The wave functions of atoms can expand without altering their shape
ShutterStock / Bolbik
Extremely cold atoms show a unique ability to self-integrate their quantum states, allowing for imaging with remarkable clarity. This capability aids researchers in exploring the behaviors of quantum particles within unusual materials like superconductors and superfluids.
Mapping the quantum states of atoms, particularly the shape of their wavefunction, poses significant challenges—especially when atoms are densely packed in solids and interact closely. To delve into the quantum behaviors of such materials, scientists convert quantum properties into extremely cold atoms, which they can manipulate with lasers and electromagnetic fields, arranging them into closely packed patterns that mimic atomic structures in solid materials.
Sandra Brantetter from the University of Heidelberg, along with her team, has developed methods to expand the wave functions of hyperpolar atoms by a factor of 50, enhancing their detectability.
Starting with around 30 lithium atoms cooled to just a few millionths above absolute zero, researchers trapped these atoms in a flat configuration using lasers, allowing for precise control of their quantum states. The team then manipulated the properties of the light used, effectively enlarging the atoms’ wave functions while carefully managing the trapping conditions to maintain stability, akin to fine-tuning a microscope’s lens, according to Brandstetter.
Following these adjustments, the researchers employed a reliable atomic detection technique to visualize wave functions in detail that were previously unattainable. “When imaging a system without prior magnification, the result is merely a singular blob, obscuring any structural insights,” Brandstetter explains.
Utilizing this innovative technique, the team examined various atomic configurations. For instance, they successfully imaged a pair of atoms interacting and forming molecules; the magnification permitted them to distinguish between each individual atom. The most complex setup involved 12 interacting atoms, each exhibiting different quantum spins that dictate the material’s magnetic properties.
Jonathan Mortlock notes that although similar magnification methods have been explored at Durham University, this experiment is the first to utilize such an approach for identifying the quantum characteristics of individual atoms in an array—details once deemed inaccessible.
The team aims to apply this method to study the phenomena when two quantum particles known as fermions coalesce into liquids that exhibit zero viscosity or conduct electricity with complete efficiency. Understanding these states could pave the way for the development of superior electronic devices. However, researchers must first achieve a deeper comprehension of how fermions assemble and the implications of pairing within the quantum state. Brandstetter states that new techniques now allow for the creation of ultra-cold fermionic atoms and the imaging of their enlarged wave functions.
Horseshoe-shaped crabs are ancient creatures with an evolutionary history that stretches back 450 million years (during the Ordovician period) and are often regarded as “living fossils.” Paleontologists from West Virginia University have identified a new genus and species of true horseshoe-shaped crabs from Silurian specimens found in Indiana, USA. This species fills an 80 million-year gap in the fossil record of horseshoe-shaped crabs and exhibits a morphology reminiscent of those from the Ordovician period.
Ciurcalimulus discobolus holotype. Scale bar – 5 mm. Image credit: James C. Lamsdell, doi: 10.1098/rspb.2025.0874.
“Horseshoe-shaped crabs (order Xiphosura) are aquatic arthropods characterized by the fusion of their body segments in the thoracic area,” stated Dr. James Ramsdell from West Virginia University in his recent publication.
“Currently, there are four known living species, each exhibiting isolated geographical distributions: one inhabiting the Western Atlantic (from the East Coast of Canada to the Gulf of Mexico) and three found in the Western Pacific and Northeast Indian Oceans (from southern Japan to the East Coast of India).”
“This group is widely recognized as a classic example of an evolutionarily conservative lineage, often referred to as ‘living fossils.’ However, recent studies indicate that they undergo ecological transitions tied to significant morphological changes within the group.”
“The evolutionary history of horseshoe-shaped crabs dates back to two species from North America (450 million years ago) and one slightly older species (early Ordovician, 480 million years ago) from Morocco, which is pending formal description.”
“The origins and early evolution of horseshoe-shaped crabs remain largely unknown, with an 80 million-year gap between these Ordovician species and the first record of Xiphosurida (horseshoe-shaped crabs with a reduced retroabdomen, dating back 370 million years).”
“The absence of Silurian horseshoe-shaped crab fossils occurs during a period of rapid diversification of other aquatic groups, complicating efforts to pinpoint the timing of the origins of Xiphosurids.”
The new species of horseshoe-shaped crab thrived during the Silurian period, approximately 424 million years ago.
It has been designated as Ciurcalimulus discobolus, known from a single specimen discovered in 1975 by JR Samuel J. Sieuca, found in the Kokomo member of the Wabash Formation in Indiana.
“Kokomo members consist of finely stacked dark drostons reaching up to 30 meters, and their age is considered Silurian based on Conodont data,” the paleontologist noted.
“The Kokomo region is primarily recognized for its endemic Euripterid fauna, which exists on a single horizon and is linked to significant extinction events. In this area, various algae of Euripterid and Brachiopod coexist, sometimes alongside corals, above the corals at the upper levels of the sub-arm phyla.”
“Ciurcalimulus discobolus is derived from Euripterid-rich horizons and is preserved similarly to Euripterids, featuring a compressed fossil with well-defined cuticles.”
Ciurcalimulus discobolus differentiates itself from other early horseshoe-shaped crabs by a distinctive combination of traits that are not found in other species.
“Ciurcalimulus bears resemblance to the Ordovician Lunataspis, characterized by a distinctly rounded prosomal shell and a semicircular thorax that lacks lateral segment boundaries or prominent projections, along with a multisphere retroabdominal region,” the researchers explained.
“Nonetheless, the new genus Ciurcalimulus is set apart from Lunataspis due to the absence of axial nodes on the chest and the marginal edge of the thorax being defined dorsally by fur.”
“The Silurian era Ciurcalimulus maintains the common morphology observed in Ordovician species, suggesting its survival beyond the Ordovician mass extinction had a limited impact on the evolution of horseshoe-shaped crabs.”
“Throughout their evolutionary journey, horseshoe-shaped crabs have achieved a global distribution,” he continued.
“However, the first known horseshoe-shaped crabs hail from ancient Roursia and Siberia while the oldest can be traced back to Laurentia.”
“The discovery of Ciurcalimulus in Laurentia indicates it may be a crucial area for the evolution of early horseshoe crabs, but it is essential to acknowledge the strong historical bias in paleontological studies focused on European and former colonial regions.”
“This suggests that Laurentia may have been sampled more intensively than other ancient continents, such as Gondwana. This is a vital consideration given that the oldest horseshoe-shaped crabs currently identified are undescribed species from Morocco.”
The paper was published on June 18 in Proceedings of the Royal Society B.
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James C. Ramsdell. 2025. The first Silurian horseshoe-shaped crab reveals insights into the ground plans of Xiphosurans. Proc. R. Soc. B 292 (2049): 20250874; doi: 10.1098/rspb.2025.0874
During the Mesozoic era, from 252 to 66 million years ago, analyses of the oxygen isotope composition in dinosaur teeth revealed that the atmosphere contained significantly more carbon dioxide than it does today, with global plant photosynthesis levels roughly double those of the present.
Fossil teeth of Camarasaurus from the Morrison Formation in the US. Image credit: sauriermuseum aathal.
A study conducted by Göttingen University and researcher Dr. Dingsu Feng examined the dental enamel of dinosaurs that roamed North America, Africa, and Europe during the Late Jurassic and Late Cretaceous periods.
“Enamel is one of the most stable biological materials,” they explained.
“It captures different oxygen isotopes based on the air dinosaurs inhaled with each breath.”
“The isotope ratios of oxygen reflect fluctuations in atmospheric carbon dioxide and plant photosynthesis.”
“This connection allows us to infer insights about the climate and vegetation of the dinosaur era.”
“During the late Jurassic, about 150 million years ago, the air contained four times more carbon dioxide than before industrialization, prior to significant human emissions of greenhouse gases.”
“In the late Cretaceous, around 730 to 66 million years ago, carbon dioxide levels were three times higher than today.”
Teeth from two dinosaur species, the Tyrannosaurus Rex and Kaatedocus siberi, showed an exceptionally unique oxygen isotope composition.
This phenomenon is indicative of carbon dioxide spikes linked to major geological events like volcanic eruptions—such as the massive eruption of the Deccan Traps in India at the close of the Cretaceous period.
The heightened photosynthetic activity of plants at that time on both land and water is likely associated with elevated carbon dioxide levels and higher average annual temperatures.
This research marks a milestone in paleoclimatology. Historically, soil and marine proxy carbonates have served as the primary tools for reconstructing past climates.
Marine proxies, which are indicators of sediment fossils and chemical signatures, help scientists comprehend ancient marine environmental conditions, yet these methods often involve uncertainties.
“Our approach offers a fresh perspective on the planet’s history,” Dr. Fenn remarked.
“It paves the way to use fossilized tooth enamel for probing the composition of Earth’s atmosphere and plant productivity during that era.”
“Understanding these factors is crucial for grasping long-term climate dynamics.”
“Dinosaurs may well become new climate scientists, as their teeth have recorded climate data for over 150 million years. At last, we have received their message.”
Study published on August 4, 2025, in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Dingsu Feng et al. 2025. Mesozoic Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations reconstructed from the enamel of dinosaur teeth. PNAS 122 (33): E2504324122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2504324122
Paleontologists at the National Museum d’Historel in Tel Aviv University and Delige University, France, have reported a fascinating discovery involving a combination of Neanderthal and Homo sapiens skeletal features in a 5-year-old child found in 1931 at Skhūl Cave, located on Mount Carmel, Israel.
A group of Neanderthals in a cave. Image credit: Tyler B. Tretsven.
Mugarat Es Skhūl (Skhūl Cave) was uncovered in 1928 by Theodore McConne and Dorothy Garrod on Mount Carmel, Israel.
The excavation revealed skeletal remains of seven adults and three children, alongside isolated bones linked to 16 additional individuals associated with the Fauna and Musteria tool industry.
The fossils belong to Homo sapiens, or “anatomically modern humans,” dating back approximately 140,000 years to the end of the Mid Pleistocene.
The initial discoveries in the cave were of children aged three to five years.
A recent study led by Professor Israel Hirschkowitz of Tel Aviv University indicates that the child’s skull resembles the overall shape of Homo sapiens, particularly in the skull vault, with inner ear structures characteristic of the intracranial blood supply system and features of the mandible akin to Neanderthals.
