The crossbreeding of South American tomato plants with potato-like species approximately 8 million years ago resulted in the development of modern potatoes (Sun Chronology). A collaborative team of biologists from China, Canada, Germany, the US, and the UK indicates that this ancient evolutionary milestone led to the emergence of tubers, an expanded underground structure used for storing nutrients in plants like potatoes, yams, and taros.
Interspecies hybridization can drive species radiation by generating various allelic combinations and traits. While all 107 wild relatives of cultivated potatoes and petota lineage share characteristics of subterranean tubers, the exact mechanisms of nodulation and extensive species diversification remain unclear. An analysis of 128 genomes, including 88 haplotype-degraded genomes, indicates that Zhang et al believe Petota is of ancient hybrid origin, revealing stable mixed genome ancestors derived from ethoberosam and tomato strains approximately 8 to 9 million years ago. Image credit: Zhang et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.06.034.
Cultivated potatoes rank as the third most crucial staple crop globally, alongside wheat, rice, and corn, contributing to 80% of human calorie consumption.
In terms of appearance, modern potato plants are similar to three potato-like species found in Chile, known as Etuverosam. However, they do not produce tubers.
Phylogenetic analysis reveals that potato plants are more closely related to tomatoes.
To clarify this discrepancy, Dr. Sanwen Huang, PhD, from the Institute for Agricultural Genomics at Shenzhen, China, along with colleagues, analyzed 450 genomes of cultivated and 56 wild potatoes.
“Our research shows how interspecies hybridization can instigate the emergence of new traits and lead to the formation of more species,” explained Dr. Huang.
“We have finally unraveled the mystery of potato origins.”
“Collecting samples of wild potatoes has been extremely challenging, making this dataset the most comprehensive collection of wild potato genomic data analyzed to date,” noted Dr. Zhiyang Zhang, a researcher at the Institute of Agricultural Genomics at Shenzhen, China Academy of Agricultural Sciences.
The researchers discovered that all potato species contained a stable mix of genetic material from both exo root and tomato plants, indicating that potatoes originated from ancient hybridization between the two.
Although Etuberosam and tomatoes are distinct species, they share a common ancestor from around 14 million years ago.
Even after diverging for about 5 million years, they still managed to interbreed, resulting in the earliest potato plants exhibiting tubers approximately 8-9 million years ago.
The team also traced the origins of key tuber-forming genes in potatoes, which comprise genetic contributions from both parent species.
They identified the gene SP6A, functioning as a master switch indicating when plants should begin tuber formation, originating from the tomato lineage.
Another crucial gene, it1, derived from the Echuberosum lineage, assists in regulating the growth of underground stems that develop into tubers.
Hybrid offspring require both components to produce tubers.
This evolutionary advancement coincided with the rapid uplift of the Andes, a period when new ecological environments emerged.
The ability to store nutrients in tubers enabled early potatoes to adapt quickly to changing conditions and withstand the harsh mountain climate.
Moreover, tubers facilitate a mode of propagation without seeds or pollination, allowing new plants to grow from tuber buds.
This adaptability enabled them to expand swiftly from temperate grasslands to cold alpine pastures across Central and South America, filling various ecological niches.
“The evolution of tubers has provided potatoes with significant advantages in challenging environments, fostering the emergence of new species and contributing to the incredible diversity of potatoes we now depend on,” Dr. Huang concluded.
The study was published in the journal Cell on July 31, 2025.
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Zhiyang Zhang et al. Ancient hybridization underpins the diversification and radiation of potato lines. Cell Published online on July 31, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.06.034
Most treatments for back pain provide temporary relief
Amenic181/ShutterStock
A brief course of a specific type of psychotherapy has proven to be three times more effective in alleviating chronic low back pain than conventional treatments, even after several years.
Cognitive Function Therapy (CFT) offers individuals a customized program designed to help them comprehend and manage pain via movement and lifestyle adaptations. In a 2023 study, researchers reported significant chronic back pain relief lasting at least a year after just eight sessions.
Recent findings revealed that these sessions continue to provide relief even three years later. CFT leads to three times the improvement in pain and associated disability when compared to the conventional care options patients typically receive, such as pain medications, physical therapy, and massage treatments.
“Our findings suggest that for patients with severe impairments, back pain management can yield long-lasting benefits,” notes Jan Hartvigsen from the University of Southern Denmark.
Back pain is among the leading causes of global disability, and existing treatments often only provide mild, temporary relief. In the 2023 trial, Hartvigsen and his team enlisted 492 participants suffering from chronic low back pain, categorized as experiencing at least four points on a pain scale of 0-10.
Among the participants, one-third continued with their usual care regimen. In contrast, the other two-thirds paused standard care to partake in seven CFT sessions over a final 12-week span, concluding with a 26-week session.
During these sessions, specially trained physical therapists examined each participant’s thoughts regarding their posture, pain, emotions, and lifestyle factors. Their goal was to help participants view their pain in a new light. They focused on modifying exercise habits and control strategies, promoting healthier diets, rest techniques, stress management, and workout plans.
“Individuals living with chronic pain often fear using their bodies,” explains Hartvigsen. “It’s not a mental issue; they require support from someone who can build a strong therapeutic bond with them, as their behaviors, beliefs, and nervous systems are very flexible and conditioned to these pain-related behaviors.”
Half of the participants in the CFT group also received biofeedback, a sensor-based approach that enables real-time monitoring of movement patterns to retrain posture and motion.
After one year, pain intensity and disability levels, measured by the Roland Morris Disability Questionnaire, showed substantial improvements—approximately three to four times greater in the CFT group than in those receiving traditional care. Biofeedback enhanced the effectiveness of CFT marginally.
In a follow-up three years later, the Hartvigsen research team gathered updated evaluations from 312 participants evenly split between treatment groups.
The results indicated that those who underwent CFT experienced nearly three times greater improvement in both pain and disability when contrasted with the standard care group. Furthermore, about three times more individuals in the CFT group recorded lower disability ratings, indicating pain did not severely hinder their functionality.
However, all participants were permitted to pursue additional care after the initial unmonitored year.
Around 56 million years ago, during a period of significant geological warming known as the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), the mesonychid mammal Dissacus Praenuntius exhibited remarkable dietary changes—it began to consume more bones.
Dissacus Praenuntius. Image credit: DIBGD / CC by 4.0.
“I am a doctoral student at Rutgers University in New Brunswick,” stated Andrew Schwartz from the University of New Jersey.
“We are observing a similar trend: rising carbon dioxide levels, increasing temperatures, and the destruction of ecosystems.”
In their study, Schwartz and his team analyzed small pits and marks left on fossilized teeth using a method known as dental microwear texture analysis. The research focused on the extinct mammal Dissacus Praenuntius, part of the Mesonychidae family.
This ancient omnivore weighed between 12 and 20 kg, comparable in size to jackals and coyotes.
Common in the early Cenozoic forests, it likely had a diverse diet that included meat, fruits, and insects.
“They resembled wolves with large heads,” Schwartz remarked.
“Their teeth were similar to those of hyenas, though they lacked small hooves on their toes.”
“Before this phase of warming, Dissacus Praenuntius mainly consumed tough meat, akin to a modern cheetah’s diet.”
“However, during and after this ancient warming period, their teeth showed wear patterns consistent with crushing hard substances like bones.”
“Our findings indicate that their dental microwear is similar to that of lions and hyenas.”
“This suggests they were consuming more brittle food rather than their usual smaller prey, which became scarce.”
This shift in diet occurred alongside a slight decrease in body size, likely a result of food shortages.
“While earlier theories attributed body size reduction solely to rising temperatures, this latest research indicates that food scarcity was a significant factor,” Schwartz explained.
“The rapid global warming of this time lasted around 200,000 years, but the changes it caused were swift and dramatic.”
“Studying periods like this can offer valuable lessons for understanding current and future climatic changes.”
“Examining how animals have adapted and how ecosystems responded can reveal much about what might happen next.”
“The research underscores the importance of dietary flexibility; species that can consume a variety of foods are more likely to endure environmental pressures.”
“In the short term, excelling in a specific area can be beneficial,” Schwartz added.
“However, in the long run, generalists—animals that are adaptable across various niches—are more likely to survive environmental changes.”
This understanding can assist modern conservation biologists in identifying vulnerable species today.
Species with specialized diets, like pandas, may struggle as their habitats diminish, while more adaptable species, such as jackals and raccoons, might thrive.
“We’re already starting to see these trends,” Schwartz noted.
“Previous research has shown that African jackals have begun to consume more bones and insects over time, likely due to habitat loss and climate stress.”
The study also indicated that rapid climate change, reminiscent of historical events, could lead to significant shifts in ecosystems, influencing prey availability and predator behaviors.
This suggests that contemporary climate change could similarly disrupt food webs, pushing species to adapt and face extinction risks.
“Nonetheless, Dissacus Praenuntius was a robust and adaptable species that thrived for about 15 million years before eventually going extinct,” Schwartz said.
Scientists believe this extinction was driven by environmental changes and competition with other species.
The study was published in June 2025 in the journal Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology.
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Andrew Schwartz et al. 2025. Dietary Changes in Mesonychids During the Eocene Heat Maximum: The Case of Dissacus Praenuntius. Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology 675:113089; doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2025.113089
March 2020 was an awkward period for many. This might explain why Developer, an eight-part sci-fi series by Alex Garland, premiered during a global lockdown and struggled to garner a wide audience; I, too, unfortunately, missed it.
There are various reasons I decided to catch up on it now: Garland’s works had lingered in my mind after enjoying 28 Days Later, and the darkly captivating worlds of Developer felt like a welcome escape from the heatwave. However, mainly, I was curious about how it had aged five years after its debut.
In Developer, Lily Chan (Sonoya Mizuno) works as an engineer for Amaya, a quantum computing firm based in San Francisco. Each day, she collaborates with her boyfriend and colleague Sergei (Karl Glassman), who is involved in Amaya’s AI division. After being invited to join the secretive Devs program, Sergei disappears nearly immediately, leaving Lily convinced that Amaya and the enigmatic Devs project played a role in his vanishing.
Everything in Developer feels cold yet beautiful. The score and sound design are haunting, punctuated by jolts of static and dialogue. The performances reflect this chill, particularly Mizuno’s compelling portrayal of Lily. Meanwhile, Allison Pill shines as Katie, a scientist at Amaya. The company’s campus is an ethereal setting of glass and refined concrete enveloped by pine trees and illuminated by glowing halos, all under the watchful gaze of a towering young girl statue.
The Devs compound feels like entering a Byzantine mosaic, transformed into a secular, three-dimensional space.
Yet, the stunning DEVS compound overshadows everything else; it feels like stepping into a Byzantine mosaic, now rendered secular and three-dimensional. This space serves as a meticulously organized sanctuary for clandestine research, immersed in lavish gold while floating within an electromagnetic field inside a Faraday cage.
The nature of this research prompts a profound shift that delves deep into human impulses, despite the risks of redefining humanity itself. Forest posits that the project is fundamentally tied to all that is valuable. It boldly explores the extent of incredible technological advancements that might arise—or be stunted—due to the personal philosophies of privileged figures like himself.
Watching Developer at its peak feels akin to being enveloped in a soothing sound bath, the slow reverberations drawing you in. At its least inspired, it can seem self-indulgent. Still, it offers an intellectual experience, addressing fascinating concepts such as the multiverse. However, Lily’s pursuit to unravel the truth about Sergei gets sidelined in favor of Amaya’s overarching mysteries, causing the series to spiral into self-importance.
In a twist of life’s quirks (light spoilers ahead), the show’s most insightful theme might revolve around the desire to revisit the past and what we gain or lose along the way. Interestingly, such reflections may prove more compelling than lofty visions about our technological future. I’m glad I finally watched Developer five years post-release; despite some indulgent tendencies, it left me with plenty to appreciate. Even if Forest and his counterparts might not find full success, Developer still resonates deeply with me.
In Garland’s directorial debut, programmer Caleb (Domhnall Gleeson) is tasked by his boss with evaluating whether Ava, an artificial intelligence, possesses true sentience. The film delivers a chilling psychological exploration.
Never Let Me Go Mark Romanek
This adaptation of Kazuo Ishiguro’s novel features a rare boarding school depicted through a haunting lens; it’s flawed yet captivating and definitely worth the watch.
Bethan Ackerley is a sub-editor at New Scientist, with a passion for science fiction, sitcoms, and the eerie. Follow her on Twitter at @inkerley
The Arts and Science of Writing Science Fiction
Dive into the world of science fiction writing this weekend, exploring the art of building new worlds and narratives.
Ancient Greek bronze jars displayed at the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford have been discovered to contain honey.
American Chemical Society
The findings from the ancient Greek pot located at a shrine near Pompeii serve as evidence of the lasting nature of honey jars.
In 1954, a Greek burial shrine dating back to around 520 BC was uncovered in Pestum, Italy, approximately 70 kilometers south of Pompeii.
The shrine contained eight pots with sticky residues, and their contents remained a mystery since their unearthing.
Honey was initially suspected in tests conducted on one of the pots between the 1950s and 1980s by Luciana Carvalho from Oxford University.
Three distinct teams analyzed the residue but concluded that the jars contained animal or vegetable fats mixed with pollen and insect parts, rather than honey.
At that time, researchers depended on significantly less sensitive analytical methods, focusing on solubility tests.
Carvalho and her team started by examining the infrared reflection of the residues to determine their overall composition.
Ancient honey residues from the interior of the pot
Luciana da Costa Carvalho
Initially, it was hypothesized that the contents could be decomposed beeswax due to its outward resemblance and high acidity.
To test this hypothesis, the team employed gas chromatography paired with mass spectrometry, which ultimately unveiled the presence of sugars like glucose and fructose, the primary sugars found in honey.
“We unearthed a remarkably intricate mixture of acids and broken-down sugars,” states Carvalho. “The clear indicator of honey was the detection of sugar at the core of the residue.”
Further examination by Elizabeth Pierce from Oxford University confirmed the presence of a protein called major royal jelly protein, secreted by honeybees, along with the detection of peptide traces from Tropilaelaps Mercedesae, a parasitic mite that consumes bee larvae.
“This parasite is believed to derive from an Asian beehive,” Pierce comments.
Carvalho mentions that the cork seal of the bronze jar eventually failed, allowing air and microorganisms to enter. “We believe these bacteria consumed most of the sugar remnants, leading to the production of additional acids and decomposition products. What was left was an acidic, waxy residue clinging to the walls of the jar.”
“Investigating the honey offerings at the shrines in Paestum elucidates how the people honored their deities and their perceptions regarding the afterlife,” Carvalho explains.
