A collaborative team of paleontologists from New Zealand and Australia has identified a new, extinct species of Shelduck from Holocene fossil bone deposits located in the Likov Chatham Islands.
The artistic reconstruction of rēkohu Shelduck (Tadnarekov) highlights the dark feathers typical of island-dwelling birds. Image credit: Sasha Votyakova/Te Papa.
The rēkohushelduck (Tadnarekov) is a newly described species that inhabited the Chatham Islands, a remote archipelago situated 785 km east of the New Zealand mainland.
“The archipelago comprises Chatham Island, Rangihautepit, Mangere, Tapua, and various smaller islands,” explained the researchers.
“These islands were completely submerged during the late Miocene and early Pliocene epochs.”
“Subsequent geological activities resulted in their re-emergence roughly three million years ago.”
According to the research team, the ancestors of the Rēkohu Shelduck reached the Chatham Islands around 390,000 years ago, during the late Pleistocene.
“While this may seem like a brief period, it’s long enough to influence species development,” Dr. Lawrence noted.
“At that time, the Rēkohu Shelduck exhibited shorter, more robust wings and longer leg bones, adaptations that impacted flight capability.”
“These evolutionary changes resulted from various factors, such as ample food availability, a lack of ground predators, and windy conditions, making flight less necessary.”
“If you don’t use them, you lose them; wings start to diminish,” remarked Dr. Pascare Lube from University of Otago.
“Flying is energy-efficient, so if it’s not essential, why expend the effort?”
“More robust leg bones support increased muscle mass and strength for takeoff, which is crucial when wings are small.”
The researchers utilized ancient DNA analysis and bone morphology to characterize the rēkohushelduck, a cousin of the Paradise Shelduck (Tadorna variegata) native to New Zealand.
Rēkohu Shelduck spent a majority of its time on the ground and became extinct prior to the 19th century.
“The discovery of rēkohushelduck bones in early Moriori Midden deposits indicates that hunting likely contributed to its extinction prior to European contact and the subsequent Māori settlements in the 19th century,” the scientists reported.
Their study was published in the July 2025 issue of The Linnaean Society’s Journal of Zoology.
____
Nicholas J. Lawrence et al. 2025. Ancient DNA and morphometrics reveal a new species of Shelduck, an extinct island inhabitant from the Rēkohu Chatham Islands. The Linnaean Society’s Journal of Zoology 204 (3): ZLAF069; doi: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaf069
A rare species of shark has been rediscovered in Papua New Guinea, nearly half a century after its last sighting.
The Sailback Hound Shark, known for its unusually large dorsal fin (Gogolia filewoodi), was first recorded by researchers in 1973. A pregnant female was captured in Astrolabe Bay, near the Gogol River, and this marked the only known instance of the species for many years.
Jack Sagumai and his team from the World Wildlife Fund Pacific gathered fisheries data from local communities, aimed at supporting the national action plan for sharks and rays. In March 2020, they were pleasantly surprised when they stumbled upon images of several small sharks close to the mouth of the Gogol River, all featuring the characteristic dorsal fin.
Initially, five of these sharks were identified as female. In 2022, another fisherman in the vicinity caught a male. Collaborating with William White from the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization in Australia, the team verified that these creatures were indeed the long-lost sailback houndsharks.
“When we heard that this species was so elusive, it was frustrating,” Sagmai said.
This marks the first scientific documentation of the species in over 50 years, though fishermen in Astrolabe Bay claim they regularly encounter these sharks. They report sightings near the mouth of the Gogol River while fishing primarily for drums, according to Sagmai.
“It appears to favor deeper waters and tends to associate with other fish when feeding near the river mouth,” he noted.
As these sharks are only located in a small area, they may represent a “micro-inhabiting” species with a very limited range in Astrolabe Bay.
“Alternatively, they may have once had a broader distribution across regions like Indonesia and Papua New Guinea,” suggested David Ebert from San Jose State University in California. This region also hosts similar micro-inhabiting species, such as bamboo and epaulette sharks.
Sagumai noted that information regarding the Sailback Hound Shark’s biology and population size remains sparse. Currently, two deceased specimens are housed at the University of Papua New Guinea, and the team plans to collaborate with researchers in Australia and Florida to conduct a DNA analysis of the sharks.
“These efforts will establish genetic baselines for future monitoring and inform conservation strategies,” he added.
Microorganisms found in Siberian permafrost seem to have existed for more than 100,000 years as indicated by DNA analysis. The genetic similarities with other species imply that such long life spans might be common among the closest living relatives of complex cell organisms.
Additionally, microorganisms gathered from ancient marine sediments, some over 100 million years old, raise questions about the survival of individual organisms over such spans. “You can’t conduct experiments over that duration,” states Karen Lloyd from the University of Southern California. “[Time] Coexistence is an unpredictable variable.”
Lloyd and her team aimed to find microorganisms in areas that had been stable for extensive periods. Their exploration led them to the Chukchi Peninsula, the easternmost point of Siberia, where they extracted a 22-meter core of permafrost.
This core allowed them to extract DNA from layers of marine sediment that dates back between 100,000 and 120,000 years. These sediments contained pores filled with liquid water that might have trapped microorganisms, preventing any exchange of nutrients or organisms. “Being frozen means that ice structures encapsulate them,” Lloyd explains.
The subsequent question was how to differentiate between living and non-living cells. Researchers sequenced millions of DNA fragments from the permafrost, utilizing them to reconstruct the genomes of various microbial species present. The degraded DNA was repaired, and enzymes that facilitated genome reconstitution were introduced into the mix.
After incorporating DNA repair enzymes, most reconstructed genomes showed significant completeness, indicating they originated from dead cells that do not actively preserve DNA integrity, according to Lloyd. Conversely, the genomes of six species showed minimal alteration, suggesting that these DNA samples came from living cells actively maintaining their genome since being frozen at least 100,000 years ago.
All six species with intact DNA were from the gate forest, also known as Asgard Archaea. These organisms are recognized as the closest modern relatives to all eukaryotes, encompassing animals, plants, fungi, and other native forms of life.
“Discovering Asgard archaea thriving in ancient permafrost offers insight into their evolutionary path… and their role in the emergence of complex life,” remarks team member Rend Liang at the University of Earth Sciences in China, especially during an era when the Earth was fully frozen.
Even more remarkably, the long-lived species were similar to Asgard Archaea found in less extreme environments, sharing genes associated with protein and DNA repair. This may have facilitated gradual exchanges of cellular components in low-energy conditions without cell division. “They’re like the most uneventful Asgards ever,” Lloyd comments. “Their lack of excitement suggests they possess capabilities.”
Stephen de Hon from the University of Rhode Island considers the study a “significant advancement” in understanding exceptionally long life spans.
Nevertheless, he warns that these findings should not be generalized to environments beyond freezing conditions like permafrost. “Long periods of inactivity in frozen states are different from living extensively at minimal activity levels.”
y
It’s unforgettable—the first time you play a Metal Gear game. Among them, Konami’s iconic stealth series is epitomized by the 2004 installment, Snake Eater. This initial chapter and its sequel acted as a reboot. Initially aimed for the PS3 due to its ambitious technology, it was eventually released on the PS2. The writer-director, Kojima, sought to take the gravelly-voiced protagonist, Solid Snake, out of the shadowy military bases and into the great outdoors. With elements like food hunting and broken bones that could be reset, Snake Eater felt far more grounded and immersive compared to PlayStation games of the 2000s.
Despite Snake Eater’s significant transformations, one classic aspect remains unchanged—stellar voice acting. In Konami’s upcoming remake, Metal Gear Solid Delta: Snake Eater, all the iconic, absurd lines from the original script are preserved. Enhanced with modern controls and stunning new graphics, Delta more closely resembles a 4K restoration of a beloved film than a standard remake akin to the latest Resident Evil titles.
“To their credit, Konami wanted to maintain the authentic experience,” says David Hater, the voice of Solid Snake. “They aimed to ensure it felt like the original, while still leveraging today’s technology.”
“Very cinematic”… Metal Gear Solid Delta: Snake Eater. Photo: Konami
Hater, who also penned the scripts for the 2000s X-Men films, takes immense pride in his portrayal of Solid Snake, a role achieved through the unique recording process of his eccentric performances. “For my first Metal Gear Solid, I recorded in an unusual house in Hollywood,” he reflects. “There were five microphones set up and it was just me and the other actors.”
This atypical setup was in stark contrast to the usual individual recording method, where voice actors would record separately, and their performances would be pieced together afterward. Hater found this collaborative approach to be incredibly effective. “I insisted my contract required me to record in this manner for all the Metal Gear games; I’d be in the booth alongside other top voice talents for months at a time.”
By the time the actors recorded their roles for Metal Gear Solid, the storyline was nearly finalized. However, for Snake Eater, they received only cues, leaving much of the visual imagination to the voice talent. “We had no visuals,” says Hater. “It was challenging to grasp the full impact of what we were creating at the time.”
“I know why you go back to it over and over again”… Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater. Photo: Konami
This shared experience resonates with Lori Alan, who voices The Boss, a key character in Snake Eater. “This is where the voice director showcased his remarkable skills,” Alan shares. “The recording sessions were intense. After a session, you’d exit saying, ‘What a ride!’ as the director would quietly remind you, ‘You love him. You trained him. You’ll betray your country!’ It was astonishing, and left you feeling completely drained.”
As Alan departed the booth while Hater was recording, she didn’t fully grasp the impact of the character she embodied. “I have a devoted fan who once sent me a clip, but I’ve never played it,” Alan admits. Over two decades later, she finally experienced the iconic role she helped create. “We were filming promotional videos for the remake,” Hater recalls. “Lori mentioned she wanted to know what we did back then, but it was hard to convey! So, I sent her the complete cutscene from the game… A couple of hours later, I received an emotional call from her. She was in tears, saying, ‘Oh my god! I didn’t understand before, but now I get it.'”
“It’s incredibly cinematic,” Alan adds. “The depth of the relationships stands out, giving me chills. I found myself completely engaged in the storytelling, as one would when reading a captivating novel or watching a compelling film.”
“We didn’t need to change anything great from the original”… Metal Gear Solid Delta: Snake Eater. Photo: Konami
Beyond some audio refinement and adjustments to fit the new control system, the cast confirms that no additional material was introduced in Delta. “I like to think I’ve become a better actor since then,” Hater muses. “Yet, these recordings had to align perfectly with the original, making it surreal to step back into the booth and reprise the same role after 20 years.”
Hater and Alan aren’t alone in revisiting the jungle—Cynthia Harrell, the original singer of Snake Eater’s theme, has re-recorded the iconic anthem for the remake. Harrell noted that she recorded her vocals with little direction. “That final scene, with the song playing as she dies, the red petals falling… I still cry 20 years later.”
Decades later, that moment remains powerful. Following an emotional climax, players are given the choice to pull the trigger. “I wished there was an option to shoot her in the leg instead,” Hater admits.
The ongoing separation between Kojima and Konami means that the original Snake Eater director isn’t involved in Delta, yet the publisher has engaged and retained members from the original development team. “For me, that thrill and surprise felt like the first time I played, 21 years ago, and that’s the experience we aimed to replicate,” shares Yuji Korekado, a producer on Delta and a former team member. Fellow producer Okamura Noriaki emphasized the intention to maintain creative integrity: “We concluded that adding twists or new plot elements was unnecessary; the original was already exceptional.”
As a new generation grows up unaware of the significance of Revolver Ocelot, Hater views Snake Eater Delta as the ideal reintroduction to one of gaming’s most revered franchises. “Someone asked me last night why they started remastering with No. 3,” he mentions. “That’s because it’s the best, you know? The characters are incredible, and the storylines are profound. These are some of the most tragic and beautiful moments in gaming history. It’s akin to living through a cinematic masterpiece for 60 hours.” 1.
The icy dwarf planet Ceres might have been habitable in the past
NASA/Jet Propulsion Research Institute (JPL)
The dwarf planet Ceres seems desolate and frozen, yet, billions of years after its creation, it could have housed a warm, habitable interior.
Sam Course Building from Arizona State University notes that while we can’t definitively say life could arise on Ceres, its past conditions possibly allowed for the survival of life.
Previous research indicates that Ceres may contain water ice and organic compounds, suggesting potential for life. In this study, however, researchers explored what these potential alien life forms could have consumed. Instead of feeding on other organisms, they might have derived energy directly from chemical molecules, similar to microorganisms found in hydrothermal vents in Earth’s oceans. Could analogous microorganisms have lived in Ceres’ ancient oceans?
The team simulated Ceres’ history and found that over 500 million to 2 billion years ago, pores near its hot core could have released liquid which mingled with the cold ocean waters. This interaction might have provided essential chemical “food” for microorganisms.
To seek past or current life in the solar system, Amanda Hendrix from the Institute of Planetary Sciences emphasizes the importance of examining worlds like Ceres that either currently have or once possessed oceans.
Interestingly, the types of life-sustaining conditions described by the team might also have existed on other ice-like bodies the size of Ceres. This suggests that the number of potentially habitable planets in evolution could be greater than previously thought.
“If Ceres was habitable in the past, then it’s probable that a multitude of asteroids and moons were also habitable, and many may still be today,” states team member Joe O’Rourke from Arizona State University.
Thus, habitability may simply result from readily available ingredients that appear to be common in the solar system.
However, many aspects remain uncertain, especially concerning Ceres itself. Researchers believe that accurate chemical analyses of surface minerals will enhance their models, but no spacecraft capable of conducting such analyses has landed on Ceres yet.
IYou were a soccer enthusiast who owned a computer in the early 1980s, and there’s one game that stands out in your memory. The box art featured an illustration of an FA Cup, with a photo of a cheerful man sporting curly hair and a goat beard in the lower right corner. That same image appeared in gaming magazine advertisements. Despite its basic graphics and primitive sound, the game was a perennial bestseller, enjoying years of popularity. This was “Football Manager,” the world’s first football tactical simulation. The man gracing the cover was Kevin Toms, the game’s creator and programmer.
The game’s inception story narrates how a passionate coder was holed up in his bedroom, crafting bestsellers for the ZX Spectrum and Commodore 64, eventually driving a Ferrari with the revenue generated. Toms, an avid soccer fan and budding game designer since childhood in the early 1970s, initially expressed his ambitions through a board game during a time when personal computers were not commonplace. “When my parents discovered my career aspirations, I told them: ‘Please ask if I can get a job as a game designer,'” Toms recounts. “They responded: ‘It’s just a phase, he’ll grow out of it.'”
