market.”
Nonetheless, there are reasons for optimism. Increasing lithium prices may drive investments in new mining initiatives and motivate manufacturers to create more efficient battery technologies. Alternatives like sodium-ion batteries could also contribute to a more diverse market.
In the long term, recycling could assume a more substantial role. As first-generation EVs reach the end of their lifespans in the 2030s, materials extracted from older batteries could mitigate the need for new lithium extraction.
“I’m very optimistic,” says Månberger. “Historically, while it’s often straightforward to forecast potential bottlenecks and supply risks, innovations tend to emerge unpredictably when these challenges arise.”
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About our experts
Andre Manberger is a senior lecturer in Environmental and Energy Systems Studies at Lund University, Sweden. He leads the Misttra Mineral Governance Research Program, initiated in 2024, focusing on the rising demand for critical raw materials and addressing conflicts of interest in the low-carbon transition.
China has been recognized as one of the primary locations for the domestication of Wild boar (SUSSCROFA). However, tracing back to the initial stages has proven to be complex. In a recent study, archaeologists examined pig dental calculus (mineralized deposits) from two early Neolithic sites in the lower Jotz River area of southern China: Jintushan (8,300–7,800 years ago) and Kuafukiao (8,200–7,000 years ago). Their findings indicate that pigs consumed food and waste associated with humans, including cooked starchy plants and Human whipworm (Trichuris trichiura). Eggs likely originated from food preparation and feces contaminated materials.
The domestication of certain animals, including pigs, is often linked to the Neolithic Age, when humans started moving from foraging to agricultural practices around 10,000 years ago.
Wild boars are substantial, aggressive creatures that generally live independently, foraging for food in the forest floor.
They possess larger heads, mouths, and teeth compared to domestic pigs.
“Most wild boars exhibit natural aggression, though some can be quite friendly and unafraid of humans,” stated Dr. Ziajin Wang from Dartmouth University.
“Proximity to humans provided them with easier access to food, reducing the need for a robust physique.”
“Over time, their bodies and brains shrunk by about one-third.”
To investigate the domestication of pigs and other animals, archaeologists frequently analyze skeletal structures and track morphological changes over time.
“This method can present challenges since decreases in body size typically occur later in the domestication timeline,” Dr. Wang noted.
“Behavioral changes likely preceded physical alterations, making animals more docile than aggressive.”
Thus, for this study, Dr. Wang and his team applied alternative methodologies, documenting the diet of pigs throughout their lifespan via molars from 32 pig specimens.
Through microfossil analysis of pig teeth, they examined dental calculus from the two earliest human-occupied sites in Jintushan and Kuafukiao, dating back at least 8,000 years.
The researchers identified 240 starch granules, revealing that pigs consumed pre-cooked foods (such as rice and mountain moss) alongside unidentified tubers, acorns, and wild grasses.
“These plants were present during that era and were found in human habitats,” Dr. Wang explained.
Previous studies identified rice in both locations, especially in Kuahuqiao, which benefited from intensive rice farming due to its access to freshwater compared to coastal areas.
Additional research indicated starch residues in crushed stones and ceramics from Kuahuqiao.
“Since pigs cannot cook their own food, it is likely that they were fed or scavenged human leftovers,” asserted Dr. Wang.
Parasite eggs from humans, specifically whipworms (which mature within the human digestive system), were also detected in pig dental calculus.
These tan, soccer-shaped eggs were found in 16 pig tooth specimens.
The pigs must have consumed human feces or contaminated food and water from such waste.
“Pigs have a well-known penchant for consuming human waste, further indicating that these pigs likely cohabitated with humans,” Dr. Wang remarked.
Statistical analysis of the dental structures of Kuafukiao and Jintan pig specimens revealed that their teeth are smaller and comparable to those of modern domestic groups in China.
“As humans began to settle and cultivate their own food, wild boars would have been drawn to these settlements,” Dr. Wang stated.
“These communities generated substantial waste, attracting scavengers in search of food.
This dynamic in animal domestication is termed a symbiotic pathway, where animals are drawn to human environments without the need for direct human action in adopting them.
Data also suggests that early interactions may include domesticated pigs under some level of human control, indicating a trajectory of prey pathways in the domestication process.
“Our study indicates that certain wild boars began their journey toward domestication by foraging human waste,” Dr. Wang concluded.
“This research also underscores the potential connection between pig domestication and the transmission of parasitic diseases in early settled communities.”
The study was published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Jiajing Wang et al. 2025. Early evidence of pig domestication in the lower Yangtze region of southern China (8,000 cal. bp). PNAS 122 (24): E2507123122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2507123122
Recent data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration at the University of California, San Diego, indicates that the Earth’s atmosphere contains millions, and potentially tens of millions, of carbon dioxide molecules.
For the first time ever, the global average concentration of carbon dioxide—a greenhouse gas emitted from burning fossil fuels—surpassed 430 parts per million (ppm) in May. These measurements represent a record high, with an increase of over 3 ppm from last year.
The findings suggest that efforts to curtail greenhouse gas emissions and reverse the growing accumulation of CO2 are insufficient.
“Another year, another record,” stated Ralph Keeling, a professor of climate science, marine chemistry, and geochemistry at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in San Diego, California; he commented. “I am saddened.”
Carbon dioxide, like other greenhouse gases, traps heat from the sun and can persist in the atmosphere for centuries. High levels of these gases contribute to rising global temperatures and other adverse effects of climate change, including increased sea levels, polar ice melt, and more frequent extreme weather events.
Since the pre-industrial era, CO2 levels in the atmosphere have sharply risen, primarily due to human activities that release greenhouse gases.
Just a few decades ago, crossing the 400 ppm threshold seemed unimaginable. This means that for every million molecules of gas in the atmosphere, over 400 would be carbon dioxide. The planet reached this daunting milestone in 2013. Current warnings suggest that CO2 levels could approach 500 ppm within the next 30 years.
Human society is now in uncharted territory.
According to Keeling, the planet likely experienced such high atmospheric CO2 levels over 30 million years ago, during a time with very different climatic conditions.
He noted the remarkable speed at which CO2 levels are rising.
“It’s changing very quickly,” he told NBC News. “If humans had evolved in an environment with high CO2 levels, the absence of suitable habitats would have likely shaped our evolution. We could have adapted to that world, but instead, we’ve constructed society and civilization based on the climate of the past.”
CO2 levels are typically illustrated using the Keeling Curve, named in honor of Keeling’s father, Charles David Keeling, who began daily atmospheric CO2 measurements in 1958 from the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii.
The Keeling Curve prominently displays the steep rise in CO2 since the Industrial Revolution, attributed to human-induced climate change.
Ralph Keeling and his colleagues at the Scripps Oceanographic Institute reported that the average atmospheric CO2 concentration for May was 430.2 ppm, while NOAA’s Global Monitoring Institute, which has been conducting separate daily measurements since 1974, noted an average of 430.5 ppm for the same month.
Monitoring atmospheric carbon dioxide levels is crucial for understanding how human activities impact the Earth’s climate. These measurements also serve as key indicators of the planet’s overall health.
“These measurements provide insight into the health of the entire system with just one data point,” Keeling explained. “We achieve a comprehensive view of the atmosphere through relatively simple measurement techniques.”
Polar ecosystems are bolstered and enriched by birds that nest there seasonally, serving as keystone members of these ecosystems. Despite the significant ecological role of polar birds, the origins of high-center nests remain unclear due to limited fossil evidence. A recent study conducted by paleontologists explored an extensive collection of bird fossils from the late Cretaceous Purine Cream Formation in Alaska.
Illustration of Cretaceous birds alongside other dinosaurs from the same period. Image credit: Gabriel Ugueto.
“Birds have existed for 150 million years,” stated Lauren Wilson, a doctoral candidate at Princeton University.
“For a significant portion of that time, they constructed nests in the Arctic.”
In their research, Wilson and colleagues studied the bones and teeth of fossilized birds from the Alaska Prune Creek Formation, dating back 73 million years.
They identified various bird types, including land birds, seagull-like birds, and diving birds that bear similarities to some modern ducks and geese, all of which were nesting in the Arctic while dinosaurs roamed the same territory.
Before this research, the earliest known evidence of breeding birds in the Arctic or Antarctic was approximately 47 million years ago, following the asteroid impact that wiped out 75% of Earth’s species.
“This will extend the timeline by 25-30 million years for records of birds breeding in the polar regions,” remarked Dr. Pat Druckenmiller, director of the University of Alaska Museum.
“The Arctic is recognized as a modern nursery for birds.”
“Finding bird bones from the Cretaceous period is exceptionally rare,” Wilson noted.
“Discovering baby bird bones is almost unheard of, making these fossils particularly significant.”
“We conducted extensive mapping of Alaska for fossil birds—it wasn’t on anyone’s radar,” added Dr. Druckenmiller.
“Now, we are one of the premier locations in the country for bird fossils from the dinosaur age.”
“Given the richness of this information, these small bones and teeth offer exceptional insights into the fauna from that era.”
It remains uncertain whether these newly discovered specimens are the earliest recognized members of Neornithes, a category that encompasses all modern birds.
Some of the newly unearthed bones exhibit skeletal characteristics exclusive to this group. Additionally, like contemporary birds, some did not possess true teeth.
“If they belong to a modern bird lineage, they would represent the oldest fossils ever found,” explained Dr. Druckenmiller.
“Currently, the oldest such fossils are about 69 million years old.”
“However, establishing that requires the discovery of a partial or complete skeleton.”
Survey results I will be featured this week in the journal Science.
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Lauren N. Wilson et al. 2025. Evidence of bird nesting in the Arctic dates back to the Cretaceous period. Science 388 (6750): 974-978; doi: 10.1126/science.adt5189
The recently identified Transneptunian object, which was named in 2017, stands out as one of the most prominent objects in our solar system, measuring approximately 700 km in diameter, thus qualifying as a dwarf planet.
All cut-out images of 19 detections for 2017 2017. Image credits: Chen et al, arxiv: 2505.15806.
Transneptunian Objects (TNOs) are small celestial bodies that orbit the Sun at distances greater than that of Neptune.
In the 30 years following the discovery of the first TNO outside Pluto, numerous research initiatives have been launched to explore the expansive regions of the outer solar system, resulting in the identification of over 5,000 TNOs to date.
The newly discovered TNO is significant for two main reasons: its unique trajectory and substantial size.
“The object’s aphelion—the furthest point in its orbit from the Sun—is over 1,600 times the distance of Earth’s orbit,” states Dr. Sihao Chen, an astronomer at the Institute of Advanced Research and Boundary Research.
“Conversely, its perihelion—the closest point in its orbit to the Sun—is 44.5 times that of Earth’s orbit, akin to Pluto’s orbit.”
“This extreme trajectory takes around 25,000 years to complete, suggesting a complex gravitational history,” he adds.
“We likely experienced a close encounter with a massive planet, compelling us into this wide orbit,” comments Princeton University astronomer Dr. Elitas Yang.
“There may have been multiple phases in this transition.”
“The object might have initially been ejected into the Oort Cloud, the outermost region of the solar system, which is home to numerous comets.”
“Many extreme TNOs appear to follow similar trajectories, but 2017 OF201 stands out as an anomaly,” remarks Dr. Jiaxuan Li, also from Princeton University.
“This clustering is interpreted as indirect evidence suggesting the presence of another celestial body, often referred to as Planet X or Planet Nine, which could be influencing these objects through gravitational forces.”
“The existence of 2017 OF201 as an outlier in this clustering could potentially challenge this hypothesis.”
Astronomers estimate the diameter of 2017 OF201 to be 700 km, making it the second-largest object on such an extensive orbit.
“2017 OF201 can only be detected about 1% of the time when it is relatively close to us,” Dr. Chen notes.
“The presence of this solitary object implies that there may be around 100 other similar objects with comparable trajectories and sizes.”
Researchers discovered 2017 OF201 as part of an ongoing initiative to identify TNOs and potential new planets in the outer solar system.
The detection involved identifying bright spots in astronomical image databases from the Victor M. Blanco Telescope and the Canada France Hawaii Telescope (CFHT), as well as attempting to trace groups of possible spots that indicate TNO movement across the sky.
Scientists identified 2017 OF201 in 19 different exposures collected over a span of seven years.
“Although advancements in telescopic technology have allowed us to explore distant realms of the universe, much remains to be uncovered within our own solar system,” concludes Dr. Chen.
The team’s paper has been published online at arxiv.org.
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Sihao Cheng et al. 2025. Discovery of new planet candidates in extremely wide orbits: 2017 OF201. arxiv: 2505.15806
Researchers conducted an extensive study of bone artifacts from 26 Paleolithic caves and rock shelter locations in the Cantabria area of Spain and southwestern France.