Historic Herculaneum – discover Vesuvius, Pompeii, ancient Naples
The journey through history and archaeology embarks on a fascinating exploration where the past comes alive through Mount Vesuvius and the remains of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
The Central Congo Basin boasts the largest variety of tropical peatlands globally, covering 16.7 million hectares. Previously, radiocarbon dating of ancient peat was confined to just 14 samples, which poorly represented the area, indicating that peat development typically commenced during the Holocene. However, recent findings indicate that peat began forming in multiple locations during the late Pleistocene. The earliest date identified by the author is 42,300 years before present, highlighting that this peatland is one of the oldest in the world, twice as ancient as previously thought.
The swamp of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Image credit: Greta Dargie.
The central Congo Basin, which spans the equator, encompasses 360,000 km.2 This wetland is shared by the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Out of this wetland area, it is estimated that 167,600 km2 have a median thickness of 1.7 m.
These peatlands rank among the most carbon-dense ecosystems worldwide, storing an average of 1712 mg c ha-1 with a total of 29 pg c-1 stored in peat.
Although research into the formation and expansion of this vast carbon reservoir is in its early stages, it includes studies on peat initiation and basin-wide development dynamics.
“These peat marshes serve as crucial global carbon reservoirs, equivalent to three years’ worth of fossil fuel emissions,” said Greta Dargie, a researcher from the University of Leeds.
“We now know that these are the oldest tropical peatlands on Earth.”
The research initiated with the team trekking through the inaccessible peat marshes of Congo, collecting peat samples up to 6 m deep on the forest floor using surgical tools.
Upon returning to the lab, they dated small samples of peat to ascertain when peat formation began at each sampling site.
Over a decade, researchers successfully collected and dated more than 50 cores from throughout the Central Congo Basin, reconstructing the development of the peatlands over time.
Scientists were surprised not only by the great age of these peatlands.
“One of our unexpected discoveries was that some of the older peatlands in central Congo started forming during periods when the region’s climate was considerably drier than today,” stated a researcher.
“The earlier hypothesis suggested that peat began forming in response to a wetter climate at the onset of the Holocene around 12,000 years ago.”
“We now understand that non-climatic factors must have helped saturate the soil enough for peat formation to occur.”
“This raises important questions about how climate change in the 21st century will impact peatland landscapes and the substantial carbon stored within them.”
The Congo Basin peat marshes provide essential resources for local communities, including fish, bushmeat, and building materials.
Due to their remoteness, these swamps also serve as crucial habitats for species such as forest elephants, Nile crocodiles, lowland gorillas, and bonobo chimpanzees.
While Congolese peatlands have largely avoided threats such as deforestation and drainage compared to many tropical regions, the push for improved local livelihoods and extraction of resources like oil can conflict with biodiversity and carbon conservation objectives.
Dr. Pauline Gulliver, a researcher at the University of Glasgow, remarked:
“These peatlands meticulously draw carbon from the atmosphere, safely storing it for at least 40,000 years.”
“The dynamics of peat cannot be understood within a timeframe that aligns with societal expectations.”
“If peatlands are compromised, they could release a significant amount of carbon into the atmosphere, worsening global warming.”
“It’s crucial to manage the carbon within the Congo Basin peatlands carefully to prevent such occurrences.”
Survey results were published in the journal Environmental Survey Letter.
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Greta C. Dargy et al. 2025. The timing of peat initiation throughout the central Congo Basin. environment. res. Rent 20, 084080; doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ade905
Paleontologists from Argentine Patagonia have unearthed parts of the posterior skull from the previously unknown sauropod dinosaur, Levvatissaurus.
Reconstruction of the life of Astigmasaura genuflexa. Image credit: Mattia Yuri Messina.
The newly identified dinosaurs thrived in what is modern-day Argentina during the late Cretaceous period, around 95 million years ago.
This species has been scientifically named Astigmasaura ungflexa and measured approximately 18 meters (59 feet) in length, weighing over 10 tons.
These ancient giants belong to the Rebbachisauridae, a large family of sauropod dinosaurs within the superfamily Diplodocoidea.
“Rebbachisaurids are medium to large, non-selective, ground-level browsers, characterized by highly specialized skulls, elongated axial elements, and gracile appendicular skeletons.”
“Fossils from Levubatisaurus, spanning the early to late Cretaceous, are particularly diverse within the ancient supercontinent Gondwana, with numerous specimens discovered in North Africa and South America.”
“Notably, Patagonia has produced more than half of all known rebbachisaurids, including the earliest forms and the most recent Rebbachisaurus.”
Fieldwork in the El Orejano region of the Huncul Formation in Patagonia, Argentina. Image credit: Flavio Bellardini.
Fossilized remains of Astigmasaura ungflexa were found in the El Orejano area of the Huncul Formation within the Neuquén Basin in Patagonia, Argentina.
The material type of Astigmasaura ungflexa was described by paleontologists.
This new species represents one of the last Levubatisaurus dinosaurs before it went extinct around 90 million years ago.
“Astigmasaura ungflexa shares a variety of traits with other rebbachisaurids, including anterior caudal vertebrae with tall neural spines and tetrameric nerve layers, an asymmetrical neural arch, a mesolaterally compressed proximal tibia, and medially tilted distal condyles and femurs,” the researchers noted.
“Furthermore, Astigmasaura ungflexa displays a unique combination of diagnostic features that set it apart from all other sauropods.”
“This new finding not only enhances our understanding of the previously unexplored caudal and pelvic girdle anatomy of Rebbachisauridae but also indicates greater taxonomic diversity within the family during the late stages of evolutionary history than previously recognized.”
The team’s paper was published online in the journal Cretaceous Research.
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Flavio Berardini et al. 2025. Alongside the Titans: a new Levuvacisaur dinosaur from the Huncul Formation (Upper Cenomanian) of Patagonia, Argentina. Cretaceous Research 176:106188; doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2025.106188
Angier (Hugh Jackman) shines in the cinematic adaptation
AJ Photos/Alam
fame Priest Christopher (available in the UK and the US)
fame is perhaps most recognized for Christopher Nolan’s 2006 film adaptation of “The Prestige.” However, the accompanying books have captivated audiences and are often celebrated as literary masterpieces.
I only picked up this book recently, as I initially thought it revolved around stage tricks. Many claim to delight in the magician’s artistry, but I’d rather invest my evening enjoying something else. I was skeptical about reading a book focused on stage magicians from the late 19th century.
However, a conversation with science fiction writer Adam Roberts last year led me to ask him for his favorite sci-fi authors, to which he quickly included Christopher Priest. fame, no matter your stance on stage magic.
This sparked my interest, despite my reluctance towards the flashy white gloves and top hats. Plus, Tor’s republishing of the novel marks 30 years since its initial release, complete with a new introduction by John Clute. (Priest sadly passed away last year.)
Within the story are two distinct but closely related stage tricks and their mechanisms. Our primary protagonist (a loose term) is Magician Alfred Borden, known for his trick named The Transported Man. In essence, it features Borden entering one side of the stage and reappearing in a booth on the opposite end to thunderous applause.
If you appreciate complex and skillfully designed puzzle mysteries, this book is definitely for you.
However, Borden has a rival named Rupert Angier, who becomes obsessed with deciphering Borden’s transportation tricks. Angier then creates his own magical marvel, seemingly appearing instantly from within a blinking machine to another part of the theater.
Now it is Borden who grapples with unraveling the mystery of Angier’s performance, teetering on the edge of madness in his quest to uncover it. This intense rivalry culminates in a generational cycle. Consequently, Borden and Angier share narration duties with their respective descendants.
The novel is genuinely gripping, pulling you in like a magician enthralling an audience. Yet, it’s much more sophisticated than it seems at first glance.
I’ve yet to test this theory, but I believe you can read various sections in almost any order, and it remains engaging and comprehensible. In essence, it’s surprisingly well-constructed.
Concerning genre, it won the World Fantasy Award upon its initial release, but it incorporates elements of science, including real-life figures like inventor Nikola Tesla, and is often classified as science fiction today. The book’s atmosphere has gothic and steampunk influences, with a vintage style fitting for its period.
So if you’re a fan of intricate and beautifully crafted puzzle mysteries, this book is certainly worth your time. It triumphs in both plot and expertly managed suspense. I’m excited to see Nolan’s film adaptation, which is reportedly quite different from the book, but Priest himself praised the film and believed Nolan executed it well.
I would also suggest Emily…
World War HG Wells (various publishers) Given that Christopher Priest served as Vice President of the HG Wells Association, it seems fitting to recommend reading (or re-reading for many) this significant work. Originally published in 1898, it’s astonishingly modern in many ways. It’s a cornerstone of classic science fiction, even before the genre was officially recognized. I recommend it simply because it’s a classic worth revisiting.
Emily H. Wilson is the former editor of the New Scientist and author of the Sumerian trilogy set in ancient Mesopotamia. The final book in the series, Ninshuval, is set for release in August. You can find her online at emilyhwilson.com or follow her on x @emilyhwilson and instagram @emilyhwilson1
New Scientist Book Club
Are you a book lover? Join a welcoming community of fellow readers. Every six weeks, we explore exciting new titles, giving members exclusive access to excerpts, author articles, and video interviews.
Scientists don’t need reminding that hangovers are unpleasant. Excessive alcohol intake can trigger a cascade of headaches, nausea, fatigue, and inflammation.
While the long-term health hazards of alcohol consumption are well-known, it’s surprising that research on hangovers is quite limited.
“When I searched for ‘hangovers’, I found about 600 articles since 1945,” notes Professor J Leigh Leasure, who maintains a database of biomedical and lifestyle research. “It’s astonishing how little has been explored on this topic.”
Leasure, a neuroscientist at the University of Houston studying the effects of alcohol, is among the researchers striving to enhance our understanding of this unclear condition.
As a participant, she has experimented with various hangover remedies—from traditional eggs and bacon to electrolytes, vitamin mixes, and caffeine infusions.
High-Intensity Exercise to Sweat Out Hangovers
Meanwhile, some individuals tackle their hangovers through high-intensity workouts. Whether it’s a run or a spin and kettlebell class, the goal remains the same: to sweat out the “toxins” from the previous night.
“Interestingly, many people swear by sweating it out,” says Leasure.
In 2024, she and her colleagues released their first study examining whether exercise can alleviate hangover symptoms. Published in the journal Addictive Behavior, the research involved approximately 1,600 university students who had experienced at least one hangover in the past three months.
Participants completed a survey regarding their alcohol consumption, activity levels, and the frequency and severity of hangovers.
Some findings were unsurprising: increased drinking correlated with more severe hangovers.
However, the study also revealed that students who engaged in intense exercise during the previous three months reported fewer and less severe hangovers compared to those who were less active.
It’s worth mentioning that this was a retrospective study. The students were not tested in a controlled setting, so the results should be viewed with some caution.
This study suggests that vigorous exercise might generally mitigate the worst hangover effects, rather than alleviating them in the immediate aftermath.
Read more:
Reduced Inflammation from Elevated Endorphins
There’s reason to believe that training after a hangover can be beneficial. Endorphins released by rigorous exercise act as natural painkillers, which could help alleviate headaches.
One study indicates that high-intensity exercise is particularly effective at boosting endorphin production compared to lighter workouts.
Leasure posits that exercise may also have anti-inflammatory properties.
“One prevailing idea is that alcohol, especially in large amounts, elevates short-term inflammation, while exercise tends to counteract this,” she explains.
Research has shown that regular exercise can reduce the likelihood of chronic inflammation. In 2023, Harvard Research identified one mechanism involving the release of regulatory T cells that modulate the body’s inflammatory response.
Earlier studies suggest that moderate exercise for just 20 minutes can trigger an anti-inflammatory response.
However, don’t expect to break personal records on your morning run. While exercise can help with hangovers, the hangover itself can impair performance, says Leasure.
“As one might expect, hangovers don’t improve athletic performance. Research indicates they make physical activity more challenging.”
One significant idea is that alcohol increases inflammation, while exercise has the opposite effect – Illustrated Credit: Jamie Coe
Another unexpected finding emerged from Leasure’s study.
“There is a substantial body of literature examining the connection between exercise and alcohol consumption,” she states. “Physically active individuals tend to drink, which seems somewhat paradoxical.”
One theory from Leasure and her colleagues suggests that people often have a debit and credit mindset regarding health. Engaging in unhealthy habits like drinking might lead some to compensate by pursuing healthier activities, such as an intense workout on a Sunday morning.
As this study continues, the effects on hangovers will become clearer.
About Our Experts
Professor J Leigh Leasure is a neuroscientist and associate professor in the Department of Biology and Biochemistry, focusing on the effects of alcohol at the University of Houston in the United States. She has published in multiple scientific journals including Alcohol, Neuroplasticity, and Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research.
Sporting a shaft-like beak capable of inflicting devastating blows, the infamous terrorist birds have emerged as formidable adversaries for many species.
Around 13 million years ago, however, one such bird may have fallen prey to even larger predators. A group of Colombian paleontologists made this discovery while analyzing bite marks found on fossilized remnants of the fearsome avian.
Their findings were published in the peer-reviewed journal “Biology Letters.” The researchers hypothesized that the bird was killed and consumed by medium-sized caimans, a crocodilian species.
Andres Link, the study’s lead investigator, shared with NBC News via email, “This represents a captivating tale of interaction between two iconic animals from the past. Not only did we identify the first instance of terrorist birds in northern South America, but we also found the tooth marks of the large caiman that likely preyed on it.”
Most unusual fossils of terrorist birds have previously been found in the southern regions of the continent, as noted in this report.
Link, an associate professor in biological sciences at the University of Los Andes, remarked that while tooth marks are “not uncommon” in the fossil record, it is “thrilling” to find proof that apex predators could fall victim to others.
The paper in “Biology Letters” highlights that there were no signs of healing on the tooth marks, indicating a fatal attack.
This leads researchers to conclude that terrorist birds may have been more vulnerable to predation than previously believed.
Julian Bayona Becerra / Biology Letters
To determine the identity of the predator, Link and his team performed scans of the fossils and examined the size, shape, and arrangement of the tooth marks. By comparing these features with alligator-like teeth from the region, they deduced that the marks likely belong to a caiman measuring about 15 feet long.
Link noted that it was challenging to ascertain whether the caiman consumed the terrorist bird after killing it or scavenged the carcass. If the bird was alive during the encounter, it likely happened while it was drinking at the riverbank; alternatively, if it was already deceased, the caiman may have found it near the water.
“This narrative remains incomplete, as we lack further evidence to support either hypothesis,” Link stated.
The discovery calls into question the traditional view of “linear relationships between predators and their herbivore prey,” he remarked, adding, “The food web is considerably more intricate.”