“This finding highlights the earliest known human fossils exhibiting morphological traits from both of these groups,” he stated.
“This study indicates that the skeleton of the five-year-old child is a result of ongoing genetic intermingling with the local Neanderthal and Homo sapiens populations,” he added.
“Genetic research over the last decade has demonstrated that these two groups exchanged genes,” remarked Professor Hirschkowitz.
“Even today, 40,000 years after the last Neanderthals vanished, 2-6% of our genomes can be traced back to Neanderthals,” he continued.
“However, these gene exchanges occurred much later, between 60,000-40,000 years ago. In this case, we are addressing human fossils from 140,000 years ago.”
Traditionally, Neanderthals were thought to have evolved in Europe and migrated to Israeli territories approximately 70,000 years ago due to advancing glaciers.
A 2021 study revealed that early Neanderthals inhabited Israeli lands around 400,000 years ago.
This type of human is referred to as “Nescher Ramra.” Homo might have interbred with Homo sapiens, a group that began migrating out of Africa around 200,000 years ago – and according to findings from the current study, they did breed.
The children from Skhūl Cave represent the earliest fossil evidence of the social and biological bonds formed between these two groups over thousands of years.
Ultimately, local Neanderthals dwindled as they were absorbed into the Homo sapiens population, similar to Neanderthals in later Europe.
“The fossils we researched are the earliest known tangible proof of mating between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens,” Professor Hirschkowitz commented.
“In 1998, child skeletons were unearthed in Portugal, displaying features from both human groups.”
“However, that skeleton, known as the ‘Lapedo Valley Child,’ dates back just 28,000 years.”
Historically, anthropologists have attributed the fossils found in Skhūl Cave, alongside those from the Caffze cave near Nazareth, to early groups of Homo sapiens.
“Current research reveals that some fossils from the Skhūl cave are indeed the product of continuous genetic intermingling with local and ancient Neanderthal populations of Homo sapiens,” he concluded.
Survey results were published in the journal on June 14th, l’anthropologie.
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Bastien Bouvier et al. 2025. New analysis of Skhūl child’s neurological and mandible: taxonomic conclusions and cultural implications. l’anthropologie 129(3): 103385; doi: 10.1016/j.anthro.2025.103385
Designated FRB 20250316A, this event, referred to as rbfloat (the brightest radio flash recorded to date), took place in the outer region of the nearby Spiral Galaxy NGC 4141.
Infrared image of Galaxy NGC 4141 featuring the rapid wireless burst FRB 20250316A. Image credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/CFA/Blanchard et al. / P. Edmonds.
The Fast Radio Burst (FRB) is a brief yet intense explosion of radio waves, primarily originating from distances beyond our galaxy.
The first FRB was detected in 2007, but an earlier observation was made six years ago in archival data from the Magellan Cloud Pulsar Survey.
These bursts last only a millisecond, hinting at the peculiar distributed pattern of radio pulsars.
They emit as much energy in a millisecond as the Sun releases over 10,000 years, yet the underlying cause remains a mystery.
Some theories propose that the characteristics of these bursts align with technologies of advanced civilizations, potentially arising from magnetized neutron stars or black holes interacting with surrounding gas.
The FRB 20250316A event was discovered on March 16, 2025. Located in the constellation Major Ursa, NGC 4141 is about 130 million light-years away.
Detection was accomplished using the Chime Outgar Array, where Canadian radio telescopes saw upgrades enabling precise FRB localization.
“With the Chime Outrigger, we’ve finally managed to capture these fleeting cosmic signals in real-time. We can narrow them down to specific stellar environments and individual galaxies,” noted one researcher.
Subsequently, Dr. Cook and her team employed the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope to seek infrared signals from the same location.
“This was a unique opportunity to direct Webb’s powerful infrared capabilities toward the FRB’s position,” said Dr. Peter Blanchard, an astronomer at Harvard’s Center for Astrophysics.
“We were rewarded with remarkable results, revealing a faint source of infrared light very close to where the radio burst took place.”
“This could be the first object linked to an FRB found in another galaxy,” he added.
The infrared data from Webb indicated an object named NIR-1, likely a giant red star or possibly a giant middle-aged star.
A red giant is a sun-like star nearing the end of its life, expanding and becoming brighter, while the other possibilities are larger than the Sun.
Although these stars may not directly generate the FRB, they could possess invisible companions, such as neutron stars, that strip material from the red giants and massive stars. This mass transfer process might have triggered the FRB.
The advantages of a relatively close and precise location, coupled with sharp Webb images, permit the clearest observation of individual stars located near the FRB.
“Numerous theories have been proposed to explain FRBs, but up until now, there has been no data to test most of these ideas,” stated Professor Ed Berger from the Harvard & Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
“Isolating individual stars near the FRB is a significant improvement over previous searches, and we’re beginning to understand the stellar systems that could produce these powerful bursts.”
However, the red giant or massive star might not be connected to the FRB, prompting researchers to explore a larger area for further clues.
They discovered that the FRB was situated near a small cluster of young massive stars.
Given this positioning, they theorized that the giant stars in the cluster may collapse and form magnetars, leading to the FRB.
Magnetars are too dim to be directly seen in Webb’s observations.
The team examined various other potential explanations for the FRB, including objects from dense clusters of older stars and more giant stars.
These alternatives were deemed unlikely as they were brighter than the faint stars they observed.
“Regardless of whether the connection to the stars is real or not, we’ve learned a great deal about the origins of these bursts,” said Dr. Blanchard.
“If the double star system isn’t the solution, our findings imply that isolated magnetars could be responsible for the FRB.”
Another possible explanation for the infrared signals is that they may be reflected light from flares associated with the objects that triggered the radio bursts, potentially from magnetars. If this is the case, the infrared rays might diminish over time.
The team suggests more observations with Webb to search for such variations.
“We have taken a novel approach to unraveling the mystery of FRBs using Webb’s precise imaging, focusing on the exact position of the emitted FRBs,” Professor Berger remarked.
“We cannot predict when and where the next FRB will emerge, so we must be prepared to deploy Webb promptly when the moment arises.”
The team’s research paper was published in Astrophysics Journal Letters.
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Peter K. Blanchard et al. 2025. apjl 989, L49; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ADF29F
A newly identified quadruple star system, referred to as UPM J1040-3551 AABBAB, comprises a pair of cold brown dwarfs along with young red dwarfs.
An artistic depiction of the UPM J1040-3551 system amidst the Milky Way, as seen by the ESA Gaia satellite. On the left, the UPM J1040-3551 AA&AB is portrayed as a distant bright orange dot, showcasing the two M-shaped stars in orbit. Conversely, in the foreground on the right, a pair of cold brown dwarfs – UPM J1040-3551 BA & BB – have been on a long trajectory from each other for decades, collectively orbiting the UPM J1040-3551 AAB in a vast orbit taking over 100,000 years to complete. Image credits: Jiaxin Zhong / Zenghua Zhang.
The UPM J1040-3551 AABBAB system is situated in the constellation Antlia, approximately 82 light-years from Earth.
In this system, AAB denotes the brighter pairs AA and AB, while BAB refers to the more distant sub-components BA and BB.
“The hierarchical structure of this system makes the findings particularly intriguing, as it is essential for maintaining stable orbits over extended periods,” explains Professor Zenghua Zhang from Nanjing University.
“These two objects have orbited individually for decades, but collectively they have circled a common center of mass for more than 100,000 years.”
The two pairs are separated by 1,656 astronomical units (Au), where 1 Au represents the average distance from the Earth to the Sun.
The brighter pair, UPM J1040-3551 AAB, appears orange when viewed in visible wavelengths.
These stars possess a temperature of 3,200 K (approximately 2,900 degrees Celsius) and have a mass about 17% that of the Sun.
With a visual magnitude of 14.6, this pair is roughly 100,000 times dimmer than Polaris, the North Star, when viewed at visible wavelengths.
The fainter pair, UPM J1040-3551 BAB, comprises two cooler brown dwarfs that emit almost no visible light and are about 1,000 times dimmer than the AAB pair in near-infrared wavelengths.
These brown dwarfs are classified as T-type, with temperatures of 820 K (550 degrees Celsius) and 690 K (420 degrees Celsius), respectively.
“This is the first documented case of a quadruple system featuring a pair of T-type brown dwarfs orbiting two stars,” states Dr. Maricruz Gálvez-Ortiz, an astronomer at the Spanish Center for Astronomy.
“This discovery presents a unique opportunity for studying these enigmatic objects.”
“Brown dwarfs, alongside a diverse array of stellar companions, are invaluable for establishing age benchmarks,” comments Hugh Jones, a professor at the University of Hertfordshire.
“The UPM J1040-3551 system is particularly significant, as H-Alpha emissions from the bright pairs suggest that the system is relatively young, estimated to be between 200 and 300 million years old.”
The research team is optimistic that high-resolution imaging techniques could eventually resolve the brown dwarf pairs, facilitating precise measurements of their orbital dynamics and masses.
“This system offers a dual benefit for brown dwarf science,” remarks Adam Burgaster, a professor at the University of California, San Diego.
“It serves as both an age benchmark for calibrating cold atmospheric models and a mass benchmark for validating evolutionary models, provided that we can effectively resolve and track these brown dwarf binaries.”
“The discovery of the UPM J1040-3551 system marks a significant milestone in enhancing our understanding of these elusive objects and the various formation pathways of stellar systems near our Solar System.”
Findings are detailed in a study published in Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.
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Zh Zhang et al. 2025. Benchmark Brown Dwarf – I. Blue M2 + T5 Wide Binary and Possible Young People [M4 + M4] + [T7 + T8] Hierarchical rectangles. mnras 542(2): 656-668; doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf895
Hubble Space Telescope Image of Interstellar Comet 3i/Atlas. The telescope tracked the comet, causing background stars to appear as streaks.
NASA, ESA, David Jewitt (UCLA)/Joseph DePasquale (STScI)
The telescope’s observations of the Interstellar Comet 3i/Atlas have shown it resembles a comet found beyond our solar system. Intriguing aspects, like the substantial amounts of water detected even far from the sun, may shed light on the ancient stellar system from which it originated.
Objects from other solar systems that pass through ours are extremely rare. Discovered in July, 3i/Atlas is the third such interstellar visitor, following Oumuamua in 2017 and Borisov in 2019. Remarkably, its visit has only been a few months long.