173 work (a) and raw (b) taxonomic identification of bone objects: (1) blank, Tito Bastilo, sperm whale. (2) A launch point with a huge base, Islitz and a blue whale. (3) Lassempouy, Fin Whale; (4) Rascaldas, a sperm whale; (5) A launch point with a giant base, Hermitia and a gray whale. (6) Unclear object, St. Michelle, a sperm whale. (7-10) Santa Catalina, raw fragments of fin whale bones. Image credit: McGrath et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-59486-8.
“The largest creatures on Earth, whales were a vital source of nourishment and materials like oil and bone,” stated Dr. Christa McGrath, the lead author and an archaeologist from the University of Barcelona, along with her co-researchers.
“Hence, they are thought to have been instrumental in the survival of various coastal human populations.”
“Nonetheless, tracing the origins of human and near-human interactions is challenging since coastal archaeological sites are particularly prone to the impacts of rising sea levels, complicating the preservation of evidence regarding early human-mammal relationships.”
The authors examined 83 bone tools from various cave and rock shelter locations around the Bay of Biscay in Spain, along with an additional 90 bones from the Santa Catalina Cave in Biscay province.
Utilizing mass spectrometry and radiocarbon dating methods, they identified the species and age of the artifacts.
The earliest two dates were from the Cantabrian sites of Las Caño and Ergeyo, which dated to 20,200-19,600 and 19,600-19,000 years ago, respectively.
“Our findings show that the bones came from at least five large whale species, with the oldest dating back around 19,000-20,000 years,” mentioned Senior author Dr. Jean Mark Petitillon, an archaeologist at Toulouse-Jean-Jalaise University and CNRS University.
“This provides some of the earliest known proof of humans utilizing whales as tools.”
“Zoomorphometry is an effective method for studying past marine mammal diversity, especially when key morphological features are absent in the bone remains and artifacts.
“We identified gray whales that not only existed in Biscay Bay but are now confined to the North Pacific and Arctic oceans.”
“Moreover, chemical analysis of the bones indicates that the feeding patterns of these ancient whales varied slightly from those of contemporary ones, highlighting potential shifts in behavior and marine environments.”
“This discovery not only enhances our understanding of the early human use of whale remains but also illuminates the role whales held in ancient ecosystems.”
The team’s study is set to be published in the journal Nature Communications.
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K. McGrath et al. 2025. Late Paleolithic whale bone tools in the Bay of Biscay reveal insights into human and whale ecology. Nature Communications 16, 4646; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-59486-8
Kentucky is often referred to as the land of horses, bourbon, and bluegrass, and it will soon welcome a large influx of Cicadas.
Billions of these winged insects will begin to emerge from their infamous underground mating rituals, having spent weeks below the surface.
This year, Cicadas are expected to emerge in nearly 12 states, with the highest concentration occurring in Kentucky and Tennessee. They will also be spotted in parts of Illinois, Indiana, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and New York.
Some locals refer to them simply as “Chicada” this season due to their prominence in Kentucky.
“They’re the experts in entomology at the University of Kentucky,” noted Jonathan Larson, assistant professor of entomology.
Seven different types of cicadas can be found in North America, appearing every 13 or 17 years depending on their species. USDA Forest Bureau
These are known as regular Cicadas, which spend a predetermined number of years underground before surfacing to find mates. Seven species of these cicadas exist in North America, emerging either every 13 years or every 17 years.
This year’s Cicadas belong to Brood XIV, which follows a 17-year cycle.
Larson remarked that the nickname “bourbon chick” fits well, as the lifecycle of these insects parallels the distillation process of Kentucky’s renowned whiskey.
“We let the bourbon age,” Larson explained. “It’s placed in barrels in the dark for an extended period, which is somewhat similar.”
Larson mentioned that sightings of Cicadas have already started in southern Kentucky counties, but the main event will kick off in the coming weeks as the soil temperature rises.
“I anticipate that in the next two weeks, we will really see them everywhere,” he said.
When that time comes, certain areas will be literally swarming with Cicadas. However, it’s not just their sheer numbers that create an unforgettable experience; it’s the distinct high-pitched noise they make as well.
Cicadas can produce sounds reaching up to 100 decibels, which is actually their mating call used to attract females. After emerging, females only have a few weeks to find mates and lay eggs before they die.
“It’s all wild and beautiful, strange and wonderful,” Larson enthused.
While Cicadas pose no danger to humans, they can become quite bothersome, particularly when large amounts of their bodies accumulate post-mortem.
“During the early stages, there’s no unpleasant odor, but about five weeks later, if enough die in one spot, a decomposing smell can develop,” Larson noted.
Although thousands of cicada species are found globally, regular cicadas are unique for spending the majority of their lives underground, feeding on tree roots, before surfacing every 13 or 17 years.
Typically, the first Cicadas surface in early to mid-May, but most often they emerge in June when temperatures rise. Larson stated that cicadas generally wait for the soil to reach approximately 64 degrees Fahrenheit before breaking through.
Their reliance on environmental signals raises questions about the impact of climate change on Cicadas and their mating rituals.
“If it’s warmer sooner this year, they might start emerging earlier than expected,” Larson explained, noting the potential for extreme weather events like flooding or freezing, which have been prevalent in Kentucky recently.
This area remains a focal point of research as scientists investigate the long-term effects of climate change on Cicada populations.
In the meantime, Larson and other entomology enthusiasts from various states are gearing up to witness this remarkable phenomenon.
“I hope people take the time to experience it,” Larson encouraged. “What’s happening here is unique; you won’t find this anywhere else, so we suggest engaging in Cicada tourism if you can.”
Citizen scientists can also contribute to research by snapping photos and recording geographical details of sightings using the CICADA SAFARI app.
Paleontologists have uncovered fossilized tracks of reptile-like creatures from the early Carboniferous Tonan period, approximately 355 million years ago, within the snow plain formation in Victoria, Australia. This discovery indicates that such animals originated from Gondwana, where Australia was centrally located.
Artist’s impression of early reptile track makers from 355 million years ago. Image credit: Martin Ambrozik.
Tetrapods evolved from a group of fish that transitioned from aquatic to terrestrial life around 390 million years ago during the Devonian period.
These ancestral beings are the forebears of all modern vertebrates inhabiting land, including amphibians and various mammals, reptiles, and birds.
The oldest known amniotic fossils previously discovered date back to the late Carboniferous period, roughly 320 million years ago.
The findings from this 355 million-year-old snow plains slab, found by two amateur paleontologists, reveal that reptiles were already present 35 million years earlier than previously thought, at the dawn of the Carboniferous.
“Upon recognizing this, I understood that we had the oldest evidence globally of animals akin to reptiles, pushing back the evolutionary record by at least 35 million years beyond prior findings in the Northern Hemisphere,” stated Professor John Long from Flinders University.
“The fossilized tracks uncovered in the Mansfield region of northern Victoria, Australia, were created by creatures resembling small, agile, Goanna-like animals.”
A slab containing 355 million-year-old tracks from Australia’s Snowy Plains formation. Image credit: Long et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-08884-5.
“When I initially encountered this specimen, I was astounded. Just seconds later, I noticed that the nail impressions were remarkably preserved,” said Dr. Grzegorz Niedwiedzki, a researcher at Uppsala University.
“Nails are characteristic of all early amniotic species but are absent in other quadruped lineages,” added Per Erik Ahlberg, a professor at Uppsala University.
“The combination of nail marks and foot shapes suggests that the track maker was a primitive reptile.”
According to the research team, this discovery profoundly impacts the understanding of early tetrapod evolution.
Although all stem tetrapods and stem amniotes must have emerged during the Devonian period, evidence suggests that tetrapod evolution progressed significantly faster than previously believed, with far fewer Devonian tetrapods than assumed.
“Skeletons can reveal much about an animal’s capabilities, but trackways capture behavior and illustrate how the animal functioned,” explained Dr. Alice Clement from Flinders University.
“This new fossilized trackway we examined dates from the early Carboniferous, making accurate age identification crucial. We achieved this by comparing the various fish fauna in these rocks to similar morphotypes found in well-dated sedimentary layers from across the globe, providing a timeline constraint of approximately 10 million years.”
“This finding redefines a segment of evolutionary history,” remarked Dr. Gillian Garvey from La Trobe University.
“Much has occurred in Australia and Gondwana, indicating that the narrative is still unfolding.”
The findings are detailed in a paper published in the journal Nature.
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Ja Long et al. Early amniote tracks revise the timeline of tetrapod evolution. Nature published online on May 14th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-08884-5
Solar particle events from the sun are infrequent but powerful, significantly influencing the creation of cosmic genic isotopes. For instance, radiocarbon (14c) in the terrestrial environment leaves a distinct mark on natural archives, such as dating artifacts. Over the last 12,000 years, eight such events have been identified, the most notable occurring in 775 AD. Recently, a candidate for a new extreme solar particle event was discovered, marked by the largest known radiocarbon peak dating back to 12350 BC. A recent study indicates this event was 18% more intense than the 775 CE event and likely transpired between January and April of that year, with early March being the most probable time frame.
Illustration of the artist of Solar Storm. Image credit: NASA.
“Solar particle storms significantly enhance the natural production of cosmic isotopes, such as radiocarbon, in the atmosphere due to cosmic rays from galaxies,” stated Kseniia Golubenko, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Oulu, along with her colleagues.
“Such enhancements, preserved in annual tree rings, act as clear timestamps in the universe, enabling absolute dating of tree samples.”
“These dramatic spikes, referred to as Miyake Events, are named after the Japanese researcher who first identified them. They provide crucial data for scientists examining solar activity, ancient Earth systems, and space climate.”
“Miyake events help us pinpoint the exact calendar year of floating archaeological timelines,” added Professor Ilya Usoskin from Oulu University.
“The radiocarbon signals from such events have enabled researchers to accurately date Viking settlements in Newfoundland and Neolithic communities in Greece.”
For the reconstruction of solar particle storms under ancient glacial climate conditions, the authors developed and utilized a new chemical climate model called SOCOL:14C-EX.
This model was successfully validated using tree ring data from the 775 CE event and applied to ice age conditions to analyze the event from 12350 BC.
“The ancient events of 12350 BC are the only known extreme solar particle occurrences aside from the stable warm climate of the last 12,000 years,” Dr. Golubenko stated.
“Our estimates reveal that, compared to the largest events of the modern satellite era, the Particle Storm of 2005 was over 500 times weaker.”
“Other documented solar particle storms took place in 994 BC, 663 BC, 5259 BC, and 7176 BC, with several more candidates currently under investigation.”
“The 12350 BCE occurrence also establishes new worst-case scenarios,” she added.
“Understanding its magnitude is vital for assessing the risks posed by future solar storms.”
The team’s paper was published in the journal Earth and Planet Science Letters.
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Kseniia Golubenko et al. 2025. The new SOCOL:14C-EX model reveals that radiocarbon spikes from the late glacial age of 12350 BC were caused by record extreme solar storms. Earth and Planet Science Letters 661:119383; doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2025.119383
Distal regulation—the capacity to control genes across vast distances, spanning tens of thousands of DNA letters—emerged during the early stages of animal evolution, approximately 650-700 million years ago (the Kleigenian era).
Diagram of DNA molecules. Image credits: Christophe Bock, Max Planck Informatics Institute/CC BY-SA 3.0.
Distal adjustment relies on the physical folding of DNA and proteins, along with intricate loops.
This mechanism enables regions distant from a gene’s starting point to activate their functions.
This additional regulatory layer may have assisted the first multicellular organisms in developing specialized cell types and tissues without necessarily inventing new genes.
Key innovations likely originated from marine creatures or common ancestors shared by all existing animals.
Ancient organisms developed the ability to fold DNA in a controlled manner, forming 3D loops that facilitated direct contact between different segments of DNA.
“These organisms can utilize their genetic toolkit in various ways, akin to a Swiss Army knife, which allows them to fine-tune and explore innovative survival strategies,” explains Dr. Nacional Accidental Accidental Genmica, a postdoctoral researcher at the Center for Genome Regulation.
“I was surprised to find that this level of complexity dates back so far.”
Dr. Kim and his team discovered these insights by examining some of the oldest branches of the animal family tree, including species such as walnut-shaped comb jellies (Mnemiopsis leidyi), placozoans, cnidarians, and sponges.
They also investigated single-celled relatives that share a common ancestor with animals more recently.
“Studying unique sea creatures enables us to uncover much new biology,” states Professor Arnau Sebe-Pedrós, a researcher at the Center for Genome Regulation.