Toms didn’t sway from his path. Through the 1970s, he honed his programming skills on corporate mainframes and also coded for a time at Open University. “It didn’t take long to realize that I could write a game themed around these interests,” he explains. “In fact, my first program was for a programmable calculator.” In 1980, Toms acquired a Video Jeanie Computer, primarily viewed as a clone of one of the early home microcomputers, the TRS-80. “I recognized that I could finally transform the board game concept for a soccer manager I had long aspired to create into a computer game,” he states. “There were two significant advantages: we could calculate the league table and the algorithms for arranging fixtures.”
“In the first few months, we sold 300 games”… Football manager for ZX81. Photo: Kevin Toms/Moby Games
Although the Video Jeanie never gained traction, Toms purchased a ZX81 with a 16K RAM extension and ported the game over. “In January 1982, I ran a quarter-page ad in computer and video game magazines, and it began to gain traction,” he recalls. “I still remember the thrill of opening my first letter. We sold 300 games in those early months.”
At that time, the game was quite rudimentary. There were no graphics, only text. Players had the option to select from 16 teams and play the role of manager, where they could buy players, influence team selection, and make adjustments throughout the season. You would start at the bottom of the old 4th division and work your way up. Toms crafted an algorithm that generated fixtures and determined match outcomes based on team statistics.
“The challenging aspect was determining player attributes,” he explains. “I assigned each a skill rating out of five, and wanted to ensure that you couldn’t simply purchase the best players and keep them for the entire season—there had to be a reason to rotate them. The more players you utilized, the higher the chance of injury.”
Toms aimed to integrate long-term strategy into the game, but the highlight feature became the most engaging aspect: the transfer market. The original version allowed players to sign one new player a week, but the selection was randomized, so one never knew who would become available. “Three midfielders would come up, and you’d need to evaluate their ratings to see if they met your team’s needs. Do you spend your budget now, or wait for a five-rated player who could take weeks to appear? That created a thrilling pressure.”
Inspired by Match of the Day… Soccer Manager Match highlight is Commodore 64. Photo: Kevin Toms/Moby Games
One significant challenge was memory. The expanded ZX81 had only 16K, making certain aspects, like team names, particularly troublesome. “It was a while ago when all the licensing issues came into play,” he notes. “My challenge was whether I needed to license names like Manchester United. The memory constraints meant I had to choose teams with shorter names, hence going with Leeds.”
Football Manager debuted during the nascent era of the gaming industry. Games were often sold via mail order or computer fairs. By 1982, however, high-street stores began taking interest in the burgeoning video game market. “Smith reached out and said, ‘We love your game, we want to stock it,’ and invited me to London. They eventually ordered 2,000 units. However, when I returned home, I realized their math was off—it was actually 10,000.”
Toms left his position at Open University and established his own company, Addictive Games. Later versions of the Football Manager for ZX Spectrum and Commodore 64 included additional features like match highlights that represented crucial moments like goals and near misses.
“It was inspired by Match of the Day. They capture the most exciting parts of the game,” says Toms. “I deliberately omitted the match timer from the screen, so players wouldn’t know how much time was left or if there was still an opportunity for another goal. This was an essential aspect of the design. A slight pause between highlights added to the tension.”
The game became a phenomenon, featuring on bestseller lists for years. My friends and I spent countless hours tweaking team and player names. “I didn’t fully grasp the impact of it all for quite some time,” admits Toms. “There was no internet back then. I would receive letters from players saying, ‘I played for 22 hours straight’ or ‘I failed my mock O Level because of the game.’ I later learned that professional footballers were also fans, including Arsenal striker Charlie Nicholas and Spurs manager Bill Nicholson, with Harry Redknapp serving as a mentor to competitive Football Manager players in 2010.”
Toms subsequently developed several other management simulations, such as Software Star, centering on the gaming industry. However, as Football Manager titles multiplied and the pressure increased, he eventually sold the company, stepped back from gaming, and returned to coding in business while traveling the globe. In 2003, Sports Interactive, the creators of the Championship Manager series, acquired the Football Manager name and rebranded their game accordingly.
“I had someone who played an original purchase for my kids”… Football Star Manager. Photo: Kevin Toms
However, the game was far from finished. A decade ago, Toms engaged with fans of the original game online and assessed their interest in a smartphone adaptation. The Football Manager legacy was revived with familiar visuals. The response was overwhelmingly positive, leading to the release of Football Star* Manager in 2016. Recently, he upgraded it again and introduced a PC version. “People enjoy it, and it resonates with them,” he says. “It’s central to my design philosophy: it may appear simple, but there’s subtle depth that keeps the interest alive. I’ve played through 500 seasons and my bank account now reads £5 billion. The balance is clearly well-crafted.”
Toms has evidently rekindled the spark that initially propelled his Football Manager into the gaming world four decades ago. He has ambitious plans for Soccer Star* Manager, as well as Software Star. “I still have many ideas yet to explore,” he affirms. “There are far more goals and concepts than I have time to implement at the moment. I’m not late; I’m determined to realize them, but it’s a matter of timing.”
Small, toothed mammals represent the most unusual of all whales. If they were still around today, they would be as symbolically Australian as kangaroos. A new paper published this week in The Linnaean Society’s Journal of Zoology details a recently identified species named Janjucetus lullardi, derived from a 25 million-year-old specimen unearthed in Victoria, Australia.
Janjucetus lullardi — 25 million years ago, a calf and its mother swam in the shallow waters off the coast of Victoria. Image credit: Ruairidh Duncan.
“Currently, some of the most iconic species of whales, including blue and humpback whales, are whale veil.” I noted, said LeAilid Duncan, a paleontologist from Monash University.
“These marine giants utilize a hairy filter in their mouths called Baleen to sift through plankton.
“In contrast, these mammals had bodies measuring less than 3 meters, with large eyes and short jaws filled with teeth.”
“Despite this description, we know that mammalian whales lacked Baleen.”
“They appeared to be derived from the major evolutionary lines leading to today’s toothless giants.”
All known mammalian species thrived during the late Oligocene epoch, approximately 27 to 23 million years ago.
Interestingly, three of the four identified species were found along the Victoria Surf Coast, southeast of Melbourne.
“The first mammal was uncovered in 1932 and was named in 1939 Mammalian Coraliber,” the paleontologist remarked.
“It featured a blunt jaw bone with a rich supply of blood and nerves for its facial and lip muscles.”
“Notably, the teeth show signs of wear on the gums, indicating they foraged for abrasive prey (along with gritty substances) from the seafloor.”
“In 2006, a local naturalist discovered the first fossil of a species named after him, Janjucetus hunderi.
“This whale had a sturdy triangular snout with sharp teeth and strong muscles to close its powerful jaw.”
“However, the exact differences in the lifestyle of Mammalian Coraliber and Janjucetus hunderi compared to other whales remain largely unclear, hinting at a diverse range of behaviors.”
The fossilized remains of Janjucetus lullardi, dating back 25 million years, were found in 2019 by school principal Ross Dallard along the coast of Yang JUC in Victoria.
“Janjucetus lullardi measured about 2 meters in length. It’s compact enough to fit in a standard single bed,” the researcher noted.
“This may be the first fossilized whale discovered in Australia, and potentially the first fossils of a juvenile whale found in this region.”
____
Ruairidh J. Duncan et al. 2025. Insights into the mystiology of immature teeth from the Australian Oligocene and mammals (Cetacea: Mysticeti) morphology, phylogenetics, and ontogeny. The Linnaean Society’s Journal of Zoology 204 (4): ZLAF090; doi: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaf090
One of the more challenging perspectives on aging is the prospect of enduring poor health later in life. A common narrative is that although life expectancy has increased, the health span has not kept pace.
This perspective is shifting towards a new measurement of our later years, emphasizing “essential ability”—how well individuals can engage in the activities they value rather than solely focusing on chronic disease diagnoses. Viewed this way, those born in affluent nations during the 1950s appear poised to experience the longest and healthiest lifespans compared to any previous generation.
Nonetheless, it remains uncertain whether future generations will benefit similarly, as rising rates of obesity, pollution, and increasingly sedentary lifestyles could negate past advantages.
As of 2023, over three-quarters of the US population is living with at least one chronic condition, with more than half of middle-aged adults experiencing two or more. However, when considering health in terms of intrinsic competence, a diagnosis does not necessarily herald the end of well-being, as effective management can allow individuals to maintain their health.
People born in the 1950s in a rich country are set to lead the longest and healthiest life ever
Unfortunately, the narrative of a chronic disease epidemic has been fueled by certain figures, such as Robert F. Kennedy Jr., who recently reduced funding for research into mRNA vaccine technologies. This funding could critically assist in prolonging lives and mitigating disease impacts.
Nevertheless, there is cause for hope. For instance, GLP-1 medications present a groundbreaking method for managing obesity, and preliminary findings from recent studies indicate promising new avenues for alleviating Alzheimer’s disease.
Such innovations should serve as a reminder to policymakers that if our aim is to extend healthy living, investing in biomedical research is an essential ally, not a detractor.
Recently discovered human fossils from the Ledi-Geraru Research Project in a remote region of Ethiopia indicate an early presence of Homo around 2.78 million years ago and a previously unidentified species, Australian, dating back 2.63 million years.
The timeline from approximately 3 to 2 million years ago represents crucial phases in human evolution.
This encompasses the genus Homo and Paran Solo Pass, which first appeared in fossil records alongside the ancestors of Australopithecus afarensis, a species that eventually vanished.
“We typically viewed human evolution as a linear trajectory from ape-like ancestors to modern humans. However, Homo sapiens researcher Brian Villmoare from the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, states that our understanding must adapt.”
“Humans have diversified into various niches multiple times throughout our history.”
“Our evolutionary tree reflects patterns not unique to us. Similar events occurred across different life forms.”
“This is something we should observe more frequently in the record of human fossils.”
“Nature has explored numerous paths toward humanity, particularly as climates became drier in East Africa, leading to the extinction of more ape-like species.”
Dr. Villmoare and his co-authors uncovered 13 human teeth at the Ledi-Geraru site in Ethiopia.
They determined that while some fossils belong to the genus Homo, others include upper and lower teeth sets from an unnamed species, Australian.
This new species differs from Australopithecus afarensis, which was first identified nearby at Khadar around 2.95 million years ago.
“The coexistence of both species in the same area suggests that human evolution resembles a branching tree rather than a linear progression,” said Dr. Villmoare.
The Ledi-Geraru site is also where paleontologists discovered the earliest jaw of Homo in 2013, dating back 2.8 million years.
“Recent findings of Homo teeth from sediments aged between 2 and 2.8 million years confirm the timeline of our lineage,” stated Dr. Villmoare.
“We know what the earliest teeth and jaws of Homo look like, but our findings extend beyond that.”
“This underscores the critical need for additional fossil discoveries to differentiate between Australian and Homo, and to explore potential overlaps in their fossil records.”
“There has been considerable geological activity in this region,” noted Dr. Christopher Campizzano, a geologist at Arizona State University.
“Numerous volcanic eruptions released ashes containing feldspar crystals, allowing scientists to date them.”
“We can date the eruptions that occurred in the landscape where these fossils were found.”
“These fossils are situated between volcanic deposits, facilitating age determination.”
“We are dating the volcanic ash from eruptions that coincided with the deposition of these fossils.”
“As this new research highlights, this was a pivotal era for human evolution,” said Professor Ramon Arrowsmith from Arizona State University.
“Geology provides critical insights into the age and characteristics of sedimentary layers, including those containing fossils.”
“Whenever an exciting new discovery occurs, paleontologists recognize that further information is essential,” commented Dr. Kay Reid, a paleontologist at Arizona State University.
“We need more fossils, which emphasizes the importance of training individuals to explore and identify new fossil sites.”
“The more fossils we uncover, the better we can understand our distant ancestors and the unique journey of survival that led to our existence.”
The findings are documented in a publication released today in the journal Nature.
____
B. Billmoare et al. New discoveries of Australian and Homo from Ledi-Geraru, Ethiopia. Nature, published online August 13, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09390-4
Dennis “Tink” Bell (far right) during a Christmas celebration at Admiralty Bay Station in 1958
D. Bell; Archive REF: AD6/19/X/20/18
The remains of a meteorologist who perished on an Antarctic glacier 66 years ago have been unearthed and returned to England.
At just 25, Dennis “Tink” Bell embarked on a two-year mission to Antarctica in July 1959 to study the climate of the Falkland Islands, which was the predecessor of the British Antarctic Survey (BAS).
Bell encountered a crevasse but managed to call out for assistance. He secured a rope to his belt and was pulled to safety, although the belt broke, causing him to fall again. This time, he did not call out for help.
His colleague made it back to base, but worsening weather conditions jeopardized further rescue efforts.
Ieuan Hopkins noted that working in Antarctica during the 1950s and 1960s was perilous, and fatalities were tragically common. Many bodies of other BAS staff remain lost today.
“There was an average 1% chance that you wouldn’t return,” remarks Hopkins. “It’s an extremely hostile environment. We’re at risk of losing people.”
Earlier this year, a team from the Arkdowsky Poland Antarctic Station on King George Island discovered numerous bone fragments on the glacier’s surface, having been exposed as they shifted over time.
“It’s a large, dynamic glacier, so things are perpetually moving,” explains Hopkins. “The presence of bone fragments suggests significant forces at play.”
The remains were transferred to the Falkland Islands and subsequently returned to Britain by the Royal Air Force aboard an Antarctic research vessel alongside Sir David Attenborough.
Denise Syndercombe Court at King’s College, London, identified the body through DNA comparisons with samples from his older brother David Bell and younger sister Valerie Kelly, as Bell commented in a statement.
The Polish team also uncovered many personal belongings believed to belong to Bell, including radio equipment, flashlights, ski poles, engraved wristwatches, knives, and pipe stems made of ebonite.
With the shutdown of AOL’s dial-up internet in late September, the iconic sounds, symbols, and experiences that ushered millions of Americans into the early digital age will come to an end.
AOL, or America Online, announced recently that it has evaluated its products and services and will discontinue dial-up connectivity options, ceasing support for its dial-up software as of September 30th.
These dates signal the end of an era for countless Americans from various generations: millennials, Gen X, Baby Boomers, and beyond. The familiar sounds of modems establishing connections and the excitement of getting online marked the dawn of a new era filled with wires, computer mice, emails, chat rooms, instant messaging, and the bright allure of digital screens.