The lower section of the bird’s left leg featured in this research was excavated two decades ago by local paleontologist Cesar Perdomo in the renowned La Venta fossil layer of Colombia.
Solnhofen Archipelago refers to a collection of islands that thrived during the late Jurassic era in present-day Bavaria, Germany.
Life expressions of Sphenodraco scandentis in the ancient environment of the Solnhofen Archipelago. Image credit: Gabriel Ugueto.
The newly identified species Sphenodraco scandentis belongs to the earliest known clade of its sister group (lizards, snakes, and worm lizards), namely Rhynchocephalia.
Currently, this group is epitomized by a solitary extant species, the Tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus), although Rhynchocephalians were once as prevalent as modern lizards.
The fossil specimen of Sphenodraco scandentis is separated into two main slabs, as documented in literature, with previous assignments to Homoeosaurus maximiliani, along with a counterslab containing the majority of its skeletal remains.
These two segments were sold individually to museums in Frankfurt and London nearly a century ago.
“The breakthrough occurred while I was examining fossil reptiles at the Museum of Natural History in London,” remarked PhD candidate Victor Beccali from the Paleontology Museum in Munich.
“I observed a striking resemblance between the fossils in the museum’s collection and those I studied at the Senckenberg Museum of Natural History in Frankfurt.”
“It was revealed that they were not merely similar; they were two halves of the same fossil, likely split in the 1930s for a greater profit.”
Holotype of Sphenodraco scandentis. Left: Main slab featuring bone fragments and skeletal traces. Right: Counterslab showcasing most remains of the skeleton. Image credit: Beccali et al. , doi: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaf073.
According to Beccari and colleagues, comparisons with modern lizards, including the Tuatara, indicate that Sphenodraco scandentis shared elongated limbs, toes, and compact bodies, suggesting these creatures may have inhabited the treetops of Jurassic forests.
“The deeper I delve into the historical study of these animals, the more I realize that species definitions are not always straightforward,” stated Beccali.
“Today’s islands host hundreds of reptilian species, so it’s plausible that ancient islands did too.”
“This research highlights the vital role that museum collections play in enhancing our understanding of ancient biodiversity.”
“Many of these fossils were unearthed nearly two centuries ago, yet they still hold significant insights to offer.”
“The Solnhofen region provides pristine, complete skeletons for many Rhynchocephalians, though their skulls may be crushed or some skeletons remain embedded in rock,” explained Dr. Mark Jones, curator of Fossil Reptiles and Amphibians at the Museum of Natural History in London.
“Until recently, this meant that Solnhofen’s specimens weren’t contributing to our understanding as much as they should have.”
“Utilizing micro-X-ray CT, and in this case, UV imaging, has helped clarify anatomical features.”
“This recent study underscores the necessity of investigating all available samples.”
The study was published on July 2, 2025, in The Linnean Society’s Journal of Zoology.
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Victor Beccali et al. 2025. The importance of the appendix skeleton for tumors in the tree-bark thoracic cube and scaly pidosaurs from the late Jurassic in Germany. The Linnean Society’s Journal of Zoology 204 (3): ZLAF073; doi: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaf073
A group of paleontologists from Yale University and Stony Brook University made a significant discovery while studying dinosaur fossils, including two bird species found in the Gobi Desert, Mongolia.
This scene illustrates the oviraptorid dinosaur Citipati appearing astonished as it rests on sand dunes. The creature raises its arms in a threat display, exposing its wrists and emphasizing the small, relocated, closed carpal bones (highlighted in blue x-ray). Image credit: Henry S. Sharp.
For years, the identity of a particular carpal bone in the bird’s wrist was a scientific enigma, until researchers determined it functioned as a trap.
This bone, originally resembling a kneecap-like sesame bone, shifted from its original position in the wrist, replacing another carpal bone known as Urna.
Positions in modern birds indicate a link that enables the bird to automatically fold its wings when it bends.
The bone’s large V-shaped notch allows for the alignment of hand bones to prevent dislocation during flight.
Consequently, this bone plays a crucial role in the bird’s forelimb and is integral for flight.
“The carpal bone in modern birds is a rare wrist bone that initially forms within muscle tendons, resembling knee-like bones, but eventually takes the place of the ‘normal’ wrist bones known as Urna,” commented one researcher.
“It is closely associated with the muscle tissue of the arm, linking flying muscle movement to wrist articulation when integrated into the wrist.”
“This integration is particularly vital for wing stabilization during flight.”
In their recent study, Dr. Bhullar and his team analyzed two Late Cretaceous fossils: Troodontid (birds of prey, related to Velociraptor) and citipati cf. osmorusca (an oviraptorid with a long neck and beakless jaw).
“We were fortunate to have two rigorously preserved theropod wrists for this analysis,” said Alex Rubenstal, a paleontologist from Yale University.
“The wrist bones are small and well-preserved, but they tend to shift during decay and preservation, complicating their position for interpretation.”
“Observing this small bone in its correct position enabled me to thoroughly interpret the fossil wrists we had on hand, as well as those from previous studies.”
“James Napoli, a vertebrate paleontologist and evolutionary biologist at Stony Brook University, noted:
“While it’s unclear how many times dinosaurs learned to fly, it’s fascinating that experiments with flight appear only after they adapted to the wrist joint.”
“This adaptation may have established an automated mechanism found in present-day birds, although further research on dinosaur wrist bones is necessary to validate this hypothesis.”
Placing their findings within an evolutionary framework, the authors concluded that it was not merely birds but rather theropod dinosaurs that underwent the confinement of this adaptation by the origin of Penalaptra, a group of theropods that includes Dromaeosaurids and Oviraptorosaurs like Velociraptor.
Overall, this group of dinosaurs exhibited bird-like features, including the emergence of feathered wings, indicating that flight evolved at least twice, if not up to five times.
“The evolutionary replacement of Urna was a gradual process occurring much deeper in history than previously understood,” stated the researchers.
“In recent decades, our understanding of theropod dinosaur anatomy and evolution has expanded significantly, revealing many classical ‘bird-like’ traits such as thin-walled bones, larger brains, and feathers.
“Our findings suggest that avian construction is consistent with a topological pattern traced back to the origin of Penalaptra.”
The team’s paper was published in the journal Nature on July 9, 2025.
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JG Napoli et al. Theropod wrist reorganization preceded the origins of bird flight. Nature, Published online on July 9, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09232-3
Planetary scientists have identified over 15,000 km of ancient riverbeds in the Noachis Terra region of Mars’ southern highlands, indicating that the planet may have been significantly wetter than previously believed.
This image depicts a flat upper eroded river wavy ridge above Mars, with dunes moving over it. Image credits: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona.
The nature of Mars’ climate during the Noatian-Hesperian transition, which occurred around 3.7 billion years ago, is still being debated. This period saw significant geological and climatic changes, as well as the formation of surface features like valley networks and lakes associated with liquid water.
There are two prevailing theories: the first suggests that a warm and wet environment followed early Mars, allowing liquid water to persist on the surface for an extended time. The second posits that Mars has generally been cold and dry, with flowing water created sporadically by melting ice during brief climate shifts.
In Noachis Terra, climate models predicting “warm and humid” conditions suggest significant precipitation levels.
A recent study led by Open University Ph.D. student Adam Losekoot and his team analyzed the region’s wavy ridges, also known as inverse channels.
“These formations likely resulted from sediments laid down by rivers that solidified, later exposed through the erosion of surrounding materials,” noted the lead researcher.
“Similar ridges have been identified in various Martian terrains.”
“Their presence implies that flowing water once traversed the area, with precipitation being the most probable source,” he added.
The team found that river-wave ridges are widespread throughout Noachis Terra, amounting to over 15,000 km in total length.
While many segments are isolated, some systems extend several hundred kilometers.
“Exploring Mars, particularly less altered regions like Noachis Terra, is thrilling because they have remained relatively unchanged for billions of years,” Losekoot commented.
“It acts as a time capsule that captures fundamental geological processes in ways that are impossible to observe on Earth.”
In their investigation, the researchers utilized data from three orbital devices: the Context Camera (CTX), the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA), and the High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE).
These datasets enabled them to map the locations, lengths, and forms of the ridge systems across various areas.
“Our findings present new evidence indicating that Mars was once a much more dynamic and complex planet than we suppose,” they stated.
“The size and interconnectivity of these ridges suggest that liquid water existed for an extended period, indicating that Noachis Terra experienced warm, wet conditions for a geologically significant time.
“These results challenge the conventional belief that Mars has been predominantly cold and dry, with valleys formed only by sporadic, short-term meltwater from ice sheets.”
The flooding began in Texas before rains hit North Carolina, New Mexico, and Illinois.
In just one week, at least four events classified as 1,000-year rainfalls occurred across the United States, a phenomenon expected to take place only about 0.1% of the time each year.
“It’s rare for these intense rainfall events to occur in any given year,” stated Kristina Dahl, vice president of science at Climate Central.
Some experts noted that this is a significant statistical observation, likely linked to climate change, and may become more frequent.
Last week, heavy rains led to catastrophic flash floods in central Texas, claiming at least 120 lives across six counties. The Guadalupe River near Carville rose over 20 feet within just 90 minutes, causing widespread destruction.
Days later, Tropical Storm Chantal brought heavy rain to North Carolina, with reports of severe flooding in the central region, where some locations received nearly 12 inches of rain within a mere 24 hours. Local officials are still assessing the death toll from the Thursday floods amidst ongoing monitoring.
In New Mexico, three individuals lost their lives on Tuesday due to a devastating flash flood that swept through a remote village in Ruidoso, situated approximately 180 miles south of Albuquerque.
On the same day in Chicago, 5 inches of rain fell in merely 90 minutes around Garfield Park, necessitating multiple rescue operations in the west side of the city.
While experts acknowledge that 1,000-year floods are statistically rare, they also highlight that significant rain events happen every year in the U.S.
“The probability for any specific location is only 0.1% annually, meaning it’s highly unlikely to experience such an event in your area, yet they do occur somewhere in the country each year,” explained Rus Schumacher, director of the Colorado Climate Center at Colorado State University.
He emphasized that climate change is likely to increase the frequency of these extreme flood incidents.
While pinpointing the exact impact of climate change on specific weather events can be challenging, scientists concur that a warmer atmosphere leads to more intense rainfall and severe storms.
“This area demonstrates a strong correlation because the underlying physics is relatively straightforward,” Schumacher noted.
A warmer environment can retain more water, leading to storms that can unleash vast amounts of rain. Research suggests that for every degree Fahrenheit that the planet warms, the atmosphere can hold about 3% to 4% more moisture.
“It’s mathematically certain that as the atmosphere retains more water, it can release more during storms,” stated Dave Gouchs, a hydrologist who directs forecast services for a company based in Mammoth Lake, California, focusing on snow and water resource measurements.
However, terrain also plays a critical role during heavy rainfall events, Gouchs added.
In Texas, the hills and canyons are particularly prone to flash flooding, as the thin soil above the bedrock limits water absorption, according to Gouchs.
In New Mexico, the village of Ruidoso was severely affected by last year’s wildfires, leaving burn scars that exacerbate runoff and heighten the risk of flash floods.
The recent events highlight the devastating consequences of climate change on extreme weather, as well as the urgent need for community protection measures both before and after such incidents, remarked Dahl from Climate Central.
She emphasized that recovery efforts could take years, with ongoing public health implications that may last even longer.
“These events come and go in the news cycle. We move on to the next story before fully grasping the impact,” Dahl pointed out. “For those affected, it’s easy to forget that healing from such events is a prolonged process.”
Paths of interstellar comet 3I/Atlas through the solar system
NASA/JPL-Caltech
The interstellar entities currently traversing our solar system may include one of the oldest comets ever observed.
Comet 3I/Atlas was identified earlier this month near Jupiter’s orbit, moving at approximately 60 km per second and estimated to be about 20 km in size. It is the third recognized interstellar object in our solar system, having passed near Mars in October before entering the solar orbit.
Matthew Hopkins from Oxford University and his team utilized data from the ESA Gaia spacecraft, which cataloged billions of stars in our galaxy, to simulate the comet’s speed and trajectory, revealing its point of origin. It seems to have emerged from an area close to our galaxy, which is about 13 billion years old, specifically from what is referred to as a thick disk.
“Objects from the thicker disk tend to be quicker,” explains Hopkins, noting that the previous two identified interstellar objects (Oumuamua in 2017 and Comet Borisov in 2019) exhibited a decline in speed. “Their velocities aligned with expectations for thin disk objects.”
Modeling by the team indicates that 3I/Atlas may have originated from a star nearly 8 billion years old, potentially twice the age of our sun, hinting at it being one of the oldest comets ever witnessed. “This might be the oldest comet I’ve encountered,” Hopkins states. Interstellar objects are typically ejected early during a star’s lifecycle and are often propelled by interactions with massive planets.
Hopkins mentioned that ancient stars are likely to possess lower metallicity compared to our sun, implying that these comets might have a higher water content. If this hypothesis holds, we may witness significant water activity from the comet as it nears the sun in the upcoming months.
This could be our first interaction with another star, providing insights into pristine materials that have existed for billions of years, unaltered since before Earth’s formation. “I believe many interstellar objects we’ve encountered are our first meetings with stars, even those that are 8 billion years old,” Hopkins asserts. “They have likely traversed vast distances through empty space before approaching us.”
The examination of North West Africa (NWA) 16286 reveals a lunar metstone with a distinctive chemical profile, offering new perspectives on the evolution of the moon’s interior and emphasizing the enduring nature of its volcanic activity.
Backscattered electron images of NWA 16286 samples. Image credit: Joshu Asu Nape/University of Manchester.
Discovered in Africa in 2023, NWA 16286 is one of only 31 moon basalts officially identified on Earth.
The distinct composition of the 311-gram metstone, featuring melted glassy pockets and veins, indicates it was likely impacted by an asteroid or metstone on the lunar surface before being ejected and eventually landing on Earth.
A recent study by researchers at the University of Manchester supports the theory that the moon has maintained internal heat production processes responsible for lunar volcanic activity across various stages.
Lead isotopic analyses suggest that these rock formations are the youngest basalt lunar metstones identified on Earth, dating back approximately 2.35 billion years, a time when lunar samples are scarce.
The sample’s unique geochemical profile distinguishes it from those brought back by previous lunar missions, indicating that its chemical characteristics likely result from lava flows that solidified after ascending from the moon’s depths.
“While the moon rocks returned from sample return missions provide valuable insights, they are limited to the immediate areas around those landing sites,” stated Dr. Joshua Snape from the University of Manchester.
“In contrast, this sample could originate from impact craters located anywhere on the moon’s surface.”