“Previously, we focused on comparing genomic sequences, but thanks to new techniques, we can now analyze the gene regulatory mechanisms that influence genomic function across species.”
A large individual of Mnemiopsis leidyi with two aboral ends and two apical organs. Image credit: Jokura et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2024.07.084.
Researchers applied a method known as Micro-C to map the physical folding patterns in each of the 11 types of DNA analyzed. To provide context, each human cell nucleus contains approximately 2 meters of DNA.
Scientists sifted through 10 billion sequencing data points to create detailed various 3D genome maps.
Although no evidence of distal regulation was found in single-celled relatives of animals, early branches such as comb jellies, placozoans, and cnidarians exhibited numerous loops.
Over 4,000 loops were identified across the genome, particularly in the sea walnut.
This discovery is remarkable considering its genome consists of roughly 20 million DNA characters.
In contrast, the human genome contains 3.1 billion characters, with our cells housing tens of thousands of loops.
Previously, distal regulation was believed to have first emerged in the last bilateral ancestors, which appeared on Earth around 500 million years ago.
However, the comb jelly’s lineage branched off early from other animal lineages roughly 650-700 million years ago.
“The debate over whether the comb jelly predates the sponge in the tree of life has persisted in evolutionary biology, but this study suggests that distal regulation occurred at least 150 million years earlier than previously thought,” the authors concluded.
A paper detailing these findings was published today in the journal Nature.
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IV Kim et al. Chromatin loops are characteristic of the ancestors of animal regulatory genomes. Nature Published online on May 7, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-08960-W
Paleontologists have identified three new fossil species. Sivulliusalmo Alaskensis was found in a purine cream formation in northern Alaska, USA.
Chinook salmon (oncorhynchus tschawytscha). Image credit: US Geological Survey.
“Sivulliusalmo Alaskensis reveals significant insights,” remarked Dr. Patrick Druckenmiller, the director of the University of Alaska Museum in the North.
“Our research uncovers several additional species of ancient fish new to the Arctic, including two new pike species: Archaeosiilik Gilmulli and Nunikuluk Gracilis, as well as the oldest record within the group comprising carp and minnows.”
“Many fish we now consider unique to Alaska’s high-latitude environment existed alongside dinosaurs.”
The discovery of Sivulliusalmo Alaskensis adds an impressive 20 million years to the fossil history of the salmon family.
Previously, the oldest known salmonidae fossil was from British Columbia and Washington.
“It’s noteworthy that the Salmonidae, which typically thrives in cold water, adapted and flourished during the warm Cretaceous period, enduring for millions of years amidst significant geographical and climatic changes,” noted Andres Lopez, Fish Curator at the University of Alaska in the north.
“Even though the Arctic was warm during that era, there would still be substantial seasonal variations in temperature and sunlight, much like today.”
“Salmon were among the fish adept at navigating these dramatic shifts.”
“Despite the planet’s numerous geological and climatic transformations, the ancestors of the same species group persisted in dominating the region’s freshwater ecosystems.”
The new species is the latest finding from the Prin Creek Formation, renowned for its dinosaur fossils discovered along the Colville River in northern Alaska.
During the Cretaceous period, Alaska was significantly closer to the Arctic than it is today.
“Fish fossils are among the most abundant in the Purine Creek Formation, yet they are challenging to distinguish in the field,” stated Dr. Druckenmiller.
“Consequently, we transported the fine sand and gravel samples to our museum lab, where microscopic analysis revealed the bones and teeth.”
“Our new findings heavily rely on small, fossilized jaws, some of which are small enough to fit on the edge of a pencil eraser.”
For detailed examination, the researchers employed micro-computed tomography to digitally reconstruct the small jaws, teeth, and other bones.
“We identified very distinct jaws and other components of the salmon family, which were recognized as belonging to this lineage,” said Dr. Druckenmiller.
“The presence of salmonidae in the Cretaceous polar regions and their coexistence with common low-light fish from this period suggests that salmonidae likely thrived in northern climates.”
“The high latitudes of the northern regions may have been vibrant centers for their evolutionary development.”
This paper was published in the journal Paleontology papers.
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Donald B. Brinkman et al. 2025. Fish from the Purine Cream Formation in the northern slopes of Alaska: the pre-Cretaceous and their paleobiogeographic significance. Paleontology papers 11(3): E70014; doi: 10.1002/spp2.70014
The robotic Soviet spacecraft has been floating in space for 53 years. It will return to Earth later this week.
Launched in March 1972, the Kosmos-482 was meant to land on the dynamic surface of Venus, marking the ninth mission in the Soviet Venella program. However, a malfunction left it orbiting Earth, where it has been circling ever since.
“This artifact was slated for Venus 50 years ago, lost and forgotten for half a century,” stated Jonathan McDowell, an astronomer at the Harvard & Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. He pointed to the Public Catalog of space objects, adding, “Although it’s headed for the wrong planet, it will still create a moment of atmospheric entry.”
Having a protective heat shield, the spacecraft weighs roughly 1,050 pounds and is built to endure its descent through Venus’s harsh atmosphere, meaning it may survive the plunge and reach at least partway to the surface.
Nonetheless, the chance of ground impact is minimal.
“I’m not concerned—I’m not warning my friends to hide,” said Darren McKnight, Advanced Technology Fellow at Leo Labs, a company tracking orbital objects, which monitors Kosmos-482 six times daily. “We typically see a large object re-enter Earth’s atmosphere about once a week.”
When is Kosmos-482 expected to return to Earth?
The estimates are updated daily, but the current anticipated re-entry date is Friday or Saturday. The New York Times will provide updated estimates as they arise.
According to the Aerospace Corporation, which monitors space debris, there is a predicted re-entry window of 12:42 AM Eastern Time on May 10, with a margin of error of 19 hours. Window Calculation
Marco Langroek, a satellite tracker at Delft Institute of Technology, has been monitoring Cosmos-482 for several years and estimates a re-entry around 4:37 AM Eastern Time on May 10, with similar uncertainties.
Where will it land?
The exact landing spot remains unknown. “And we won’t know until after it happens,” Dr. McDowell noted.
The Kosmos-482 travels at over 17,000 mph, and atmospheric friction slows it down rapidly, making timing crucial; even a slight miscalculation could land it in a completely different location.
What is certain is that the orbit of Kosmos-482 encompasses latitudes between 52°N and 52°S, covering large sections of Africa, Australia, North America, and much of Europe and Asia.
“There are three outcomes when an object re-enters: splashing, destruction, or injury,” Dr. McKnight remarked.
“A splash is ideal,” he added, noting that much of the Earth is ocean, while the undesired outcomes would be “destruction” or “injury.”
Will the spacecraft withstand the impact?
If Kosmos-482 endures the re-entry, it will impact at approximately 150 miles per hour, provided its heat shield remains intact. “I doubt much will remain after that,” Dr. McDowell stated. “Imagine crashing a car into a wall at 150 mph; not much would be left.”
If it returns over a populated area during nighttime, observers may see Kosmos-482 as bright streaks racing across the sky.
Should any part of the spacecraft survive the descent, it will legally be owned by Russia.
“Under international law, any found object must be returned,” explained Michelle Hanlon, Executive Director of the Aerospace Law Center at the University of Mississippi. “Russia is recognized as the registered owner and retains jurisdiction over the objects.”
How can I identify this object?
Roughly 25 years ago, Dr. McDowell sifted through Norad’s catalog of some 25,000 orbital objects, attempting to identify each one. He often found the answer was, “this is debris from a rather dull rocket explosion.”
However, one object, 6073, stood out; launched from Kazakhstan in 1972, it traveled between 124 and 6,000 miles from Earth in a highly elliptical orbit.
Analyzing its trajectory and dimensions led Dr. McDowell to theorize it was likely the much-anticipated Kosmos-482 lander rather than merely debris from a failed launch, a hypothesis confirmed by multiple ground observations and recently declassified Soviet documents.
Fires typically consume fuel over hours, days, or even weeks. However, certain underground fossil fuel deposits can sustain a blaze for decades.
The gas crater in Darvaza, famously known as the “Gate of Hell,” has been burning for a remarkable 40 years within a 60-meter-wide (196 feet) pit located in Turkmenistan’s Karakham Desert.
The crater’s origin is a topic of debate. Some claim it resulted from an unauthorized Soviet gas drilling operation in the 1970s that inadvertently trapped an underground pocket of natural gas; others believe it was formed naturally in the 1960s.
Regardless of its origins, geologists detected methane leaking from the crater and attempted to ignite the gas to prevent environmental disasters. They expected it to extinguish within weeks, yet it has continued to burn for decades.
The Darvaza gas Crater is a 60m (196 feet) pit in the Karakham Desert in Turkmenistan. – Photo Credit: Getty Images
This crater sits atop extensive oil and gas fields that traverse Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, likely linked to a vast underground reservoir of methane, which fuels the fire almost indefinitely.
In 2013, Canadian explorer George Crunis embarked on an expedition to study the crater. Dressed in a heat-resistant suit, he descended to the crater’s depths to collect soil samples and found simple organisms capable of surviving in the extreme conditions at the bottom.
While the Gate of Hell may be the most famous fire, it is not the oldest. Underground coal seams can sustain fires for centuries.
One coal fire beneath Mount Wingen in Australia has been ablaze for over 5,000 years. Such fires might continue indefinitely until the vast underground fuel supply is depleted.
This article addresses the question posed by Dennis McCann of Derby: “What are the Gates of Hell, and why do they keep burning?”
Please email us your questions at Question@sciencefocus.com or message us onFacebook,Twitter, or Instagram (remember to include your name and location).
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A diverse group of neuroscientists evaluated two rival theories of consciousness: Integrated Information Theory (IIT) and Global Neuron Workspace Theory (GNWT). IIT posits that consciousness arises when information within a system is intricately connected and unified, provided it is consciously recognized and functions as a cohesive entity. In contrast, GNWT proposes that a network of brain regions emphasizes significant information, bringing it to the forefront of our awareness and broadly sharing it as it enters consciousness, thereby forming a conscious experience.
Various theories elucidate how subjective experiences emerge from neural activity. While these theories have independent support, they have not been directly compared. Ferrante et al. We present an open science adversarial collaboration that juxtaposes Integrated Information Theory (IIT) with Global Neuron Workspace Theory (GNWT) through a theoretical Chinese consortium. Image credit: NASA/ESA/JPL-CALTECH/STSCI/SCI.NEWS.
Both philosophers and scientists have engaged in the pursuit of understanding the subjective aspects of consciousness (like experiencing pain or seeing vivid rainbows) and their connection to brain’s physical processes.
This endeavor has led to the simultaneous development of various consciousness theories, offering conflicting interpretations of the neural foundations of consciousness.
Moreover, empirical support for any given theory often hinges on methodological choices, pointing to potential confirmation bias in testing these theories.
A convergence of consciousness theories into a broadly accepted neuroscience framework could have profound medical, social, and ethical repercussions.
To facilitate this aim, the authors examined both IIT and GNWT through expansive open science adversarial collaborations designed to foster progress in consciousness research based on constructive disagreements.
“IIT proposes that consciousness results from the cooperation of various brain regions, integrating information much like a cohesive team effort,” the researchers noted.
“It arises from how these regions are interconnected and how they communicate, extending beyond just individual brain parts.”
“However, this research did not uncover sufficient sustained connections in the brain’s posterior areas to substantiate this notion.”
“The GNWT posits that consciousness is localized in the brain’s frontal regions, but this study also found inadequate evidence to support this idea,” they added.
This study included 256 participants, marking a significant milestone for this kind of experimentation.
Researchers displayed various visual stimuli and monitored the brain’s activity while participants viewed these stimuli using three common neuroimaging methods that track blood flow and electrical/magnetic activity.
“Our findings indicate a functional link between neurons in the early visual areas and those in the frontal regions, helping illuminate how perceptions are intertwined with thoughts,” they remarked.
“These results underscore the prefrontal cortex’s significance in consciousness, suggesting that while it plays a vital role in reasoning and planning, consciousness itself may be tied to sensory processing and perception.”
“In essence, intelligence pertains to actions taken, while consciousness refers to mere existence.”
“This discovery could reshape our understanding of consciousness and inform issues related to loss of consciousness, such as in comas and nutrition.”
Understanding the origins of consciousness could aid in identifying “secret awareness” in patients who are severely injured yet unresponsive.
“It became evident that no theory could definitively refute the other,” commented Professor Anil Seth from the University of Sussex.
“The theories pursue fundamentally different objectives in their assumptions and explanations, and the available experimental methods are too coarse to allow one theory to conclusively prevail over the other.”
“Regardless, the findings from this collaboration remain invaluable. There’s a wealth of insights to gain about both theories, along with new understandings of when and where visual experiences can be discerned in the brain.”