Dial-up internet didn’t emerge in isolation; it was developed by Usenet in the late 1970s.
In 1979, Compuserve became the first to offer “Dial-Up Online Information Services to Consumers.”
By the mid-1980s, virtual communities started to emerge with platforms like The Well, which was founded in the Bay Area by Stewart Brand and Larry Brilliant, coinciding with the founding of America Online in 1985.
At its peak, in the late 1990s and early 2000s, AOL boasted over 23 million subscribers in the United States, solidifying its status as the leading internet service provider of that era. As noted by Jigso AI, new users were acquired approximately every six seconds.
AOL became a household name with its distinct “You’ve got mail!” notification, but it also became infamous in 1999 after a controversial merger, which is often viewed as one of the most disastrous deals in media history.
Gradually, the iconic sounds of dial-up began to fade as faster cable internet services emerged in 1995, leveraging existing cable television infrastructure.
Today, only a small fraction of U.S. households (around 175,000) still depend on dial-up internet access. This legacy technology stems from the intense rivalry between Microsoft and Netscape in the 1980s and 90s. As AI encroaches upon browsing, the days of dial-up seem ever more distant.
The rise of dial-up internet was partially fueled by demand for adult content, and its decline is now seen as part of the nostalgic farewell to other bygone pop culture artifacts, such as CDs, pagers, and landlines.
After 25 years of investigation, researchers at Northwestern University in the United States have found out why some adults have acclimatized to near-optimal cognitive functioning since the 1980s.
Referred to as “super agers,” these individuals are over 80 years old, yet their memory capabilities rival those of adults in their 50s and 60s.
Since the year 2000, scientists have examined 290 of these super agers, assessing 77 brains to better understand those who resist cognitive decline.
The study revealed shared personality traits among the ultra-elderly compared to the general population. These individuals often report being highly social and possessing strong interpersonal connections.
However, the differences in personality are merely the tip of the iceberg. Dr. Sandra Weintraub – a Professor of Psychiatry, Behavioral Science, and Neurology at Northwestern and co-author of a new paper summarizes the findings regarding these super agers – “What we observed in their brains was astonishing; it felt like earth-shattering news for us.”
In some super agers’ brains, scientists identified amyloid and tau proteins, commonly known as plaque and tangles, which are significant in the context of Alzheimer’s disease. In other super agers, these were absent.
Nonetheless, no brains exhibited the damage typically linked with these plaques or tangles.
“Our observation is that there are two distinct mechanisms enabling someone to become a super ager,” Weintraub stated. “The first is resistance, meaning they do not develop plaque or tangles. The second is resilience; they do form these but do not experience negative brain impacts.”
Super agers displayed not only varying personality traits but also distinct brain structures, particularly in the size and shape of the cortex.
In addition to that, these super agers exhibited youthful brain structures. While older brains generally have thinner cortices compared to younger ones, these individuals did not show such thinning.
In particular, they displayed remarkable thickness in the anterior cingulate cortex, a crucial area involved in processing information related to decision-making, emotions, and motivations.
Moreover, super agers had a greater number of Von Economo neurons, also known as spindle cells, compared to their normally aging peers. These neurons, located in the cortex, play a significant role in social behavior, emotional processing, and self-awareness.
“Our research indicates that exceptional memory in later years is achievable and correlates with a well-defined neurobiological profile,” Weintraub stated. “This paves the way for novel interventions aimed at preserving brain health in older age.”
Researchers expressed hope that their work would encourage cognitive health and unveil new approaches to slow or prevent future neurodegenerative diseases like dementia.
The early human migration through mainland Southeast Asia (SUNDA) marks the oldest evidence of humans crossing marine barriers to access secluded land. Previously, the earliest indication of Wallacea, an area of oceanic islands east of Sunda, comprised flakestone tools found at Wallosea, Flores Island, dating back at least 152 million years. Excavations in Sulawesi, the largest island, have uncovered stone artifacts at Talep’s open site dating to at least 194,000 years ago. Presently, researchers from Griffith University have identified stone tools at locations close to the fossil-rich cario strata that date back at least 104 million years, possibly extending to 1.48 million years. This information hints that Sulawesi was occupied by humans around the same period as Flores.
Old-fashioned humanity. Image credit: Ninara / CC by 2.0.
Professor Adam Blum of Griffith University and his team discovered seven stone artifacts within the sedimentary layers at the Cariosite.
During the early Pleistocene, this area would have been near river channels, facilitating activities such as tool-making and hunting.
The artifacts from Cario are small sharp stones (flakes) created by larger pebbles, likely sourced from local riverbeds by early human inhabitants.
“This findings enhance our understanding of extinct human migrations across the Wallace Line, a transitional area where unique animal species have evolved independently,” said Professor Blum.
Reconstruction of Homo floresiensis. Image credit: Elizabeth Daines.
Utilizing paleomagnetic dating of the sandstone and direct dating of excavated pig fossils, researchers confirmed that the Cario artifacts are at least 1.04 million years old.
Previously, evidence of human habitation in Warasea had been found dating back at least 102 million years in Talep, Sulawesi, based on stone tools located in Warosea, Wolosage, Flores.
Luzon, located in the Philippines and north of Wallacea, has yielded human evidence dating back approximately 700,000 years.
“This is a critical piece of the puzzle, yet the Cario site has yet to reveal any human fossils,” commented Professor Blum.
“We now recognize that a toolmaker existed in Sulawesi a million years ago, but their identity remains unknown.”
Stone artifacts from the site of Cario in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Image credit: Hakim et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09348-6.
The initial discovery of Homo floresiensis and subsequent fossils from Flores, similar in size and dating back 700,000 years, implied that it may have been linked to Homo erectus, which managed to bypass substantial marine barriers between the mainland of Southeast Asia to inhabit this smaller island and underwent island dwarfism for eons.
“The revelation of Sulawesi prompts us to consider the fate of Homo erectus on an island more than 12 times larger than Flores,” Professor Blum noted.
“Sulawesi is an unpredictable variable. It’s almost like a mini continent.”
“If hominins were isolated on this expansive, ecologically diverse island for over a million years, would they have evolved in ways similar to the Hobbits of Flores?”
“Or could there have been an entirely different evolutionary path?”
The study was published yesterday in the journal Nature.
____
B. Hakim et al. Human presence in Sulawesi during the early Pleistocene. Nature Published online on August 7th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09348-6
The White Dwarf represents the compact core that forms when stars exhaust their fuel and collapse. These remnants are the ashes of Earth-sized stars, typically about half the mass of the Sun, composed of carbon-oxygen cores surrounded by layers of helium and hydrogen. Utilizing far-ultraviolet data from the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, astronomers have identified carbon in the atmosphere of the famously large white dwarf WD 0525+526. They also determined that the overall mass of hydrogen and helium in the star’s atmosphere was significantly lower than anticipated based on single-star evolution.
An illustration of a merger with a white dwarf sub-huge star (size without scale) that would have occurred in the past. Image credit: Snehalata Sahu/Warwick University.
WD 0525+526 is located approximately 130 light years away in the constellation Auriga.
With a mass exceeding that of our Sun by 20%, this white dwarf is classified as a super-genocide, and its formation process remains poorly understood.
Typically, such white dwarfs form from the collapse of massive stars. However, Hubble’s UV data indicates that WD 0525+526 has a hydrogen-rich atmosphere originating from its core.
“In optical light, WD 0525+526 appears to be a massive yet typical white dwarf,” remarked Sneharata Saff, an astronomer at the University of Warwick.
“However, the ultraviolet observations from Hubble allowed us to detect faint carbon signatures that optical telescopes could not observe.”
“The presence of a small amount of carbon in the atmosphere suggests that this massive white dwarf is likely the product of a merger between two stars.”
“We also believe that many similar merged remnants may pose as white dwarfs in a predominantly hydrogen atmosphere.”
“Only ultraviolet observations can reveal them to us.”
Typically, hydrogen and helium create dense, barrier-like layers around the white dwarf core, concealing carbon-rich elements.
In a stellar merger, the hydrogen and helium enveloping layers can burn away almost entirely as the stars combine.
The resulting single star possesses a very thin envelope that does not prevent carbon from surfacing, which is precisely what is observed in WD 0525+526.
“We found that the hydrogen and helium layers are around one billion times thinner than those typical of a white dwarf,” noted Antoine Bedard, an astronomer at Warwick University.
“We believe these layers were stripped away during the merger, allowing carbon to manifest on the surface.”
“However, this phenomenon is also unusual, as the carbon present is about 100,000 times less than that found on the surfaces of other merged remnants.”
“Coupled with the star’s elevated temperatures—nearly four times hotter than the Sun—the diminished carbon levels suggest that WD 0525+526 evolves at a much faster pace than previously observed.”
This discovery will aid in understanding the destiny of binary star systems, which are crucial for related phenomena such as supernova explosions.
Alongside the enigma, this significantly hotter star’s carbon migrates to the surface.
Other merged remnants later cool enough for convection to bring carbon to the surface; however, WD 0525+526 remains too hot for this process.
Instead, the author identified a subtle mixing process known as semiconvection, uniquely observed in this White Dwarf.
This mechanism permits small amounts of carbon to gradually ascend into the star’s hydrogen-rich atmosphere.
“Finding conclusive proof of individual white dwarf mergers is rare,” remarked Professor Boris Gensick from Warwick University.
“Yet, ultraviolet spectroscopy enables us to detect these signals early, while carbon remains invisible at optical wavelengths.”
“Because the Earth’s atmosphere filters out UV rays, such observations must be conducted from space—currently, only Hubble is capable of this.”
“As WD 0525+526 continues to evolve and cool, we anticipate more carbon will emerge at the surface over time.”
“For now, this ultraviolet illumination offers rare insights into the early aftermath of stellar mergers.
Survey results are published today in the journal Nature Astronomy.
____
S. Saff et al. The remnants of Hot White Dwarfs revealed by ultraviolet detection of carbon. Nature Astronomy Published online on August 6th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41550-025-02590-y
The crossbreeding of South American tomato plants with potato-like species approximately 8 million years ago resulted in the development of modern potatoes (Sun Chronology). A collaborative team of biologists from China, Canada, Germany, the US, and the UK indicates that this ancient evolutionary milestone led to the emergence of tubers, an expanded underground structure used for storing nutrients in plants like potatoes, yams, and taros.
Interspecies hybridization can drive species radiation by generating various allelic combinations and traits. While all 107 wild relatives of cultivated potatoes and petota lineage share characteristics of subterranean tubers, the exact mechanisms of nodulation and extensive species diversification remain unclear. An analysis of 128 genomes, including 88 haplotype-degraded genomes, indicates that Zhang et al believe Petota is of ancient hybrid origin, revealing stable mixed genome ancestors derived from ethoberosam and tomato strains approximately 8 to 9 million years ago. Image credit: Zhang et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.06.034.
Cultivated potatoes rank as the third most crucial staple crop globally, alongside wheat, rice, and corn, contributing to 80% of human calorie consumption.
In terms of appearance, modern potato plants are similar to three potato-like species found in Chile, known as Etuverosam. However, they do not produce tubers.
Phylogenetic analysis reveals that potato plants are more closely related to tomatoes.
To clarify this discrepancy, Dr. Sanwen Huang, PhD, from the Institute for Agricultural Genomics at Shenzhen, China, along with colleagues, analyzed 450 genomes of cultivated and 56 wild potatoes.
“Our research shows how interspecies hybridization can instigate the emergence of new traits and lead to the formation of more species,” explained Dr. Huang.
“We have finally unraveled the mystery of potato origins.”
“Collecting samples of wild potatoes has been extremely challenging, making this dataset the most comprehensive collection of wild potato genomic data analyzed to date,” noted Dr. Zhiyang Zhang, a researcher at the Institute of Agricultural Genomics at Shenzhen, China Academy of Agricultural Sciences.
The researchers discovered that all potato species contained a stable mix of genetic material from both exo root and tomato plants, indicating that potatoes originated from ancient hybridization between the two.
Although Etuberosam and tomatoes are distinct species, they share a common ancestor from around 14 million years ago.
Even after diverging for about 5 million years, they still managed to interbreed, resulting in the earliest potato plants exhibiting tubers approximately 8-9 million years ago.
The team also traced the origins of key tuber-forming genes in potatoes, which comprise genetic contributions from both parent species.
They identified the gene SP6A, functioning as a master switch indicating when plants should begin tuber formation, originating from the tomato lineage.
Another crucial gene, it1, derived from the Echuberosum lineage, assists in regulating the growth of underground stems that develop into tubers.
Hybrid offspring require both components to produce tubers.
This evolutionary advancement coincided with the rapid uplift of the Andes, a period when new ecological environments emerged.
The ability to store nutrients in tubers enabled early potatoes to adapt quickly to changing conditions and withstand the harsh mountain climate.
Moreover, tubers facilitate a mode of propagation without seeds or pollination, allowing new plants to grow from tuber buds.
This adaptability enabled them to expand swiftly from temperate grasslands to cold alpine pastures across Central and South America, filling various ecological niches.
“The evolution of tubers has provided potatoes with significant advantages in challenging environments, fostering the emergence of new species and contributing to the incredible diversity of potatoes we now depend on,” Dr. Huang concluded.
The study was published in the journal Cell on July 31, 2025.
____
Zhiyang Zhang et al. Ancient hybridization underpins the diversification and radiation of potato lines. Cell Published online on July 31, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.06.034
Most treatments for back pain provide temporary relief
Amenic181/ShutterStock
A brief course of a specific type of psychotherapy has proven to be three times more effective in alleviating chronic low back pain than conventional treatments, even after several years.
Cognitive Function Therapy (CFT) offers individuals a customized program designed to help them comprehend and manage pain via movement and lifestyle adaptations. In a 2023 study, researchers reported significant chronic back pain relief lasting at least a year after just eight sessions.
Recent findings revealed that these sessions continue to provide relief even three years later. CFT leads to three times the improvement in pain and associated disability when compared to the conventional care options patients typically receive, such as pain medications, physical therapy, and massage treatments.
“Our findings suggest that for patients with severe impairments, back pain management can yield long-lasting benefits,” notes Jan Hartvigsen from the University of Southern Denmark.
Back pain is among the leading causes of global disability, and existing treatments often only provide mild, temporary relief. In the 2023 trial, Hartvigsen and his team enlisted 492 participants suffering from chronic low back pain, categorized as experiencing at least four points on a pain scale of 0-10.