“Thus, there is a unique coincidence with this sample. It fortuitously landed on Earth, unveiling secrets about lunar geology without the need for an extensive space mission.”
The sample contains notably large crystals of olivine and is classified as olivine basalt, characterized by medium titanium levels and high potassium content.
Alongside the atypical age of the samples, researchers found that the lead isotopic composition of the rocks—geochemical signatures preserved when the rocks formed—originates from internal lunar sources with unusually high ratios of uranium and lead.
These chemical markers can assist in identifying the mechanisms behind the moon’s prolonged internal heat production.
“The sample’s age is particularly intriguing as it fills a billion-year gap in the history of lunar volcanism,” Dr. Snape noted.
“It is younger than the basalts collected during the Apollo, Luna, and Chang-E 6 missions, yet significantly older than the more recent rocks retrieved by the Chang-E 5 missions in China.”
“Its age and composition indicate that volcanic activity persisted throughout this entire timeframe, and our analysis suggests a potentially continuous process of heat generation from radioactive elements that generates heat over extended periods.
“Moon rocks are a rarity, making it always exciting to acquire samples that stand out from the norm.”
“This specific rock presents new constraints on the timing and nature of volcanic activity on the moon.”
“We still have much to learn about the lunar geological history. Further analyses to trace surface origins will inform where future sample return missions might be directed.”
Researchers have identified protein sequences within the dense enamel tissues of ancient nasal cavities and materials collected from the Burg and Lopelot sites in the Turkana Basin, Kenya.
The Turkana Basin within the East African lift system preserves fossil communities dating back more than 66 million years. Green et al. Powder samples were collected for paleontological skin analysis from the early Pleistocene back to the Oligocene (29 million years ago) from large herbivores. Image credit: Green et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09040-9.
“Teeth are the rocks in our mouths,” stated Dr. Daniel Green, a researcher at Harvard and Columbia University.
“They represent the most complex structures created by animals; hence, it’s possible to find teeth that are 100 million years old, offering geochemical records of animal life.”
“This includes insights into their diets, hydration, and habitats.”
“Previously, we believed that mature enamel, being the hardest part of teeth, should contain very little protein.”
Yet, by employing a novel proteomic technique known as liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), the researchers uncovered remarkable protein diversity in various biological tissues.
“The method comprises multiple stages where peptides are sorted according to size or chemistry, enabling detailed sequential analysis at unprecedented resolution,” explains Dr. Kevin Uno from Harvard and Columbia University.
“Recent findings indicate that there are dozens, potentially hundreds, of different proteins present in tooth enamel,” remarked Dr. Green.
Recognizing that many proteins exist in modern teeth, researchers pivoted towards studying fossils of nasal mesentery and related materials.
As herbivores, these creatures exhibited large teeth to crush their plant-based diets.
“These mammals could have enamels measuring 2-3 millimeters in thickness, providing ample material for investigation,” Dr. Green noted.
“Our discovery — peptide fragments and amino acid chains representing proteins spanning around 18 million years — stands to transform the field.”
“No one has previously identified peptide fragments of such antiquity.”
The oldest published findings to date date back around 3.5 million years.
“The newly identified peptides encompass a diverse array of proteins, representing what is known as the proteome,” Dr. Green remarked.
“One reason we are thrilled about these ancient teeth is that we lack a complete proteome for all proteins that could potentially be extracted from the bodies of these extinct elephants and rhinos, yet we can identify distinct groups.”
“Such collections could yield more information from these groups than from a single protein alone.”
“This research opens a new chapter for paleontology, enabling scientists to reconstruct the molecular and physiological traits of extinct species, moving beyond just bones and morphology,” stated Dr. Emmanuel Nudiemma, a researcher at the National Museum of Kenya.
“These peptide fragments can be utilized to delve into the relationships among ancient animals, much like contemporary methods that map human DNA relations.”
“Though a few animals analyzed in studies are completely extinct without living descendants, in theory, proteins could be extracted from their teeth and added to a phylogenetic tree,” Dr. Green elaborated.
“This information may clarify long-standing debates among paleontologists concerning the relationships among various mammalian lineages, utilizing molecular evidence.”
Survey results Today, I will be featured in the journal Nature.
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Dr. Green et al. Diverse enamel proteomes from rifts of East Africa over 108 million years. Nature Published online on July 9, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09040-9
Protein fragments survived in the extreme environment of Rift Valley, Kenya
Ellen Miller
In Kenya, fossilized teeth from an 18 million-year-old mammal yielded the oldest protein fragment ever discovered, extending the age record for ancient proteins by fivefold.
Daniel Green at Harvard, alongside Kenyan scientists, unearthed diverse fossil specimens, including teeth, in Kenya’s Rift Valley. Volcanic activity facilitated the preservation of these samples by encasing them in ash layers, enabling the age dating of the teeth to 18 million years. Nonetheless, it remained uncertain whether the protein in the tooth enamel endured.
The circumstances were not promising—Rift Valley is “one of the hottest places on Earth for the past 5 million years,” Green observes. This extreme environment presents “significant challenges.” Despite this, earlier research has detected tooth enamel proteins, albeit not from such ancient samples. To assess the longevity of protein traces, Green employed a small drill to extract powdered enamel from the teeth.
These samples were sent to Timothy Creland at the Smithsonian Museum Conservation Institute for analysis. He utilized mass spectrometry to categorize each molecular type in the sample by differentiating them by mass.
To his surprise, Creland uncovered sufficient protein fragments to yield significant classification insights. This identified the teeth as belonging to the ancient ancestors of elephants and rhinos, among other evidence. Creland expresses enthusiasm for demonstrating that “even these ancient species can be integrated into the Tree of Life alongside their modern relatives.”
While only a small amount of protein was recovered, the discovery remains monumental, asserts Frido Welker from the University of Copenhagen, Denmark. He emphasizes that growing protein and gaining insights into this ancient fossil is a “tremendous breakthrough.”
Unlike other tissues such as bone, sampling teeth is crucial for uncovering fragments of ancient and valuable proteins like these. “The sequence of enamel proteins varies slightly,” notes Creland.
The dental structure may have played a role in preserving proteins for such an extended period. As teeth are “primarily mineral,” these minerals assist in protecting enamel proteins through what Cleland describes as “self-chemical processes.” Furthermore, the enamel comprises only a small fraction of protein, aiding in its preservation, roughly 1%. “Whatever protein is present, it’s going to persist much longer,” Green asserts.
The endurance of protein fragments in Rift Valley suggests that fossils from other locales may also contain proteins. “We can genuinely begin considering other challenging regions of the planet, where we might not expect significant preservation,” Cleland comments. “Microenvironmental discrepancies may promote protein conservation.”
Beyond studying proteins from these specific periods, researchers aim to explore samples from various epochs. “We’re looking to delve deeper into history,” Cleland mentions. Green adds that analyzing younger fossils could offer a “baseline of expectation” for the number of conserved protein fragments compared to those from ancient specimens.
“We’re only beginning to scratch the surface,” Cleland concludes.
Ancient humans adapted to deeper forests as they journeyed from Africa, moving away from the savanna.
Lionel Bret/Eurelios/Science Photo Library
This is an excerpt from our human stories, a newsletter covering the archaeological revolution. Subscribe and receive updates in your inbox every month.
Our human origins trace back to Africa. While this has not always been clear, it is now widely accepted.
This truth can be understood in two ways. The earliest known species closely related to us emerged from Africa, dating back 7 million years. Additionally, the oldest representatives of our own species, Homo sapiens, also originated from Africa.
Here, I will focus on the narrative of modern humans originating in Africa and their subsequent migrations across the globe. The introduction of DNA sequencing technology in the latter half of the 20th century enabled comparisons between different populations. This research demonstrated that African populations exhibit the greatest genetic diversity, while non-Africans show relative genetic similarity (despite visible differences such as skin color).
This genetic distinction serves as a telling indicator. It suggests that Africa was our birthplace with a diverse population, from which all non-Africans descended from a smaller subset that left this ancestral home to settle elsewhere. Geneticists affirmed this idea as early as 1995, and further evidence has since supported this claim.
However, there is a discrepancy between archaeological evidence and genetic findings.
Genetics indicates that all living non-Africans are descendants of a small group that left Africa around 50,000 years ago. Aside from minor uncertainties about the exact timeline, this conclusion has remained consistent for two decades. Conversely, archaeologists highlight numerous instances of modern humans existing outside Africa long before this timeline.
In Greece, a modern human skull found in the Apidima Caves dates back 210,000 years. The jawbone from Misliya Cave in Israel has been dated to at least 177,000 years. Additionally, there are several debated sites in China that may contain remains of modern humans. “Moreover, there’s an ongoing discussion on the earliest inhabitants of Australia,” says Eleanor Scerri from the Max Planck Institute for Geoanthropology in Germany, with some proposing human presence as early as 65,000 years ago.
What is the explanation for this disparity? Has our extensive genetic data misled us? Or is it true that we all share a common ancestry tied to a significant migration event, while older remains represent populations that did not survive?
Scerri and her team sought to understand this conundrum.
African Environment
The researchers debated the habitats of modern humans in Africa. “Did they simply migrate across diverse African grasslands, or were they adapting to vastly different environments?” asks Scerri.
To address this question, they needed extensive data.
“We began by analyzing all archaeological sites in Africa dating back 120,000 to 14,000 years ago,” explains Emily Yuko Hallett from Loyola University in Chicago. The team constructed a database identifying the climate at various locations and times.
A significant shift was observed around 70,000 years ago. “Simply examining the data without complicated modeling shows this climatic change,” notes Andrea Manica from the University of Cambridge. The range of temperatures and rainfall suitable for human habitation had notably expanded, leading people to venture into deeper forests and arid deserts.
However, mere observation is insufficient; the archaeological record is inherently incomplete and often biased.
“In certain regions, no archaeological sites exist,” remarks Michela Leonardi from the Natural History Museum in London. This absence might not reflect a lack of human occupancy, but rather the lack of preservation. “In more recent periods, preservation is easier due to the increased data availability,” she adds.
Leonardi devised a statistical modeling technique to determine if an animal shifted its environmental range. Could humans have transitioned from grasslands to diverse habitats, such as tropical rainforests? The team initially thought this modeling would take two weeks, but it took five and a half years.
Ultimately, the statistics affirmed their initial observation: around 70,000 years ago, modern humans began occupying a broader range of environments. The findings were published on June 18th here.
Jack of All Trades
“At 70,000 years ago, our species appears to have transformed into the ultimate generalist,” states Manica. From this period onwards, modern humans adapted to a variety of complex habitats.
This could be misinterpreted. The team did not imply that prior to H. sapiens people were incapable of adaptation. In fact, studies of extinct human species highlight that adaptability has increased over time.
“Humans were inhabiting environments vastly different from the early stages,” observes Scerri. “We’ve found evidence of habitation in mangrove forests, rainforests, desert edges, and highlands like those in Ethiopia.”
It appears that this adaptability is what allowed Homo sapiens to thrive during environmental changes in Africa, while other species like Paranthropus did not; they remained too rigid in their lifestyle to adapt.
What likely transpired in our species 70,000 years ago is that existing adaptability became pronounced.
Some of this understanding only becomes clear when considering the diverse habitats humans occupied. “One might think of deserts and rainforests in rigid terms, but there are actually numerous variations,” explains Scerri. “There are lowland rainforests, montane forests, marshes, and periodically flooded woodlands.” The same diversity applies even within desert environments.
Before, H. sapiens “did not exploit the full range of potential habitats,” states Scerri. “But around 70,000 years ago, we see the beginning of this expansion into more types of forests and rainforests.”
This narrative intrigued me, as I had been contemplating an opposite idea.
Great Quarantine
Last week, I authored a piece about the extinction of local human groups: it appears that some H. sapiens populations vanished without a trace in modern genetics. After departing from Africa, they faced challenges in harsh environments, eventually succumbing during encounters with the first modern humans in Europe. These lost groups fascinated me. Why did they fail while others that entered Europe thousands of years later found much success?
The discovery that African groups expanded their environmental niches 70,000 years ago provides a partial explanation. If these later migrations involved more adaptable populations, they may have been better equipped to face the unfamiliar environments of Northern Europe—and subsequently Southeast Asia, Australia, and the Americas where their descendants would eventually journey.
A crucial point: this does not suggest that all populations 70,000 years ago thrived. “Not all humans instantly turned into successful populations,” Scerri explains. “Many of these groups disappeared, both inside and outside of Africa.”
Moreover, as with any significant discovery, this study introduces as many questions as it resolves. Specifically: what triggered modern humans to become more adaptable around 70,000 years ago?
Manica notes that skeletal morphology supports this idea. Ancient fossils classified as H. sapiens today exhibit only some of the traits we typically associate with modern humans. “Starting around 70,000 years ago, we broadly witnessed the emergence of many of these characteristics as a collective,” he asserts.
Manica posits that moving into new environments may have facilitated increased interaction between previously isolated populations. For instance, if two groups were separated by desert, they wouldn’t encounter or exchange ideas or genetic material until they learned to adapt to desert conditions.
“There may also be positive feedback,” suggests Manica. “With increased connectivity comes greater flexibility… breaking down barriers and fostering further interaction.”
To conclude, in a story about these lost populations, I mentioned that one of the greatest challenges for human groups was isolation. Without neighbors, a small group can face extinction due to minor setbacks. If Manica is correct, the opposite trend unfolded in Africa. Populations expanded and became increasingly connected, leading to a surge of creativity that allowed our species to spread across the globe.
In this light, the success of the last migration out of Africa could be attributed to the need for community. Without others, we may be vulnerable and at risk of failing. The notion of preparing for an apocalypse alone in isolation may be fundamentally flawed.
Archaeologists have discovered a collection of 35 wooden tools, including drilling sticks and pointed hand tools, at an early Paleolithic site in Gantanquin, southwestern China. These findings indicate that the humans who utilized these tools focused on creating implements for excavation and processing rather than for hunting purposes.
Wooden tools found on the Gangtankin property in China. Image credit: Liu et al. , doi: 10.1126/science.adr8540.
While early humans have crafted wood tools for more than a million years, such artifacts are exceedingly rare in archaeological records, particularly from the early to mid-Pleistocene epochs.
The majority of ancient wooden tools have been uncovered in Africa and Western Eurasia, with notable specimens like spears and throwing rods found in Germany and the UK, alongside structural elements from Zambia and wooden plaques and excavation rods from sites in Israel and Italy.
For years, the Bamboo hypothesis has suggested that early East Asian populations largely depended on bamboo for toolmaking, though there is limited archaeological evidence supporting organic material-based tools in this region.
In a recent study led by Dr. Jian-Hui Liu and colleagues from the Yunnan Cultural Relics and Archaeology Institute, a diverse array of artifacts from the Gantangqing site was analyzed.