Survey results this week will be featured in the journal Nature.
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O. Ferrante et al. (Cogged the consortium). An antagonistic examination of global neuronal workspace and integrated information theory. Nature Released on April 30th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-0888-1
Pterosaurs often glide above dinosaurs, but recent analysis of fossilized footprints indicates that some of these flying reptiles were equally adept at traversing the ground.
Terrestrial migration and tracking morphology of vegetative eye type skeletal morphology: (a) Reconstruction of the ctenochasmatoid orbit Ctenochasma elegans walking with ipsilateral gait, where the fore and hind legs on the same side of the body move together. (b) Manual and pedal morphology of Ctenochasma elegans; PES is plant and pentadactyl, while Manus is digital grade, functionally triductyl as the large fourth digit supporting the outer wing is folded during terrestrial movement. (c) Height map of pterosaur manus and PES footprints in the holotype of Ichnotaxon Pteraichnus stokesi that matches Ctenochasma elegans; (d) height maps from the Pterosaur trackway; Pteraichnus ISP. From the Upper Jurassic Casal Formation of Claysac, France. An outline drawing of (e) interpretation Pteraichnus ISP. Scale bar – 20 mm in (c), 200 mm in (d) and (e). Image credit: Smith et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.04.017.
“We have been diligently working to enhance our understanding of their lives,” stated Robert Smith, a doctoral researcher at the University of Leicester.
“These footprints offer insights into their habitat, movement, behaviors, and activities in ecosystems long gone.”
In this study, Smith and colleagues uncovered three distinct types of pterosaur footprints, each elucidating various lifestyles and behaviors.
Tying these footprints to specific groups presents a valuable new avenue for exploring how these flying reptiles lived, migrated, and adapted over time across different ecosystems.
“At last, 88 years after the initial discovery of Pterosaur tracks, we understand precisely who made them and the methods employed,” remarked Dr. David Unwin, Ph.D., from Leicester.
The most striking finding emerged from a group of pterosaurs known as Neoazdalci. Quetzalcoatlus, one of the largest flying creatures, boasts a wingspan of 10 meters.
Their footprints have been found in both coastal and inland regions worldwide, supporting the notion that these tall creatures not only ruled the skies but also cohabited the same environments as many dinosaur species.
Some of these tracks date back to an asteroid impact event 66 million years ago, alongside the extinction of both pterosaurs and dinosaurs.
Ctenochasmatoids, recognized for their elongated jaws and needle-like teeth, predominantly left tracks in coastal sediments.
These animals likely traversed muddy shores or shallow lagoons, employing specialized feeding techniques to capture small fish and floating prey.
The prevalence of these tracks indicates that these coastal pterosaurs were far more common in these habitats than the infrequent fossil remains suggest.
Another type of footprint was unearthed in rock formations, alongside the fossilized skeleton of the same pterosaur.
The close correlation between footprints and skeletons provides compelling evidence for identifying the print makers.
Known as Dsungaripterids, these pterosaurs featured robust limbs and jaws; the tips of their curved, toothless beaks were designed for grasping prey, while the large, rounded teeth at the rear of the jaw were ideal for crushing shellfish and other resilient foods.
“Footprints are frequently overlooked in Pterosaur studies, yet they yield a wealth of information regarding their behavior, interactions, and environmental relationships,” stated Smyth.
“A comprehensive analysis of the footprints enables us to uncover biological and ecological insights that cannot be obtained elsewhere.”
The team’s paper is published in the journal Current Biology.
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Robert S. Smith et al. Identifying Pterosaur track makers provides important insights into Mesozoic ground invasions. Current Biology Published online May 1, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.04.017
As Don Pike embarks on his daily stroll, he laces up his brown hiking boots, takes hold of his walking stick and bucket hat, and steps outside. A mere ten feet later, he skillfully navigates around barbed wire to enter the Tonto National Forest. Unlike the typical Tonto scenery, where the ground is strewn with dry grass between native plants and trees, this area feels stark, unfriendly, and barren.
The reason for this desolation is that Mr. Pike is engaged in weed removal.
“I’ve eliminated them so effectively that I can’t find any in this region,” remarked Pike, 84, a retired resident of Maine who has found great joy in his cherished desert and installed floor-to-ceiling windows in his living room.
Mr. Pike is in a battle against buffel grass and fountain grass, two invasive species that are spreading throughout the Sonoran desert. These plants suffocate native flora, elevate the risk and intensity of wildfires, and jeopardize a vibrant ecosystem.
His fight against this encroaching vegetation began nearly 15 years ago. Since then, he estimates he and his team of volunteers have cleared 550 acres of the approximately 14,000 acres they manage. In 2024, his efforts earned him the title of Arizona Weed Manager of the Year.
The work of volunteers like Pike has long been essential in supplementing federal land management, as government officials note that funding for their programs has been lacking for years. However, volunteers like Pike are becoming more crucial than ever given the reductions in federal workforce instigated by the Trump administration and its push for government efficiency.
“It will be vital for federal agencies to find innovative ways to attract individuals,” Pike stated from his back porch in March. “There are many who are eager to get involved, especially those with considerable skills.”
Pterosaurs often glide above dinosaurs, but recent examinations of fossilized footprints reveal that some of these flying reptiles were equally adept at terrestrial movement.
Terrestrial migration and tracking morphology of vegetative eye type skeletal morphology: (a) Reconstruction of the ctenochasmatoid orbit Ctenochasma elegans walking with an ipsilateral gait, where the fore and hind legs on the same side move together as a pair. (b) Manual and pedal morphology of Ctenochasma elegans; PES is plant and pentadactyl, while Manus is digital grade, functionally triductyl as the large fourth digit supporting the outer wing is folded during terrestrial movement. (c) Height map of pterosaur manus and PES footprints in the holotype of Ichnotaxon Pteraichnus stokesi, showing a form that matches Ctenochasma elegans; (d) height maps from part of the Pterosaur trackway; Pteraichnus ISP. From the Upper Jurassic Casal Formation of Claysac, France. An outline drawing of (e) interpretation of Pteraichnus ISP. Scale bar – 20 mm in (c), 200 mm in (d) and (e). Image credit: Smith et al, doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.04.017.
“We have been diligently working to enhance our understanding of these creatures,” stated Robert Smith, a doctoral researcher at the University of Leicester.
“These findings provide insights into their habitats, movement patterns, and daily activities in ecosystems long since vanished.”
In this research, Smith and his team identified three distinct types of pterosaur footprints, each offering insights into various lifestyles and behaviors.
By correlating footprints with specific groups, a robust new method emerges to study how these flying reptiles thrived, migrated, and adapted to diverse ecosystems over time.
“Finally, 88 years after the initial discovery of Pterosaur tracks, we have pinpointed precisely who created them and how,” remarked Dr. David Unwin, Ph.D., from Leicester.
Perhaps the most striking revelation comes from a group of pterosaurs known as Neoazdalci. Quetzalcoatlus, one of the largest flying creatures, boasts a wingspan of 10 meters.
Their footprints have been found in both coastal and inland areas worldwide, supporting the theory that these long-legged animals not only soared through the skies, but also inhabited the same environments as numerous dinosaur species.
Some of these tracks date back to an asteroid impact event 66 million years ago, coinciding with the extinction of both pterosaurs and dinosaurs.
Ctenochasmatoids, recognized for their elongated jaws and needle-like teeth, left footprints primarily found in coastal sediments.
These animals likely walked along muddy shores or shallow lagoons, employing unique feeding strategies to capture small fish and floating prey.
The prevalence of these tracks suggests that these coastal pterosaurs were far more common in these habitats than than the rare fossilized remains.
Another type of footprint was located in rock formations, where fossilized remains of the same pterosaur were also found.
The close association between footprints and skeletons offers compelling evidence for identifying the track makers.
These pterosaurs, known as Dsungaripterids, possessed robust limbs and jaws; their toothless, curved beaks were adept at securing prey, while their large, rounded teeth were ideal for crushing shellfish and other resilient foods.
“Footprints are often overlooked in Pterosaur studies, yet they yield a wealth of information about the behaviors and interactions of these creatures with their environment,” emphasized Smyth.
“A detailed analysis of these footprints allows us to uncover biological and ecological insights that other methods may not provide.”
The team’s paper was published in the journal Current Biology.
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Robert S. Smith et al. Identifying Pterosaur track makers provides crucial insights into Mesozoic terrestrial invasions. Current Biology, published online on May 1, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.04.017
Recent research by Curtin University reveals that an ancient influence, previously believed to have occurred 1.2 billion years ago, actually took place 990 million years ago, leading to the formation of the STAC FADA member. This discovery corrects the dating of some of the UK’s oldest non-marine microfossils and their significance in the timeline of eukaryotic colonization on land.
STAC FADA member. Image credit: Tony Prave.
“We utilized small zircon crystals as geological ‘time capsules’ to accurately date the impact at 990 million years ago,” stated Professor Chris Kirkland from Curtin University.
“These tiny crystals recorded precise moments of impact, some transforming into the rare mineral Reidite, which forms under extreme pressure.”
“This provided irrefutable evidence that the meteorite strike initiated the STAC FADA deposit.”
“When a meteorite strikes, it partially resets the atomic clocks within the zircon crystal. Although these ‘broken clocks’ can’t generate dates, they developed a model to reconstruct timing, affirming the impact’s occurrence 990 million years ago.”
The impact events coincided with the earliest emergence of freshwater eukaryotes, the ancient precursors to plants, animals, and fungi.
“The new date indicates that these life forms in Scotland appeared roughly at the same time as the meteorite impact,” Professor Kirkland remarked.
“This presents intriguing questions about whether significant impacts could have affected environmental conditions, potentially influencing early ecosystems.”
“The impact crater has yet to be located, but this study has gathered additional clues that may eventually uncover its position.
“Understanding the timeline of meteorite impacts will enable us to explore their potential effects on Earth’s environment and the diversification of life beyond the oceans.”
The team’s findings will be published in the journal Geological.
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CL Kirkland et al. The impact of Scottish meteors 100 million years ago. Geological Published online on April 28, 2025. doi: 10.1130/g53121.1
A recent study conducted by the Florida Museum of Natural History reveals that this apex predator is a type of Cebucid crocodile with origins in South America.
The Cebushid crocodile ruled the South American landscape after the dinosaurs vanished, remaining dominant until roughly 11 million years ago. Image credit: Jorge Mackey.
The sebecids were the last survivors of notosuchia, a large and varied group of extinct crocodiles with fossil records that trace back to the era of dinosaurs.
Notosuchians exhibited a wide range of sizes, diets, and habitats, distinguishing themselves from their alligator relatives, as most inhabited terrestrial environments.
The Sevecid behaved like a carnivorous dinosaur, sprinting with four long, agile limbs and tearing flesh with its notorious teeth.
Some species were equipped with protective armor made of bone plates embedded in the skin, reaching lengths of up to 6 m (20 feet).
The catastrophic mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous period, which eradicated non-avian dinosaurs, also nearly led to the extinction of the notosuchians.
In South America, only the Sevecids survived post-dinosaurs, quickly ascending to the role of apex predators.
The open waters separating the Caribbean islands from the South American mainland posed significant challenges for the Sevensids when it came to swimming.
In a new research effort, paleontologist Jonathan Bloch and his colleagues from the Florida Museum of Natural History analyzed vertebrae from fossilized teeth and spinal vertebrae dating back six million years, collected from the Paleopoultry 1 site in Savanna Grande de Boya, Dominican Republic.
“Our first question upon discovering these teeth in the Dominican Republic and other Caribbean islands was: what could they be?” Dr. Bloch mentioned.
The team also examined 18 million-year-old teeth found in Cuba and 29 million-year-old specimens from Puerto Rico.
“The fossils suggested evidence supporting the Girllandia hypothesis,” they noted.
This theory posits that a temporary land bridge or chain of islands enabled the migration from South America to the Caribbean.
“If the serrated teeth found in other Caribbean islands also belong to the Sevecid, the history of these giant reptiles stretches beyond just the Dominican Republic.”
“They would have played a significant role in shaping the ecosystems of this region for millions of years. However, today, evidence of large terrestrial predators is scarce.”
“In their absence, smaller endemic predators like birds, snakes, and crocodiles have evolved to fill gaps in the food chain,” he added.
“We could not have predicted this just by studying modern ecosystems,” Dr. Bloch remarked.
“The presence of large predators greatly differs from our previous assumptions, and it’s thrilling to explore what further discoveries might await in the Caribbean fossil record.”
The team’s paper was published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B.