Among the participants, one-third continued with their usual care regimen. In contrast, the other two-thirds paused standard care to partake in seven CFT sessions over a final 12-week span, concluding with a 26-week session.
During these sessions, specially trained physical therapists examined each participant’s thoughts regarding their posture, pain, emotions, and lifestyle factors. Their goal was to help participants view their pain in a new light. They focused on modifying exercise habits and control strategies, promoting healthier diets, rest techniques, stress management, and workout plans.
“Individuals living with chronic pain often fear using their bodies,” explains Hartvigsen. “It’s not a mental issue; they require support from someone who can build a strong therapeutic bond with them, as their behaviors, beliefs, and nervous systems are very flexible and conditioned to these pain-related behaviors.”
Half of the participants in the CFT group also received biofeedback, a sensor-based approach that enables real-time monitoring of movement patterns to retrain posture and motion.
After one year, pain intensity and disability levels, measured by the Roland Morris Disability Questionnaire, showed substantial improvements—approximately three to four times greater in the CFT group than in those receiving traditional care. Biofeedback enhanced the effectiveness of CFT marginally.
In a follow-up three years later, the Hartvigsen research team gathered updated evaluations from 312 participants evenly split between treatment groups.
The results indicated that those who underwent CFT experienced nearly three times greater improvement in both pain and disability when contrasted with the standard care group. Furthermore, about three times more individuals in the CFT group recorded lower disability ratings, indicating pain did not severely hinder their functionality.
However, all participants were permitted to pursue additional care after the initial unmonitored year.
Around 56 million years ago, during a period of significant geological warming known as the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), the mesonychid mammal Dissacus Praenuntius exhibited remarkable dietary changes—it began to consume more bones.
Dissacus Praenuntius. Image credit: DIBGD / CC by 4.0.
“I am a doctoral student at Rutgers University in New Brunswick,” stated Andrew Schwartz from the University of New Jersey.
“We are observing a similar trend: rising carbon dioxide levels, increasing temperatures, and the destruction of ecosystems.”
In their study, Schwartz and his team analyzed small pits and marks left on fossilized teeth using a method known as dental microwear texture analysis. The research focused on the extinct mammal Dissacus Praenuntius, part of the Mesonychidae family.
This ancient omnivore weighed between 12 and 20 kg, comparable in size to jackals and coyotes.
Common in the early Cenozoic forests, it likely had a diverse diet that included meat, fruits, and insects.
“They resembled wolves with large heads,” Schwartz remarked.
“Their teeth were similar to those of hyenas, though they lacked small hooves on their toes.”
“Before this phase of warming, Dissacus Praenuntius mainly consumed tough meat, akin to a modern cheetah’s diet.”
“However, during and after this ancient warming period, their teeth showed wear patterns consistent with crushing hard substances like bones.”
“Our findings indicate that their dental microwear is similar to that of lions and hyenas.”
“This suggests they were consuming more brittle food rather than their usual smaller prey, which became scarce.”
This shift in diet occurred alongside a slight decrease in body size, likely a result of food shortages.
“While earlier theories attributed body size reduction solely to rising temperatures, this latest research indicates that food scarcity was a significant factor,” Schwartz explained.
“The rapid global warming of this time lasted around 200,000 years, but the changes it caused were swift and dramatic.”
“Studying periods like this can offer valuable lessons for understanding current and future climatic changes.”
“Examining how animals have adapted and how ecosystems responded can reveal much about what might happen next.”
“The research underscores the importance of dietary flexibility; species that can consume a variety of foods are more likely to endure environmental pressures.”
“In the short term, excelling in a specific area can be beneficial,” Schwartz added.
“However, in the long run, generalists—animals that are adaptable across various niches—are more likely to survive environmental changes.”
This understanding can assist modern conservation biologists in identifying vulnerable species today.
Species with specialized diets, like pandas, may struggle as their habitats diminish, while more adaptable species, such as jackals and raccoons, might thrive.
“We’re already starting to see these trends,” Schwartz noted.
“Previous research has shown that African jackals have begun to consume more bones and insects over time, likely due to habitat loss and climate stress.”
The study also indicated that rapid climate change, reminiscent of historical events, could lead to significant shifts in ecosystems, influencing prey availability and predator behaviors.
This suggests that contemporary climate change could similarly disrupt food webs, pushing species to adapt and face extinction risks.
“Nonetheless, Dissacus Praenuntius was a robust and adaptable species that thrived for about 15 million years before eventually going extinct,” Schwartz said.
Scientists believe this extinction was driven by environmental changes and competition with other species.
The study was published in June 2025 in the journal Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology.
____
Andrew Schwartz et al. 2025. Dietary Changes in Mesonychids During the Eocene Heat Maximum: The Case of Dissacus Praenuntius. Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology 675:113089; doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2025.113089
March 2020 was an awkward period for many. This might explain why Developer, an eight-part sci-fi series by Alex Garland, premiered during a global lockdown and struggled to garner a wide audience; I, too, unfortunately, missed it.
There are various reasons I decided to catch up on it now: Garland’s works had lingered in my mind after enjoying 28 Days Later, and the darkly captivating worlds of Developer felt like a welcome escape from the heatwave. However, mainly, I was curious about how it had aged five years after its debut.
In Developer, Lily Chan (Sonoya Mizuno) works as an engineer for Amaya, a quantum computing firm based in San Francisco. Each day, she collaborates with her boyfriend and colleague Sergei (Karl Glassman), who is involved in Amaya’s AI division. After being invited to join the secretive Devs program, Sergei disappears nearly immediately, leaving Lily convinced that Amaya and the enigmatic Devs project played a role in his vanishing.
Everything in Developer feels cold yet beautiful. The score and sound design are haunting, punctuated by jolts of static and dialogue. The performances reflect this chill, particularly Mizuno’s compelling portrayal of Lily. Meanwhile, Allison Pill shines as Katie, a scientist at Amaya. The company’s campus is an ethereal setting of glass and refined concrete enveloped by pine trees and illuminated by glowing halos, all under the watchful gaze of a towering young girl statue.
The Devs compound feels like entering a Byzantine mosaic, transformed into a secular, three-dimensional space.
Yet, the stunning DEVS compound overshadows everything else; it feels like stepping into a Byzantine mosaic, now rendered secular and three-dimensional. This space serves as a meticulously organized sanctuary for clandestine research, immersed in lavish gold while floating within an electromagnetic field inside a Faraday cage.
The nature of this research prompts a profound shift that delves deep into human impulses, despite the risks of redefining humanity itself. Forest posits that the project is fundamentally tied to all that is valuable. It boldly explores the extent of incredible technological advancements that might arise—or be stunted—due to the personal philosophies of privileged figures like himself.
Watching Developer at its peak feels akin to being enveloped in a soothing sound bath, the slow reverberations drawing you in. At its least inspired, it can seem self-indulgent. Still, it offers an intellectual experience, addressing fascinating concepts such as the multiverse. However, Lily’s pursuit to unravel the truth about Sergei gets sidelined in favor of Amaya’s overarching mysteries, causing the series to spiral into self-importance.
In a twist of life’s quirks (light spoilers ahead), the show’s most insightful theme might revolve around the desire to revisit the past and what we gain or lose along the way. Interestingly, such reflections may prove more compelling than lofty visions about our technological future. I’m glad I finally watched Developer five years post-release; despite some indulgent tendencies, it left me with plenty to appreciate. Even if Forest and his counterparts might not find full success, Developer still resonates deeply with me.
In Garland’s directorial debut, programmer Caleb (Domhnall Gleeson) is tasked by his boss with evaluating whether Ava, an artificial intelligence, possesses true sentience. The film delivers a chilling psychological exploration.
Never Let Me Go Mark Romanek
This adaptation of Kazuo Ishiguro’s novel features a rare boarding school depicted through a haunting lens; it’s flawed yet captivating and definitely worth the watch.
Bethan Ackerley is a sub-editor at New Scientist, with a passion for science fiction, sitcoms, and the eerie. Follow her on Twitter at @inkerley
The Arts and Science of Writing Science Fiction
Dive into the world of science fiction writing this weekend, exploring the art of building new worlds and narratives.
Ancient Greek bronze jars displayed at the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford have been discovered to contain honey.
American Chemical Society
The findings from the ancient Greek pot located at a shrine near Pompeii serve as evidence of the lasting nature of honey jars.
In 1954, a Greek burial shrine dating back to around 520 BC was uncovered in Pestum, Italy, approximately 70 kilometers south of Pompeii.
The shrine contained eight pots with sticky residues, and their contents remained a mystery since their unearthing.
Honey was initially suspected in tests conducted on one of the pots between the 1950s and 1980s by Luciana Carvalho from Oxford University.
Three distinct teams analyzed the residue but concluded that the jars contained animal or vegetable fats mixed with pollen and insect parts, rather than honey.
At that time, researchers depended on significantly less sensitive analytical methods, focusing on solubility tests.
Carvalho and her team started by examining the infrared reflection of the residues to determine their overall composition.
Ancient honey residues from the interior of the pot
Luciana da Costa Carvalho
Initially, it was hypothesized that the contents could be decomposed beeswax due to its outward resemblance and high acidity.
To test this hypothesis, the team employed gas chromatography paired with mass spectrometry, which ultimately unveiled the presence of sugars like glucose and fructose, the primary sugars found in honey.
“We unearthed a remarkably intricate mixture of acids and broken-down sugars,” states Carvalho. “The clear indicator of honey was the detection of sugar at the core of the residue.”
Further examination by Elizabeth Pierce from Oxford University confirmed the presence of a protein called major royal jelly protein, secreted by honeybees, along with the detection of peptide traces from Tropilaelaps Mercedesae, a parasitic mite that consumes bee larvae.
“This parasite is believed to derive from an Asian beehive,” Pierce comments.
Carvalho mentions that the cork seal of the bronze jar eventually failed, allowing air and microorganisms to enter. “We believe these bacteria consumed most of the sugar remnants, leading to the production of additional acids and decomposition products. What was left was an acidic, waxy residue clinging to the walls of the jar.”
“Investigating the honey offerings at the shrines in Paestum elucidates how the people honored their deities and their perceptions regarding the afterlife,” Carvalho explains.
Historic Herculaneum – discover Vesuvius, Pompeii, ancient Naples
The journey through history and archaeology embarks on a fascinating exploration where the past comes alive through Mount Vesuvius and the remains of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
The Central Congo Basin boasts the largest variety of tropical peatlands globally, covering 16.7 million hectares. Previously, radiocarbon dating of ancient peat was confined to just 14 samples, which poorly represented the area, indicating that peat development typically commenced during the Holocene. However, recent findings indicate that peat began forming in multiple locations during the late Pleistocene. The earliest date identified by the author is 42,300 years before present, highlighting that this peatland is one of the oldest in the world, twice as ancient as previously thought.
The swamp of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Image credit: Greta Dargie.
The central Congo Basin, which spans the equator, encompasses 360,000 km.2 This wetland is shared by the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Out of this wetland area, it is estimated that 167,600 km2 have a median thickness of 1.7 m.
These peatlands rank among the most carbon-dense ecosystems worldwide, storing an average of 1712 mg c ha-1 with a total of 29 pg c-1 stored in peat.
Although research into the formation and expansion of this vast carbon reservoir is in its early stages, it includes studies on peat initiation and basin-wide development dynamics.
“These peat marshes serve as crucial global carbon reservoirs, equivalent to three years’ worth of fossil fuel emissions,” said Greta Dargie, a researcher from the University of Leeds.
“We now know that these are the oldest tropical peatlands on Earth.”
The research initiated with the team trekking through the inaccessible peat marshes of Congo, collecting peat samples up to 6 m deep on the forest floor using surgical tools.
Upon returning to the lab, they dated small samples of peat to ascertain when peat formation began at each sampling site.
Over a decade, researchers successfully collected and dated more than 50 cores from throughout the Central Congo Basin, reconstructing the development of the peatlands over time.
Scientists were surprised not only by the great age of these peatlands.
“One of our unexpected discoveries was that some of the older peatlands in central Congo started forming during periods when the region’s climate was considerably drier than today,” stated a researcher.
“The earlier hypothesis suggested that peat began forming in response to a wetter climate at the onset of the Holocene around 12,000 years ago.”
“We now understand that non-climatic factors must have helped saturate the soil enough for peat formation to occur.”
“This raises important questions about how climate change in the 21st century will impact peatland landscapes and the substantial carbon stored within them.”
The Congo Basin peat marshes provide essential resources for local communities, including fish, bushmeat, and building materials.
Due to their remoteness, these swamps also serve as crucial habitats for species such as forest elephants, Nile crocodiles, lowland gorillas, and bonobo chimpanzees.
While Congolese peatlands have largely avoided threats such as deforestation and drainage compared to many tropical regions, the push for improved local livelihoods and extraction of resources like oil can conflict with biodiversity and carbon conservation objectives.
Dr. Pauline Gulliver, a researcher at the University of Glasgow, remarked:
“These peatlands meticulously draw carbon from the atmosphere, safely storing it for at least 40,000 years.”
“The dynamics of peat cannot be understood within a timeframe that aligns with societal expectations.”
“If peatlands are compromised, they could release a significant amount of carbon into the atmosphere, worsening global warming.”
“It’s crucial to manage the carbon within the Congo Basin peatlands carefully to prevent such occurrences.”
Survey results were published in the journal Environmental Survey Letter.
____
Greta C. Dargy et al. 2025. The timing of peat initiation throughout the central Congo Basin. environment. res. Rent 20, 084080; doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ade905
Paleontologists from Argentine Patagonia have unearthed parts of the posterior skull from the previously unknown sauropod dinosaur, Levvatissaurus.
Reconstruction of the life of Astigmasaura genuflexa. Image credit: Mattia Yuri Messina.
The newly identified dinosaurs thrived in what is modern-day Argentina during the late Cretaceous period, around 95 million years ago.
This species has been scientifically named Astigmasaura ungflexa and measured approximately 18 meters (59 feet) in length, weighing over 10 tons.
These ancient giants belong to the Rebbachisauridae, a large family of sauropod dinosaurs within the superfamily Diplodocoidea.
“Rebbachisaurids are medium to large, non-selective, ground-level browsers, characterized by highly specialized skulls, elongated axial elements, and gracile appendicular skeletons.”