Scientists speculate that its high speed may indicate that it originates from a star system billions of years older than our own. Initial estimates suggested it has a diameter of approximately 20 kilometers, but details about the extensive plume of water and gas remain limited.
Toni Santana Ross from the University of Barcelona and colleagues have utilized ground-based telescopes to observe the comet and its tail, finding it contains moderate amounts of dust. Notably, the dust appears to increase as the comet approaches the sun, mirroring patterns seen in comets from our outer solar system. “It’s a typical object; there’s nothing particularly strange about it,” states Santana Ross.
Astronomers have also monitored comets via space. Researcher collaborating found that the Hubble Space Telescope might estimate the comet’s size between 320 meters and 5.6 kilometers, and it likely started off much smaller.
Comets usually contain ice, which vaporizes as they near the sun, creating water vapor in their tails. Utilizing the Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory Satellite, Zexi Xing from Auburn University has detected water in the comet’s tail located significantly farther from the sun than is typical for comets. The amount of water detected suggests that about 20% of the comet’s surface is responsible for this production, exceeding typical solar system comet proportions.
Such prolific water generation may indicate that 3i/Atlas originates from a star system much older than ours, hypothesizes Cyrielle Opitom at the University of Edinburgh. This is due to older stellar systems generally having higher water content compared to other molecules. “It might be that because it formed earlier, it retains more water than other molecules, but it’s premature to reach a conclusion,” she remarks.
Astronomers are also scouring historical data to determine if the telescope mistakenly detected a comet. Adina Feinstein and her team at Michigan State University have found that the transit exoplanet survey satellite (TESS) was operationally searching for planets around other stars and incidentally captured a comet between May 7 and June 3. “It just happened that we were observing the exact region where 3i/Atlas was at that moment,” says Feinstein.
The comet was found to be surprisingly bright at that time, suggesting it was releasing significant amounts of water or gas even at considerable distances from the sun. “We didn’t detect transits in regions of our solar system where water would typically start to react,” highlights Feinstein.
In this distant region, the likelihood of finding water is low, with gases such as carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide being more common, according to Opitom. “This is a pattern seen in comets from our solar system; they can exhibit activity at much greater distances due to these volatile materials.”
Yet, the fact that it was active so far from the sun could indicate that this comet has not been significantly exposed to starlight throughout its life, notes Matthew Jenge from Imperial College London.
“What this implies is that this comet was ejected from the fringes of another solar system,” Genge describes. While the exact cause of its ejection is uncertain, it’s possible that gravitational forces from a nearby star could have set it on a trajectory towards us, he explains.
Opitom mentions that the James Webb Space Telescope has recently conducted its observations and that astronomers will analyze the data in the upcoming weeks, promising more insights into 3i/Atlas soon.
As comets approach their closest point to the sun in October, astronomers will have the opportunity to measure the gases they emit. This will provide important insights not only into the characteristics of the comet itself but also into the composition of the molecules in its active tail, which may reveal details about the formation of 3i/Atlas, according to Opitom.
Similar to previous interstellar objects, speculations about potential alien technology exist, but Santana Ross has found no supporting evidence. “If you take a holiday photo and see something tall with a long neck and four legs, you might think of it as an alien, but it’s most likely a giraffe,” he quips. “There’s no reason to believe this is anything unusual or evidence of something extraordinary.”
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Astronomers have discovered and quantified the largest black hole ever found. This colossal black hole approaches the theoretical maximum size allowable in the universe and is approximately 10,000 times the mass of Sagittarius A*, the supermassive black hole located at the center of the Milky Way.
This Hubble image features a horseshoe-shaped gravity lens (from center to right). Behind it is a blue galaxy, distorted into a horseshoe-shaped ring by the space-time distortion caused by the massive orange galaxies in the foreground. Image credits: NASA/ESA/Hubble.
The newly identified ultramassive black hole resides in the Space Horseshoe Gravity Lens System, which is among the largest known strong gravitational lenses.
This lens system, referred to as SDSS J1148+1930 and CSWA 1, lies 5 billion light years away in the Leo constellation.
“Typically, mass measurements of black holes in such distant systems can only be done when they are active,” remarks PhD Carlos Melo from Universidade Federativa do Rio Grande do Sul.
“However, these estimates based on accretion are often fraught with significant uncertainty.”
“Our method integrates strong gravitational lenses with stellar dynamics to yield more direct and reliable measurements, even in these distant systems.”
“The black holes we discovered rank among the top 10 largest black holes known, possibly even the largest,” adds Professor Thomas Collett from the University of Portsmouth.
“Most existing mass measurements for black holes are indirect and come with high uncertainties, so I can’t definitively say which one is the largest. But our new method provides much greater confidence in the mass of this black hole.”
The research team employed a synergy of gravitational lenses and stellar motions to locate the space horseshoe-shaped black holes.
This technique is considered the gold standard for black hole mass measurement, but galaxies are often too small in the sky to resolve areas containing these supermassive black holes, limiting effectiveness in distant contexts.
“The inclusion of a gravitational lens allowed us to explore further into the cosmos,” noted Professor Collett.
“We observed the influence of a black hole in two specific ways: it alters the path light takes as it navigates through the black hole, and stars in the galaxy’s core are observed moving incredibly fast (almost 400 km/s).”
“By correlating these two measurements, we can confidently establish the black hole’s authenticity.”
“This discovery pertains to a ‘dormant’ black hole, which does not actively consume material at the time of observation,” Melo explained.
“The detection relied solely on its immense gravitational pull and its effects on surrounding matter.”
“What’s particularly thrilling is that this method enables us to identify and gauge the masses of these elusive supermassive black holes across the universe, even when they lie completely dormant.”
An intriguing aspect of the Cosmic Horseshoe system is that its host galaxy is classified as a fossil group.
Fossil groups represent the final phase of the universe’s most colossal gravitationally-bound structures, formed from the collapse of a single, large galaxy devoid of bright companions.
“It is plausible that the supermassive black holes originally found in the companion galaxy contributed to the formation of the supermassive black holes we have identified,” Professor Collett noted.
“Thus, we can observe both the conclusion of galaxy formation and the cessation of black hole growth.”
The team’s paper was published today in Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.
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Carlos R Melo-Carneiro et al. 2025. We are pleased to announce the discovery of a 36 billion solar-mass black hole at the core of the Cosmic Horseshoe Gravity Lens. MNRAS 541(4): 2853-2871; doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf1036
Despite significant changes since the 1950s, women continue to shoulder more domestic responsibilities
ClassicStock/Alamy
Earn money Melissa Hogenboom (Canongate Books, August 14th, UK)
Why do individuals without jobs feel uplifted when their partners are unemployed? How do women develop empathy as they mature? Why does a disordered room appear untidy when it belongs to Jennifer, but not John? These pressing issues are explored by Melissa Hogenboom in her book Earn money: and other power imbalances that affect your life. The book uncovers the hidden power dynamics and subconscious cognitive biases that influence our behaviors and choices.
This narrative goes beyond individual actions; it serves as a well-researched examination of how stereotypes and unseen disparities shape everything from household chores to career advancement.
Fair warning: it may provoke anger—especially regarding household responsibilities. Studies indicate that in heterosexual relationships, domestic duties are typically assumed by women unless addressed directly. Women tend to take on more odd jobs, even when they log more hours at work. Hogenboom notes that some studies imply this might be an unconscious “compensation” strategy for unconventional family dynamics.
Gender biases begin early in life. Mothers engage more extensively during pregnancy, whereas fathers share more about their feelings with daughters and their achievements with sons. Studies have found that fathers react more deeply to their daughters’ emotions.
This reinforces the notion that women are inherently nurturing or empathetic—a stereotype that influences various realms, from parenting to leadership roles. In fact, while empathy can be partially genetic, there are no innate differences between genders.
When societal pressures are lifted, a new truth may surface. As highlighted in a case study of same-sex male couples, “The assumption that if parents remain at home without societal pressures, they will naturally share childcare responsibilities is quite misguided,” says one participant. “If my partner had suggested returning to work within a fortnight, I would have been furious.”
Hogenboom also points out that mothers in same-sex relationships may encounter fewer career obstacles after maternity leave compared to those in heterosexual partnerships, indicating that maternity alone does not dictate such penalties.
The myth of mutuality deludes couples that they have achieved a good balance of labor.
The book sheds light on the intangible forces predominantly managed by men: hidden inequalities often perceived as normal. At times, Hogenboom asserts, “Women, here’s the evidence you need to justify your exhaustion.”
Notably, the persistent challenges faced by men who seek to address these power disparities are highlighted. A study referenced by Hogenboom found that men requesting part-time roles often face skepticism more than women and encounter taunts like “Where’s your mom?” They often struggle to be taken seriously and may be viewed as less committed, complicating their social dynamics within parenting communities.
Couples who believe they have achieved equality might be surprised by how Hogenboom reveals these unseen dynamics of authority. She argues that systematic inequalities represent a dominant form of power in relationships, often overlooked—even by the couples who experience them.
The perception of mutuality can lead couples to falsely believe they maintain an even distribution of responsibilities. However, they may be deceiving themselves if they don’t consider whose needs are genuinely met and who does the work. For instance, your partner might “cook all the meals,” but have you handled the meal planning, grocery shopping, cleaning, and budgeting?
Fortunately, Hogenboom offers actionable advice. If you find yourself overwhelmed, she suggests handling tasks comprehensively: “It eliminates hidden burdens when ownership of the entire task is taken.”
Her recommendations provide a much-needed relief amidst the wealth of data presented. While authoritative and insightful, Hogenboom’s writing style leaves little room for reflection.
However, moments of reflection are necessary. Earn money constructs a convincing argument to recognize the influence of concealed power dynamics and informs how to address them. This leads to fairer relationships and more successful careers, potentially saving marriages.
Helen Thomson is an author based in London.
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Around 56 million years ago, during a period of significant geological warming known as the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), the mesonychid mammal Dissacus Praenuntius exhibited remarkable dietary changes—it began to consume more bones.
Dissacus Praenuntius. Image credit: DIBGD / CC by 4.0.
“I am a doctoral student at Rutgers University in New Brunswick,” stated Andrew Schwartz from the University of New Jersey.