Among these were 35 wooden artifacts displaying clear signs of intentional shaping and use, along with indications of wear, suggesting they were deliberately crafted by humans.
These tools, made from pine, included probable hook-like implements used for cutting plant roots, varying from large, double-handed excavation sticks to smaller portable tools.
“In comparison to other prominent prehistoric wooden tool sites in Europe, Gantankin is characterized by a variety of medium-sized hunting equipment as well as a broader scope of handheld tools primarily designed for excavating and processing plants,” the researchers noted.
“The sophistication of these wooden tools emphasizes the significance of organic artifacts in understanding early human behavior, especially in contexts where only stone tools might suggest a more ‘primitive’ technological landscape.”
A study detailing these findings was published today in the journal Science.
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Jian-Hui Liu et al. 2025. Wooden tools from Gantankin in southwestern China, dating back 300,000 years. Science 389 (6755): 78-83; doi: 10.1126/science.adr8540
Paleontologists have adopted a cutting-edge digital fossil mining technique to examine over 250 fossil beaks from 40 ancient squid species. The findings indicate that there is no prolonged slow-moving change associated with the slower parietal layer, previously linked to the mass extinction event of late white matter around 66 million years ago. Early squid species had already established large populations, surpassing the biomass of both ammonites and fish. They evolved into intelligent and agile swimmers, contributing to modern marine ecosystems.
This lithograph features Loligo Forbesii, a squid species from the order Myopsida. Image credit: Comingio Mercuriano.
Squid are recognized as the most diverse and widely distributed group of marine cephalopods in today’s oceans, serving a crucial role in marine ecosystems as both predators and prey.
Their evolutionary success is generally attributed to the loss of a rigid external shell, a significant characteristic of their parietal ancestors.
Yet, their evolutionary beginnings remain unclear due to the scarcity of fossils from soft-bodied organisms.
The fossil record for squid dates back around 45 million years, with most specimens discovered consisting of fossilized statoris, or small calcium carbonites that assist in balance.
The early absence of such fossils has led to hypotheses that squid diversified following the mass extinctions during the Cretaceous period, approximately 66 million years ago.
Molecular studies of living squid species provide estimates regarding their divergence times; however, these estimates have become increasingly uncertain because of the dearth of prior fossil evidence.
In this recent study, Shin Ikegami, a paleontologist from Hokkaido University, and colleagues addressed these deficiencies using high-resolution grinding tomography and advanced image processing to digitally scan rocks as layered cross-sectional images, effectively revealing hidden 3D models.
This method was applied to Cretaceous carbonate rocks in Japan, resulting in the discovery of 263 fossilized squid beaks from 40 species across 23 genera and five families.
Results indicate that squid emerged around the boundaries of the early and late Cretaceous, roughly 100 million years ago, followed by a rapid diversification.
The authors assert that this newly uncovered fossil record significantly extends the documented origins of the two main squid groups: oegopsida extending back about 15 million years and myopsida extending as far back as 55 million years.
Early oegopsids showcased unique anatomical features that later species lacked, hinting at rapid morphological evolution, whereas Myopsids already displayed modern characteristics.
This study further indicates that late Cretaceous squids were more populous and often larger than their contemporaneous ammonite and bony fish counterparts. This ecological dominance might have triggered the radiation of bony fish and marine mammals roughly 30 million years ago, establishing squid as the first intelligent and agile swimmers that shaped modern marine ecosystems.
“In terms of population and size, these ancient squids were evidently proliferating across the oceans,” stated Dr. Ikenakamoto.
“Their body size rivaled that of fish, often even surpassing the ammonites found alongside them.”
“This demonstrates that squid thrived as the most abundant swimmers in the ancient seas.”
“These discoveries revolutionize our understanding of marine ecosystems in the past,” remarked Dr. Yasuhiro Iba from Hokkaido University.
“Squids were likely the pioneers of fast, intelligent swimmers that dominated the modern ocean.”
Shin Ikegami et al. 2025. The origin and radiation of squid revealed by digital fossil mining. Science E 388 (6754): 1406-1409; doi: 10.1126/science.adu6248
Paleontologists have unearthed a new species of large passerine birds based on fossilized remains from the Bannockburn Formation near St. Bathans in Otago, New Zealand.
Australian Magpie (Gymnorhina Tibicen), adults and juveniles, in Tabeumi, Fiji. Image credits: Charles J. Sharp, https://www.sharpphotography.co.uk / CC by-sa 4.0.
The newly identified bird inhabited New Zealand during the early Miocene period around 19 million years ago.
It has been named St. Batan’s Caloun (MioStrepera Canora), closely related to the Australian Magpie (Gymnorhina Tibicen) found in New Zealand today, likely exhibiting an entirely black plumage.
“We’ve experienced a lot of excitement and hard work,” shared Dr. Paul Scofield, senior curator at the Canterbury Museum.
“We probably haven’t encountered a member of this large magpie family for just five million years.”
“New Zealand’s ecosystem has undergone significant transformations over millions of years, welcoming diverse species throughout various eras,” noted Dr. Trevor Worthy, a researcher at Flinders University.
“There’s a notion that we should strive to restore New Zealand to its pre-European ecosystem.”
“However, that ecosystem had been in a constant state of flux for millions of years.”
“By the time humans arrived, Aotearoa had already lost much of the floral diversity that once thrived.”
“There were limited tree seeds available, but the decline of the choloun and other pigeons indicates this loss.”
“Different plant and animal groups emerged between 2.6 million and 11,700 years ago.”
“Even more have come since humans began to inhabit the land.”
“New Zealand’s pre-European ecosystem isn’t inherently better or worse than any other period in the past.”
“The fossil record hints at the absence of a utopian state and encourages us to celebrate the diversity present today.”
The fossilized remains of MioStrepera Canora were found at the St Bathans fossil site, which was once located at the bottom of a vast prehistoric lake.
“The research revealed that the Miocene bird population in New Zealand bears surprising similarities to contemporary Australian birds,” Dr. Scofield mentioned.
“New Zealand was vastly different during the Miocene, between 200,000 to 5 million years ago.”
“If you walked through New Zealand’s forests during that time, you would have seen abundant eucalyptus, laurel, and casuarinas, much like the forests of Australia today.”
“The most significant factor shaping New Zealand’s current landscape was the extinction of many plants and animals that thrived in warmer climates, following a rapid cooling that began around 13 million years ago.”
“It was likely not the only bird call you would have heard in ancient New Zealand.”
The discovery of MioStrepera Canora is detailed in a paper published in the journal Palz.
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Worth it et al. A large-scale clastatin passerine (Aves, Artamidae, Cracticinae) from the early Miocene of New Zealand. Palz published on June 25th, 2025. doi:10.1007/s12542-025-00736-x
Paleontologists have studied the body shapes of Ediacaran Cambrian organisms by utilizing trace fossils as a stand-in for body fossils.
Reconstruction of early Cambrian marine life in southern China. Image credit: Dongjing Fu.
The Cambrian explosion is often referred to as a pivotal period in Earth’s history when distinct animal body plans emerged.
Most researchers indicate that this event took place between 541 and 530 million years ago, marking the onset of the Cambrian period.
“The Cambrian explosion represents a significant era in the history of life that poses numerous unresolved questions,” stated Dr. Olmo Miguez Saras from the University of Barcelona at the Museum of Natural History in London, alongside Dr. Zekun Wang.
“In investigating biodiversity during this period, paleontological studies primarily concentrate on organisms with hard structures.”
“Nevertheless, microfossil investigations open avenues for understanding the activities of hard, soft-bodied, or skeletal-deficient organisms preserved in stratigraphic records.”
“The microfossil evidence is essential for shedding light on the evolutionary phases dominated by soft-bodied faunas.”
“Fossil traces mirror the behaviors of habitat-forming organisms, determined by their environment and reactions to ecological factors.”
“Consequently, these traces act as indicators of the paleoecological conditions experienced by the organisms that produced them.”
In their research, the authors concentrated on trace fossils from the Ediacaran-Cambrian transition, a period of great paleobiological interest that represents a pivotal moment in the evolution of complex life on Earth.
This transition experienced substantial shifts in biodiversity as well as the structure of organisms and ecosystems.
“The Ediacaran fauna consisted mainly of complex, multicellular, flexible organisms,” noted Dr. Miguez Saras.
“The shift to the Cambrian era involved numerous extinctions within the Ediacaran fauna, accompanied by a rapid diversification of complex multicellular organisms possessing hard structures (e.g., exoskeletons).”
“This encapsulates the core of evolutionary development that led to the emergence of the most modern animal phyla, commonly referred to as the Cambrian Explosion.”
The research indicates that slender-bodied organisms thrived around 545 million years ago during the Ediacaran period.
“These organisms likely possessed a coelomic hydrostatic body with an anteroposterior axis, muscles, and perhaps segmented structures,” Dr. Miguez Saras explained.
“Additionally, these organisms may have exhibited directional movement and possessed sensory capabilities to navigate and feed on diverse substrates in environments dominated by microbial mats.”
“Thus, the so-called Cambrian explosion and its evolutionary significance could have arisen significantly earlier than previously thought.”
“These adaptations in body shape and mobility facilitated early animals in thriving within increasingly dynamic and complex environments, an ecological engineering process that could spur evolutionary innovation.”
The team’s study is slated for publication in the journal Geological.
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Zekun Wang & Olmo Miguez-Salas. Quantitative decoding of Ediacaran Motion Microfossil Morphology: Evidence for the appearance of elongated anteroposterior body profiles. Geological Published online on June 9th, 2025. doi: 10.1130/g53332.1
The identification of human footprints in White Sands, New Mexico, estimated to be between 21,000 and 23,000 years old, was a significant advancement in our comprehension of the earliest inhabitants of the Americas. However, this research faced scrutiny concerning the dependability of radiocarbon dating materials, such as common aquatic plant seeds Rupiah Silhosa and coniferous pollen grains. A recent study, spearheaded by University of Arizona researcher Vance Holiday, indicates that the ancient mud from Perelora ceotero, the third material utilized for dating the footprints, dates back to approximately 20,700 to 22,400 years ago.
Ancient human footprints found in White Sands National Park, New Mexico, USA. Image credit: Bennett et al. , doi: 10.1126/science.abg7586.
Historically, scientists believed that humans entered North America roughly 16,000 to 13,000 years ago.
However, the footprints found at White Sands indicate that human presence in the area dates back to between 23,000 and 21,000 years ago. This timeline offers insights into the development of culture in North America.
The remnants of 10,000-year-old prints, uncovered nearly a century ago at a site near Clovis, New Mexico, led to a classification of artifacts long considered to represent the earliest known cultures in North America.
Critics have challenged two prior studies over the last four years, asserting that ancient species and pollen in the soil used for dating the footprints are unreliable indicators.
“The record is consistently strong, and it’s challenging to explain it all,” Dr. Holiday stated.
“As I mention in my publication, it would be an extraordinary coincidence for all these dates to be inaccurate.”
Thousands of years prior, the white sands formed from a series of lakes that eventually dried up.
Wind erosion created layers of plaster on the sand dunes that now characterize the region.
The footprints were excavated from stream beds that once fed into this ancient lake.
“Wind erosion has erased part of the narrative, leaving that segment lost. The remainder is buried beneath the world’s largest accumulation of plaster sand,” Dr. Holiday remarked.
For their latest research, Dr. Holiday and his team returned to White Sands in 2022 and 2023, excavating new trenches to gain deeper insights into the lakebed’s geology.
“We’ve put in considerable effort to explore this area,” stated Jason Windingstad, a doctoral candidate at the University of Arizona.
“You essentially find yourself questioning everything taught about North American populations.”
The authors recognize that their research hasn’t addressed lingering questions posed by critics since 2021: Why are there no artifacts or settlements left by the individuals who made the footprints?
“This is a valid inquiry. Some footprints discovered during the 2021 survey belong to a trackway that was created in mere seconds,” they explained.
“It is entirely plausible that hunter-gatherers would act with caution to avoid leaving resources in such a brief timeframe.”
“These individuals were aware of their resources and were distanced from their replacements.”
“They wouldn’t abandon artifacts casually. It doesn’t make sense for you to be viewing a debris field.”
The team’s recent findings will be published in the journal Advances in Science.
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Vance T. Holliday et al. 2025. Perelorace Geochronology supports the last Glacier Max (LGM) age of human tracks in White Sands, New Mexico. Advances in Science 11 (25); doi:10.1126/sciadv.adv4951
The discovery of Litoria Tylerantiqua indicates that Australian tree frogs (Perodrius) were already present in Australia when the continent was still attached to Antarctica and South America.
Artist Reconstruction of Litoria Tylerantiqua (right) alongside the previously described species Platyplectrum casca (left) from Margon in southeast Queensland. Image: Samantha Yabsley, https://www.instagram.com/shy_art.
Litoria Tylerantiqua lived in Australia during the early Eocene period, approximately 55 million years ago.
The fossilized frog bones were retrieved in the 1990s by paleontologists at the University of New South Wales while screenwashing clay samples from the Tingamara fossil frog site in Margon, Queensland.
“About 55 million years ago, Australia, Antarctica, and South America were connected as the last remnants of Gondwana,” stated Dr. Roy Furman and his colleagues at the University of New South Wales and the Australian National University.
“During this era, the global climate was warmer, facilitating forested corridors linking South America and Australia.”
“Previously, Australia’s oldest tree frogs were believed to have originated from the late Illuminocene (around 26 million years ago) and the early Miocene (approximately 23 million years ago).”
“Fossils from the late Illuminocene have been discovered in the Northern Territory’s kangaroo wells and the Etadunna formation in Lake Palancarina, South Australia. Furthermore, the Riversley World Heritage Area in Queensland unveiled an early Miocene tree frog.”
“This new species extends the fossil record of Perodrids by roughly 30 million years, bringing it closer to the timeframe when Australian tree frogs diverged from their South American counterparts,” they noted.
“Previous estimates based on molecular clock analyses suggest that Australian and South American frogs diverged approximately 33 million years ago.”
Litoria Tylerantiqua is the only other known frog from Margon, also identified as Platyplectrum casca (previously categorized as Lechriodus Casca), recognized as the oldest frog species in Australia.
Both have existing relatives in Australia and New Guinea, showcasing incredible resilience over time.
“Despite their fragile nature, these frogs have surprisingly thrived, surviving numerous major extinction events since their origin around 250 million years ago.”
“Current global extinction threats, fueled by human activities like rapid climate change and the proliferation of pathogenic bacteria, pose significant challenges for frogs. The fossil record reveals how certain frog groups have navigated past adversities, potentially by adapting to less-threatened habitats.”