“Fossils from Levubatisaurus, spanning the early to late Cretaceous, are particularly diverse within the ancient supercontinent Gondwana, with numerous specimens discovered in North Africa and South America.”
“Notably, Patagonia has produced more than half of all known rebbachisaurids, including the earliest forms and the most recent Rebbachisaurus.”
Fieldwork in the El Orejano region of the Huncul Formation in Patagonia, Argentina. Image credit: Flavio Bellardini.
Fossilized remains of Astigmasaura ungflexa were found in the El Orejano area of the Huncul Formation within the Neuquén Basin in Patagonia, Argentina.
The material type of Astigmasaura ungflexa was described by paleontologists.
This new species represents one of the last Levubatisaurus dinosaurs before it went extinct around 90 million years ago.
“Astigmasaura ungflexa shares a variety of traits with other rebbachisaurids, including anterior caudal vertebrae with tall neural spines and tetrameric nerve layers, an asymmetrical neural arch, a mesolaterally compressed proximal tibia, and medially tilted distal condyles and femurs,” the researchers noted.
“Furthermore, Astigmasaura ungflexa displays a unique combination of diagnostic features that set it apart from all other sauropods.”
“This new finding not only enhances our understanding of the previously unexplored caudal and pelvic girdle anatomy of Rebbachisauridae but also indicates greater taxonomic diversity within the family during the late stages of evolutionary history than previously recognized.”
The team’s paper was published online in the journal Cretaceous Research.
____
Flavio Berardini et al. 2025. Alongside the Titans: a new Levuvacisaur dinosaur from the Huncul Formation (Upper Cenomanian) of Patagonia, Argentina. Cretaceous Research 176:106188; doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2025.106188
Angier (Hugh Jackman) shines in the cinematic adaptation
AJ Photos/Alam
fame Priest Christopher (available in the UK and the US)
fame is perhaps most recognized for Christopher Nolan’s 2006 film adaptation of “The Prestige.” However, the accompanying books have captivated audiences and are often celebrated as literary masterpieces.
I only picked up this book recently, as I initially thought it revolved around stage tricks. Many claim to delight in the magician’s artistry, but I’d rather invest my evening enjoying something else. I was skeptical about reading a book focused on stage magicians from the late 19th century.
However, a conversation with science fiction writer Adam Roberts last year led me to ask him for his favorite sci-fi authors, to which he quickly included Christopher Priest. fame, no matter your stance on stage magic.
This sparked my interest, despite my reluctance towards the flashy white gloves and top hats. Plus, Tor’s republishing of the novel marks 30 years since its initial release, complete with a new introduction by John Clute. (Priest sadly passed away last year.)
Within the story are two distinct but closely related stage tricks and their mechanisms. Our primary protagonist (a loose term) is Magician Alfred Borden, known for his trick named The Transported Man. In essence, it features Borden entering one side of the stage and reappearing in a booth on the opposite end to thunderous applause.
If you appreciate complex and skillfully designed puzzle mysteries, this book is definitely for you.
However, Borden has a rival named Rupert Angier, who becomes obsessed with deciphering Borden’s transportation tricks. Angier then creates his own magical marvel, seemingly appearing instantly from within a blinking machine to another part of the theater.
Now it is Borden who grapples with unraveling the mystery of Angier’s performance, teetering on the edge of madness in his quest to uncover it. This intense rivalry culminates in a generational cycle. Consequently, Borden and Angier share narration duties with their respective descendants.
The novel is genuinely gripping, pulling you in like a magician enthralling an audience. Yet, it’s much more sophisticated than it seems at first glance.
I’ve yet to test this theory, but I believe you can read various sections in almost any order, and it remains engaging and comprehensible. In essence, it’s surprisingly well-constructed.
Concerning genre, it won the World Fantasy Award upon its initial release, but it incorporates elements of science, including real-life figures like inventor Nikola Tesla, and is often classified as science fiction today. The book’s atmosphere has gothic and steampunk influences, with a vintage style fitting for its period.
So if you’re a fan of intricate and beautifully crafted puzzle mysteries, this book is certainly worth your time. It triumphs in both plot and expertly managed suspense. I’m excited to see Nolan’s film adaptation, which is reportedly quite different from the book, but Priest himself praised the film and believed Nolan executed it well.
I would also suggest Emily…
World War HG Wells (various publishers) Given that Christopher Priest served as Vice President of the HG Wells Association, it seems fitting to recommend reading (or re-reading for many) this significant work. Originally published in 1898, it’s astonishingly modern in many ways. It’s a cornerstone of classic science fiction, even before the genre was officially recognized. I recommend it simply because it’s a classic worth revisiting.
Emily H. Wilson is the former editor of the New Scientist and author of the Sumerian trilogy set in ancient Mesopotamia. The final book in the series, Ninshuval, is set for release in August. You can find her online at emilyhwilson.com or follow her on x @emilyhwilson and instagram @emilyhwilson1
New Scientist Book Club
Are you a book lover? Join a welcoming community of fellow readers. Every six weeks, we explore exciting new titles, giving members exclusive access to excerpts, author articles, and video interviews.
Scientists don’t need reminding that hangovers are unpleasant. Excessive alcohol intake can trigger a cascade of headaches, nausea, fatigue, and inflammation.
While the long-term health hazards of alcohol consumption are well-known, it’s surprising that research on hangovers is quite limited.
“When I searched for ‘hangovers’, I found about 600 articles since 1945,” notes Professor J Leigh Leasure, who maintains a database of biomedical and lifestyle research. “It’s astonishing how little has been explored on this topic.”
Leasure, a neuroscientist at the University of Houston studying the effects of alcohol, is among the researchers striving to enhance our understanding of this unclear condition.
As a participant, she has experimented with various hangover remedies—from traditional eggs and bacon to electrolytes, vitamin mixes, and caffeine infusions.
High-Intensity Exercise to Sweat Out Hangovers
Meanwhile, some individuals tackle their hangovers through high-intensity workouts. Whether it’s a run or a spin and kettlebell class, the goal remains the same: to sweat out the “toxins” from the previous night.
“Interestingly, many people swear by sweating it out,” says Leasure.
In 2024, she and her colleagues released their first study examining whether exercise can alleviate hangover symptoms. Published in the journal Addictive Behavior, the research involved approximately 1,600 university students who had experienced at least one hangover in the past three months.
Participants completed a survey regarding their alcohol consumption, activity levels, and the frequency and severity of hangovers.
Some findings were unsurprising: increased drinking correlated with more severe hangovers.
However, the study also revealed that students who engaged in intense exercise during the previous three months reported fewer and less severe hangovers compared to those who were less active.
It’s worth mentioning that this was a retrospective study. The students were not tested in a controlled setting, so the results should be viewed with some caution.
This study suggests that vigorous exercise might generally mitigate the worst hangover effects, rather than alleviating them in the immediate aftermath.
Read more:
Reduced Inflammation from Elevated Endorphins
There’s reason to believe that training after a hangover can be beneficial. Endorphins released by rigorous exercise act as natural painkillers, which could help alleviate headaches.
One study indicates that high-intensity exercise is particularly effective at boosting endorphin production compared to lighter workouts.
Leasure posits that exercise may also have anti-inflammatory properties.
“One prevailing idea is that alcohol, especially in large amounts, elevates short-term inflammation, while exercise tends to counteract this,” she explains.
Research has shown that regular exercise can reduce the likelihood of chronic inflammation. In 2023, Harvard Research identified one mechanism involving the release of regulatory T cells that modulate the body’s inflammatory response.
Earlier studies suggest that moderate exercise for just 20 minutes can trigger an anti-inflammatory response.
However, don’t expect to break personal records on your morning run. While exercise can help with hangovers, the hangover itself can impair performance, says Leasure.
“As one might expect, hangovers don’t improve athletic performance. Research indicates they make physical activity more challenging.”
One significant idea is that alcohol increases inflammation, while exercise has the opposite effect – Illustrated Credit: Jamie Coe
Another unexpected finding emerged from Leasure’s study.
“There is a substantial body of literature examining the connection between exercise and alcohol consumption,” she states. “Physically active individuals tend to drink, which seems somewhat paradoxical.”
One theory from Leasure and her colleagues suggests that people often have a debit and credit mindset regarding health. Engaging in unhealthy habits like drinking might lead some to compensate by pursuing healthier activities, such as an intense workout on a Sunday morning.
As this study continues, the effects on hangovers will become clearer.
About Our Experts
Professor J Leigh Leasure is a neuroscientist and associate professor in the Department of Biology and Biochemistry, focusing on the effects of alcohol at the University of Houston in the United States. She has published in multiple scientific journals including Alcohol, Neuroplasticity, and Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research.
Sporting a shaft-like beak capable of inflicting devastating blows, the infamous terrorist birds have emerged as formidable adversaries for many species.
Around 13 million years ago, however, one such bird may have fallen prey to even larger predators. A group of Colombian paleontologists made this discovery while analyzing bite marks found on fossilized remnants of the fearsome avian.
Their findings were published in the peer-reviewed journal “Biology Letters.” The researchers hypothesized that the bird was killed and consumed by medium-sized caimans, a crocodilian species.
Andres Link, the study’s lead investigator, shared with NBC News via email, “This represents a captivating tale of interaction between two iconic animals from the past. Not only did we identify the first instance of terrorist birds in northern South America, but we also found the tooth marks of the large caiman that likely preyed on it.”
Most unusual fossils of terrorist birds have previously been found in the southern regions of the continent, as noted in this report.
Link, an associate professor in biological sciences at the University of Los Andes, remarked that while tooth marks are “not uncommon” in the fossil record, it is “thrilling” to find proof that apex predators could fall victim to others.
The paper in “Biology Letters” highlights that there were no signs of healing on the tooth marks, indicating a fatal attack.
This leads researchers to conclude that terrorist birds may have been more vulnerable to predation than previously believed.
Julian Bayona Becerra / Biology Letters
To determine the identity of the predator, Link and his team performed scans of the fossils and examined the size, shape, and arrangement of the tooth marks. By comparing these features with alligator-like teeth from the region, they deduced that the marks likely belong to a caiman measuring about 15 feet long.
Link noted that it was challenging to ascertain whether the caiman consumed the terrorist bird after killing it or scavenged the carcass. If the bird was alive during the encounter, it likely happened while it was drinking at the riverbank; alternatively, if it was already deceased, the caiman may have found it near the water.
“This narrative remains incomplete, as we lack further evidence to support either hypothesis,” Link stated.
The discovery calls into question the traditional view of “linear relationships between predators and their herbivore prey,” he remarked, adding, “The food web is considerably more intricate.”
The lower section of the bird’s left leg featured in this research was excavated two decades ago by local paleontologist Cesar Perdomo in the renowned La Venta fossil layer of Colombia.
Solnhofen Archipelago refers to a collection of islands that thrived during the late Jurassic era in present-day Bavaria, Germany.
Life expressions of Sphenodraco scandentis in the ancient environment of the Solnhofen Archipelago. Image credit: Gabriel Ugueto.
The newly identified species Sphenodraco scandentis belongs to the earliest known clade of its sister group (lizards, snakes, and worm lizards), namely Rhynchocephalia.
Currently, this group is epitomized by a solitary extant species, the Tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus), although Rhynchocephalians were once as prevalent as modern lizards.
The fossil specimen of Sphenodraco scandentis is separated into two main slabs, as documented in literature, with previous assignments to Homoeosaurus maximiliani, along with a counterslab containing the majority of its skeletal remains.
These two segments were sold individually to museums in Frankfurt and London nearly a century ago.
“The breakthrough occurred while I was examining fossil reptiles at the Museum of Natural History in London,” remarked PhD candidate Victor Beccali from the Paleontology Museum in Munich.
“I observed a striking resemblance between the fossils in the museum’s collection and those I studied at the Senckenberg Museum of Natural History in Frankfurt.”
“It was revealed that they were not merely similar; they were two halves of the same fossil, likely split in the 1930s for a greater profit.”
Holotype of Sphenodraco scandentis. Left: Main slab featuring bone fragments and skeletal traces. Right: Counterslab showcasing most remains of the skeleton. Image credit: Beccali et al. , doi: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaf073.
According to Beccari and colleagues, comparisons with modern lizards, including the Tuatara, indicate that Sphenodraco scandentis shared elongated limbs, toes, and compact bodies, suggesting these creatures may have inhabited the treetops of Jurassic forests.
“The deeper I delve into the historical study of these animals, the more I realize that species definitions are not always straightforward,” stated Beccali.
“Today’s islands host hundreds of reptilian species, so it’s plausible that ancient islands did too.”
“This research highlights the vital role that museum collections play in enhancing our understanding of ancient biodiversity.”
“Many of these fossils were unearthed nearly two centuries ago, yet they still hold significant insights to offer.”
“The Solnhofen region provides pristine, complete skeletons for many Rhynchocephalians, though their skulls may be crushed or some skeletons remain embedded in rock,” explained Dr. Mark Jones, curator of Fossil Reptiles and Amphibians at the Museum of Natural History in London.
“Until recently, this meant that Solnhofen’s specimens weren’t contributing to our understanding as much as they should have.”
“Utilizing micro-X-ray CT, and in this case, UV imaging, has helped clarify anatomical features.”
“This recent study underscores the necessity of investigating all available samples.”
The study was published on July 2, 2025, in The Linnean Society’s Journal of Zoology.
____
Victor Beccali et al. 2025. The importance of the appendix skeleton for tumors in the tree-bark thoracic cube and scaly pidosaurs from the late Jurassic in Germany. The Linnean Society’s Journal of Zoology 204 (3): ZLAF073; doi: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaf073
A group of paleontologists from Yale University and Stony Brook University made a significant discovery while studying dinosaur fossils, including two bird species found in the Gobi Desert, Mongolia.
This scene illustrates the oviraptorid dinosaur Citipati appearing astonished as it rests on sand dunes. The creature raises its arms in a threat display, exposing its wrists and emphasizing the small, relocated, closed carpal bones (highlighted in blue x-ray). Image credit: Henry S. Sharp.
For years, the identity of a particular carpal bone in the bird’s wrist was a scientific enigma, until researchers determined it functioned as a trap.
This bone, originally resembling a kneecap-like sesame bone, shifted from its original position in the wrist, replacing another carpal bone known as Urna.
Positions in modern birds indicate a link that enables the bird to automatically fold its wings when it bends.
The bone’s large V-shaped notch allows for the alignment of hand bones to prevent dislocation during flight.