“We are observing a similar trend: rising carbon dioxide levels, increasing temperatures, and the destruction of ecosystems.”
In their study, Schwartz and his team analyzed small pits and marks left on fossilized teeth using a method known as dental microwear texture analysis. The research focused on the extinct mammal Dissacus Praenuntius, part of the Mesonychidae family.
This ancient omnivore weighed between 12 and 20 kg, comparable in size to jackals and coyotes.
Common in the early Cenozoic forests, it likely had a diverse diet that included meat, fruits, and insects.
“They resembled wolves with large heads,” Schwartz remarked.
“Their teeth were similar to those of hyenas, though they lacked small hooves on their toes.”
“Before this phase of warming, Dissacus Praenuntius mainly consumed tough meat, akin to a modern cheetah’s diet.”
“However, during and after this ancient warming period, their teeth showed wear patterns consistent with crushing hard substances like bones.”
“Our findings indicate that their dental microwear is similar to that of lions and hyenas.”
“This suggests they were consuming more brittle food rather than their usual smaller prey, which became scarce.”
This shift in diet occurred alongside a slight decrease in body size, likely a result of food shortages.
“While earlier theories attributed body size reduction solely to rising temperatures, this latest research indicates that food scarcity was a significant factor,” Schwartz explained.
“The rapid global warming of this time lasted around 200,000 years, but the changes it caused were swift and dramatic.”
“Studying periods like this can offer valuable lessons for understanding current and future climatic changes.”
“Examining how animals have adapted and how ecosystems responded can reveal much about what might happen next.”
“The research underscores the importance of dietary flexibility; species that can consume a variety of foods are more likely to endure environmental pressures.”
“In the short term, excelling in a specific area can be beneficial,” Schwartz added.
“However, in the long run, generalists—animals that are adaptable across various niches—are more likely to survive environmental changes.”
This understanding can assist modern conservation biologists in identifying vulnerable species today.
Species with specialized diets, like pandas, may struggle as their habitats diminish, while more adaptable species, such as jackals and raccoons, might thrive.
“We’re already starting to see these trends,” Schwartz noted.
“Previous research has shown that African jackals have begun to consume more bones and insects over time, likely due to habitat loss and climate stress.”
The study also indicated that rapid climate change, reminiscent of historical events, could lead to significant shifts in ecosystems, influencing prey availability and predator behaviors.
This suggests that contemporary climate change could similarly disrupt food webs, pushing species to adapt and face extinction risks.
“Nonetheless, Dissacus Praenuntius was a robust and adaptable species that thrived for about 15 million years before eventually going extinct,” Schwartz said.
Scientists believe this extinction was driven by environmental changes and competition with other species.
The study was published in June 2025 in the journal Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology.
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Andrew Schwartz et al. 2025. Dietary Changes in Mesonychids During the Eocene Heat Maximum: The Case of Dissacus Praenuntius. Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology 675:113089; doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2025.113089
The newly identified Stephenson 2 DFK 52, an extraordinary red supergiant, is situated within the expansive stellar cluster RSGC2.
This image showcases the red supergiant star Stephenson 2 DFK 52 and its surroundings. Image credits: Alma / ESO / NAOJ / NRAO / Siebert et al.
RSGC2 is a cluster containing at least 26 red supergiants located at the base of the Milky Way’s diagonal crux spiral arm, approximately 5,800 parsecs (18,917 light-years) away.
Also referred to as Stephenson 2, this cluster is an active site for recent star formation where the arms intersect with galaxy bulges.
A team of astronomers led by Mark Siebert from Chalmers University of Technology observed the RSGC2 star using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA).
“What we catch in this image of Stephenson 2 DFK 52 is indeed a supermassive red star that is shedding clouds of gas and dust as it approaches the end of its lifecycle,” they explained.
“Such nebulae are typically found around supermassive stars; however, this particular cloud presents an intriguing mystery for astronomers.”
“This cloud of ejected material is the most expansive discovered around a giant star, spanning an impressive 1.4 light-years.”
“Stephenson 2 DFK 52 is quite similar to Betelgeuse, another renowned red supergiant, so we anticipated observing a comparable cloud surrounding it.”
“If Stephenson 2 DFK 52 is as close to us as Betelgeuse, the surrounding cloud would appear about one-third the size of the full moon.”
Recent observations from ALMA have enabled astronomers to quantify the mass of material enveloping the star and analyze its velocity.
“Regions moving towards us appear in blue, while those receding are represented in red,” they stated.
“The data suggests that the star experienced a significant mass loss event about 4,000 years ago, followed by a slow-down in its current mass loss rate.”
The team estimates that Stephenson 2 DFK 52 has a mass between 10-15 solar masses and has already lost 5-10% of its mass.
“The rapid expulsion of such materials within a brief time frame poses a mystery,” the researchers commented.
“Could an unusual interaction with a companion star be responsible? Why does the cloud exhibit such a complex shape?”
“Understanding why Stephenson 2 DFK 52 has expelled so much material can illuminate insights into its eventual fate.
Mark A. Sheebert et al. 2025. Discovery of the extraordinary red supergiant Stephenson 2 DFK 52 within the expansive stellar cluster RSGC2. A&A in press; Arxiv: 2507.11609
The inhabitants of the ocean’s depths are more extraordinary than ever.
Utilizing an advanced submarine that dives deeper than Mount Everest, researchers have unearthed a vibrant ecosystem approximately 30,000 feet beneath the Pacific Ocean’s surface.
A research team led by Chinese scientists found it racing through fields of vivid crimson tubes and interacting with a unique type of worm that resembles a flower sprouting from the Earth’s crust.
Each organism thrived in dense beds of up to nine inches in length, with snow-like microbial mats creating ethereal underwater dust that spanned tens of feet.
Dominique Papineau, a senior research scientist at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, shared insights with NBC News.
Hadal chemical synthesis-based community, CAS’s Institute of Deep Sea Science and Engineering
Papineau, one of the study’s authors, announced the findings in a Wednesday publication in Nature. “Many Hadal organisms from these trenches exhibit remarkable shapes and colors,” he noted, explaining that they survive by hosting microorganisms that metabolize methane instead of relying on photosynthesis.
The depth of 19,000 to 30,000 feet is the deepest zone in the ocean, occurring where one tectonic plate collides with another. “Existing theories suggest that chemical bond-based communities are becoming increasingly common in the Hadal Trench, yet few have been discovered,” Papineau stated.
Karien Schnabel, a marine ecologist from New Zealand’s Earth Sciences, commented that the discovery was “truly remarkable” even though she was not part of the study.
“In these extraordinarily deep regions, there were an abundance of signs of life and wildlife,” she remarked.
A winter valley recorded by the crew’s dive fendou at 30,000 feet. CAS’s Institute of Deep Sea Science and Engineering Polycharts inhabit the tube dominate at the deepest 22,500 meters of the Aleutian, with spots of white microbial mats. CAS’s Institute of Deep Sea Science and Engineering
“We don’t generally expect life to flourish in these extreme conditions due to the immense pressure,” she commented regarding the organisms.
The researchers highlighted, “The depths explored here, alongside the robust communities found, significantly broaden the known habitats, depths, and biogeographic distributions of numerous species.”
With sunlight unable to penetrate, these organisms depend on chemical synthesis for nourishment, rather than photosynthesis.
“These ecosystems are abundant in hydrogen sulfide, methane-rich fluids flowing through faults amid deep sediment layers in the trench,” the researchers explained.
They also endure crushing pressures of up to 98 megapascals (MPA), exceeding six times the force of a crocodile’s bite.
The diving for this recent study took place in July and August of the previous year, conducted by an international group of scientists from the Institute of Deep Sea Science and Engineering at the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
A small porthole of three submarines. Karien Schnabel
They examined the trenches of Krill Kamchatka, which stretch from Hokkaido in Japan to the Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia, spanning approximately 1,300 miles and integrating with the Aleutian trench that measures around 1,800 miles from Alaska to the Kenai Peninsula.
Schnabel had previously undertaken deep-sea studies aboard the same three submarines, known as Fendouzhe, utilized in this research.
She recounted her deep-sea experiences, one of which gained notoriety when a submarine malfunctioned during a 2023 mission to the Titanic wreck.
“Naturally, there’s a bit of anxiety when hanging over a 10-kilometer chasm on Earth,” she recalled, having explored New Zealand’s northern trenches in 2022, plunging over 32,000 feet below the Pacific Ocean’s surface.
“The window is merely 12 centimeters in diameter. It’s impossible to stretch your legs while seated on a tiny bench within a compact titanium sphere measuring only 1.8 meters in width,” she detailed.
Free-Moving Polychaete navigates dense colonies of Frenor Siboglinide. CAS’s Institute of Deep Sea Science and Engineering
She expressed her amazement at the sights encountered at the trench’s bottom, viewed through the submarine’s 4.7-inch window.
“As I began my descent and eventually came to rest on the seabed, I was astonished by the multitude of life forms I witnessed,” she reflected.
While it was expected that life could persist at these depths, the sheer abundance of ecosystems was a pleasant surprise for the researchers.
The results “challenge existing models of life in extreme conditions” and indicate that such ecosystems may be more prevalent than previously recognized.
Paleontologists have uncovered footprints that are 76 million years old, belonging to a dominant group of Ceratopsian dinosaurs, in Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta, Canada. This remarkable finding is the first indication of herd behavior among mixed dinosaur species, reminiscent of how modern wildebeests and zebras flock together on the African savannas.
Salatopsian herd (Styracosaurus albertensis) accompanied by ankylosaurus (Euplocephalus tutus) walking through old river channels under the watchful eyes of two Tyrannosaurus (Golgosaurus libratus). Image credit: Julius Csotonyi.
Dinosaur Provincial Park, located in southern Alberta, Canada, is one of the premier regions in the world for studying late Cretaceous terrestrial ecosystems.
The park yields hundreds of dinosaur skeletal remains and a vast array of bones and teeth, making it a prime location for exploring dinosaur evolution, behavior, biological introduction, and paleoecology.
Despite the wealth of skeletal remains, dinosaur footprints and trackways are surprisingly uncommon.
“In 2024, we discovered a new track site, a skyline track site containing ‘typical’ natural mold tracks that had not been identified in the park before,” stated Dr. Phil Bell and his colleagues at the University of New England.