“This insight might guide future conservation efforts, such as relocating endangered frogs to safer environments.”
“If fossil records show similarly structured frogs occupying very different habitats, today’s frogs could potentially benefit from reintroductions into comparable environments.”
The findings are detailed in a study published in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
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Roy M. Furman et al. New fossil discoveries for early Eocene perodrids from local faunas of Southeast Queensland, Margon, Tingamara, and frog molecular lineages. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology published online on May 14, 2025. doi:10.1080/02724634.2025.2477815
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The peak of sunshine has officially arrived in the Northern Hemisphere with the Summer Solstice.
This Friday marks the longest day north of the equator, ushering in the joy of astronomical summer. In contrast, the Southern Hemisphere experiences its shortest day and the onset of winter.
The term “bliss” derives from the Latin “sol,” meaning sun, and “stitium,” which translates to “stop.” This term encapsulates the sun’s annual journey, tracing its longest and most radiant arc in the sky. Unfortunately for sun enthusiasts, the days will gradually shorten until late December as the sun begins its retreat.
The solstice has been celebrated for centuries, with various traditions and monuments, such as Stonehenge, built to align with the solar path during this event. But what exactly occurs in the heavens? Here’s what you need to understand about Earth’s orbit.
Bliss signifies the extremes of day and night
As the Earth orbits the Sun, it tilts at an angle, causing uneven distribution of sunlight and warmth between the northern and southern hemispheres throughout the year.
The solstice represents a time when this tilt is most pronounced, leading to the greatest disparity between day and night.
During the Northern Hemisphere’s summer solstice, the upper half tilts toward the sun, resulting in the longest day and the shortest nights of the year, occurring between June 20th and 22nd.
In contrast, during the winter solstice, which transpires between December 20th and 23rd, the Northern Hemisphere turns away from the sun.
The equinox: a balance of day and night
The equinox occurs when the Earth’s axis and orbit align, granting both hemispheres an equal amount of sunlight.
The word equinox is derived from Latin, meaning equal and night, as it denotes the time when day and night are nearly identical in duration.
Spring in the Northern Hemisphere, or Vernal Equinox, can occur between March 19th and 21st, while the Autumnal Equinox can fall between September 21st and 24th.
At the equator, the sun is directly overhead at noon during the equinox, which is the only time when both the Arctic and Antarctic receive sunlight simultaneously.
Differentiating between weather and astronomical seasons
These represent two distinct interpretations of the year.
Astronomical seasons are based on Earth’s orbit around the Sun, while weather seasons are categorized by prevailing weather conditions. The latter divides the year into three-month periods based on temperature cycles, leading to spring starting on March 1st, summer on June 1st, followed by autumn on September 1st and winter on December 1st.
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The finest science is not just intelligent—it’s extraordinary. Don’t take our word for it! For 28 years, Wellcome has hosted its annual photography competition, showcasing impactful images that highlight health, science, and medicine.
The Wellcome Photography Prize delves into various topics, including mental health care and the everyday experiences of living with disabilities. This year, we’re thrilled to reintroduce the biomedical imaging category, offering a chance to appreciate the beauty of science alongside intricate medical visuals. Additional categories include “Solo Photography” and “Storytelling Series.”
Among the highlights is the first non-invasive image of microplastics buried within human skin and a poignant journey to the Peruvian Andes, where Indigenous farmers combine traditional wisdom with innovative science to combat water pollution.
The winners will be unveiled on July 16th, 2025, followed by a free public exhibition at the Francis Crick Institute in London from July 17th to October 18th.
A total of 25 images have secured the prestigious top prize this year. And here’s our favorite.
Blooming Barrier by Lucy Holland
Tissue samples taken from infants affected by Hirschsprung’s disease, a condition impacting goblet cell development and leading to long-term digestive issues. – Photo Credit: Lucy Holland/Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
From Butterflies to Humans by Amaia Alcalde Anton
This image captures the brain of a metamorphosing butterfly, where new neurons are generated through neurogenesis—a process observed in various species during growth and maturity. – Photo Credit: Amaia Alcalde Anton/Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
I Have You Under My Skin: Microplastics in Mammalian Tissues by P Stephen Patrick and Olumide Ogunlade
This groundbreaking non-invasive image reveals the presence of turquoise plastic particles deep within a living mouse. Biomedical researchers Patrick and Ogunlade have pioneered photoacoustic imaging techniques that utilize laser interactions with samples to visualize microplastics. – Photo Credit: P. Stephen Patrick and Olumide Ogunlade/Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
Liver Cholesterol by Steve Gschmeissner
This depiction by Steve Gschmeissner illustrates blue cholesterol crystals in a human liver, with lipid cell structures. The lipid droplet measures approximately 12 micrometers wide. – Photo Credit: Steve Gschmeissner/Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
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Submarine Heat by Jander Matos and Joaquim Nascimento
Captured by researchers Jander Matos and Joaquim Nascimento at the Bioimaging Lab in Brazil, this image reveals the egg (0.56 mm wide) of the Aedes aegypti mosquito, a known carrier of diseases such as dengue and Zika. The yellow details in the egg indicate nodules that provide nutrients for survival in water. – Photo Credit: Jander Matos and Joaquim Nascimento/Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
Organoids by Oliver Mex and Nicole Ottawa
Photographed by Oliver Mex alongside biologist Nicole Ottawa, this organoid mimics the uterine lining and is colored for realistic representation. The organoid measures 0.2 mm in width. – Photo Credit: Oliver Mex and Nicole Ottawa/Welcome Photography Award 2025
Brixton Road, Lambeth in Southern London by Marina Vitaglione
Created by Marina Vitaglione in collaboration with Joseph Levermore and scientists from the Imperial College Environmental Research Group, this image visualizes contaminating particles (less than 0.01 mm) magnified from Brixton Road, London. It highlights these “invisible killers.” – Photo Credit: Marina Vitaglione/Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
Ice and Fire Record by Ingrid Augusto, Kildare Rocha de Miranda, and Vania Da Silva Vieira
This image illustrates the internal structure of *Trypanosoma cruzi*, the parasite responsible for Chagas disease, which is transmitted through contaminated food or bites from certain insects. Untreated, it can lead to serious cardiac and digestive conditions. – Photo Credit: Ingrid Augusto, Kildare Rocha de Miranda, Vania Da Silva Vieira/Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
Nemo’s Garden by Giacomo D’Orlando
Nemo’s Garden is the pioneering underwater greenhouse system located in Liguria, Italy, designed to explore agricultural solutions for regions facing challenges in plant cultivation. The findings showcase how submerged plants possess higher antioxidant levels than their land-grown counterparts, aiding in drug development. – Photo Credit: Giacomo D’Orlando/Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
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Ciril Jazbec’s Dream of Curing Water
This series by Slovenian documentary photographer Ciril Jazbec investigates the health impacts of rapidly melting glaciers in the Cordillera Blanca Mountain Range, threatening water supplies with heavy metals accumulated over centuries. Peru houses most of the world’s tropical glaciers, vital for mountain farming communities. Climate change has led to a 40% reduction in glacier surface area since the 1970s. – Photo Credit: Ciril Jazbec / Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
Stereo EEG Self-Portrait by Muir Vidler
This self-portrait by UK photographer Muir Vidler captures his experience after electrode implantation into the brain for epilepsy treatment—a procedure used when medication fails. He documented this photo on the first day following electrode insertion, which he had to keep for a week. – Photo Credit: Muir Vidler / Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
Find a Life by Sandipani Chattopadhyay
This poignant image shows locals gathering water from the riverbed in Purulia, West Bengal, India. Climate change has disrupted the monsoon patterns, leading to dry rivers and forcing many communities to search for drinkable water. – Photo Credit: Sandipani Chattopadhyay / Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
This Is Endometriosis – 2014 – 2022: Five Years by Georgie Wilman
This self-portrait by UK photographer Georgie Wilman notes the dates of her scars resulting from endometriosis surgery. Affecting one in ten women and females assigned at birth, endometriosis is often downplayed as “painful periods,” a phrase that fails to encapsulate its severity, which causes internal bleeding and damage to organs. Wilman’s imagery powerfully conveys the struggles and impacts of living with endometriosis. – Photo Credit: Georgie Wileman / Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
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Beautiful Disasters by Alexandru Popescu
This aerial view depicts a former village in the Loopa area, Transylvania, Romania. In 1977, Nicolae Ceaușescu forcibly relocated its 1,000 residents to create a toxic waste lake linked to Roșia Poieni copper mine. The lake grows approximately 100 cm annually, jeopardizing local groundwater quality. – Photo Credit: Alexandru Popescu / Wellcome Photography Prize 2025
A recent study by paleontologists integrated data on the ancient climate of a specific region with fossil distribution information regarding Triassic eye pteraurauromorphs (pterosaurs + lagerpetids).
Foffa et al. Lagerpetids, alongside overall pterygoid morphospace, likely thrived in southwestern Pangaea (i.e. modern-day South America), indicating that pterosaurs may have originated at lower latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere. Image credit: James Kuether.
“Pterosaurs were the first vertebrates to evolve powered flight more than 60 million years ago—the oldest known birds,” stated Davide Foffa, a paleontologist from the University of Birmingham.
“Nevertheless, our comprehension of early pterosaur evolution is constrained by significant temporal and anatomical gaps separating these highly adapted flying reptiles from their closest terrestrial relatives.”
“The fossil records for pterosaurs and their related species remain incomplete, and fundamental aspects of early evolution, including timing, domains of existence, initial radiation, and the ecological context of paleontology, are not well understood compared to other contemporary groups such as dinosaurs.”
The researchers concentrated on the distribution of two closely related groups: Pterosaurs and Lagerpetids.
“Lagerpetids existed roughly 240 million years ago as a group of agile reptiles that lived in smaller land areas and among trees,” they noted.
“These small terrestrial reptiles are now recognized as the closest relatives to pterosaurs, and this study shows they endured a wider range of climatic conditions than their aerial counterparts, including the arid landscapes of ancient Pangaea.”
“This adaptability resulted in a broader distribution of this group.”
“Conversely, pterosaurs seemed to be restricted to humid environments found in limited regions of the ancient world, as evidenced by fossils discovered in modern-day Italy, Austria, and the southwestern United States.
During the late Triassic period, global climatic conditions began to change, with an increase in warm and humid environments outside the equatorial region.
This shift provided an opportunity for flying reptiles to expand across the globe, including present-day high-latitude areas such as Greenland and South America.
“While dinosaurs roamed the Earth, I find it fascinating to envision that these formidable reptiles ruled the skies during that era,” remarked Dr. Foffa.
“However, the origins of pterosaurs remain cloaked in mystery. Our research contributes new insights into this puzzle, proposing that early evolution among groups was likely influenced by shifting climates and environments during the Triassic.”
“Climate change significantly affects biodiversity, both today and throughout geological history,” stated Dr. Emma Dunn, a paleontologist at Friedrich Alexander Universitat Erlangen Nurnberg.
“Recent advancements in modeling techniques have enabled paleontologists to better understand how climate change has shaped the biodiversity of significant fossil groups like pterosaurs in just the past few years.”
“The combination of ecological models and fossil data is emphasized by Dr. Alessandro Chiarenza, paleontologist at University College London, who noted:
“Lagerpetids flourished as generalists, while pterosaurs, initially constrained to a humid tropical niche with possibly limited flight capabilities, occupied equatorial territories.”
“As the climate transformed and forest corridors emerged, their wings propelled them to every corner of the planet, ultimately allowing them to survive one of Earth’s greatest extinctions.”
“What started as a tale of lost fossils is evolving into a paradigmatic example of how paleoclimate, past climate, and evolutionary innovations intertwine, illuminating the complex history that has fascinated paleontologists for over two centuries.”
Study published in the journal Natural Ecology and Evolution.
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D. Foffa et al. Paleobiogeography of climate drivers and lagerpetids and early pterosaurs. Nat Ecol Evol published online on June 18th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41559-025-02767-8
Here’s a piece of scriptwriting advice: simplify the plot while adding complexity to the characters.
The narrative of 28 Years Later can be summarized in a few sentences. This long-awaited third chapter of the series that began in 2002 with 28 Days Later revolves around a neurotoxic virus that has spread uncontrollably across Europe, turning people into an army of infected (which some might call zombies, though the term isn’t explicitly used). The infection ultimately becomes contained within the UK, safeguarded by the International Fleet to prevent anyone from escaping the island.
A young boy named Spike (played by newcomer Alfie Williams) resides in the relative safety of a small northern island linked to the mainland by a causeway that is passable only at low tide. At 12 years old—an age his father thinks makes him ready—Spike ventures onto the mainland in search of adventure. He navigates through the possibly long-abandoned woods. While there may not be much tracking after 28 years, the film showcases Spike skillfully battling slow-moving zombies and avoiding the much quicker ones, all while providing some context for these encounters.
Upon his return, despite his mother (Jodie Comer) being bedridden with an unknown illness, Spike is hailed as a hero, while his father, Jamie (Aaron Taylor-Johnson), seeks comfort with another woman. Determined, Spike sneaks out to find the only doctor he knows about to help his mother.
Let’s throw in a twist. However, introducing a twist often implies that there isn’t one. Author Alex Garland, who set the rules of the world in 28 Days Later, stays true to his vision. The world is thriving yet shadowed by the remnants of an earlier outbreak, where some zombies have mutated, growing larger and posing new challenges. These are not just recycled dangers but add complexity within Spike’s idyllic yet troubled village.
Visually, the film offers a unique experience. Boyle incorporates elements reminiscent of Laurence Olivier’s Henry V wartime newsreels and original footage of the 28 Weeks Later outbreak, providing a contemplative layer to the community’s defenses. It evokes a sense of folk horror, nodding to films like Apocalypse Now and Alien 3. Yet, despite its depth, the film remains accessible, conveying themes of loss, disillusionment, and personal growth through the relatable actions of its characters.
The budget is reasonable (estimated between $60 million and $75 million), with a keen eye for casting (like Christopher Fulford as Spike’s grandfather, who brings depth to a tragic backstory). Don’t be mistaken: 28 Years Later is filled with clever nods and callbacks that will engage fans. However, there is no unnecessary complexity. No contrived MacGuffins, pointless quests, or mystical items. Spike’s journey, portrayed expertly by Alfie Williams, is a relatable and poignant evolution, where he learns that to grow into manhood, he must let go.
The acclaim for 28 Days Later back in 2002 still resonates, as does its 2007 sequel 28 Weeks Later, which was equally impressive. The crown for this genre, at least for now, belongs to 28 Years Later.
Boyle and Garland have triumphantly revisited the territory they first explored over two decades ago.