Consequently, this bone plays a crucial role in the bird’s forelimb and is integral for flight.
“The carpal bone in modern birds is a rare wrist bone that initially forms within muscle tendons, resembling knee-like bones, but eventually takes the place of the ‘normal’ wrist bones known as Urna,” commented one researcher.
“It is closely associated with the muscle tissue of the arm, linking flying muscle movement to wrist articulation when integrated into the wrist.”
“This integration is particularly vital for wing stabilization during flight.”
In their recent study, Dr. Bhullar and his team analyzed two Late Cretaceous fossils: Troodontid (birds of prey, related to Velociraptor) and citipati cf. osmorusca (an oviraptorid with a long neck and beakless jaw).
“We were fortunate to have two rigorously preserved theropod wrists for this analysis,” said Alex Rubenstal, a paleontologist from Yale University.
“The wrist bones are small and well-preserved, but they tend to shift during decay and preservation, complicating their position for interpretation.”
“Observing this small bone in its correct position enabled me to thoroughly interpret the fossil wrists we had on hand, as well as those from previous studies.”
“James Napoli, a vertebrate paleontologist and evolutionary biologist at Stony Brook University, noted:
“While it’s unclear how many times dinosaurs learned to fly, it’s fascinating that experiments with flight appear only after they adapted to the wrist joint.”
“This adaptation may have established an automated mechanism found in present-day birds, although further research on dinosaur wrist bones is necessary to validate this hypothesis.”
Placing their findings within an evolutionary framework, the authors concluded that it was not merely birds but rather theropod dinosaurs that underwent the confinement of this adaptation by the origin of Penalaptra, a group of theropods that includes Dromaeosaurids and Oviraptorosaurs like Velociraptor.
Overall, this group of dinosaurs exhibited bird-like features, including the emergence of feathered wings, indicating that flight evolved at least twice, if not up to five times.
“The evolutionary replacement of Urna was a gradual process occurring much deeper in history than previously understood,” stated the researchers.
“In recent decades, our understanding of theropod dinosaur anatomy and evolution has expanded significantly, revealing many classical ‘bird-like’ traits such as thin-walled bones, larger brains, and feathers.
“Our findings suggest that avian construction is consistent with a topological pattern traced back to the origin of Penalaptra.”
The team’s paper was published in the journal Nature on July 9, 2025.
____
JG Napoli et al. Theropod wrist reorganization preceded the origins of bird flight. Nature, Published online on July 9, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09232-3
Planetary scientists have identified over 15,000 km of ancient riverbeds in the Noachis Terra region of Mars’ southern highlands, indicating that the planet may have been significantly wetter than previously believed.
This image depicts a flat upper eroded river wavy ridge above Mars, with dunes moving over it. Image credits: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona.
The nature of Mars’ climate during the Noatian-Hesperian transition, which occurred around 3.7 billion years ago, is still being debated. This period saw significant geological and climatic changes, as well as the formation of surface features like valley networks and lakes associated with liquid water.
There are two prevailing theories: the first suggests that a warm and wet environment followed early Mars, allowing liquid water to persist on the surface for an extended time. The second posits that Mars has generally been cold and dry, with flowing water created sporadically by melting ice during brief climate shifts.
In Noachis Terra, climate models predicting “warm and humid” conditions suggest significant precipitation levels.
A recent study led by Open University Ph.D. student Adam Losekoot and his team analyzed the region’s wavy ridges, also known as inverse channels.
“These formations likely resulted from sediments laid down by rivers that solidified, later exposed through the erosion of surrounding materials,” noted the lead researcher.
“Similar ridges have been identified in various Martian terrains.”
“Their presence implies that flowing water once traversed the area, with precipitation being the most probable source,” he added.
The team found that river-wave ridges are widespread throughout Noachis Terra, amounting to over 15,000 km in total length.
While many segments are isolated, some systems extend several hundred kilometers.
“Exploring Mars, particularly less altered regions like Noachis Terra, is thrilling because they have remained relatively unchanged for billions of years,” Losekoot commented.
“It acts as a time capsule that captures fundamental geological processes in ways that are impossible to observe on Earth.”
In their investigation, the researchers utilized data from three orbital devices: the Context Camera (CTX), the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA), and the High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE).
These datasets enabled them to map the locations, lengths, and forms of the ridge systems across various areas.
“Our findings present new evidence indicating that Mars was once a much more dynamic and complex planet than we suppose,” they stated.
“The size and interconnectivity of these ridges suggest that liquid water existed for an extended period, indicating that Noachis Terra experienced warm, wet conditions for a geologically significant time.
“These results challenge the conventional belief that Mars has been predominantly cold and dry, with valleys formed only by sporadic, short-term meltwater from ice sheets.”
The flooding began in Texas before rains hit North Carolina, New Mexico, and Illinois.
In just one week, at least four events classified as 1,000-year rainfalls occurred across the United States, a phenomenon expected to take place only about 0.1% of the time each year.
“It’s rare for these intense rainfall events to occur in any given year,” stated Kristina Dahl, vice president of science at Climate Central.
Some experts noted that this is a significant statistical observation, likely linked to climate change, and may become more frequent.
Last week, heavy rains led to catastrophic flash floods in central Texas, claiming at least 120 lives across six counties. The Guadalupe River near Carville rose over 20 feet within just 90 minutes, causing widespread destruction.
Days later, Tropical Storm Chantal brought heavy rain to North Carolina, with reports of severe flooding in the central region, where some locations received nearly 12 inches of rain within a mere 24 hours. Local officials are still assessing the death toll from the Thursday floods amidst ongoing monitoring.
In New Mexico, three individuals lost their lives on Tuesday due to a devastating flash flood that swept through a remote village in Ruidoso, situated approximately 180 miles south of Albuquerque.
On the same day in Chicago, 5 inches of rain fell in merely 90 minutes around Garfield Park, necessitating multiple rescue operations in the west side of the city.
While experts acknowledge that 1,000-year floods are statistically rare, they also highlight that significant rain events happen every year in the U.S.
“The probability for any specific location is only 0.1% annually, meaning it’s highly unlikely to experience such an event in your area, yet they do occur somewhere in the country each year,” explained Rus Schumacher, director of the Colorado Climate Center at Colorado State University.
He emphasized that climate change is likely to increase the frequency of these extreme flood incidents.
While pinpointing the exact impact of climate change on specific weather events can be challenging, scientists concur that a warmer atmosphere leads to more intense rainfall and severe storms.
“This area demonstrates a strong correlation because the underlying physics is relatively straightforward,” Schumacher noted.
A warmer environment can retain more water, leading to storms that can unleash vast amounts of rain. Research suggests that for every degree Fahrenheit that the planet warms, the atmosphere can hold about 3% to 4% more moisture.
“It’s mathematically certain that as the atmosphere retains more water, it can release more during storms,” stated Dave Gouchs, a hydrologist who directs forecast services for a company based in Mammoth Lake, California, focusing on snow and water resource measurements.
However, terrain also plays a critical role during heavy rainfall events, Gouchs added.
In Texas, the hills and canyons are particularly prone to flash flooding, as the thin soil above the bedrock limits water absorption, according to Gouchs.
In New Mexico, the village of Ruidoso was severely affected by last year’s wildfires, leaving burn scars that exacerbate runoff and heighten the risk of flash floods.
The recent events highlight the devastating consequences of climate change on extreme weather, as well as the urgent need for community protection measures both before and after such incidents, remarked Dahl from Climate Central.
She emphasized that recovery efforts could take years, with ongoing public health implications that may last even longer.
“These events come and go in the news cycle. We move on to the next story before fully grasping the impact,” Dahl pointed out. “For those affected, it’s easy to forget that healing from such events is a prolonged process.”
Paths of interstellar comet 3I/Atlas through the solar system
NASA/JPL-Caltech
The interstellar entities currently traversing our solar system may include one of the oldest comets ever observed.
Comet 3I/Atlas was identified earlier this month near Jupiter’s orbit, moving at approximately 60 km per second and estimated to be about 20 km in size. It is the third recognized interstellar object in our solar system, having passed near Mars in October before entering the solar orbit.
Matthew Hopkins from Oxford University and his team utilized data from the ESA Gaia spacecraft, which cataloged billions of stars in our galaxy, to simulate the comet’s speed and trajectory, revealing its point of origin. It seems to have emerged from an area close to our galaxy, which is about 13 billion years old, specifically from what is referred to as a thick disk.
“Objects from the thicker disk tend to be quicker,” explains Hopkins, noting that the previous two identified interstellar objects (Oumuamua in 2017 and Comet Borisov in 2019) exhibited a decline in speed. “Their velocities aligned with expectations for thin disk objects.”
Modeling by the team indicates that 3I/Atlas may have originated from a star nearly 8 billion years old, potentially twice the age of our sun, hinting at it being one of the oldest comets ever witnessed. “This might be the oldest comet I’ve encountered,” Hopkins states. Interstellar objects are typically ejected early during a star’s lifecycle and are often propelled by interactions with massive planets.
Hopkins mentioned that ancient stars are likely to possess lower metallicity compared to our sun, implying that these comets might have a higher water content. If this hypothesis holds, we may witness significant water activity from the comet as it nears the sun in the upcoming months.
This could be our first interaction with another star, providing insights into pristine materials that have existed for billions of years, unaltered since before Earth’s formation. “I believe many interstellar objects we’ve encountered are our first meetings with stars, even those that are 8 billion years old,” Hopkins asserts. “They have likely traversed vast distances through empty space before approaching us.”
The examination of North West Africa (NWA) 16286 reveals a lunar metstone with a distinctive chemical profile, offering new perspectives on the evolution of the moon’s interior and emphasizing the enduring nature of its volcanic activity.
Backscattered electron images of NWA 16286 samples. Image credit: Joshu Asu Nape/University of Manchester.
Discovered in Africa in 2023, NWA 16286 is one of only 31 moon basalts officially identified on Earth.
The distinct composition of the 311-gram metstone, featuring melted glassy pockets and veins, indicates it was likely impacted by an asteroid or metstone on the lunar surface before being ejected and eventually landing on Earth.
A recent study by researchers at the University of Manchester supports the theory that the moon has maintained internal heat production processes responsible for lunar volcanic activity across various stages.
Lead isotopic analyses suggest that these rock formations are the youngest basalt lunar metstones identified on Earth, dating back approximately 2.35 billion years, a time when lunar samples are scarce.
The sample’s unique geochemical profile distinguishes it from those brought back by previous lunar missions, indicating that its chemical characteristics likely result from lava flows that solidified after ascending from the moon’s depths.
“While the moon rocks returned from sample return missions provide valuable insights, they are limited to the immediate areas around those landing sites,” stated Dr. Joshua Snape from the University of Manchester.
“In contrast, this sample could originate from impact craters located anywhere on the moon’s surface.”
“Thus, there is a unique coincidence with this sample. It fortuitously landed on Earth, unveiling secrets about lunar geology without the need for an extensive space mission.”
The sample contains notably large crystals of olivine and is classified as olivine basalt, characterized by medium titanium levels and high potassium content.
Alongside the atypical age of the samples, researchers found that the lead isotopic composition of the rocks—geochemical signatures preserved when the rocks formed—originates from internal lunar sources with unusually high ratios of uranium and lead.
These chemical markers can assist in identifying the mechanisms behind the moon’s prolonged internal heat production.
“The sample’s age is particularly intriguing as it fills a billion-year gap in the history of lunar volcanism,” Dr. Snape noted.
“It is younger than the basalts collected during the Apollo, Luna, and Chang-E 6 missions, yet significantly older than the more recent rocks retrieved by the Chang-E 5 missions in China.”
“Its age and composition indicate that volcanic activity persisted throughout this entire timeframe, and our analysis suggests a potentially continuous process of heat generation from radioactive elements that generates heat over extended periods.
“Moon rocks are a rarity, making it always exciting to acquire samples that stand out from the norm.”
“This specific rock presents new constraints on the timing and nature of volcanic activity on the moon.”
“We still have much to learn about the lunar geological history. Further analyses to trace surface origins will inform where future sample return missions might be directed.”
Researchers have identified protein sequences within the dense enamel tissues of ancient nasal cavities and materials collected from the Burg and Lopelot sites in the Turkana Basin, Kenya.
The Turkana Basin within the East African lift system preserves fossil communities dating back more than 66 million years. Green et al. Powder samples were collected for paleontological skin analysis from the early Pleistocene back to the Oligocene (29 million years ago) from large herbivores. Image credit: Green et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09040-9.
“Teeth are the rocks in our mouths,” stated Dr. Daniel Green, a researcher at Harvard and Columbia University.
“They represent the most complex structures created by animals; hence, it’s possible to find teeth that are 100 million years old, offering geochemical records of animal life.”
“This includes insights into their diets, hydration, and habitats.”
“Previously, we believed that mature enamel, being the hardest part of teeth, should contain very little protein.”
Yet, by employing a novel proteomic technique known as liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), the researchers uncovered remarkable protein diversity in various biological tissues.
“The method comprises multiple stages where peptides are sorted according to size or chemistry, enabling detailed sequential analysis at unprecedented resolution,” explains Dr. Kevin Uno from Harvard and Columbia University.
“Recent findings indicate that there are dozens, potentially hundreds, of different proteins present in tooth enamel,” remarked Dr. Green.
Recognizing that many proteins exist in modern teeth, researchers pivoted towards studying fossils of nasal mesentery and related materials.
As herbivores, these creatures exhibited large teeth to crush their plant-based diets.
“These mammals could have enamels measuring 2-3 millimeters in thickness, providing ample material for investigation,” Dr. Green noted.
“Our discovery — peptide fragments and amino acid chains representing proteins spanning around 18 million years — stands to transform the field.”
“No one has previously identified peptide fragments of such antiquity.”
The oldest published findings to date date back around 3.5 million years.
“The newly identified peptides encompass a diverse array of proteins, representing what is known as the proteome,” Dr. Green remarked.
“One reason we are thrilled about these ancient teeth is that we lack a complete proteome for all proteins that could potentially be extracted from the bodies of these extinct elephants and rhinos, yet we can identify distinct groups.”
“Such collections could yield more information from these groups than from a single protein alone.”
“This research opens a new chapter for paleontology, enabling scientists to reconstruct the molecular and physiological traits of extinct species, moving beyond just bones and morphology,” stated Dr. Emmanuel Nudiemma, a researcher at the National Museum of Kenya.