At this site, paleontologists uncovered 13 Seratopsia (horned dinosaurs) tracks, showing at least five animals walking side by side, along with an ankylosaurus (armored dinosaur) that might have been walking among them.
They were also intrigued to find two large Tyrannosaurus tracks alongside the group. Additionally, a footprint from a smaller meat-eating dinosaur was also discovered.
View of the Skyline Track Site immediately after its discovery (a) and during excavation (b). Image credits: Bell et al., doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0324913.
“I have been collecting dinosaur bones in Dinosaur Provincial Park for nearly two decades, but I had never given much thought to footprints,” remarked Dr. Bell.
“The edge of this rock had a mud-like appearance that caught between my toes, which immediately intrigued me.”
“The Tyrannosaurus tracks give the impression that they are truly observing the herd.”
“It was thrilling to see them walking in the footprints of dinosaurs 76 million years after they went extinct,” said Dr. Brian Pickles from Reading College.
“Using innovative search techniques, we were able to locate several additional track sites throughout the park’s diverse terrain. We will provide further details on how these captivating creatures interacted and behaved in their ecosystems.”
“This discovery highlights the vast amount left to uncover in dinosaur paleontology,” noted Dr. Caleb Brown, PhD, from the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Paleontology.
“Dinosaur Park boasts one of the world’s most comprehensive dinosaur collections and studies, with over a century of dedicated research. Only now are we beginning to fully explore the potential of dinosaur trackways.”
The findings are published in a paper in the journal PLOS 1.
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PR Bell et al. 2025. A track site controlled by Ceratopsids from the Campanian in Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta, Canada. PLOS 1 20(7): E0324913; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0324913
Researchers from Ames National Laboratory and Iowa State University have unveiled the emergence of Higgs echoes in niobium superconductors. These findings shed light on quantum behavior that could influence the development of next-generation quantum sensing and computing technologies.
Using Higgs Echo Spectroscopy, Huang et al reveal unconventional echo formation due to non-uniform expansion and soft quasiparticle bands, dynamically evolving under THZ drive. Image credit: Ames National Laboratory.
Superconductors are materials known for conducting electricity without resistance.
These superconducting materials exhibit collective oscillations referred to as the Higgs mode.
The Higgs mode represents a quantum phenomenon that occurs when the electronic potential fluctuates similarly to a Higgs boson.
Such modes manifest when the material experiences a superconducting phase transition.
Monitoring these vibrations has posed challenges for scientists for many years.
Additionally, they interact complexly with quasiparticles, which are electron-like excitations arising from superconducting dynamics.
By utilizing advanced terahertz (THZ) spectroscopy, the researchers identified a new type of quantum echo known as Higgs echo in superconductive niobium materials utilized in quantum computing circuits.
“Unlike traditional echoes seen in atoms and semiconductors, Higgs echoes result from intricate interactions between Higgs modes and quasiparticles, generating anomalous signals with unique properties.”
“Higgs echoes can uncover and reveal hidden quantum pathways within a material.”
By employing precisely-timed THZ radiation pulses, the authors were able to detect these echoes.
These THZ radiation pulses can also facilitate the encoding, storage, and retrieval of quantum information embedded in the superconducting material via echoes.
This study illustrates the ability to manipulate and observe the quantum coherence of superconductors, paving the way for innovative methods of storing and processing quantum information.
“Grasping and controlling these distinctive quantum echoes brings us closer to practical quantum computing and advanced quantum sensing technologies,” stated Dr. Wang.
a paper detailing these findings was published in the journal on June 25th in Advances in Science.
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Chuankun Huang et al. 2025. Discovery of unconventional quantum echoes due to Higgs coherence interference. Advances in Science 11 (26); doi:10.1126/sciadv.ads8740
A research team from Durham University, the University of Hawaii, and the University of Liverpool suggests that dark dwarfs are theoretical objects driven by dark matter, created from the cooling process of brown dwarfs.
An AI representation of a dark dwarf. Image credit: Gemini AI.
Currently, we understand that dark matter exists and how it behaves, but we are still unsure of its true nature.
In the last half-century, various theories have emerged, but gathering sufficient experimental evidence remains a challenge.
Some of the most well-known candidates for dark matter include weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPS), which are substantial particles that interact very slightly with ordinary matter. They pass through unnoticed, do not emit light, and reveal themselves only through gravitational effects.
This form of dark matter is essential for the existence of dark dwarfs.
“Dark matter interacts with gravity, allowing it to be captured by stars and accumulate within them,” explained Professor Jeremy Sachstein from the University of Hawaii.
“If this occurs, it may also interact internally, leading to annihilation and energy release that heats the star.”
A nuclear fusion process occurs at the star’s core, generating significant heat and energy, which allows a typical star to shine.
Fusion happens when a star’s mass is sufficient for gravity to compress matter toward the center intensely enough to initiate reactions between the nuclei.
This process releases a tremendous amount of energy, which is perceived as light. Although dark dwarfs also emit light, they do not do so through nuclear fusion.
“Dark dwarfs are low-mass objects, roughly 8% of the solar mass,” noted Professor Sachstein.
“Such small masses are insufficient to trigger a fusion reaction.”
“Consequently, these objects are prevalent in the universe but typically emit only dim light, being classified as brown dwarfs by scientists.
However, if brown dwarfs reside in regions with a high concentration of dark matter (such as the center of the Milky Way), they can evolve into different entities.
“These objects gather dark matter that enables them to transform into dark stars,” Professor Sachstein stated.
“The greater the surrounding dark matter, the more can be captured.”
“And as the dark material accumulates within the star, more energy is generated through its annihilation.”
“For a dark dwarf to exist, dark matter must consist of heavy particles that engage strongly with one another to produce visible matter.”
“Alternative candidates proposed to explain dark matter, such as axions, ambiguous ultralight particles, or sterile neutrinos, are too light to yield the expected effects on these objects.”
“Only massive particles capable of interacting with each other and annihilating to produce visible energy can facilitate the emergence of dark dwarfs.”
However, this hypothesis lacks substantial value without a definitive method of identifying dark dwarfs.
Therefore, Professor Sachstein and his team have suggested distinctive markers.
“There were a few indicators, but lithium-7 presents a unique scenario,” Professor Sachstein mentioned.
“Lithium-7 combusts readily and is rapidly depleted in regular stars.”
“Thus, if you identify an object resembling a dark dwarf, you should search for the presence of lithium, as it would be absent if it were a brown dwarf or something similar.”
The team’s study will be published in Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics.
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DJUNA CROON et al. 2025. Dark Dwarf: A theoretical dark matter-driven star-like object awaiting discovery at the Galactic Center. jcap 07:019; doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2025/07/019
Recent studies have uncovered new insights regarding the timing and locations of cat domestication. Contrary to the belief that these early felines were simply pampered companions or helpful pest eliminators, it appears they may have primarily been bred for mass sacrificial purposes.
Historically, it was thought that the domestication of cats began over 9,000 years ago as Wildcats started to adapt to the first agricultural settlements.
As grain storage attracted rodents, North African Wildcats (Ferris Livica) began hunting these pests, fostering mutually beneficial relationships that ultimately led to domestication.
However, this model is now being rigorously examined. “North African wildcats, the wild ancestors of domestic cats, were believed to have been tamed during the Neolithic era,” states Dr. Shawn Doherty, an archaeological scientist at the University of Exeter and lead author of a study featured in BBC Science Focus.
“Our research challenges this narrative by reviewing existing osteological, genetic, and iconographic evidence. We propose that cat domestication actually began in Egypt around the first millennium BC.”
Dr. Doherty’s team reassessed ancient cat artifacts from archaeological sites across Europe and North Africa, from antiquity to the present, utilizing zooarchaeological analysis, genetics, and radiocarbon dating. They found that the bones from agricultural villages in Cyprus dating back 900 to 500 years ago closely resembled those of Wildcats, undermining prior assumptions of early domestication.
Some misconceptions stem from the small size of cat bones, which can migrate between soil layers over time. “We employed radiocarbon dating to verify the ages, revealing that many cat remains are significantly more recent than previously believed.”
This data implies that the domestication of cats actually occurred much later than previously thought.
Millions of cats were sacrificed and mummified in ancient Egypt, dating from the late period to the Ptolemaic period (715-30 BC). – Getty
Researchers suggest that while rodent control may have played a role in domestication, religion could have been even more significant. In ancient Egypt, cats were revered as sacred to the goddess Bastet, and millions were kept for sacrificial purposes.
“The bond between domestic cats and the Egyptian goddess Bastet peaked in the first millennium BC,” Dr. Doherty noted. “Millions of mummified cats have been discovered in temples dedicated to her. During the Victorian era, these remains were often exhumed and transported to England for use as fertilizer.”
Through the breeding of vast numbers of kittens for ritualistic sacrifice, traits that made them more manageable may have gradually been selected, leading to the emergence of the domestic cat.
A second genome-related study, co-authored by Dr. Doherty, analyzed 87 ancient and modern cat genomes, finding no evidence that domestic cats migrated to Europe with Neolithic farmers. Instead, they likely arrived within the last 2,000 years from North Africa.
“I think this illustrates that the bond between humans and cats is not necessarily a result of the length of time they have been together, unlike with dogs,” Dr. Doherty stated.
Considering the motivations behind their early domestication, it is no surprise that cats exhibit such ethereal behavior.
Both studies are preliminary and are currently awaiting formal peer review.
Read more:
About our experts
Shawn Doherty is a senior researcher at the University of Exeter. His expertise lies in exploring deep time and animal-environment interactions through the integration of fauna, biomolecules (isotope analysis, proteomics, and genetics), alongside historical and anthropological studies.
It seems that something might have struck Saturn. If so, amateur astronomers could play a crucial role in validating this potential historical event for the gas giant.
Approximately seven asteroids or comets are predicted to collide with Saturn each year, yet these instances often go unnoticed. Currently, NASA employee and amateur astronomer Mario Lana is capturing images that may reveal such an occurrence.
Lana is part of a project called Detect, which employs software to scrutinize images of Jupiter and Saturn, aiming to identify any brief flashes caused by impacts. If these flashes are detected through various telescopes, it can help eliminate the chance of a glitch and confirm the impact.
Ricardo Fuso from the University of Basque Country in Spain is also engaged in detection efforts, but Lana’s flashes are described as “a faint shock signature or just a bright pixel on the camera.” Specifically, astronomers are interested in footage of Saturn taken on July 5th UTC between 9:00 AM and 9:15 AM.