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Lázaro W. Viñola López et al. 2025. The South American Sevecid from the Miocene of Hispaniola documents the presence of apex predators in the ecosystems of the Early West Indies. Proc. R. Soc. B 292 (2045): 20242891; doi: 10.1098/rspb.2024.2891
New research led by astronomers at the University of Hawaii suggests that our universe could spin.
In the formation of the universe, gravity links galaxies with clusters of galaxies to construct vast co-nes-like structures that link hundreds of millions of light years along an invisible bridge. This is known as Cosmic Web. Image credit: Springel et al. / Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics.
“To paraphrase the Greek philosopher Heracritus of Ephesus, he famously said Pantarei – he thought everything would change, perhaps Panta Kaicurtai – he thought everything would change.”
According to current models, the universe expands evenly in all directions with no signs of rotation. This idea fits most of what astronomers observe.
But that doesn’t explain the so-called Hubble tension. It is a long-standing discrepancy between two ways of measuring how quickly the universe is expanding.
One method examines distant exploding stars or supernovas to measure distances to galaxies, providing the magnification of the universe over the past billions of years.
Another method uses artefact radiation from the Big Bang, providing a very early universe expansion rate, about 13 billion years ago. Each gives a different value for the expansion rate.
Dr. Szapudi and his colleagues developed a mathematical model of the universe.
First, the model followed standard rules. They then added a small amount of rotation. Those small changes made a huge difference.
“To my surprise, we found that our model solves paradoxes without conflicting with current astronomical measurements,” Dr. Szapudi said.
“What’s even better is that it’s compatible with other models that assume rotation.”
“So perhaps everything really changes.
The team’s models suggest that the universe could turn once every 500 billion years.
“This idea does not break known laws of physics,” the astronomer said.
“And maybe it explains why measurements of space growth are completely disagreeable.”
“The next step is to turn the theory into a complete computer model and find ways to find signs of this slow, universe spin.”
Survey results It will be displayed in Monthly Notices from the Royal Astronomical Society.
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Balázs Endre Szigeti et al. 2025. Can rotation solve the Hubble puzzle? mnras 538(4): 3038-3041; doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf446
The fossil record of freshwater crayfish is surprisingly sparse, mainly containing trace fossils, some body fossils, and rarely gastroscopy. Paleontologists from Flinders University, the University of New South Wales, the Canterbury Museum and the University of Canterbury have discovered that the small molars (jaws) of the lower jaw of Gondwannan freshwater crayfish have a stiff, robust apatite layer. They discovered eight jaw fragments of a fossil freshwater crayfish that lived in New Zealand during the early Miocene period.
Prehistoric freshwater crayfish grew to about 25 cm long compared to about 8 cm of today’s New Zealand species.
“Crayfish were important creatures in ancient settings,” says Dr. Paul Scofield, senior curator at the Canterbury Museum.
“The crayfish’s body does not fossil because it is made from the wrong chemical elements. However, the molars in the jaw are made of different materials, like mammalian teeth, so they do fossil because they are made from different materials.”
“This means that we can clearly say where freshwater crayfish lived in prehistoric times. It will speak more about prehistoric ecosystems and how they worked.”
Dr. Scofield and his colleagues sifted through hundreds of thousands of small fossil fragments found near St. Batan in central Otago and used microscopes to identify prehistoric crayfish to identify each piece.
Crayfish were identified from eight jaw fragments each, about 4 mm in length.
An exciting observation was to show that the three lower jaws showed that the three types lived together.
There are currently only two species in New Zealand and live in different parts of the country.
Fragments are very rare. One distance of the 100 kg fossil fragments recovered from St. Batan produced only one fragment.
“We also identified the first fossilized Yabby buttons, which are calcium deposits that form in the stomachs of crayfish,” said Dr. Trevor Worthy, a paleontologist at Flinders University.
“Historically, paleontologists have often misidentified Yabby buttons as fossilized fish teeth.”
“Several fragments like these are sitting in boxes of museum collections around the world and are marked with question marks. Now we can say what they are.”
“Small fossils can reveal a lot about prehistoric life,” said Dr Vanessa de Petri, a paleontologist at the University of Canterbury.
“It’s not just about big sexy bones, it’s about the little things. Every piece has a story to tell.”
Team’s result It was published in Alcheringa, Australian Journal of Palaeontology.
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Trevor H. Worthy et al. Decapoda, Parastacidae, of the fossil mandible from the early Miocene of New Zealand. AlcheringaPublished online on April 13th, 2025. doi:10.1080/03115518.2025.2488056
Magnetic field turbulence may have allowed aurora to occur more widely 41,000 years ago
evgeniyq/istockphoto/get ty image
About 41,000 years ago, Earth’s magnetic fields became weaker to only a few modern levels, with a significant increase in radiation impacting the planet’s surface. Some researchers suggest that while the Lasshamps event may have driven Neanderthals to extinction, as is known, modern humans may have protected themselves using tailored clothing and ochre sunscreen.
Earth’s magnetic field spreads out into space and acts as a protective shield against harmful radiation. Magnetic poles usually line up at the North and Antarctic, but sometimes wander due to changes in the planet’s liquid outer core.
“This system variation can lead to variations in the strength and direction of the Earth’s magnetic field, such as those observed during the Laschamps event,” he says. Agnit Mukhopadhyay At the University of Michigan.
By studying magnetic features preserved in volcanic rocks and sediments, Mukopadiyai and his colleagues created a detailed 3D reconstruction of the Earth’s magnetic field during the Raschamp event.
They found evidence that the magnetic pole shifted towards the equator, making the field strength weaker to 10% of today’s levels.
Auroras made by charged particles are usually only visible near the poles, but this will change during the Laschamp event. “The aurora can be seen in a much larger area, perhaps even near the equator,” says Mukopadhyai.
The weakened magnetic field could have allowed more sun and cosmic radiation to reach the Earth’s surface, changing the climate of the region. “These environmental changes may have encouraged adaptive behavior in human populations, including increased use of protective clothing for UV shields and ochre,” says Mukhopadhyay.
Researchers argue that the production of tailored clothing and the use of reddish mineral ochre as sunscreen may have been given Homo sapiens Benefits for Neanderthals who are thought to have become extinct during this period.
“There is definitely a rough overlap in terms of timing between the ancient modern invasion of Europe and the events of Las Shampus,” he says. Amy Mosig Way At the Australian Museum in Sydney. “But it is probably stretch to say that modern humans are better sunscreen in the form of tailored clothing than Neanderthals, and that’s probably what it is to say that this contributed to the ability to travel even further than the Neanderthals and subsequent Eurasian rule.”
Veronica Wowl Yale University says there is evidence of ancients who used ochre at this time. For example, the Ethiopian PORC-EPIC site records ochre use 45,000 years ago, which she says was enhanced 40,000 years ago. They may have used it for other reasons such as creating sunscreen and artwork and adhesives.
Ladis Laf Neyman JCMM in the Czech Republic says it is not known whether modern humans have used ochre as sunscreen. “If that were the case, it could have protected them more, but it didn’t necessarily save them,” he says. “Europeans were really piling up against them at the time.”
He points out that the Raschamp event coincided with a very cold period known as Heinrich Event 4 and a massive volcanic eruption in Italy called the Campania Ignimbrite Explosion.
“The big advantage Homo sapiens What they had as a species compared to Neanderthals was that they had a large population of other people living in Africa and elsewhere. Homo sapiens After these events, we may move to Europe,” says Neyman.
The Sakhallo-Arabian desert is one of the largest biogeographical barriers on Earth, hindering the dispersion between Africa and Eurasia, including human movements in the past. Recent research suggests that this barrier has been in place for at least 11 million years. However, a new Griffith University-led study shows that numerous humidity intervals have occurred in the Sakhallo-Arabian desert over the past 8 million years.
Marcouska et al. It shows wet intervals that have recurred inside Central Arabia over the past 8 million years. Image credit: Paul Breeze.
Arabia is at the heart of the largest near-continuous chain of arid lands on the planet. A harsh and often highly dry belt that stretches from the Sahara to the Tar Desert.
Sakhallo-Arabian desert barriers limit animal dispersion and divide Africa and Eurasia into areas of Afrotropic, palate, and Indomalaya biogeography, each characterized by a distinct assemblage of plants, animal species and communities.
While the persistence of this desert barrier serves as a major control over the depiction of these biogeographical regions, improvements in climate throughout the Sakhallo-Arabian region allow for dispersion among them.
As a result, the region is a “transition zone” and hosts a complex fauna mixture with characteristics of Africa, Eurasia and South Asia.
Recent research suggests that a dry beyond this desert barrier and that it has begun to be highly aridity and highly dry on the edge of northern Arabia 9 million years ago in the completely arid state of the Sahara at least 11 million years ago.
“However, fossil evidence from the late Miocene (marked by rising earth temperatures) and the Pleistocene (including multiple ice ages) suggests the existence of an episode within the interior of the water-dependent animal Sakhallo-Arabian desert.”
“It is possible that animals such as crocodiles, quids, cobopotamids, and absoscideans were supported by rivers and lakes that are almost nonexistent from today’s arid landscape.”
“These wet conditions could promote the dispersion of these mammals between Africa and Eurasia, and Arabia serves as an important crossroads in continental-scale biogeographic exchange.”
In the new study, Professor Petraglia and colleagues analyzed a set of osteoscopic electrons (mineral deposits such as bulls and stellates) from a series of caves from within Arabia.
It is one of the longest aleoclimatic records available in Arabia today, and represents one of the longest space paleoclimatic records in the world.
“Little was known about Arabian paleoclimate before this time,” said Dr. Monica Markowska of Northumbria University.
“The findings highlight that the effects of monsoons have been weakened and polar ice coverings in the Pleistocene during the Pleistocene have been strengthened, reducing precipitation during humidity intervals and changing over time.”
“Although Arabia has traditionally been overlooked in the dispersion of Africa and Yolasia, research like ours is increasingly revealing the central location of mammal and human migration,” added Dr Faisal Al-Jiblin, who led Saudi archaeologists on the Heritage Committee.
result It will be displayed in the journal Nature.
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M. Markouska et al. The recurrence of humidity in Arabia over the past 8 million years. NaturePublished online on April 9, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-08859-6
Approximately 6,500 years ago, hunting kits included spear throwers, boomerang fragments, wood and stone tipped darts. These were discovered in a cave in West Texas near remnants of a small fire and a well-preserved pile of human waste, suggesting past human habitation.
Recently, archaeologists from Surros State University and Kansas University uncovered one of the oldest almost complete wooden and stone hunting weapons in North America. The findings are still being studied, but initial assessments indicate that one weapon may be around 7,000 years old.
Brion Schroeder, director of the Big Bend Research Center, expressed surprise at the discoveries, highlighting the unique insights into ancient hunting methods and tool maintenance.
Recent discoveries in a cave near Malfa, Texas have revealed hunting kits containing weapons and antelope skins likely used for clothing. The excavation, funded by the University of Kansas, aims to uncover ancient human artifacts in North America.
Dr. Schroeder and his team faced challenges from looters but persisted in their search for ancient artifacts. The depths of the cave yielded valuable insights into the hunting practices of early humans.
During the excavation, researchers unearthed parts of a hunting kit, suggesting the cave was used by hunters to store and repair their weapons. This sheds light on how ancient hunters maintained their tools and equipment.
The discovery of various tools and their arrangement indicates a systematic approach to hunting and tool maintenance by the ancient inhabitants of the cave.
Among the artifacts found is an atlatl, or spear thrower, considered one of the oldest in North America. The well-preserved wooden components of the atlatl provide valuable insights into ancient hunting techniques.
In addition to the atlatl, researchers discovered fragments of boomerangs, wooden darts, and stone tips, indicating a sophisticated approach to hunting and tool usage by ancient humans.
The discoveries offer a rare glimpse into the daily lives and hunting practices of ancient people, showcasing their advanced technology and strategic planning.
The age and completeness of the artifacts suggest a well-maintained weapon kit used by ancient hunters, providing valuable insights into their behavior and technology.
The discoveries shed light on the skills and foresight of ancient hunters, highlighting their ability to adapt to their environment and plan for their hunting expeditions.
Anthropology experts emphasize the rarity of finding well-preserved organic materials in ancient tools, showcasing the complexity of ancient hunting equipment beyond stone tools.
Ongoing analyses of the artifacts aim to uncover not only insights into ancient human diet and DNA but also the advanced weaponry used by early hunters. Collaboration with Indigenous groups ensures respectful research practices and eventual public sharing of findings.
The discoveries challenge preconceived notions of ancient hunting methods and highlight the intelligence and adaptability of early human societies.
Archaeologists and researchers emphasize the importance of these findings in understanding the behavior and technology of ancient hunting communities.