“These peptide fragments can be utilized to delve into the relationships among ancient animals, much like contemporary methods that map human DNA relations.”
“Though a few animals analyzed in studies are completely extinct without living descendants, in theory, proteins could be extracted from their teeth and added to a phylogenetic tree,” Dr. Green elaborated.
“This information may clarify long-standing debates among paleontologists concerning the relationships among various mammalian lineages, utilizing molecular evidence.”
Survey results Today, I will be featured in the journal Nature.
____
Dr. Green et al. Diverse enamel proteomes from rifts of East Africa over 108 million years. Nature Published online on July 9, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09040-9
Protein fragments survived in the extreme environment of Rift Valley, Kenya
Ellen Miller
In Kenya, fossilized teeth from an 18 million-year-old mammal yielded the oldest protein fragment ever discovered, extending the age record for ancient proteins by fivefold.
Daniel Green at Harvard, alongside Kenyan scientists, unearthed diverse fossil specimens, including teeth, in Kenya’s Rift Valley. Volcanic activity facilitated the preservation of these samples by encasing them in ash layers, enabling the age dating of the teeth to 18 million years. Nonetheless, it remained uncertain whether the protein in the tooth enamel endured.
The circumstances were not promising—Rift Valley is “one of the hottest places on Earth for the past 5 million years,” Green observes. This extreme environment presents “significant challenges.” Despite this, earlier research has detected tooth enamel proteins, albeit not from such ancient samples. To assess the longevity of protein traces, Green employed a small drill to extract powdered enamel from the teeth.
These samples were sent to Timothy Creland at the Smithsonian Museum Conservation Institute for analysis. He utilized mass spectrometry to categorize each molecular type in the sample by differentiating them by mass.
To his surprise, Creland uncovered sufficient protein fragments to yield significant classification insights. This identified the teeth as belonging to the ancient ancestors of elephants and rhinos, among other evidence. Creland expresses enthusiasm for demonstrating that “even these ancient species can be integrated into the Tree of Life alongside their modern relatives.”
While only a small amount of protein was recovered, the discovery remains monumental, asserts Frido Welker from the University of Copenhagen, Denmark. He emphasizes that growing protein and gaining insights into this ancient fossil is a “tremendous breakthrough.”
Unlike other tissues such as bone, sampling teeth is crucial for uncovering fragments of ancient and valuable proteins like these. “The sequence of enamel proteins varies slightly,” notes Creland.
The dental structure may have played a role in preserving proteins for such an extended period. As teeth are “primarily mineral,” these minerals assist in protecting enamel proteins through what Cleland describes as “self-chemical processes.” Furthermore, the enamel comprises only a small fraction of protein, aiding in its preservation, roughly 1%. “Whatever protein is present, it’s going to persist much longer,” Green asserts.
The endurance of protein fragments in Rift Valley suggests that fossils from other locales may also contain proteins. “We can genuinely begin considering other challenging regions of the planet, where we might not expect significant preservation,” Cleland comments. “Microenvironmental discrepancies may promote protein conservation.”
Beyond studying proteins from these specific periods, researchers aim to explore samples from various epochs. “We’re looking to delve deeper into history,” Cleland mentions. Green adds that analyzing younger fossils could offer a “baseline of expectation” for the number of conserved protein fragments compared to those from ancient specimens.
“We’re only beginning to scratch the surface,” Cleland concludes.
Ancient humans adapted to deeper forests as they journeyed from Africa, moving away from the savanna.
Lionel Bret/Eurelios/Science Photo Library
This is an excerpt from our human stories, a newsletter covering the archaeological revolution. Subscribe and receive updates in your inbox every month.
Our human origins trace back to Africa. While this has not always been clear, it is now widely accepted.
This truth can be understood in two ways. The earliest known species closely related to us emerged from Africa, dating back 7 million years. Additionally, the oldest representatives of our own species, Homo sapiens, also originated from Africa.
Here, I will focus on the narrative of modern humans originating in Africa and their subsequent migrations across the globe. The introduction of DNA sequencing technology in the latter half of the 20th century enabled comparisons between different populations. This research demonstrated that African populations exhibit the greatest genetic diversity, while non-Africans show relative genetic similarity (despite visible differences such as skin color).
This genetic distinction serves as a telling indicator. It suggests that Africa was our birthplace with a diverse population, from which all non-Africans descended from a smaller subset that left this ancestral home to settle elsewhere. Geneticists affirmed this idea as early as 1995, and further evidence has since supported this claim.
However, there is a discrepancy between archaeological evidence and genetic findings.
Genetics indicates that all living non-Africans are descendants of a small group that left Africa around 50,000 years ago. Aside from minor uncertainties about the exact timeline, this conclusion has remained consistent for two decades. Conversely, archaeologists highlight numerous instances of modern humans existing outside Africa long before this timeline.
In Greece, a modern human skull found in the Apidima Caves dates back 210,000 years. The jawbone from Misliya Cave in Israel has been dated to at least 177,000 years. Additionally, there are several debated sites in China that may contain remains of modern humans. “Moreover, there’s an ongoing discussion on the earliest inhabitants of Australia,” says Eleanor Scerri from the Max Planck Institute for Geoanthropology in Germany, with some proposing human presence as early as 65,000 years ago.
What is the explanation for this disparity? Has our extensive genetic data misled us? Or is it true that we all share a common ancestry tied to a significant migration event, while older remains represent populations that did not survive?
Scerri and her team sought to understand this conundrum.
African Environment
The researchers debated the habitats of modern humans in Africa. “Did they simply migrate across diverse African grasslands, or were they adapting to vastly different environments?” asks Scerri.
To address this question, they needed extensive data.
“We began by analyzing all archaeological sites in Africa dating back 120,000 to 14,000 years ago,” explains Emily Yuko Hallett from Loyola University in Chicago. The team constructed a database identifying the climate at various locations and times.
A significant shift was observed around 70,000 years ago. “Simply examining the data without complicated modeling shows this climatic change,” notes Andrea Manica from the University of Cambridge. The range of temperatures and rainfall suitable for human habitation had notably expanded, leading people to venture into deeper forests and arid deserts.
However, mere observation is insufficient; the archaeological record is inherently incomplete and often biased.
“In certain regions, no archaeological sites exist,” remarks Michela Leonardi from the Natural History Museum in London. This absence might not reflect a lack of human occupancy, but rather the lack of preservation. “In more recent periods, preservation is easier due to the increased data availability,” she adds.
Leonardi devised a statistical modeling technique to determine if an animal shifted its environmental range. Could humans have transitioned from grasslands to diverse habitats, such as tropical rainforests? The team initially thought this modeling would take two weeks, but it took five and a half years.
Ultimately, the statistics affirmed their initial observation: around 70,000 years ago, modern humans began occupying a broader range of environments. The findings were published on June 18th here.
Jack of All Trades
“At 70,000 years ago, our species appears to have transformed into the ultimate generalist,” states Manica. From this period onwards, modern humans adapted to a variety of complex habitats.
This could be misinterpreted. The team did not imply that prior to H. sapiens people were incapable of adaptation. In fact, studies of extinct human species highlight that adaptability has increased over time.
“Humans were inhabiting environments vastly different from the early stages,” observes Scerri. “We’ve found evidence of habitation in mangrove forests, rainforests, desert edges, and highlands like those in Ethiopia.”
It appears that this adaptability is what allowed Homo sapiens to thrive during environmental changes in Africa, while other species like Paranthropus did not; they remained too rigid in their lifestyle to adapt.
What likely transpired in our species 70,000 years ago is that existing adaptability became pronounced.
Some of this understanding only becomes clear when considering the diverse habitats humans occupied. “One might think of deserts and rainforests in rigid terms, but there are actually numerous variations,” explains Scerri. “There are lowland rainforests, montane forests, marshes, and periodically flooded woodlands.” The same diversity applies even within desert environments.
Before, H. sapiens “did not exploit the full range of potential habitats,” states Scerri. “But around 70,000 years ago, we see the beginning of this expansion into more types of forests and rainforests.”
This narrative intrigued me, as I had been contemplating an opposite idea.
Great Quarantine
Last week, I authored a piece about the extinction of local human groups: it appears that some H. sapiens populations vanished without a trace in modern genetics. After departing from Africa, they faced challenges in harsh environments, eventually succumbing during encounters with the first modern humans in Europe. These lost groups fascinated me. Why did they fail while others that entered Europe thousands of years later found much success?
The discovery that African groups expanded their environmental niches 70,000 years ago provides a partial explanation. If these later migrations involved more adaptable populations, they may have been better equipped to face the unfamiliar environments of Northern Europe—and subsequently Southeast Asia, Australia, and the Americas where their descendants would eventually journey.
A crucial point: this does not suggest that all populations 70,000 years ago thrived. “Not all humans instantly turned into successful populations,” Scerri explains. “Many of these groups disappeared, both inside and outside of Africa.”
Moreover, as with any significant discovery, this study introduces as many questions as it resolves. Specifically: what triggered modern humans to become more adaptable around 70,000 years ago?
Manica notes that skeletal morphology supports this idea. Ancient fossils classified as H. sapiens today exhibit only some of the traits we typically associate with modern humans. “Starting around 70,000 years ago, we broadly witnessed the emergence of many of these characteristics as a collective,” he asserts.
Manica posits that moving into new environments may have facilitated increased interaction between previously isolated populations. For instance, if two groups were separated by desert, they wouldn’t encounter or exchange ideas or genetic material until they learned to adapt to desert conditions.
“There may also be positive feedback,” suggests Manica. “With increased connectivity comes greater flexibility… breaking down barriers and fostering further interaction.”
To conclude, in a story about these lost populations, I mentioned that one of the greatest challenges for human groups was isolation. Without neighbors, a small group can face extinction due to minor setbacks. If Manica is correct, the opposite trend unfolded in Africa. Populations expanded and became increasingly connected, leading to a surge of creativity that allowed our species to spread across the globe.
In this light, the success of the last migration out of Africa could be attributed to the need for community. Without others, we may be vulnerable and at risk of failing. The notion of preparing for an apocalypse alone in isolation may be fundamentally flawed.
Archaeologists have discovered a collection of 35 wooden tools, including drilling sticks and pointed hand tools, at an early Paleolithic site in Gantanquin, southwestern China. These findings indicate that the humans who utilized these tools focused on creating implements for excavation and processing rather than for hunting purposes.
Wooden tools found on the Gangtankin property in China. Image credit: Liu et al. , doi: 10.1126/science.adr8540.
While early humans have crafted wood tools for more than a million years, such artifacts are exceedingly rare in archaeological records, particularly from the early to mid-Pleistocene epochs.
The majority of ancient wooden tools have been uncovered in Africa and Western Eurasia, with notable specimens like spears and throwing rods found in Germany and the UK, alongside structural elements from Zambia and wooden plaques and excavation rods from sites in Israel and Italy.
For years, the Bamboo hypothesis has suggested that early East Asian populations largely depended on bamboo for toolmaking, though there is limited archaeological evidence supporting organic material-based tools in this region.
In a recent study led by Dr. Jian-Hui Liu and colleagues from the Yunnan Cultural Relics and Archaeology Institute, a diverse array of artifacts from the Gantangqing site was analyzed.
Among these were 35 wooden artifacts displaying clear signs of intentional shaping and use, along with indications of wear, suggesting they were deliberately crafted by humans.
These tools, made from pine, included probable hook-like implements used for cutting plant roots, varying from large, double-handed excavation sticks to smaller portable tools.
“In comparison to other prominent prehistoric wooden tool sites in Europe, Gantankin is characterized by a variety of medium-sized hunting equipment as well as a broader scope of handheld tools primarily designed for excavating and processing plants,” the researchers noted.
“The sophistication of these wooden tools emphasizes the significance of organic artifacts in understanding early human behavior, especially in contexts where only stone tools might suggest a more ‘primitive’ technological landscape.”
A study detailing these findings was published today in the journal Science.
____
Jian-Hui Liu et al. 2025. Wooden tools from Gantankin in southwestern China, dating back 300,000 years. Science 389 (6755): 78-83; doi: 10.1126/science.adr8540
Paleontologists have adopted a cutting-edge digital fossil mining technique to examine over 250 fossil beaks from 40 ancient squid species. The findings indicate that there is no prolonged slow-moving change associated with the slower parietal layer, previously linked to the mass extinction event of late white matter around 66 million years ago. Early squid species had already established large populations, surpassing the biomass of both ammonites and fish. They evolved into intelligent and agile swimmers, contributing to modern marine ecosystems.
This lithograph features Loligo Forbesii, a squid species from the order Myopsida. Image credit: Comingio Mercuriano.
Squid are recognized as the most diverse and widely distributed group of marine cephalopods in today’s oceans, serving a crucial role in marine ecosystems as both predators and prey.
Their evolutionary success is generally attributed to the loss of a rigid external shell, a significant characteristic of their parietal ancestors.
Yet, their evolutionary beginnings remain unclear due to the scarcity of fossils from soft-bodied organisms.
The fossil record for squid dates back around 45 million years, with most specimens discovered consisting of fossilized statoris, or small calcium carbonites that assist in balance.
The early absence of such fossils has led to hypotheses that squid diversified following the mass extinctions during the Cretaceous period, approximately 66 million years ago.
Molecular studies of living squid species provide estimates regarding their divergence times; however, these estimates have become increasingly uncertain because of the dearth of prior fossil evidence.
In this recent study, Shin Ikegami, a paleontologist from Hokkaido University, and colleagues addressed these deficiencies using high-resolution grinding tomography and advanced image processing to digitally scan rocks as layered cross-sectional images, effectively revealing hidden 3D models.
This method was applied to Cretaceous carbonate rocks in Japan, resulting in the discovery of 263 fossilized squid beaks from 40 species across 23 genera and five families.
Results indicate that squid emerged around the boundaries of the early and late Cretaceous, roughly 100 million years ago, followed by a rapid diversification.
The authors assert that this newly uncovered fossil record significantly extends the documented origins of the two main squid groups: oegopsida extending back about 15 million years and myopsida extending as far back as 55 million years.
Early oegopsids showcased unique anatomical features that later species lacked, hinting at rapid morphological evolution, whereas Myopsids already displayed modern characteristics.
This study further indicates that late Cretaceous squids were more populous and often larger than their contemporaneous ammonite and bony fish counterparts. This ecological dominance might have triggered the radiation of bony fish and marine mammals roughly 30 million years ago, establishing squid as the first intelligent and agile swimmers that shaped modern marine ecosystems.