The CEO of Amazon informed the company’s office workers that opportunities in artificial intelligence will be available in the upcoming years.
Andrew Jassy advised his team that AI agents—tools designed to perform tasks autonomously—will lead to a reduction in workforce in specific AI areas, including chatbots.
“As we integrate more generative AI and agents, our work dynamics will transform,” he mentioned in a note to the team. “There will be fewer individuals in some existing roles, while others will shift to different types of work.
“It’s hard to predict the exact trajectory of this change, but we anticipate a decrease in our overall workforce in the coming years.”
Amazon currently employs 1.5 million individuals globally, with around 350,000 in corporate positions such as software engineering and marketing.
Recently, the CEO of BT, a UK telecommunications firm, stated that advancements in AI might lead to deeper job cuts in their company. Conversely, Dario Amodei, CEO of AI research firm Anthropic, noted that AI could potentially eliminate half of all entry-level office jobs.
Jassy projected that billions of AI agents will become integral to the everyday operations of companies and individuals alike soon.
“These AI agents will be present in virtually every company and industry. From shopping to handling daily tasks, many of these agents will assist in various aspects of life outside of work. Although not all of these agents have been developed yet, there is no doubt about their future impact.”
Jassy concluded his message by urging employees to engage with AI, emphasizing the importance of self-education and participating in training programs.
“Those who adapt to this change and familiarize themselves with AI—by developing and enhancing AI capabilities internally and delivering them to our customers—will play a crucial role in redefining the company,” he asserted.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), an influential international policy body, estimates that this technology could lead to job losses among skilled white-collar professionals in fields like law, medicine, and finance. According to the International Monetary Fund, 60% of jobs in advanced economies such as the US and the UK could be vulnerable to AI, with half at risk of being adversely affected.
On the other hand, the Tony Blair Institute advocates for broader AI adoption across public and private sectors, suggesting that while the private sector could see job reductions of up to 3 million in the UK, net losses will be counterbalanced by the creation of new positions thanks to technological advancements.
Tracing the world’s oldest cheese is challenging, but direct evidence shows that humans have been consuming milk for millennia.
Archaeologists have discovered milk residues in ancient pottery from various locations worldwide.
Research on carbon isotopes of fatty acids from pot residues reveals that humans have been consuming milk in the UK since 4000 BC. However, in Anatolia, a region in Türkiye noted for its Neolithic agriculture, evidence suggests milk consumption dates back even earlier to around 7000 BC.
Farmers in Anatolia were widely mobile. Although milk fat residues often degrade over thousands of years underground, the sheer number of ceramic pieces found leads scientists to speculate that these early peoples were likely producing long-lasting dairy products like cheese.
When milk is transformed into cheese, lactose levels decrease, helping to mitigate lactose intolerance, which was common across Europe. It wasn’t until approximately 3,000 years ago that genetic mutations became prevalent, enabling adults to produce lactase.
A 2023 study from York University found protein structures in a Polish late Neolithic pot, suggesting it contained cheese made from the milk of cows, goats, and sheep.
The oldest surviving cheese sample dates back about 3,500 years – Illustration credits: Jessley
The oldest cheese sample still known today is approximately 3,500 years old and was found around the neck of a Bronze Age mummy in the Xiaohe Cemetery in northwestern China.
A team at the Chinese Academy of Sciences conducted an analysis of this specimen, identifying it as kefir cheese (fermented bacterial milk). The scientists found DNA from various bacteria and yeast species, including Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens and Pichia kudriavzevii, which are present in kefir today.
They hypothesize that the lump could represent a kefir starter grain, a concentrated bacterial colony used to initiate cheese fermentation. These grains were likely regarded as valuable offerings for the afterlife in ancient times.
This article addresses the question, “What is the oldest cheese in the world?” posed by Scott Mills of Watford.
Feel free to reach out with your questions atQuestion @sciencefocus.com or message us onFacebook,Twitter, orInstagram(please include your name and location).
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The electric vehicle (EV) revolution is new research published in Cell Reports Sustainability.
The accelerating demand for lithium, an essential element of EV batteries, is expected to outstrip domestic supply in major markets by the decade’s end.
This analysis highlights China, the US, and Europe, which collectively represent 80% of current EV sales. Researchers caution that without significant changes, these regions may not fulfill their lithium requirements from local sources by 2030, leading to an increased reliance on imports and a heightened risk of global shortages.
“Many previous studies have examined the lithium necessary for low-carbon transitions,” said Dr. Andre Manberger, a co-author of the new study, in an interview with BBC Science Focus.
“The issue is that often we compare projected lithium demand with current mining rates and existing reserves. However, there’s a gap in the existing literature concerning mining feasibility.”
Globally, EV sales surpassed 17 million in 2024, marking a 25% increase from the previous year.
The International Energy Agency forecasts that electric vehicles could represent 40% of all car sales by 2030. However, this expansion hinges on a stable supply of lithium carbonate equivalents (LCE).
The study indicates that by 2030, annual LCE demand will reach 1.3 million tonnes in China, 792,000 metric tonnes in Europe, and 692,000 in the US. Yet, even if all current and planned mining projects are considered, domestic supply remains inadequate: China could produce up to 1.1 million tonnes, the US 610,000, and Europe only 325,000.
This shortfall could intensify global competition for lithium, primarily sourced from Australia, Chile, and Argentina. In 2023, these three countries accounted for nearly 80% of the world’s lithium.
Almost 50% of the world’s lithium was mined in Australia in 2023.
China currently dominates the global lithium market, and an increase in its imports could negatively impact other buyers. Researchers found that should China’s imports rise by 77%, the US and European imports could drop by 84% and 78%, respectively.
“Commodity trading tends to have a lot of continuity and path dependence,” Månberger explains.
“This is due to the established supply chain, contracts, and overall inertia in the market.”
Nonetheless, there are reasons for optimism. Increasing lithium prices may drive investments in new mining initiatives and motivate manufacturers to create more efficient battery technologies. Alternatives like sodium-ion batteries could also contribute to a more diverse market.
In the long term, recycling could assume a more substantial role. As first-generation EVs reach the end of their lifespans in the 2030s, materials extracted from older batteries could mitigate the need for new lithium extraction.
“I’m very optimistic,” says Månberger. “Historically, while it’s often straightforward to forecast potential bottlenecks and supply risks, innovations tend to emerge unpredictably when these challenges arise.”
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About our experts
Andre Manberger is a senior lecturer in Environmental and Energy Systems Studies at Lund University, Sweden. He leads the Misttra Mineral Governance Research Program, initiated in 2024, focusing on the rising demand for critical raw materials and addressing conflicts of interest in the low-carbon transition.
China has been recognized as one of the primary locations for the domestication of Wild boar (SUSSCROFA). However, tracing back to the initial stages has proven to be complex. In a recent study, archaeologists examined pig dental calculus (mineralized deposits) from two early Neolithic sites in the lower Jotz River area of southern China: Jintushan (8,300–7,800 years ago) and Kuafukiao (8,200–7,000 years ago). Their findings indicate that pigs consumed food and waste associated with humans, including cooked starchy plants and Human whipworm (Trichuris trichiura). Eggs likely originated from food preparation and feces contaminated materials.
The domestication of certain animals, including pigs, is often linked to the Neolithic Age, when humans started moving from foraging to agricultural practices around 10,000 years ago.
Wild boars are substantial, aggressive creatures that generally live independently, foraging for food in the forest floor.
They possess larger heads, mouths, and teeth compared to domestic pigs.
“Most wild boars exhibit natural aggression, though some can be quite friendly and unafraid of humans,” stated Dr. Ziajin Wang from Dartmouth University.
“Proximity to humans provided them with easier access to food, reducing the need for a robust physique.”
“Over time, their bodies and brains shrunk by about one-third.”
To investigate the domestication of pigs and other animals, archaeologists frequently analyze skeletal structures and track morphological changes over time.
“This method can present challenges since decreases in body size typically occur later in the domestication timeline,” Dr. Wang noted.
“Behavioral changes likely preceded physical alterations, making animals more docile than aggressive.”
Thus, for this study, Dr. Wang and his team applied alternative methodologies, documenting the diet of pigs throughout their lifespan via molars from 32 pig specimens.
Through microfossil analysis of pig teeth, they examined dental calculus from the two earliest human-occupied sites in Jintushan and Kuafukiao, dating back at least 8,000 years.
The researchers identified 240 starch granules, revealing that pigs consumed pre-cooked foods (such as rice and mountain moss) alongside unidentified tubers, acorns, and wild grasses.
“These plants were present during that era and were found in human habitats,” Dr. Wang explained.
Previous studies identified rice in both locations, especially in Kuahuqiao, which benefited from intensive rice farming due to its access to freshwater compared to coastal areas.
Additional research indicated starch residues in crushed stones and ceramics from Kuahuqiao.
“Since pigs cannot cook their own food, it is likely that they were fed or scavenged human leftovers,” asserted Dr. Wang.
Parasite eggs from humans, specifically whipworms (which mature within the human digestive system), were also detected in pig dental calculus.
These tan, soccer-shaped eggs were found in 16 pig tooth specimens.
The pigs must have consumed human feces or contaminated food and water from such waste.
“Pigs have a well-known penchant for consuming human waste, further indicating that these pigs likely cohabitated with humans,” Dr. Wang remarked.
Statistical analysis of the dental structures of Kuafukiao and Jintan pig specimens revealed that their teeth are smaller and comparable to those of modern domestic groups in China.
“As humans began to settle and cultivate their own food, wild boars would have been drawn to these settlements,” Dr. Wang stated.
“These communities generated substantial waste, attracting scavengers in search of food.
This dynamic in animal domestication is termed a symbiotic pathway, where animals are drawn to human environments without the need for direct human action in adopting them.
Data also suggests that early interactions may include domesticated pigs under some level of human control, indicating a trajectory of prey pathways in the domestication process.
“Our study indicates that certain wild boars began their journey toward domestication by foraging human waste,” Dr. Wang concluded.
“This research also underscores the potential connection between pig domestication and the transmission of parasitic diseases in early settled communities.”
The study was published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Jiajing Wang et al. 2025. Early evidence of pig domestication in the lower Yangtze region of southern China (8,000 cal. bp). PNAS 122 (24): E2507123122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2507123122
Recent data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration at the University of California, San Diego, indicates that the Earth’s atmosphere contains millions, and potentially tens of millions, of carbon dioxide molecules.
For the first time ever, the global average concentration of carbon dioxide—a greenhouse gas emitted from burning fossil fuels—surpassed 430 parts per million (ppm) in May. These measurements represent a record high, with an increase of over 3 ppm from last year.
The findings suggest that efforts to curtail greenhouse gas emissions and reverse the growing accumulation of CO2 are insufficient.
“Another year, another record,” stated Ralph Keeling, a professor of climate science, marine chemistry, and geochemistry at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in San Diego, California; he commented. “I am saddened.”
Carbon dioxide, like other greenhouse gases, traps heat from the sun and can persist in the atmosphere for centuries. High levels of these gases contribute to rising global temperatures and other adverse effects of climate change, including increased sea levels, polar ice melt, and more frequent extreme weather events.
Since the pre-industrial era, CO2 levels in the atmosphere have sharply risen, primarily due to human activities that release greenhouse gases.
Just a few decades ago, crossing the 400 ppm threshold seemed unimaginable. This means that for every million molecules of gas in the atmosphere, over 400 would be carbon dioxide. The planet reached this daunting milestone in 2013. Current warnings suggest that CO2 levels could approach 500 ppm within the next 30 years.
Human society is now in uncharted territory.
According to Keeling, the planet likely experienced such high atmospheric CO2 levels over 30 million years ago, during a time with very different climatic conditions.
He noted the remarkable speed at which CO2 levels are rising.
“It’s changing very quickly,” he told NBC News. “If humans had evolved in an environment with high CO2 levels, the absence of suitable habitats would have likely shaped our evolution. We could have adapted to that world, but instead, we’ve constructed society and civilization based on the climate of the past.”
CO2 levels are typically illustrated using the Keeling Curve, named in honor of Keeling’s father, Charles David Keeling, who began daily atmospheric CO2 measurements in 1958 from the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii.
The Keeling Curve prominently displays the steep rise in CO2 since the Industrial Revolution, attributed to human-induced climate change.
Ralph Keeling and his colleagues at the Scripps Oceanographic Institute reported that the average atmospheric CO2 concentration for May was 430.2 ppm, while NOAA’s Global Monitoring Institute, which has been conducting separate daily measurements since 1974, noted an average of 430.5 ppm for the same month.
Monitoring atmospheric carbon dioxide levels is crucial for understanding how human activities impact the Earth’s climate. These measurements also serve as key indicators of the planet’s overall health.
“These measurements provide insight into the health of the entire system with just one data point,” Keeling explained. “We achieve a comprehensive view of the atmosphere through relatively simple measurement techniques.”
Polar ecosystems are bolstered and enriched by birds that nest there seasonally, serving as keystone members of these ecosystems. Despite the significant ecological role of polar birds, the origins of high-center nests remain unclear due to limited fossil evidence. A recent study conducted by paleontologists explored an extensive collection of bird fossils from the late Cretaceous Purine Cream Formation in Alaska.
Illustration of Cretaceous birds alongside other dinosaurs from the same period. Image credit: Gabriel Ugueto.
“Birds have existed for 150 million years,” stated Lauren Wilson, a doctoral candidate at Princeton University.
“For a significant portion of that time, they constructed nests in the Arctic.”
In their research, Wilson and colleagues studied the bones and teeth of fossilized birds from the Alaska Prune Creek Formation, dating back 73 million years.
They identified various bird types, including land birds, seagull-like birds, and diving birds that bear similarities to some modern ducks and geese, all of which were nesting in the Arctic while dinosaurs roamed the same territory.
Before this research, the earliest known evidence of breeding birds in the Arctic or Antarctic was approximately 47 million years ago, following the asteroid impact that wiped out 75% of Earth’s species.
“This will extend the timeline by 25-30 million years for records of birds breeding in the polar regions,” remarked Dr. Pat Druckenmiller, director of the University of Alaska Museum.
“The Arctic is recognized as a modern nursery for birds.”
“Finding bird bones from the Cretaceous period is exceptionally rare,” Wilson noted.
“Discovering baby bird bones is almost unheard of, making these fossils particularly significant.”
“We conducted extensive mapping of Alaska for fossil birds—it wasn’t on anyone’s radar,” added Dr. Druckenmiller.
“Now, we are one of the premier locations in the country for bird fossils from the dinosaur age.”
“Given the richness of this information, these small bones and teeth offer exceptional insights into the fauna from that era.”
It remains uncertain whether these newly discovered specimens are the earliest recognized members of Neornithes, a category that encompasses all modern birds.