Paleontologists have discovered 131 large theropods and sauropods in the formations of the central Jurassic Kirmalag at Prince Charles’s point, located on the northwest coast of the Troternas Peninsula in Sky.
A 167 million-year-old dinosaur trackway located at Prince Charles’s point on the Isle of Skye. Image credit: Blakesley et al. , doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0319862.
The rocks of Isle of Skye are rich in dinosaur footprints, providing insight into the distribution and behavior of dinosaurs at critical times of evolution.
The newly discovered footprint was left in the wavy sands of an ancient subtropical lagoon dating back to the mid-Jurassic period about 167 million years ago.
The footprint is 25-60 cm long and comes in two types. This is a round “Tyre-Size” track, made by three untidy trucks left by Bipedal: a carnivorous theropod, a tetrapod, and a long-necked sauropod.
Based on comparisons with previous fossil discoveries, the most likely truck maker is Megalosaurus Similar to early branching members of the Neosauropod group CethiosaurusBoth are known from British skeletal ruins.
According to paleontologists, many of these footprints occur together in successive steps.
The longest of these trackways is over 12m, among the longest known examples from the Isle of Skye.
The spacing and orientation of these trackways represent slow walking without consistent orientation or interaction with each other, and what is probably left by the dinosaurs is casually crushed at slightly different times.
The site at Prince Charles’s point supports previous evidence that the Jurassic Sauropod frequently visited Scottish lagoons.
However, this site contains a higher percentage of theropod tracks than similar locales, perhaps indicating differences in the environment between these ancient lagoons.
The site also does not have footprints from other dinosaurs such as Stegosaurus and Ornithopods, but it remains unclear whether these animals really do not exist in this environment or simply did not leave a mark on this site.
“Prince Charles’s footprint at points provides fascinating insight into the behavior and environmental distribution of meat-eating theropods and plant-eating long-necked sauropods during key periods of evolution.”
“In Sky, these dinosaurs obviously preferred shallow, submerged lagoon environments to muddy air exposed.”
“Interestingly, this site also has historical significance as a location for Skye, where Prince Bonnie landed and hidden while flying through Scotland following the Battle of Culloden.”
Discoveries are reported in a paper Published online in the journal PLOS 1.
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T. Blakely et al. 2025. A new central Jurassic Lagoon margin assembly of theropod and sauropod dinosaur trajectories from the Isle of Skye, Scotland. PLOS 1 20(4): E0319862; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0319862
A team of paleontologists from Lake Forest College, Stellenbosch University, University of Minnesota, and North Carolina State University described a new population of fossil eggshells, members of the formation of cedar mountains, a well-known unit among scientists studying early lobular epochs.
A 100 million-year-old dinosaur eggshell fragment from a Mussantit member of Cedar Mountain Formation. Image credit: Lake Forest College.
The first fossil eggshells from Mussantit members of Cedar Mountain Formation were described over 50 years ago.
Since then, in half a century, the diversity of fossil eggshells in this rock unit has been limited to only one egg type.
However, Dr. Josh Hedge and his colleagues at Lake Forest College revealed another story.
“We found new dinosaur egg types here and here, which we didn’t see before,” Dr. Hedge said.
“When previous research explained one type, we found five types of eggshells in this area.”
“Three eggshell fragments belonging to the feathered bipedal dinosaur, two types of dinosaurs with dinosaurs with ornitopod ducks, and a truly funky discovery: some crocodile eggshells.”
These new discoveries challenge the traditional view of one of the different types of dinosaurs that live in ecosystems.
“You can see patterns of coexisting dinosaurs,” Dr. Hedge said.
“Just as multiple big cat-loving animals coexist in Africa’s savanna, we can see the co-occurrence of similar types of dinosaurs in one geographical area.”
Researchers hope to uncover information that will lead to a better understanding of ecosystems 100 million years ago.
They are currently researching ways to better understand these oviraptorosaur eggs.
“We found so many eggshells, so we hope that we can distinguish between individuals who share a single nest, not just the species, for example, because we have sample sizes large enough to interpret them at a higher resolution,” Dr. Hedge said.
Team’s paper Published online in the journal PLOS 1.
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J. Hedge et al. 2025. Diversity of fossil eggshells from Mussentuchit members of Cedar Mountain Formation, Utah. PLOS 1 20(2): E0314689; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0314689
Skywatchers in the northeastern United States, eastern Canada, and parts of Europe are eagerly anticipating a rare astronomical event this spring. On the morning of Saturday, March 29th, 2025, a partial solar eclipse will grace the sky, coinciding with a spectacular “double sunrise.”
Here is all you need to know about the partial solar eclipse, including where to watch, what to expect, and how to safely observe it.
When is the Partial Solar Eclipse in 2025?
The first and only solar eclipse of 2025 will occur on March 29th, starting at 8:50am GMT (4:50am EDT) and ending at 12:43 PM GMT (8:43am EDT). The maximum solar eclipse will take place at 10:47 AM GMT (6:47AM EDT).
In the US, the solar eclipse will begin at 6:13 AM EDT and end at 7:17am EDT, with the exact times varying based on location. The most dramatic views and longest duration of the eclipse, with 85% of the sun obscured, will be experienced in some areas.
In England, the solar eclipse will begin in London at 9:56am GMT, reach its peak at 11:03 AM, and end at 12:00 PM GMT. The extent of the eclipse may vary slightly depending on location, with Scotland witnessing over 40% obscuration in cities like Glasgow.
Where to Watch the Partial Solar Eclipse?
This partial solar eclipse will be visible across a wide area of the Northern Hemisphere, including the Northeastern United States, Eastern Canada, most of Europe, and northwest Africa.
Fourteen US states, including Washington DC, will witness a partial solar eclipse, with Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, Virginia, and West Virginia among them.
The point of greatest obscuration will occur in Nunavique, Quebec, where 94% of the sun will be hidden at the peak of the solar eclipse.
Global map of partial solar eclipse shadow paths for March 29, 2025. A yellow curve tracks the extent of the partial eclipse and the proportion of each of these curves, giving the maximum area of the moon-covered sun during the eclipse. -NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio
What is a Partial Solar Eclipse?
A partial solar eclipse occurs when the moon passes between the Earth and the Sun but does not fully block the Sun. Instead, it covers only a portion of the solar disk, creating the appearance of the moon taking a bite out of the sun.
This results in a deep but incomplete solar eclipse, with the sun taking on a crescent shape. Unlike a total solar eclipse, where the sky goes completely dark, daylight remains during a partial solar eclipse, albeit with a dim and eerie quality.
What is a Double Sunrise?
“Double Sunrise” is a rare and stunning visual effect that can occur when a solar eclipse coincides with the rising sun.
From parts of eastern Canada and northeastern United States, the sun may appear as a crescent on the horizon during a partial solar eclipse. The tip of the crescent moon, often called the “devil’s horn,” may also be visible, giving the illusion of two separate sunrises.
Maine and parts of Quebec, Canada, offer the best chance to witness this phenomenon.
After the double sunrise, the sun will continue to rise as a thin arc in the sky.
How to Safely Watch a Partial Solar Eclipse
Unlike a total solar eclipse, partial solar eclipses should never be viewed directly with the naked eye, even when most of the sun is covered. Even small slivers of the sun can cause permanent eye damage.
If possible, obtain eclipse glasses that are certified to ISO 12312-2 international safety standards.
Crowds gather around Bryant Park in New York City, wearing eclipse glasses to witness a partial solar eclipse on April 8, 2024.
If using binoculars, cameras, or telescopes, ensure they are equipped with a solar filter on the front end (not the eyepiece).
If you are unable to find glasses or filters, indirect viewing methods are still possible. By creating a small hole (1-2mm) in a card, you can project sunlight onto a flat surface to observe the solar eclipse safely.
Weather plays a significant role in eclipse visibility. A clear sky offers the best viewing conditions, but even in cloudy weather, you may still experience a dimming effect as the moon passes in front of the sun.
How to Watch the Solar Eclipse 2025 Online
If you are unable to witness the partial solar eclipse in person, don’t worry. You can watch it online. The Royal Observatory Greenwich in the UK will be live streaming the event starting at 10am GMT.
Amber is a slow specimen that holds ancient water, bubbles, plants, insects, and even more unusual specimens, coveted around the world as both a container of gems and prehistoric debris bird.
Usually, amber forms for millions of years as wood resins become fossilized, but paleontologists are energizing it, creating amber fossils from pine resin in 24 hours. This technique can help clarify as Amber’s biochemistry is formed. This is a process that remains hidden in prehistoric mist.
It was released on Monday JournalScientific Reportsthe results of the rapid experiment are similar to meals made in a pressure cooker. “It’s similar to Instapot,” said Evan Saitta, a researcher at the Field Museum in Chicago and co-author of the paper.
The synthetic amber recipe began with Chicago Botanical Garden Pine Resin. Dr. Saitta and his co-author, independent paleontologist Thomas Kaye, placed a half-inch sediment disc with Mr. Kaye embedded in which the resin was constructed using a medical tablet compressor, an air canister and other cleaned parts.
By heating the sample and applying pressure, researchers were trying to simulate the product. This was trying to limit the slow, wet physical and chemical transformations needed to the rock before sediments could be integrated into the rock.
“Making it is the ultimate hurdle you need to pass to become a fossil,” said Dr. Saita. “It’s kind of the last boss.”
Although some samples produced by the researchers were incomplete, the physical properties of some ambers include darker colours, fractures, dehydration, and increased gloss.
The two also realized that they started with the wrong family of pine trees. Amber, the most frequently studied in paleontology, is a scientist, and its group of trees isOnly living relatives are Japanese umbrella pine.
Maria McNamara, a paleontologist at University College Cork in Ireland, said future experiments should test additional plant types as they were not involved in the study.
“What we really want to handle is that the resin polymerizes faster,” she said. She also pointed out that accelerated chemical analysis of Amber is necessary to know how close it is to the real thing. “Wood resin survives, but requires proper and complete chemical properties,” she said.
Regarding the limitations of all research, Dr. McNamara said fossil simulation is an increasingly important area of research. Recreated by some paleontologists Bone or tissue collapse To explore the effects of microbial organisms. In her lab, the researcher said,Thermal mature specimen Investigate the conservation of biological molecules under heat.
Without such simulations, “we just trust the fossil records,” she said. “Experiments can help tell facts from fiction and determine the extent to which the fossil records are lying.”
Dr. Saita tried other simulations. In 2018 he buried him. Finch In wet deposits, see how it compresses. It was awkward and failed. However, after working with Kaye on a pressure cooker device, they managed to study the previous stages of fossilization. Leaf, feather, lizard feet. For example, in these specimens, keratin from the feathers leached out in feathers, leaving behind a dark, melanin-like engraving similar to fossilized feathers. (At the conference, Dr. Saitta said he likes to test other paleontologists and find the visual difference between analogues and real fossils.)
In future amber experiments, Dr. Saita aims to embed insects, wings, or plants in the resin. One reason why this can be proven useful is that the actual specimen is valuable, meaning it is a trade of thousands of dollars, making disruptive analysis unfeasible. “Preserved insects in synthetic amber would not be valuable because it is made in the laboratory,” Dr. Saita said.
Researchers also plan to apply pressure on decayed organic matter and adapt the technology to simulate geological weathering.This will capture more fossilization stages more realistically.
Looking further, experimental fossilization techniques allow scientists to even explore the fossils of the future, Dr. Saitta said. How does life in the Anthropocene become fossilized? What happens to tissue or bones that have been injected with microplastics or industrial heavy metals?
We are not here in millions of years from now. However, using devices like pressure aids can get you closer.
Fossil feathers are usually preserved or embedded in mber as impressions of carbonaceous membranes and lake sediments and marine sediments, but are rarely mineralized. In a new study, paleontologists have examined the mineralised feathers of 30,000 years old Griffon vultures preserved in ash-rich volcanic deposits of the Koli-Albani Volcanic Complex in Rome, Italy. Bird feathers were conserved in three dimensions, conserving tissue ultrastructures such as melanosomes. These ultrastructures are mineralized with nanocrystalline zeolites, a preservation mode that has not been previously reported in fossil soft tissue.
Fossil feathers from the 30,000-year-old Griffon vulture preserved in volcanic rocks at the Koli-Albani Volcanic Complex in Rome, Italy. Image credit: Edoardo Terranova.
The fossil vulture was discovered in 1889 near Rome by a local landowner who recognized its incredible preservation.
The entire body was preserved as a three-dimensional impression, with fine details such as the lid of the eye and wing wings.
The new study, led by University College Cork paleontologist Valentina Rossi, shows that feather preservation extends to the pigmented structure of small microscopic feathers.