“If only one person witnessed this flash, then it might be an overstatement. Lee Fletcher at the University of Leicester, UK, commented, “If others also witnessed the flash, that’s fantastic; we confirmed an impact.”
Mark Norris, at the University of Central Lancashire in the UK, notes that the rising popularity of amateur astronomy and advances in telescope technology are beneficial. “There’s a good chance that someone has captured something they haven’t noticed yet or dismissed as a technical issue,” he notes.
That said, even if the impact is confirmed, the scientific value of the data may be limited due to insufficient information about the impacting object. Ideally, knowing its speed and mass in advance would facilitate observations, allowing us to assess the impact on known variables. This was the case in 1994 when Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 impacted Jupiter.
Amateur mathematicians find themselves ensnared in a vast numerical puzzle.
This conundrum stems from a deceptively simple query: How can one determine if a computer program will execute indefinitely? The roots of this question trace back to mathematician Alan Turing, who in the 1930s demonstrated that computer algorithms could be represented through a hypothetical “Turing machine” that interprets and records 0s and 1s on infinitely long tapes, utilizing more intricate algorithms that necessitate additional states and adhering to a specific set of instructions.
<p>For numerous states, like 5 or 100, the corresponding Turing machines are finite; however, it remains uncertain how long these machines will operate. The longest conceivable run time for each state count is termed the busy beaver number or BB(n), and this sequence grows exceedingly rapidly. For instance, BB(1) equals 1, while BB(2) is 6, and the fifth busy beaver number reaches 47,176,870.</p>
<p>The exact value of the next busy beaver number, the sixth, has not yet been determined, but the online community known as the Busy Beaver Challenge is <a href="https://bbchallenge.org/story">on the verge of discovery</a>. They succeeded in uncovering BB(5) in 2024, concluding a 40-year search, currently attributed to a participant called "MXDYS." <a href="https://bbchallenge.org/1RB1RA_1RC---_1LD0RF_1RA0LE_0LD1RC_1RA0RE">It must be at least as vast as a significantly large value, making even its explanation a challenge.</a></p>
<p>"This number surpasses the realm of physical comprehension. It's simply not intriguing," states <a href="https://www.sligocki.com/about/">Shawn Ligokki</a>, a software engineer and contributor to the Busy Beaver Challenge, who likens the search for Turing machines to fishing in uncharted mathematical oceans filled with strange and elusive entities lurking in the darkness.</p>
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<p>The threshold for BB(6) is so immense that it necessitates a mathematical framework that goes beyond exponents, demanding the raising of one number to another x power, or n<sup>x</sup>2 days etc. For instance, 2*2*2 equals 8. The concept of a tetrol sometimes represented as <sup>x</sup>n <sup>3</sup>2 is raised to the second power and subsequently elevated to the second power again, resulting in a value of 16.</p>
<p>Surprisingly, MXDYS posits that BB(6) is at least two tetroized. The number 2 is illuminated by multiplying two tetroized, resulting in nine. In comparison, the estimated quantity of all particles in the universe seems diminutive, according to Ligokki.</p>
<p>However, the significance of the busy beaver numbers extends beyond their sheer size. Turing established that certain Turing machines must exist that cannot reliably predict behavior under the ZFC theory. This notion was influenced by the mathematician Kurt Gödel's "Incompleteness Theorem," which concluded that using the ZFC rules, it is impossible to affirm that the theory is entirely devoid of contradictions.</p>
<p>"The exploration of busy beaver numbers provides a concrete, quantitative representation of a phenomenon identified by Gödel and Turing almost a century ago," remarks <a href="https://www.cs.utexas.edu/people/faculty-researchers/scott-aaronson">Scott Aaronson</a> from the University of Texas at Austin. "I’m not merely suggesting that a Turing machine could displace ZFC capabilities and ascertain its behavior after a finite stage; rather, is this already occurring with machines possessing six states, or is it restricted to machines with 600 states?" Research has confirmed that BB(643) does eliminate ZFC theory, though numerous examples remain to be investigated.</p>
<p>"The busy beaver problem offers a comprehensive scale to navigate the forefront of mathematical understanding," states Tristan Stérin, a computer scientist who initiated the Busy Beaver Challenge in 2022.</p>
<p>In 2020, <a href="https://scottaaronson.blog/?p=4916">Aaronson wrote</a> that the busy beaver feature "encapsulates most intriguing mathematical truths within its first 100 values," and BB(6) is no exception. It seems to relate to Korizat's hypothesis, an esteemed unsolved mathematical problem that conducts simple arithmetic operations with numbers to determine if they resolve to 1. The discovery of a machine that halts might imply that the particular version of the hypothesis possesses a computational proof.</p>
<p>The numerical challenges that researchers encounter are astonishing in scale, yet the busy beaver framework serves as a tangible measurement tool that otherwise becomes a nebulous expanse of mathematics. In Stérin’s perspective, this aspect continues to captivate many contributors. He estimates that numerous individuals are presently dedicated to the discovery of BB(6).</p>
<p>Thousands of "hold-out" Turing machines remain unexamined for halting behavior, he notes. "There might exist a machine unbeknownst to you lurking just around the corner," Ligokki asserts. In essence, it exists independently of ZFC and lies beyond the boundaries of contemporary mathematics.</p>
<p>Is the precise value of BB(6) also lurking nearby? Ligokki and Stérin acknowledge their reluctance to forecast the future of busy beavers, yet recent achievements in defining boundaries give Ligokki a sense of "intuition that it’s approaching closer."</p>
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Following the interstellar asteroid 1i/Oumuamua and comet 2i/Borisov, 3i/Atlas is the third identified object and the second comet from outside the solar system.
This image was captured on July 2, 2025, with an Itemescope.net T72 telescope in Riojartad, Chile, depicting the interstellar comet 3i/Atlas. Image credit: Filipp Romanov/CC by-sa 4.0.
3i/Atlas was discovered by a NASA-funded research telescope dedicated to the Atlas (Asteroid Surface Impact Last Altar System) project on July 1, 2025, in Riojartad, Chile.
The interstellar comet approached from the direction of constellations and is currently about 670 million km (420 million miles) away.
“Since the initial report, pre-discovery observations have been gathered from archives of three different Atlas telescopes globally and from Zwicky’s transitional facility at Palomar Observatory in San Diego County, California,” a NASA astronomer wrote in a statement.
“These pre-discovery observations date back to June 14th, 2025.”
Known as 3I/ATLAS, C/2025 N1 (ATLAS), and A11PL3Z, it currently measures approximately 4.5 AU (670 million km, or 416 million miles) away.
Comets pose no threat to Earth, maintaining a safe distance of at least 1.6 AU (240 million km, or 150 million miles).
It is predicted to reach its closest approach to the Sun around October 30th, 2025, at a distance of 1.4 AU (210 million km, or 130 million miles).
Its size and physical characteristics are being studied by astronomers worldwide.
This diagram illustrates the trajectory of 3i/Atlas as it traverses the solar system. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech.
If the brightness of 3i/Atlas is attributed to reflecting sunlight at a typical albedo of 10%, its diameter would be approximately 100-200 times greater than the estimated length of 20 km for Oumuamua and about 50-100 times larger than the estimated size of Borisov.
“If all three objects are indeed rocky, the mass of 3i/Atlas is more than 10 million times greater than that of Oumuamua and at least 100,000 times the core mass of Borisov.”
“This is remarkable because we expect high-mass objects to be exceedingly rare.”
“Based on data from the major asteroid belts of the solar system, we would expect millions of objects like Oumuamua for each object with the mass of 3i/Atlas.”
3i/Atlas should remain visible to ground telescopes until September 2025.
It is anticipated to reappear on the opposite side of the Sun by early December, enabling further observations.
“Based on its trajectory, 3i/Atlas seems to enter in a retrograde orbit, inclined at 175 degrees relative to Earth’s orbital plane from the thin disc of stars in the Milky Way,” explains Professor Roeb.
“In the upcoming months, we will gain further insights into the properties of 3i/Atlas based on data from various ground-based telescopes and the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope, including the NSF/DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory in Chile.”
Mars may appear spherical, yet it is actually a triaxial ellipsoid. Unlike the other rocky planets in our solar system, which resemble rugby balls, Mars varies in size along all three axes.
This is most apparent in the notable bulge of the Tharsis rise region and the contrasting region known as Sirtis Major.
Astronomer Dr. Michael Efroysky of the US Navy Observatory recently proposed that this peculiar shape may be attributed to the absence of an ancient moon on Mars.
The moon, named Nerio after the Roman goddess of war, who was associated with Mars, influenced the shape of the planet through tidal forces, similar to the oceans here on Earth.
However, once Mars cooled down, its deformed shape became permanently fixed.
Mars is roughly half the size of Earth, with a diameter of 6,790km (4,219 miles) compared to Earth’s 12,750km (7,922 miles) – Credit: Mark Garlic via Getty/Science Photo Library
Nerio’s tidal stress weakened the elevated regions of Mars, facilitating the impact of geological processes such as internal convection, structural shifts, and volcanic activity, all of which contributed to Mars’ asymmetrical shape.
Researchers propose that, in synchronous orbit around Mars, Nerio—being less than a third of Earth’s mass—could easily have formed the planet’s initial triaxial shape. The equatorial bulge would have been even more pronounced if Nerio had existed during the planet’s magma ocean phase.
Currently, Mars lacks such a moon, having only the small moons Deimos and Phobos. At some point, Nerio was either destroyed by another large body or pulled away by gravitational forces.
This article answers the question posed by Otto Sykes in an email: “Why does Mars have such a strange shape?”
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Recent observations suggest the existence of a volcanic formation at the edge of Mars’ Jezero Crater, currently under investigation by NASA’s rover. This rover might already be collecting samples from materials expelled during an ancient volcanic eruption.
Perseverance, which landed in Jezero Crater in 2021, is methodically moving toward the western edge, tracing an ancient river that is believed to have flowed between 300 million and 4 billion years ago.
The rover is gathering samples meant to be returned to Earth as part of the Mars Sample Return mission planned for the 2030s. However, this endeavor faces potential cuts proposed by the Trump administration affecting NASA’s funding.