“In terms of population and size, these ancient squids were evidently proliferating across the oceans,” stated Dr. Ikenakamoto.
“Their body size rivaled that of fish, often even surpassing the ammonites found alongside them.”
“This demonstrates that squid thrived as the most abundant swimmers in the ancient seas.”
“These discoveries revolutionize our understanding of marine ecosystems in the past,” remarked Dr. Yasuhiro Iba from Hokkaido University.
“Squids were likely the pioneers of fast, intelligent swimmers that dominated the modern ocean.”
Shin Ikegami et al. 2025. The origin and radiation of squid revealed by digital fossil mining. Science E 388 (6754): 1406-1409; doi: 10.1126/science.adu6248
Paleontologists have unearthed a new species of large passerine birds based on fossilized remains from the Bannockburn Formation near St. Bathans in Otago, New Zealand.
Australian Magpie (Gymnorhina Tibicen), adults and juveniles, in Tabeumi, Fiji. Image credits: Charles J. Sharp, https://www.sharpphotography.co.uk / CC by-sa 4.0.
The newly identified bird inhabited New Zealand during the early Miocene period around 19 million years ago.
It has been named St. Batan’s Caloun (MioStrepera Canora), closely related to the Australian Magpie (Gymnorhina Tibicen) found in New Zealand today, likely exhibiting an entirely black plumage.
“We’ve experienced a lot of excitement and hard work,” shared Dr. Paul Scofield, senior curator at the Canterbury Museum.
“We probably haven’t encountered a member of this large magpie family for just five million years.”
“New Zealand’s ecosystem has undergone significant transformations over millions of years, welcoming diverse species throughout various eras,” noted Dr. Trevor Worthy, a researcher at Flinders University.
“There’s a notion that we should strive to restore New Zealand to its pre-European ecosystem.”
“However, that ecosystem had been in a constant state of flux for millions of years.”
“By the time humans arrived, Aotearoa had already lost much of the floral diversity that once thrived.”
“There were limited tree seeds available, but the decline of the choloun and other pigeons indicates this loss.”
“Different plant and animal groups emerged between 2.6 million and 11,700 years ago.”
“Even more have come since humans began to inhabit the land.”
“New Zealand’s pre-European ecosystem isn’t inherently better or worse than any other period in the past.”
“The fossil record hints at the absence of a utopian state and encourages us to celebrate the diversity present today.”
The fossilized remains of MioStrepera Canora were found at the St Bathans fossil site, which was once located at the bottom of a vast prehistoric lake.
“The research revealed that the Miocene bird population in New Zealand bears surprising similarities to contemporary Australian birds,” Dr. Scofield mentioned.
“New Zealand was vastly different during the Miocene, between 200,000 to 5 million years ago.”
“If you walked through New Zealand’s forests during that time, you would have seen abundant eucalyptus, laurel, and casuarinas, much like the forests of Australia today.”
“The most significant factor shaping New Zealand’s current landscape was the extinction of many plants and animals that thrived in warmer climates, following a rapid cooling that began around 13 million years ago.”
“It was likely not the only bird call you would have heard in ancient New Zealand.”
The discovery of MioStrepera Canora is detailed in a paper published in the journal Palz.
____
Worth it et al. A large-scale clastatin passerine (Aves, Artamidae, Cracticinae) from the early Miocene of New Zealand. Palz published on June 25th, 2025. doi:10.1007/s12542-025-00736-x
Paleontologists have studied the body shapes of Ediacaran Cambrian organisms by utilizing trace fossils as a stand-in for body fossils.
Reconstruction of early Cambrian marine life in southern China. Image credit: Dongjing Fu.
The Cambrian explosion is often referred to as a pivotal period in Earth’s history when distinct animal body plans emerged.
Most researchers indicate that this event took place between 541 and 530 million years ago, marking the onset of the Cambrian period.
“The Cambrian explosion represents a significant era in the history of life that poses numerous unresolved questions,” stated Dr. Olmo Miguez Saras from the University of Barcelona at the Museum of Natural History in London, alongside Dr. Zekun Wang.
“In investigating biodiversity during this period, paleontological studies primarily concentrate on organisms with hard structures.”
“Nevertheless, microfossil investigations open avenues for understanding the activities of hard, soft-bodied, or skeletal-deficient organisms preserved in stratigraphic records.”
“The microfossil evidence is essential for shedding light on the evolutionary phases dominated by soft-bodied faunas.”
“Fossil traces mirror the behaviors of habitat-forming organisms, determined by their environment and reactions to ecological factors.”
“Consequently, these traces act as indicators of the paleoecological conditions experienced by the organisms that produced them.”
In their research, the authors concentrated on trace fossils from the Ediacaran-Cambrian transition, a period of great paleobiological interest that represents a pivotal moment in the evolution of complex life on Earth.
This transition experienced substantial shifts in biodiversity as well as the structure of organisms and ecosystems.
“The Ediacaran fauna consisted mainly of complex, multicellular, flexible organisms,” noted Dr. Miguez Saras.
“The shift to the Cambrian era involved numerous extinctions within the Ediacaran fauna, accompanied by a rapid diversification of complex multicellular organisms possessing hard structures (e.g., exoskeletons).”
“This encapsulates the core of evolutionary development that led to the emergence of the most modern animal phyla, commonly referred to as the Cambrian Explosion.”
The research indicates that slender-bodied organisms thrived around 545 million years ago during the Ediacaran period.
“These organisms likely possessed a coelomic hydrostatic body with an anteroposterior axis, muscles, and perhaps segmented structures,” Dr. Miguez Saras explained.
“Additionally, these organisms may have exhibited directional movement and possessed sensory capabilities to navigate and feed on diverse substrates in environments dominated by microbial mats.”
“Thus, the so-called Cambrian explosion and its evolutionary significance could have arisen significantly earlier than previously thought.”
“These adaptations in body shape and mobility facilitated early animals in thriving within increasingly dynamic and complex environments, an ecological engineering process that could spur evolutionary innovation.”
The team’s study is slated for publication in the journal Geological.
____
Zekun Wang & Olmo Miguez-Salas. Quantitative decoding of Ediacaran Motion Microfossil Morphology: Evidence for the appearance of elongated anteroposterior body profiles. Geological Published online on June 9th, 2025. doi: 10.1130/g53332.1
The identification of human footprints in White Sands, New Mexico, estimated to be between 21,000 and 23,000 years old, was a significant advancement in our comprehension of the earliest inhabitants of the Americas. However, this research faced scrutiny concerning the dependability of radiocarbon dating materials, such as common aquatic plant seeds Rupiah Silhosa and coniferous pollen grains. A recent study, spearheaded by University of Arizona researcher Vance Holiday, indicates that the ancient mud from Perelora ceotero, the third material utilized for dating the footprints, dates back to approximately 20,700 to 22,400 years ago.
Ancient human footprints found in White Sands National Park, New Mexico, USA. Image credit: Bennett et al. , doi: 10.1126/science.abg7586.
Historically, scientists believed that humans entered North America roughly 16,000 to 13,000 years ago.
However, the footprints found at White Sands indicate that human presence in the area dates back to between 23,000 and 21,000 years ago. This timeline offers insights into the development of culture in North America.
The remnants of 10,000-year-old prints, uncovered nearly a century ago at a site near Clovis, New Mexico, led to a classification of artifacts long considered to represent the earliest known cultures in North America.
Critics have challenged two prior studies over the last four years, asserting that ancient species and pollen in the soil used for dating the footprints are unreliable indicators.
“The record is consistently strong, and it’s challenging to explain it all,” Dr. Holiday stated.
“As I mention in my publication, it would be an extraordinary coincidence for all these dates to be inaccurate.”
Thousands of years prior, the white sands formed from a series of lakes that eventually dried up.
Wind erosion created layers of plaster on the sand dunes that now characterize the region.
The footprints were excavated from stream beds that once fed into this ancient lake.
“Wind erosion has erased part of the narrative, leaving that segment lost. The remainder is buried beneath the world’s largest accumulation of plaster sand,” Dr. Holiday remarked.
For their latest research, Dr. Holiday and his team returned to White Sands in 2022 and 2023, excavating new trenches to gain deeper insights into the lakebed’s geology.
“We’ve put in considerable effort to explore this area,” stated Jason Windingstad, a doctoral candidate at the University of Arizona.
“You essentially find yourself questioning everything taught about North American populations.”
The authors recognize that their research hasn’t addressed lingering questions posed by critics since 2021: Why are there no artifacts or settlements left by the individuals who made the footprints?
“This is a valid inquiry. Some footprints discovered during the 2021 survey belong to a trackway that was created in mere seconds,” they explained.
“It is entirely plausible that hunter-gatherers would act with caution to avoid leaving resources in such a brief timeframe.”
“These individuals were aware of their resources and were distanced from their replacements.”
“They wouldn’t abandon artifacts casually. It doesn’t make sense for you to be viewing a debris field.”
The team’s recent findings will be published in the journal Advances in Science.
____
Vance T. Holliday et al. 2025. Perelorace Geochronology supports the last Glacier Max (LGM) age of human tracks in White Sands, New Mexico. Advances in Science 11 (25); doi:10.1126/sciadv.adv4951
The discovery of Litoria Tylerantiqua indicates that Australian tree frogs (Perodrius) were already present in Australia when the continent was still attached to Antarctica and South America.
Artist Reconstruction of Litoria Tylerantiqua (right) alongside the previously described species Platyplectrum casca (left) from Margon in southeast Queensland. Image: Samantha Yabsley, https://www.instagram.com/shy_art.
Litoria Tylerantiqua lived in Australia during the early Eocene period, approximately 55 million years ago.
The fossilized frog bones were retrieved in the 1990s by paleontologists at the University of New South Wales while screenwashing clay samples from the Tingamara fossil frog site in Margon, Queensland.
“About 55 million years ago, Australia, Antarctica, and South America were connected as the last remnants of Gondwana,” stated Dr. Roy Furman and his colleagues at the University of New South Wales and the Australian National University.
“During this era, the global climate was warmer, facilitating forested corridors linking South America and Australia.”
“Previously, Australia’s oldest tree frogs were believed to have originated from the late Illuminocene (around 26 million years ago) and the early Miocene (approximately 23 million years ago).”
“Fossils from the late Illuminocene have been discovered in the Northern Territory’s kangaroo wells and the Etadunna formation in Lake Palancarina, South Australia. Furthermore, the Riversley World Heritage Area in Queensland unveiled an early Miocene tree frog.”
“This new species extends the fossil record of Perodrids by roughly 30 million years, bringing it closer to the timeframe when Australian tree frogs diverged from their South American counterparts,” they noted.
“Previous estimates based on molecular clock analyses suggest that Australian and South American frogs diverged approximately 33 million years ago.”
Litoria Tylerantiqua is the only other known frog from Margon, also identified as Platyplectrum casca (previously categorized as Lechriodus Casca), recognized as the oldest frog species in Australia.
Both have existing relatives in Australia and New Guinea, showcasing incredible resilience over time.
“Despite their fragile nature, these frogs have surprisingly thrived, surviving numerous major extinction events since their origin around 250 million years ago.”
“Current global extinction threats, fueled by human activities like rapid climate change and the proliferation of pathogenic bacteria, pose significant challenges for frogs. The fossil record reveals how certain frog groups have navigated past adversities, potentially by adapting to less-threatened habitats.”
“This insight might guide future conservation efforts, such as relocating endangered frogs to safer environments.”
“If fossil records show similarly structured frogs occupying very different habitats, today’s frogs could potentially benefit from reintroductions into comparable environments.”
The findings are detailed in a study published in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
____
Roy M. Furman et al. New fossil discoveries for early Eocene perodrids from local faunas of Southeast Queensland, Margon, Tingamara, and frog molecular lineages. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology published online on May 14, 2025. doi:10.1080/02724634.2025.2477815
Sure! Here’s a rewritten version of your content while retaining the HTML tags:
The peak of sunshine has officially arrived in the Northern Hemisphere with the Summer Solstice.
This Friday marks the longest day north of the equator, ushering in the joy of astronomical summer. In contrast, the Southern Hemisphere experiences its shortest day and the onset of winter.
The term “bliss” derives from the Latin “sol,” meaning sun, and “stitium,” which translates to “stop.” This term encapsulates the sun’s annual journey, tracing its longest and most radiant arc in the sky. Unfortunately for sun enthusiasts, the days will gradually shorten until late December as the sun begins its retreat.
The solstice has been celebrated for centuries, with various traditions and monuments, such as Stonehenge, built to align with the solar path during this event. But what exactly occurs in the heavens? Here’s what you need to understand about Earth’s orbit.
Bliss signifies the extremes of day and night
As the Earth orbits the Sun, it tilts at an angle, causing uneven distribution of sunlight and warmth between the northern and southern hemispheres throughout the year.
The solstice represents a time when this tilt is most pronounced, leading to the greatest disparity between day and night.
During the Northern Hemisphere’s summer solstice, the upper half tilts toward the sun, resulting in the longest day and the shortest nights of the year, occurring between June 20th and 22nd.
In contrast, during the winter solstice, which transpires between December 20th and 23rd, the Northern Hemisphere turns away from the sun.
The equinox: a balance of day and night
The equinox occurs when the Earth’s axis and orbit align, granting both hemispheres an equal amount of sunlight.
The word equinox is derived from Latin, meaning equal and night, as it denotes the time when day and night are nearly identical in duration.
Spring in the Northern Hemisphere, or Vernal Equinox, can occur between March 19th and 21st, while the Autumnal Equinox can fall between September 21st and 24th.
At the equator, the sun is directly overhead at noon during the equinox, which is the only time when both the Arctic and Antarctic receive sunlight simultaneously.
Differentiating between weather and astronomical seasons
These represent two distinct interpretations of the year.
Astronomical seasons are based on Earth’s orbit around the Sun, while weather seasons are categorized by prevailing weather conditions. The latter divides the year into three-month periods based on temperature cycles, leading to spring starting on March 1st, summer on June 1st, followed by autumn on September 1st and winter on December 1st.
Let me know if you need any further modifications!
This website uses cookies so that we can provide you with the best user experience possible. Cookie information is stored in your browser and performs functions such as recognising you when you return to our website and helping our team to understand which sections of the website you find most interesting and useful.
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Strictly Necessary Cookie should be enabled at all times so that we can save your preferences for cookie settings.