“Fossil feathers are usually preserved in ancient mudstones laid in lakes and lagoons,” Dr. Rossi said.
“Fossil vultures are preserved in ash deposits, which is very unusual.”
“When analyzing the feathers of fossil vultures, we found ourselves in unknown territory.”
“These feathers are different from what we normally see in other fossils.”
The authors discovered that feathers are preserved in mineral zeolites by analyzing small samples of fossil feathers using electron microscopy and chemical testing.
“Zeolites are silicon and aluminum rich minerals and are common in volcanic and hydrothermal geological environments,” Dr. Rossi said.
“Zeolites can be formed as primary minerals (using clean crystals) or secondary during the natural changes in volcanic glass and ash, giving rocks a mudlock-like side.”
“The changes in ashes due to the passage of water induced precipitation of zeolite nanocrystals, replicating feathers to the details of the smallest cells.”
“Fine preservation of feather structures indicates that vulture corpses were buried in cold thermal clastic matter.”
“We are used to think that volcanic deposits are associated with high temperature, fast-moving thermal breaking flows that destroy soft tissue,” says Professor Dawid Iurino of the University of Milan.
“However, these geological environments are complex and can include cold deposits that can store soft tissue at the cellular level.”
“The fossil record is constantly amazed us with new fossil species, strange new body shapes, in this case a new style of fossil preservation,” said Professor Maria McNamara, a professor of Cork at the University.
“We never found any delicate tissues, such as feathers, preserved in volcanic rocks.”
“Discoveries like these broaden the range of potential rock types that can be found in fossils.
Read more. The findings were published in the journal Geological.
____
Valentina Rossi et al. Fossil feathers from the Coralbani Volcanic Complex (central Italy, late Pleistocene) preserved in zeolites. GeologicalPublished online on March 18th, 2025. doi: 10.1130/g52971.1
Paleontologists discovered and described the new ctenochasmatid pterosaurian mandible from the late Jurassic Portland limestone formations in southern England.
Reconstruction of the life of ctenochasmatid pterosaur Gladocephaloideus jingangshanensis. Image credit: Zhao Chuang.
“In the Upper Jurassic Formation of England, poverty is rare and consists primarily of isolated bones and bone fragments,” said Roy Smith and David Martill, paleontologists at Portsmouth.
“Many records of the late Jurassic Palace in England are merely historical interests, and now contain species named. Nomina Dubeer. ”
“Nevertheless, some materials are diagnostic and some species stand the test of time.”
“Most of the Upper Jurassic palaces in England come from the Kimmeridge Clay Formation in southern England, with events from the Oxford portion of Oxford clay formation in southern and eastern England, and one event from the Kinmeridge Clay Formation in Scotland.”
“In spite of this lack of material, there was a near-complete skull with some of the associated materials. Cuspicephalus scarfi In areas of the Kimmeridgian stage type. ”
The new Pterosaurus specimen is the mandible with at least two, perhaps three teeth.
The fossils date back to the Titonian period, in the late Jurassic period, about 147 million years ago.
It represents the youngest geologically in the UK Jurassic palace.
“The specimen is an isolated mandible that lacks most of the post-Simfisil section of the lam,” the paleontologist said.
“Because of the mandible, which is very thin and compact and elongated, it has been identified as Pterosaurus.”
This represents the first pterocortic material documented, described and proposed from this layer.
“The specimens are likely first discovered when the stones were divided using a standard “feather and wedge” procedure,” the researchers said.
“This caused damage to the central part of the specimen, but the jaw split along its length also damaged the specimen. It appears that the counterpart has not been recovered.”
The lack of diagnostic function prevents introduction to known or new species of fossils, but it can be confidently assigned to the Pterosaur clade Ctenochasmatoidea.
“The ctenochasmatoids are a diverse group of pterosaurs with prominent, most genus, as they are prominent in long, sometimes dorsal curved jaws and elongated, thin teeth,” the scientist said.
“It’s true, one form, South America Pterodaustrois in the longest teeth in terms of the diameter length ratio of the tetrapod. ”
“Basal anthelminthus bacterium” Pterodactylus antiquus and ctenochasmatoid Ardeadactylus longicolumBoth have short conical teeth with wider alveolar spacing than the Titonian period. ”
“The elongated, thin mandible bone and numerous closely spaced alveoli suggest that it is a member of Ctenochasmatidae.”
“The faint central ridge of the occlusal surface between the two grooves converges to the anterior groove, and the lack of a distinct anterior chamber suggests that the specimen is part of the mandibular intermembranes.”
“This is the first documented record of the wing glands from the Portland group in England.”
Survey results It was released this month Proceedings of the Geologists Association.
____
Roy E. Smith and David M. Martill. ctenochasmatid pterosaur from the Portland Limestone Formation (Late Jurassic, Titonian) in southern England. Proceedings of the Geologists Associationpublished online 20255l doi: 10.1016/j.pgeola.2025.101100
Fossil feathers are usually preserved or embedded in amber as impressions of carbonaceous membranes and lake sediments and marine sediments, but are rarely mineralized. In a new study, paleontologists have examined the mineralised feathers of 30,000 years old Griffon vultures preserved in ash-rich volcanic deposits of the Koli-Albani Volcanic Complex in Rome, Italy. Bird feathers were conserved in three dimensions, conserving tissue ultrastructures such as melanosomes. These ultrastructures are mineralized with nanocrystalline zeolites, a preservation mode that has not been previously reported in fossil soft tissue.
A 30,000-year-old fossil feather of a Griffon vulture preserved in volcanic rocks at the Koli-Albani Volcanic Complex in Rome, Italy. Image credit: Edoardo Terranova.
The fossil vulture was discovered in 1889 near Rome by a local landowner who recognized its incredible preservation.
The entire body was preserved as a three-dimensional impression, with fine details such as the lid of the eye and wing wings.
The new study, led by University College Cork paleontologist Valentina Rossi, shows that feather preservation extends to the pigmented structure of small microscopic feathers.
“Fossil feathers are usually preserved in ancient mudstones laid in lakes and lagoons,” Dr. Rossi said.
“Fossil vultures are preserved in ash deposits, which is very unusual.”
“When analyzing the feathers of fossil vultures, we found ourselves in unknown territory.”
“These feathers are different from what we normally see in other fossils.”
The authors discovered that feathers are preserved in mineral zeolites by analyzing small samples of fossil feathers using electron microscopy and chemical testing.
“Zeolites are silicon and aluminum rich minerals and are common in volcanic and hydrothermal geological environments,” Dr. Rossi said.
“Zeolites can be formed as primary minerals (using clean crystals) or secondary during the natural changes in volcanic glass and ash, giving rocks a mudlock-like side.”
“The changes in ashes due to the passage of water induced precipitation of zeolite nanocrystals, replicating feathers to the details of the smallest cells.”
“Fine preservation of feather structures indicates that vulture corpses were buried in cold thermal clastic matter.”
“We are used to think that volcanic deposits are associated with high temperature, fast-moving thermal breaking flows that destroy soft tissue,” says Professor Dawid Iurino of the University of Milan.
“However, these geological environments are complex and can include cold deposits that can store soft tissue at the cellular level.”
“The fossil record is constantly amazed us with new fossil species, strange new body shapes, in this case a new style of fossil preservation,” said Professor Maria McNamara, a professor of Cork at the University.
“We never found any delicate tissues, such as feathers, preserved in volcanic rocks.”
“Discoveries like these broaden the range of potential rock types that can be found in fossils.
a paper The findings were published in the journal Geological.
____
Valentina Rossi et al. Fossil feathers from the Coralbani Volcanic Complex (central Italy, late Pleistocene) preserved in zeolites. GeologicalPublished online on March 18th, 2025. doi: 10.1130/g52971.1
Who were the first inhabitants of Western Europe, what their physical characteristics were, and where they lived are some of the pending questions in the study of Eurasian settlements during the early Pleistocene epoch. Information on ancient humanity available from Western Europe is limited and limited to the Iberian Peninsula. Now, paleontologists have discovered a fragment of the midface of humanity at the site of the Sima del Elephante in Sierra de Atapuerc, Spain. Fossils, which were 1.4 million to 1.1 million years ago, represent the earliest human faces of Western Europe ever identified.
Archaeological excavations at the Sima del Elephante in Sierra de Atapuerc, Spain. Image credits: Maria D. Guillen/Iphes-Cerca.
“It is suggested that Eurasia was first settled by Hymonin at least 1.8 million years ago,” he said, institut Catetut Catetut Catetut Catetut de Paleoecologia Humana IEvolucióSocial, Rovira I Virgili, and Museo nacional de Ciencias natures, and colleagues
“Evidence of early human settlements in Western Europe is limited to highly fragmented fossil samples from the Iberian Peninsula, with few clues as to the appearance and classification of these human beings.”
“The fossils from the Spanish site, about 850,000 years ago, are Homo Alivisora species of early people with thin midfaces that resemble modern humans. ”
“In 2007, a Hominin Joborne (ATE9-1) was found at the Simadel Elephante site in northern Spain, between 12 and 1.1 million years ago, but it was not a definitive allocation. Homo Alivisor. ”
In the new study, the authors examined the fossil ruins of Hominin Midface from the Sima Del Elefante site.
The fragment labeled ATE7-1 consists of a substantial portion of the maxilla and zygote bone from the left side of an adult.
Using both physical evidence and 3D imaging techniques, the researchers reconstructed the fossil fragments, estimated to be between 1.4 million and 1.1 million.
They also discovered additional archaeological sites: stone tools and ruins of slaughtered animals.
“These practices demonstrate that the first Europeans had a close understanding of available animal resources and knew how to systematically utilize them,” Dr. Huguett said.
According to scientists, the ATE7-1 fossil does not display the “modern” midface features found in Homo Alivisor Fossils, but there are some similarities Homo Erectus system.
They tentatively allocated fossils Homo aff. Erectusshows affinity for Homo Erectuswithholding further evidence.
This finding may suggest that at least two people live in Western Europe Homo Early Pleistocene species: Homo aff. Erectusand later Homo Alivisor.
“The evidence is why it was assigned to the ''because it is still insufficient for a definitive classification. Homo aff. Erectus“Dr. Maria Martinon Torres, a researcher at the Centro Nacional de Investigation, said he is a researcher at Evolcion Humana in London and University College London.
“This designation recognizes the affinity of ATE7-1 Homo Erectus While it leaves the possibility that it belongs to another species open. ”
“Our findings demonstrate at least two different human invasions of Western Europe during the Pleistocene era, providing fascinating insights into the evolution of the genus. Homo. ”
“While their size is small, pioneering analysis of facial fragments greatly enriched our understanding of the origins and dynamics of the earliest Europeans on the continent.”
“More research and fossil samples are needed to investigate the relationships between these populations and further improve their classification,” the researchers concluded.
Their paper It was published in the journal this month Nature.
____
R. Huguett et al. The oldest human face in Western Europe. NaturePublished online on March 12, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-08681-0
Paleontologists have studied and described three surfaces, including previously unknown dinosaur tracks, from an area near Biloella in Queensland, Australia.
Surface containing dinosaur tracks from the sandstone Duncreek mine area in the Kalido Basin, Queensland, Australia. Image credits: Romilio et al. , doi: 10.1080/08912963.2025.2472153.
University of Queensland researcher Dr. Anthony Romilio and his colleagues discovered footprints of early Jurassic dinosaurs preserved in three separate rocks in the Kalido Basin.
“One of the surfaces contains a single track, the other has a single trackway consisting of two tracks, and the third has a large concentration of 66 footprints,” they said.
“This is the highest concentration known from the area, with a density of 71 tracks per metre.2and only to specimens of the same age from the Carnarvon Valley, the second highest in Australia. ”
Each footprint has three toes, indicating that it belongs to the dinosaur Ichnospecy anomoepus scambus.
“The Ichnospecies, also discovered at the early Jurassic track sites in Carnarvon Valley and Mount Morgan, shows the prevalence of Ornishikian dinosaurs throughout the region,” the researchers said.
Small filled circular traces, possibly invertebrate burrows Scoritusthe surface is rich and, if correct, indicates that the tracks were formed under sub-light blue to medium energy conditions.
ICHNOSPECIES' Ornithischian Track Maker anomoepus scambus. Image credit: University of Queensland.
“The footprint comes from 47 individual dinosaurs that have passed through patches of wet white clay, and they probably walked or crossed the waterways,” Dr. Romilio said.
“These dinosaurs were small, with legs ranging from 15-50 cm long, and when they left these marks they were moving below 6 km/h.”
“Evidence from skeletal fossils abroad says that dinosaurs with legs like these were herbivores that had long legs, thick bodies, short arms and small heads with beaks.”