Some of the newly unearthed bones exhibit skeletal characteristics exclusive to this group. Additionally, like contemporary birds, some did not possess true teeth.
“If they belong to a modern bird lineage, they would represent the oldest fossils ever found,” explained Dr. Druckenmiller.
“Currently, the oldest such fossils are about 69 million years old.”
“However, establishing that requires the discovery of a partial or complete skeleton.”
Survey results I will be featured this week in the journal Science.
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Lauren N. Wilson et al. 2025. Evidence of bird nesting in the Arctic dates back to the Cretaceous period. Science 388 (6750): 974-978; doi: 10.1126/science.adt5189
The recently identified Transneptunian object, which was named in 2017, stands out as one of the most prominent objects in our solar system, measuring approximately 700 km in diameter, thus qualifying as a dwarf planet.
All cut-out images of 19 detections for 2017 2017. Image credits: Chen et al, arxiv: 2505.15806.
Transneptunian Objects (TNOs) are small celestial bodies that orbit the Sun at distances greater than that of Neptune.
In the 30 years following the discovery of the first TNO outside Pluto, numerous research initiatives have been launched to explore the expansive regions of the outer solar system, resulting in the identification of over 5,000 TNOs to date.
The newly discovered TNO is significant for two main reasons: its unique trajectory and substantial size.
“The object’s aphelion—the furthest point in its orbit from the Sun—is over 1,600 times the distance of Earth’s orbit,” states Dr. Sihao Chen, an astronomer at the Institute of Advanced Research and Boundary Research.
“Conversely, its perihelion—the closest point in its orbit to the Sun—is 44.5 times that of Earth’s orbit, akin to Pluto’s orbit.”
“This extreme trajectory takes around 25,000 years to complete, suggesting a complex gravitational history,” he adds.
“We likely experienced a close encounter with a massive planet, compelling us into this wide orbit,” comments Princeton University astronomer Dr. Elitas Yang.
“There may have been multiple phases in this transition.”
“The object might have initially been ejected into the Oort Cloud, the outermost region of the solar system, which is home to numerous comets.”
“Many extreme TNOs appear to follow similar trajectories, but 2017 OF201 stands out as an anomaly,” remarks Dr. Jiaxuan Li, also from Princeton University.
“This clustering is interpreted as indirect evidence suggesting the presence of another celestial body, often referred to as Planet X or Planet Nine, which could be influencing these objects through gravitational forces.”
“The existence of 2017 OF201 as an outlier in this clustering could potentially challenge this hypothesis.”
Astronomers estimate the diameter of 2017 OF201 to be 700 km, making it the second-largest object on such an extensive orbit.
“2017 OF201 can only be detected about 1% of the time when it is relatively close to us,” Dr. Chen notes.
“The presence of this solitary object implies that there may be around 100 other similar objects with comparable trajectories and sizes.”
Researchers discovered 2017 OF201 as part of an ongoing initiative to identify TNOs and potential new planets in the outer solar system.
The detection involved identifying bright spots in astronomical image databases from the Victor M. Blanco Telescope and the Canada France Hawaii Telescope (CFHT), as well as attempting to trace groups of possible spots that indicate TNO movement across the sky.
Scientists identified 2017 OF201 in 19 different exposures collected over a span of seven years.
“Although advancements in telescopic technology have allowed us to explore distant realms of the universe, much remains to be uncovered within our own solar system,” concludes Dr. Chen.
The team’s paper has been published online at arxiv.org.
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Sihao Cheng et al. 2025. Discovery of new planet candidates in extremely wide orbits: 2017 OF201. arxiv: 2505.15806
Researchers conducted an extensive study of bone artifacts from 26 Paleolithic caves and rock shelter locations in the Cantabria area of Spain and southwestern France.
173 work (a) and raw (b) taxonomic identification of bone objects: (1) blank, Tito Bastilo, sperm whale. (2) A launch point with a huge base, Islitz and a blue whale. (3) Lassempouy, Fin Whale; (4) Rascaldas, a sperm whale; (5) A launch point with a giant base, Hermitia and a gray whale. (6) Unclear object, St. Michelle, a sperm whale. (7-10) Santa Catalina, raw fragments of fin whale bones. Image credit: McGrath et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-59486-8.
“The largest creatures on Earth, whales were a vital source of nourishment and materials like oil and bone,” stated Dr. Christa McGrath, the lead author and an archaeologist from the University of Barcelona, along with her co-researchers.
“Hence, they are thought to have been instrumental in the survival of various coastal human populations.”
“Nonetheless, tracing the origins of human and near-human interactions is challenging since coastal archaeological sites are particularly prone to the impacts of rising sea levels, complicating the preservation of evidence regarding early human-mammal relationships.”
The authors examined 83 bone tools from various cave and rock shelter locations around the Bay of Biscay in Spain, along with an additional 90 bones from the Santa Catalina Cave in Biscay province.
Utilizing mass spectrometry and radiocarbon dating methods, they identified the species and age of the artifacts.
The earliest two dates were from the Cantabrian sites of Las Caño and Ergeyo, which dated to 20,200-19,600 and 19,600-19,000 years ago, respectively.
“Our findings show that the bones came from at least five large whale species, with the oldest dating back around 19,000-20,000 years,” mentioned Senior author Dr. Jean Mark Petitillon, an archaeologist at Toulouse-Jean-Jalaise University and CNRS University.
“This provides some of the earliest known proof of humans utilizing whales as tools.”
“Zoomorphometry is an effective method for studying past marine mammal diversity, especially when key morphological features are absent in the bone remains and artifacts.
“We identified gray whales that not only existed in Biscay Bay but are now confined to the North Pacific and Arctic oceans.”
“Moreover, chemical analysis of the bones indicates that the feeding patterns of these ancient whales varied slightly from those of contemporary ones, highlighting potential shifts in behavior and marine environments.”
“This discovery not only enhances our understanding of the early human use of whale remains but also illuminates the role whales held in ancient ecosystems.”
The team’s study is set to be published in the journal Nature Communications.
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K. McGrath et al. 2025. Late Paleolithic whale bone tools in the Bay of Biscay reveal insights into human and whale ecology. Nature Communications 16, 4646; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-59486-8
Kentucky is often referred to as the land of horses, bourbon, and bluegrass, and it will soon welcome a large influx of Cicadas.
Billions of these winged insects will begin to emerge from their infamous underground mating rituals, having spent weeks below the surface.
This year, Cicadas are expected to emerge in nearly 12 states, with the highest concentration occurring in Kentucky and Tennessee. They will also be spotted in parts of Illinois, Indiana, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and New York.
Some locals refer to them simply as “Chicada” this season due to their prominence in Kentucky.
“They’re the experts in entomology at the University of Kentucky,” noted Jonathan Larson, assistant professor of entomology.
Seven different types of cicadas can be found in North America, appearing every 13 or 17 years depending on their species. USDA Forest Bureau
These are known as regular Cicadas, which spend a predetermined number of years underground before surfacing to find mates. Seven species of these cicadas exist in North America, emerging either every 13 years or every 17 years.
This year’s Cicadas belong to Brood XIV, which follows a 17-year cycle.
Larson remarked that the nickname “bourbon chick” fits well, as the lifecycle of these insects parallels the distillation process of Kentucky’s renowned whiskey.
“We let the bourbon age,” Larson explained. “It’s placed in barrels in the dark for an extended period, which is somewhat similar.”
Larson mentioned that sightings of Cicadas have already started in southern Kentucky counties, but the main event will kick off in the coming weeks as the soil temperature rises.
“I anticipate that in the next two weeks, we will really see them everywhere,” he said.
When that time comes, certain areas will be literally swarming with Cicadas. However, it’s not just their sheer numbers that create an unforgettable experience; it’s the distinct high-pitched noise they make as well.
Cicadas can produce sounds reaching up to 100 decibels, which is actually their mating call used to attract females. After emerging, females only have a few weeks to find mates and lay eggs before they die.
“It’s all wild and beautiful, strange and wonderful,” Larson enthused.
While Cicadas pose no danger to humans, they can become quite bothersome, particularly when large amounts of their bodies accumulate post-mortem.
“During the early stages, there’s no unpleasant odor, but about five weeks later, if enough die in one spot, a decomposing smell can develop,” Larson noted.
Although thousands of cicada species are found globally, regular cicadas are unique for spending the majority of their lives underground, feeding on tree roots, before surfacing every 13 or 17 years.
Typically, the first Cicadas surface in early to mid-May, but most often they emerge in June when temperatures rise. Larson stated that cicadas generally wait for the soil to reach approximately 64 degrees Fahrenheit before breaking through.
Their reliance on environmental signals raises questions about the impact of climate change on Cicadas and their mating rituals.
“If it’s warmer sooner this year, they might start emerging earlier than expected,” Larson explained, noting the potential for extreme weather events like flooding or freezing, which have been prevalent in Kentucky recently.
This area remains a focal point of research as scientists investigate the long-term effects of climate change on Cicada populations.
In the meantime, Larson and other entomology enthusiasts from various states are gearing up to witness this remarkable phenomenon.
“I hope people take the time to experience it,” Larson encouraged. “What’s happening here is unique; you won’t find this anywhere else, so we suggest engaging in Cicada tourism if you can.”
Citizen scientists can also contribute to research by snapping photos and recording geographical details of sightings using the CICADA SAFARI app.
Paleontologists have uncovered fossilized tracks of reptile-like creatures from the early Carboniferous Tonan period, approximately 355 million years ago, within the snow plain formation in Victoria, Australia. This discovery indicates that such animals originated from Gondwana, where Australia was centrally located.
Artist’s impression of early reptile track makers from 355 million years ago. Image credit: Martin Ambrozik.
Tetrapods evolved from a group of fish that transitioned from aquatic to terrestrial life around 390 million years ago during the Devonian period.
These ancestral beings are the forebears of all modern vertebrates inhabiting land, including amphibians and various mammals, reptiles, and birds.
The oldest known amniotic fossils previously discovered date back to the late Carboniferous period, roughly 320 million years ago.
The findings from this 355 million-year-old snow plains slab, found by two amateur paleontologists, reveal that reptiles were already present 35 million years earlier than previously thought, at the dawn of the Carboniferous.
“Upon recognizing this, I understood that we had the oldest evidence globally of animals akin to reptiles, pushing back the evolutionary record by at least 35 million years beyond prior findings in the Northern Hemisphere,” stated Professor John Long from Flinders University.
“The fossilized tracks uncovered in the Mansfield region of northern Victoria, Australia, were created by creatures resembling small, agile, Goanna-like animals.”
A slab containing 355 million-year-old tracks from Australia’s Snowy Plains formation. Image credit: Long et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-08884-5.
“When I initially encountered this specimen, I was astounded. Just seconds later, I noticed that the nail impressions were remarkably preserved,” said Dr. Grzegorz Niedwiedzki, a researcher at Uppsala University.
“Nails are characteristic of all early amniotic species but are absent in other quadruped lineages,” added Per Erik Ahlberg, a professor at Uppsala University.
“The combination of nail marks and foot shapes suggests that the track maker was a primitive reptile.”
According to the research team, this discovery profoundly impacts the understanding of early tetrapod evolution.
Although all stem tetrapods and stem amniotes must have emerged during the Devonian period, evidence suggests that tetrapod evolution progressed significantly faster than previously believed, with far fewer Devonian tetrapods than assumed.
“Skeletons can reveal much about an animal’s capabilities, but trackways capture behavior and illustrate how the animal functioned,” explained Dr. Alice Clement from Flinders University.
“This new fossilized trackway we examined dates from the early Carboniferous, making accurate age identification crucial. We achieved this by comparing the various fish fauna in these rocks to similar morphotypes found in well-dated sedimentary layers from across the globe, providing a timeline constraint of approximately 10 million years.”
“This finding redefines a segment of evolutionary history,” remarked Dr. Gillian Garvey from La Trobe University.
“Much has occurred in Australia and Gondwana, indicating that the narrative is still unfolding.”
The findings are detailed in a paper published in the journal Nature.
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Ja Long et al. Early amniote tracks revise the timeline of tetrapod evolution. Nature published online on May 14th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-08884-5
Solar particle events from the sun are infrequent but powerful, significantly influencing the creation of cosmic genic isotopes. For instance, radiocarbon (14c) in the terrestrial environment leaves a distinct mark on natural archives, such as dating artifacts. Over the last 12,000 years, eight such events have been identified, the most notable occurring in 775 AD. Recently, a candidate for a new extreme solar particle event was discovered, marked by the largest known radiocarbon peak dating back to 12350 BC. A recent study indicates this event was 18% more intense than the 775 CE event and likely transpired between January and April of that year, with early March being the most probable time frame.
Illustration of the artist of Solar Storm. Image credit: NASA.
“Solar particle storms significantly enhance the natural production of cosmic isotopes, such as radiocarbon, in the atmosphere due to cosmic rays from galaxies,” stated Kseniia Golubenko, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Oulu, along with her colleagues.
“Such enhancements, preserved in annual tree rings, act as clear timestamps in the universe, enabling absolute dating of tree samples.”
“These dramatic spikes, referred to as Miyake Events, are named after the Japanese researcher who first identified them. They provide crucial data for scientists examining solar activity, ancient Earth systems, and space climate.”
“Miyake events help us pinpoint the exact calendar year of floating archaeological timelines,” added Professor Ilya Usoskin from Oulu University.
“The radiocarbon signals from such events have enabled researchers to accurately date Viking settlements in Newfoundland and Neolithic communities in Greece.”
For the reconstruction of solar particle storms under ancient glacial climate conditions, the authors developed and utilized a new chemical climate model called SOCOL:14C-EX.
This model was successfully validated using tree ring data from the 775 CE event and applied to ice age conditions to analyze the event from 12350 BC.
“The ancient events of 12350 BC are the only known extreme solar particle occurrences aside from the stable warm climate of the last 12,000 years,” Dr. Golubenko stated.
“Our estimates reveal that, compared to the largest events of the modern satellite era, the Particle Storm of 2005 was over 500 times weaker.”
“Other documented solar particle storms took place in 994 BC, 663 BC, 5259 BC, and 7176 BC, with several more candidates currently under investigation.”
“The 12350 BCE occurrence also establishes new worst-case scenarios,” she added.
“Understanding its magnitude is vital for assessing the risks posed by future solar storms.”
The team’s paper was published in the journal Earth and Planet Science Letters.
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Kseniia Golubenko et al. 2025. The new SOCOL:14C-EX model reveals that radiocarbon spikes from the late glacial age of 12350 BC were caused by record extreme solar storms. Earth and Planet Science Letters 661:119383; doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2025.119383
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