Some of the materials in the samples were thought to be volcanic, showcasing characteristics of lava flow. Recently, James Ray from Georgia Tech in Atlanta and his team have identified a possible volcanic structure at Jezero Mons—a dormant volcano situated on the southeastern edge of Jezero.
High-resolution images from Martian orbiters have revealed fine-grained materials in the vicinity, possibly indicating ash from the volcano. The dimensions and shape of Jezero Mons—21 km wide and 2 km high—parallel those of similar volcanoes on Earth.
“The evidence for igneous volcanoes is most consistent with our observations,” states Ray, noting that magma may have originated from beneath the surface. “This is the strongest case we can make without physically visiting the site.”
By analyzing the craters near the volcano, Ray and his colleagues estimate that Jezero Mons may have last erupted around a billion years ago.
This finding suggests that the rover might have collected volcanic samples. If they can be returned to Earth, scientists would be able to accurately date volcanic activity on another planet for the first time.
“Knowing when that volcano was active is incredibly exciting,” exclaimed Briony Hogan from Purdue University in Indiana, a member of the rover’s science team. This information could significantly enhance our understanding of “how the interiors of planets evolve over time,” she adds.
Ideally, Ray mentions that he hopes to direct Perseverance to the volcano itself, but acknowledges this may not be feasible. “There are really fascinating ancient rocks to the west of the crater, so they’re likely driving in the opposite direction,” he explains. “I can’t blame them.”
Analyzing breath patterns can be crucial for diagnosing and treating numerous health issues
Milan Jovic/Getty Images
Forget about facial recognition—innovative methods for identification may be on the horizon. Researchers have unveiled the concept of “respiratory fingerprints,” a distinctive breathing pattern that could transform the approach to diagnosing and managing various health conditions, including obesity and depression.
The breakthrough is credited to Timna Soroka at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel. Together with her team, they designed wearable devices capable of capturing the minute details of our breathing patterns.
“This research is exciting,” says Torben Noto from OSMO in New York, an AI company focused on enhancing computer sensory perception, who was not part of the study. “It tackles many persistent inquiries regarding the relationship between respiratory signals and health, as well as mental well-being.”
The notion that breath patterns can reveal health information isn’t new; clues to this relationship date back to the 1950s. Yet, previous studies were limited to data from hospital patients because no wearable devices existed that could record nasal breathing while allowing people to move freely.
To overcome this limitation, Soroka and her colleagues developed a wearable device, which was tested by 97 participants who wore it around the clock. The team trained an algorithm to detect a unique set of 24 breathing metrics, ranging from the volume of air inhaled to the speed of breathing. Remarkably, the algorithm achieved nearly 97% accuracy in identifying participants, and their unique breathing signature remained consistent over a two-year follow-up period.
However, don’t expect to use this device for banking transactions just yet, warns Norm Sobel from the Weizmann Institute. The primary aim is not biometric authentication, but to extract invaluable health insights.
For instance, a person’s body mass index (BMI) can be estimated using specific nasal cycle parameters, which involve a rhythmic pattern of airflow between nostrils. This cycle is controlled by the balance between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems—the former prepares the body for “fight or flight,” while the latter calms the body. “By assessing nostril airflow, we effectively gauge sympathetic arousal, which seems to correlate with BMI,” explains Sobel.
This leads to intriguing inquiries, Sobel notes: Could breathing patterns influence weight rather than weight changes altering breath? “If that’s the case, we might discover a breathing pattern that promotes weight loss, at which point we’ll all retire to an island,” he quips.
The respiratory data also indicated a link between breathing characteristics and levels of anxiety and depression. For example, individuals experiencing higher depressive symptoms exhibited faster inhalation rates.
The research team is currently exploring whether these breathing patterns actively contribute to these symptoms and if they can be used to diagnose widespread mental health disorders.
“Imagine a future where each patient owns a nasal airflow monitoring device that not only tracks treatment progress but also offers feedback and predicts outcomes for various disorders,” says Noto. The device measures 24 distinct breathing metrics. It also enables users to notice deviations from their normal breathing patterns. “This could have a profound effect on public health,” adds Noto.
Paranthropus robustus is a well-documented species within the Hominin group that has yet to be associated with genetic evidence. This species thrived in what is now South Africa between 2 million and 1.2 million years ago. In a recent study, paleontologists extracted enamel protein sequences from a dental specimen, believed to be 2 million years old, discovered at the Swartkrans site in South Africa. The results indicate a greater diversity than previously recognized for Paranthropus robustus and support the potential existence of multiple species within the genus.
Advancements in ancient DNA (aDNA) sequencing have provided essential insights into the evolutionary connections among mid- to late Pleistocene hominins. However, our understanding of the earlier Pliocene-Pleistocene species, including Paranthropus robustus, remains limited.
This limitation is primarily due to the poor preservation of aDNA in African hominin fossils older than 20,000 years.
Paranthropus robustus has traditionally been regarded as a singular evolutionary line.
Yet, morphological overlaps between Paranthropus robustus and Australopithecus raise questions about their possible evolutionary links.
Moreover, variations in dental morphology suggest either an undiscovered diversity within Paranthropus robustus or the existence of multiple distinct species.
In this study, researchers from the University of Copenhagen, the University of Cape Town, and Dr. Paresa Madupe employed more durable ancient proteins to explore the variation within this ancient human species.
Four tooth enamel proteins were analyzed using high-resolution mass spectrometry and paleontological techniques, focusing on Paranthropus robustus fossils from the Swartkrans cave.
These specimens, dating from 2.2 to 1.8 million years ago, are among the earliest known hominins.
Molecular analysis of the protein sequences revealed significant variation at the molecular level among Paranthropus robustus individuals, including evidence from both male and female fossils, challenging the reliability of tooth size as a sole indicator of sexual dimorphism and suggesting that this variance cannot be attributed exclusively to sexual differences.
Notably, one individual appears to be genetically distinct from the others, highlighting considerable intraspecies variability within Paranthropus robustus.
The results align with recent morphological evidence, indicating previously unrecognized taxonomic diversity within the genus, including the proposed species Paranthropus capensis.
“Our study illustrates how paleobiological traits can assist in distinguishing sexual dimorphism from other forms of variation in the early Pleistocene human lineage in Africa,” the authors concluded.
Paresa P. Madupe et al. 2025. Enamel proteins reveal biological and genetic variation in southern Africa Paranthropus robustus. Science 388 (6750): 969-973; doi: 10.1126/science.adt953
Paleontologists have uncovered evidence of previously unrecognized soft tissue structures in the cheek areas of various dinosaur species. This discovery deepens our understanding of dinosaur anatomy and underscores the limitations of current methods for reconstructing anatomical features that are not well preserved.
Soft tissue visualization of Edmontosaurus created through photography, 3D modeling, digital painting, and histology of bones in the Alberta Dinosaur Park, Canada. Image credit: Henry Sharp.
“Such examples of soft anatomy in dinosaurs are rare due to the degradation of muscles and tissue over time,” remarked Henry Sharp, a paleontologist from the University of Alberta.
“While bones can be excavated and assembled into semi-complete skeletons, for a long time, there was no effective way to discern the muscles and tissues present in dinosaurs.”
“In the 1990s, existing systematic brackets utilized the closest living relatives of dinosaurs—alligators and birds—to gain insight into their ’tissues and muscles.’
“However, this approach has its shortcomings: the muscles reconstructed in dinosaurs are those found in alligators and birds.”
“What if dinosaurs possessed their own unique muscles that aren’t present in their modern relatives, or if birds have lost or adapted their original musculature?”
“While examining a skull of Edmontosaurus, affectionately named Gary, I noticed a distinctive flange structure atop the bone near its prominent cheek.”
“As I delved deeper, I struggled to find answers.”
“There were large, corrugated sections of the skull. In a mammalian skull, I would interpret that as cheek muscle attachment. Yet, reptiles are not supposed to exhibit such muscle structures.”
“This sparked intrigue. What if this finding contradicted existing models of dinosaur musculature?”
To gain a clearer understanding of this aspect of dinosaur anatomy, Sharp and his colleagues from the University of Alberta, the University of Toronto, the Royal Museum of Ontario, and the University of New England began investigating similar regions in the skulls of other dinosaur species, uncovering evidence of analogous structures.
“The findings were consistently located in the same area. This strongly suggests that it represents a muscle or ligament,” Sharp explained.
To validate their hypothesis regarding this bone area being a site for some type of soft tissue structure, researchers meticulously cut thin sections of dinosaur bone.
“Soft tissues, such as muscles and ligaments, are anchored to the bone via collagen fibers,” Sharp stated.
“These fibers help secure the muscle or ligament, preventing detachment and potential injury to the animal.”
Once the soft tissue deteriorates, what remains are the collagen fibers, which can be examined through thin slices of bone under polarized light.
“It appears as if someone has fractured a bone at the surface and then scraped it with an X-acto knife,” Sharp noted.
The researchers employed a technique called sleepy to analyze various angles of the zygomatic and mandibular bone slices, enabling them to investigate the 3D orientation of the collagen fibers.
“These collagen fibers don’t insert haphazardly; they align with the angles where muscles attach,” Sharp added.
In all examined dinosaur species, collagen fibers manifested connections between the cheek and lower jaw, reinforcing the idea that the soft tissue structure resembles cheek muscles and ligaments.
Variation in the size and attachment angles across different dinosaur species suggests that this newly identified soft tissue played specialized roles, such as stabilizing the jaw and influencing feeding behavior.
“While we don’t fully understand its precise functions, it is evident that these soft tissues significantly impacted how these dinosaurs chewed.”
“This discovery underscores the importance of comparing dinosaur fossils with those of modern relatives for a more nuanced and accurate comprehension of extinct anatomy.”
“Dinosaurs exhibit considerable diversity, yet we often overlook significant aspects by attempting to interpret the past solely through the lens of contemporary conditions.”
Henry S. Sharp et al. Skull morphology and histology reveal previously unexpected cheek soft tissue structures in dinosaurs. Journal of Anatomy, published on March 21, 2025. doi:10.1111/joa.14242
This article is a rendition of a press release provided by the University of Alberta.
In 2020, the Zwicky Transient Facility observed a location in the night sky that suggested the merging of two stars. This phenomenon was identified as a bright red nova, known as Submin’s Red Nova, or slrn. Two years later, astronomers revisited the same area and discovered indications that the star had engulfed nearby planets, referred to as ZTF SLRN-2020.