Scientists say the newly discovered footprint is about 200 million years old (early Jurassic epoch).
“These footprints provide valuable insight into the abundance and behavior of dinosaurs in an age where body fossils are not present in Australia,” they said.
Their paper It was published in the journal on March 10th, 2025 Historical Biology.
____
Anthony Romillio et al. Dinosaur footprints from sandstones in the Lower Jurassic (Hetangian-Cinemurian), the Kalido Basin, Queensland, Australia. Historical BiologyPublished online on March 10th, 2025. doi:10.1080/08912963.2025.2472153
Searching for the land refugia is essential for human survival during the hypothetical sixth mass extinction. Studying comparable crises in the past can provide insights, but there is no evidence of fossils of diverse giant fluid ecosystems that survived the most severe biological crisis of the past 540 million years. In a new study, paleontologists have investigated plant and tetrapod fossils and various microfossils in the Permian-Triassic Nantaodonggou section in Xinjiang, China. Their fossil records reveal the presence of gymnasium forests and fern fields in a vibrant area, but marine life has experienced mass extinction.
Artistic reconstruction of the end of Permian mass extinctions based on fossil parinomorphs, plants, and tetrapods, and the end of Permian mass extinctions based on sedimentary data from the Southern Jiang section of China's New Jiang. Image credit: DH Yang.
The mass extinction of Permian, which occurred about 252 million years ago, is widely recognized as the most serious of the five major plant zoic extinctions.
This catastrophic event leads to the extinction of about 80% of known species and is a fact that is well supported by marine fossil records.
Some scientists suggest that volcanic eruptions in Siberia caused widespread terrestrial destruction through wildfires, acid rain and toxic gases.
This evidence includes the continuous extinction of properties. Gigantopteris Flora in southern China Grosso Pteris Flora crossing Gondwanaland around the mass extinction of the Endopermians.
However, other scientists argue that these devastating effects are limited by latitude and atmospheric circulation.
Several fossil discoveries suggest that certain Mesozoic plants exist before extinction events, referring to uninterrupted evolution.
Newly discovered fossils from the southern taodonggou section, located in the Tapan Hami Basin in Xinjiang Province, northwestern China, offer a unique perspective.
“We further confirm that the presence of intact tree trunks and fern stems represents local vegetation rather than transported remains,” said Professor Minli Wang, a researcher at the Institute of Geology and Paleontology at the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
Although some plant species have disappeared locally, researchers have found that the overall extinction rate for spores and pollen species is probably only about 21%.
This conclusion is based on the discovery of many “missing” species in the early Triassic formations elsewhere, indicating temporary migration rather than permanent extinction.
This stable vegetation base was essential for the rapid recovery of local ecosystems.
Fossil evidence shows that within just 75,000 years after the extinction ended, the region supported a diverse tetrapod, including herbivorous. lystrosaurus And carnivorous chronicers show that they can quickly return to complex food webs.
This finding contrasts with previous understanding that it took more than a million years for the ecological restoration of the Endopermians to follow the extinction.
New evidence suggests that local ecological diversity in this field has recovered more than 10 times faster than in other regions.
Scientists cited the region's stable, semi-humid climate as essential to its biological resilience. According to a Paleosol Matrix analysis, the area received consistent rainfall of approximately 1,000 mm per year during this period.
Its consistent precipitation has provided southern gu with more abundant vegetation and habitable environment than other regions following the mass extinction of Permians, providing important support for migrating migrant animals.
Despite its proximity to the volcanic activity that caused the extinction of the Endopermians, the Tarpanhami Basin provides safe shelter for terrestrial life, indicating that even seemingly dangerous places can harbor important biodiversity.
“This suggests that local climate and geographical factors create an incredible pocket of resilience and hope for conservation efforts in the face of changes in the global environment,” says Professor Feng Shui of Nanjing Geology Institute, the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
“In light of current concerns about a potential sixth large-scale extinction driven by human activity, this discovery of a “life oasis” underscores the importance of identifying and protecting such natural refsias. ”
study Published in the journal Advances in science.
____
Huiping Peng et al. 2025. Refludium in the abandoned indid: Unearthing the lost flora that escaped the mass extinction of Permians. Advances in science 11 (11); doi:10.1126/sciadv.ads5614
When her school closed in March 2020, Baltimore English teacher Chimere Sweeney thought that once the US got the new SARS-COV-2 virus, she would return to her students. But “There was another plan in life,” she said when she quickly got Covid and never recovered.
Initially, Sweeney developed only muscle pain. By the second week she began having panic attacks, blurry vision, constipation and partial hearing loss. Half of her face freezes “like concrete.” She forgot her phone number and address and stuttered. Within a month of contracting, she lost 30 pounds.
“In two weeks, I was told I would be better,” said Sweeney, now 42. “But my two weeks didn't come.”
Almost five years later, she still suffers from severe whole body pain, insomnia, depression, painful rash and boiling, uncontrollable urination, short-term memory loss and irregular periods.
“I'm a healthy 37-year-old woman and I might have had to pop allergy pills many times, but I took 10-12 medications per day to control almost every system in my body,” Sweeney said.
The World Health Organization characterized Covid as a pandemic on March 11, 2020, so scientists don't fully understand why some people develop chronic diseases and disordered conditions after their first virus infection. The US may have come throughout the winter after the first pandemic without a massive surge in cases, but each infection is at risk of developing a long community. Some scientists are looking for a new type of clinical trial designed for the longest and most debilitating covid patients.
Long covid is known to be the cause Over 200 different symptoms There are no approved tests or recommended treatments in almost 12 organ systems, including those of the heart, lungs, kidneys, brain, eyes and skin. Research shows long covid It's more common for middle-aged people, especially women and those with weakened immune systems, but anyone who catches the virus can get it.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that there is one in every 20 adults in the United States, or about 14 million. Living with a long covid. Other data shows that 5.8 million children It may be affected by the condition as well. However, experts say these numbers are likely to be underestimated as there is no official surveillance system in place.
Billion Dollar Research Initiative Called Recover Started by the National Institutes of Health, finding the causes and potential treatments of covid, I've reached that promisesays scientists and patient advocates.
Meanwhile, experts fear that extreme cuts in federal spending by the Trump administration could be possible It undermines long Covid's research effortswhich could further delay the discovery of treatment. Last month, President Donald Trump ended his secretary as a health and welfare secretary Advisory Committee on Long Covid.
This indefinite dye microscope image, available to the US National Institutes of Health in February 2020, shows the novel coronavirus SARS-COV-2, shown in yellow, emerges from the cell surface and is cultured in laboratory culture.niaid-rml via AP file
W. Medical Director, UT Health Austin. Dr. Michael Broad Post-Covid-19 Program In Texas, “We build boats while we're at the sea and we're trying to understand together. [with patients] …But we need to build on the progress we have already made. ”
“We are not offering answers that are worthy of the public health crisis we are facing,” he said.
Causes of long covids
SARS-COV-2, which causes Covid, is not the only virus that causes prolonged symptoms. Another condition called myalgia encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) shares many similarities with the long community; Caused by infection Among other things, Epstein Barr, influenza, and water cell-zoster virus.
Brode said Covid is unique because it is more likely to cause chronic disease than other pathogens. It has not yet been determined why it could lead to long-term symptoms. Experts have come to several theories so far.
One idea is that Virus remains hidden in different tissues Broad said after the infection subsided. These viral particles continue to thrust and stimulate the immune system in ways that cause long covid symptoms.
Another potential cause is Reactivation of other virusessitting in a dormant state of people's bodies, such as EBV and HIV.
Dr. Igor Coralnik, co-director of Northwest Medicine's Comprehensive COVID-19 Centre, said Covid could also trick the immune system into producing antibodies that attack people's own healthy organs and tissues.
Some evidence shows covid It affects the inner layer of blood vesselswhich leads to the formation of small clots and helps explain the symptoms, such as irregular heartbeat and heart failure, that some long-term community patients experience, Koralnik said.
It is unclear whether one or a combination of these factors will cause long covid, experts say. But the evidence suggests that they are all linked to an increase in inflammation in the body, Coralnik said, it's yours The risk of long covid increases with each covid infection.
“It's like a river that's over a dam,” Coralnik said. “The more episodes of Covid, the higher the river levels will go to where it is overflowing, and there will be a long flood of COVID symptoms.”
Diagnosis of long covids can be complicated
There are diagnostic tools to check for long covid symptoms, such as MRI scans for heart abnormalities. There are no tests that can diagnose the condition Or distinguish it from similar diseases, the CDC says.
As a result, people need to stay away from work, school or other responsibilities and endure numerous clinical tests and scans that are not only expensive, but also stressful and time-consuming. This is a broad exclusion process that prevents people from getting the help they need, Broad said.
Eye, intestine, and immune system clue
The current challenge is to find one or more biomarkers of genes, proteins, or other substances associated with a particular condition that will help diagnose long covid.
a Recover your research Released last year, routine lab tests, including 25 standard blood and urine tests, showed little difference in biomarkers, with or without previous symbiotic infections. Researchers concluded that these tests may not be useful in the diagnosis of long-term COVID.
Koralnik and his team recently discovered that people with long covids are reducing blood flow in small blood vessels in the retina. This reduced flow is thought to reduce blood circulation in and around the brain, and the small organelles called mitochondria, which convert oxygen into energy, are described as “toxic.”
This theory can explain why many people with long covid experience cognitive problems, fatigue and exercise intolerance, Coralnik said. Overall, the findings published in the Journal of Imaging in February are The retina can become a long covid biomarker.
Other studies suggest that biomarkers may be present in the gut and immune system, but Brode noted that these early findings are based on small groups of people and should be considered in salt grains.
As useful as diagnostic tests, experts say that for those with prolonged symptoms, some experts should not slow scientists in searching for long covid treatments.
Julia Moore Vogel, senior program director at Scripps Research, and Patient-led research cooperation Regarding long covid, he said that other conditions like migraines do not have reliable biomarkers or tests to confirm the diagnosis. Several drugs have been approved To handle it.
“I think we'll get there,” said Vogel, a long-distance runner before developing the long-time Covid in 2020. “But I personally don't think it should contain anything.”
Unfortunate advances in long covid treatments
The Food and Drug Administration has not approved treatments, particularly for long covids. Experts are not sure if they'll get it anytime soon.
“When I first got sick, I was OK, I had to survive for just three to five years. At least, I think I have options as I have decent symptom management trial data. But we've made little progress in treatment,” Vogel said. “There are currently promising research beginning, but it's not close to the amount that should be burdened by the disease.”
Most clinical trials test whether medications used to treat other conditions are useful for long-term COVID. For example, researchers at the University of British Columbia Low-dose naltrexone – Approved drugs for opioid and alcohol use disorders. The drug is thought to have anti-inflammatory and pain relief properties and is used off-label in people with fibromyalgia and ME/CFS, making it potential as a long-term symbiotic treatment.
Other drugs Barishinibapproved for treating rheumatoid arthritis and acute charlation, and Temelimabuexperimental drugs often administered to people with multiple sclerosis have also been investigated as potential long covid treatments.
Instead of a particular treatment, people with long covids must balance rest and activity in a strategy called pacing and undergo physical and cognitive behavioral therapy for further support. Many people will often rely on several drugs, including antiviral Paxlovid, to treat symptoms.
But realistically, “we may not actually have one silver bullet treatment,” says Alison Cohen, an epidemiologist at the University of California, San Francisco, who coexisted for three years for a long time. Cohen said that long covid will take a “multi-faceted approach” to take a “multi-faceted approach” in a very diverse way.
What will you do in the future for recovery?
As long as SARS-COV-2 continues to spread, everyone is at risk of a long Covid, Cohen said. And now, evidence shows that recovery from the condition is rare. A survey released last month found it Only about 6% of people with long covid recover According to Cohen, two years later. Covid vaccinations were associated with better long-term recovery, especially among those who won booster shots.
People who improve are experiencing many “ups and downs,” Coralnik said. “You need to expect a lot of collisions on the road.”
“Living with a long Covid is tiring,” Cohen said. “So for everyone who doesn't live with it, it's important to think about what we can do to support those who have them.”
In the meantime, clinical trials must be designed to accommodate and include the patients they intend, Vogel said. Many people are tied to their homes and beds and cannot travel due to the risk of multiple in-person visits or flare-ups of symptoms, she added. “There are too many things you can't know until you put them on the table,” she said.
Although we don't know when a long community community finally gets the answers and security they need, Vogel keeps her head high.
“We know we can do that. We are confident that a well-designed and well-tested exam will at least improve the quality of life. “But I can't think of any other way. I can't accept that this is for my life.”
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