Earlier observations made using near-infrared telescopes revealed chemical traces such as titanium oxide and carbon monoxide. The event’s brightness was primarily in low-energy wavelengths rather than visible light, indicating a merger event involving bodies between the masses of Neptune and Jupiter.
The stars in this system are not active; the planet did not actively approach but was instead consumed by the star. This raised questions about the physical mechanisms that caused the interaction. The team examined two scenarios: one where a star expanded during its lifecycle to reach the planet’s orbit, and the other where a planet lost energy and spiraled inward toward the star, a phenomenon termed orbital attenuation.
To evaluate these scenarios, the team conducted follow-up measurements on ZTF SLRN-2020 using instruments onboard the JWST, specifically the Near-infrared Spectrometer and Mid-infrared Instrument. They also performed ground-based observations with the Gemini North Telescope Near-Infrared Imager. By combining data from these instruments, the team obtained a comprehensive understanding of the low-energy light emission patterns from ZTF SLRN-2020, revealing insights into the system’s current structure and dynamics.
Illustration of the ZTF SLRN-2020 system before and after the planet is engulfed. Left: A Sun-like star with an exoplanet akin to Neptune or Jupiter. Right: After the planet’s orbit decayed and it fell into the star, material was expelled, forming a cooler outer dust shell and a hotter inner dust disk. Created by the author using Microsoft PowerPoint.
In their analysis, astronomers identified four key characteristics. The remaining stars displayed a reddish hue, highlighting a significant presence of high-energy electrons in the star’s hydrogen, along with substantial carbon monoxide. There were also traces of phosphine, a compound typically found around gas giants and in the vicinity of young stars. Using computer modeling, the team evaluated which scenarios could realistically produce these observed patterns.
Measurements of star color indicated that ZTF SLRN-2020 is quite similar to the Sun but is roughly 70% of its size. The star is too young to have undergone the expansion associated with its later life stages. Consequently, the planet’s orbit became destabilized, leading to its gradual engulfment by the star. This collision likely released energy, igniting the star’s brightness in 2020 and stimulating the hydrogen in its outer layer.
The team theorized that during the collision, the star would have expelled material from the planet. The emissions of phosphine and carbon monoxide suggested that the ejected material originated from two different layers of dust around the star: a cold outer shell and a hot inner disk. Observations did not reveal any remnants of the planet’s core still orbiting the star, indicating that it was entirely consumed, losing even its outer layers.
The researchers deemed this event a new frontier in physics, as it marks the first observed case of planetary engulfment. The data collected from various instruments can provide future researchers with essential insights when investigating similar instances.
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Dele Zeynep Walton sensed something was off when she emerged from a caravan in New Forest at 8 am, camping with her boyfriend. Initially frustrated by the early start, she quickly realized the car was off course, and upon approaching, found her mother appeared “hysterical.” “Right away,” she recalls, “I thought, ‘That’s Amy.'”
Amy, Walton’s younger sister, was 21 and had been struggling with mental health issues for several months. She had a passion for music technology and art, with her stunning self-portraits adorning their family home in Southampton. A big fan of Pharrell Williams, she once received five calls to join him on stage at a concert. However, as her mental health declined, she became increasingly unreachable. “For two months, I had no idea where she was or what she was doing,” Walton says.
That October morning in 2022, Walton uncovered a devastating truth. Amy was found dead in a hotel room in Slough, Berkshire, presumed to have taken her own life. In the following days, Walton and her family would begin to understand Amy’s path—a journey facilitated by a complex web of online connections.
She loved music and art… some of Amy’s self-portraits in her family home. Photo: Peter Fluid/Guardian
Walton, a 25-year-old journalist, pieced together that Amy had engaged with a suicidal promotion forum that the Guardian opted not to name. This site is linked to at least 50 deaths
in the UK and is currently under investigation by Ofcom, a regulator under the online safety law. Police investigating Amy’s death revealed that at this forum, Amy learned how to obtain the substance that ended her life and met the man who flew to Heathrow to accompany her at the end. (He was initially charged with assisting suicide, but no further action was taken.)
Sitting in the garden of her parents’ house in Southampton, Walton describes how she came to write about the events that transpired. Her book, Logoff: Human costs in the digital world
is partly a tribute to her sister and partly an exploration of the implications of everyday web browsing, fate, and the digital world that can perpetuate harm.
“I thought: I need to dedicate myself to uncovering this. Why is the public unaware of these ongoing harms? Because they are constant.” She references Vlad Nikolin-Caisley from Southampton, saying that earlier this month, a woman was arrested
on suspicion of aiding his suicide.
With a review of Aimee’s death in June, Walton hopes that online factors will be included in the investigation and that “online harm” will be acknowledged as a cause or contributing factor in her sister’s death.
This phrase has become familiar to her. “Until I lost Amy, I didn’t understand what ‘online harm’ meant,” she reflects. She first heard the term from Ian Russell, Molly’s father and a campaigner for online safety. Molly Russell was 14 when she took her life after being exposed to images and videos of self-harm. Uniquely, the coroner stated that online activity “had contributed to her death in a minimal way.” Walton hopes a similar perspective will be taken in her sister’s case, believing that calling it “suicide” alone fails to account for the impact of the digital world and places unfair blame on Amy while leaving it unregulated.
“We can become vulnerable at any time in our lives”… Amy’s photo. Photo: Peter Fluid/Guardian
Initially labeling her sister’s death a “suicide,” Walton now feels this term no longer adequately reflects Amy’s situation. When suicide is seen as a voluntary action, how much choice does a person really have when influenced by an intentional online community? And if individuals are genuinely free to choose, Walton questions, how does the algorithm continuously presenting Amy with self-harm content shape her experience? “That’s where it becomes hard for me to label it a suicide,” Walton asserts. “My intuition tells me Amy was groomed and that her decision was not entirely hers.”
Her deep dive into these issues has transformed Walton into an activist. She collaborates with Bereaved Families for Online Safety
and serves as a young people’s ambassador for People vs Big Technology. “We must address these issues head-on,” she emphasizes. “If we don’t, it fosters the belief that online safety is solely a personal responsibility.”
Walton recounts how police indicated that the man who accompanied Amy at the hotel had shared the room for 11 days prior to her passing. The room contained Amy’s notes, but Walton mentioned they were so filled with pain that they were unreadable. He later told police that he was “working.” She reveals that the man called 999 after Amy ingested the toxic substance but declined to administer CPR. Amy has since been linked to 88 deaths in the UK and the toxic substances are purportedly sourced from Kenneth Law, a Canadian under investigation by the National Crime Agency.
A New York Times investigation revealed the forum was established by two men. Walton visited the forum herself, wanting to trace her sister’s final interactions. “Many posts essentially say, ‘Your family doesn’t care about you; you should do this.’ They phrase it, ‘When are you getting on the bus?'”
Walton views this forum as a form of radicalization towards extreme behaviors that individuals may never have contemplated. She is alarmed by the thought that the man with Amy may have been “living a twisted fantasy as an incel, where a vulnerable young woman seeks to end her life.”
Prior to Amy’s death, Walton held a neutral stance on technology. Now, she describes, “The digital world is a distorted reflection of our offline world, amplifying its dangers.” In her book, her consideration of online harm victims spans a range of experiences, from Archie Batasby, who visited TikTok on the day he suffered a life-changing brain injury, to Meareg Amare Abrha, a university professor in Ethiopia who was killed after posting provocatively on Facebook. She also contemplates Amazon workers striving for better pay and conditions, alongside “Tony,” a 90-year-old neighbor who faced digital exclusion yet taught Walton how to use smartphones.
“For too long, the facade of technology has been equated with progress and innovation, which is a notion I challenge in my book,” she asserts. She recalls infamous public figures like Zuckerberg, Cook, Pichai, Bezos, and Musk, questioning, “Where are the engineers?” and stressing the interconnectedness of these power networks.
“The campaign allows survivors to regain control”… Amy’s bedroom in her family home. Photo: Peter Fluid/Guardian
Yet, Walton sometimes describes her experience as akin to being the digital equivalent of climate scientists from the 1970s. She acknowledges that her relationship with technology is complex, much like Amy’s. Her cherished memories of playing together revolve around their family computer in their parents’ bedroom.
“Chadwick and the Despicable Egg Thief – there’s video of us playing at 3 years old. We’ve played Color Games repeatedly. I’ve been taking photos with a ‘Digicam’ since I was 8, not to mention Xbox, Nintendo, computers—all just for fun!”
In a way, Walton describes her existence as a “double life.” Her book critically examines her own habits. While writing it, she lived in tracksuits, yet none of her Instagram
posts reveal this journey. She uses the app to limit her screen time and shares TikToks about “logoff.” Video calls have also allowed her family to “grieve together” after her sister’s passing, many of whom reside in Türkiye.
Promoting her book has made it tough to detach from screens. “I feel like a hypocrite!” she admits. “My screen time this week is nine and a half hours.” A day? “I don’t like it,” she replies, “I typically average six hours.”
Ultimately, she doesn’t aim for perfection, stating, “I’m in control of it all, guys.”
In her book, Walton notes, “The campaign allows survivors to reclaim the control that was taken from them,” a sentiment that resonates with her as the process seems exhausting. “Did I say that?” she questions, surprised. “But if I hadn’t engaged in this, where would that anger go? It would consume me and make me unwell.”
She has also engaged local MPs (first Royston Smith, then Darren Puffy), and Secretary of State Peter Kyle to seek answers about what occurred with Amy. “When we discuss online safety, it’s often framed in terms of protecting children. While that’s crucial, I also represent Amy; it’s about all of us. We can become vulnerable at any stage in our lives. If we focus solely on children’s safety, we become 18 and still don’t know how to navigate a healthy digital life,” she explains.
“I feel it’s my duty to Amy since I wish I could have shielded her.” Her eyes glisten with unshed tears.
Balancing her grief with activism has proven challenging. “Some days I genuinely can’t handle it, or I just need a day in bed, as my body struggles to keep pace with all the emotional weight.”
“But this is my mission. Those in power only act if they feel the weight of this pain. If Mark Zuckerberg experienced the loss of a child due to online harm, perhaps he would finally understand, ‘Oh my God, I need to pay attention.'”
In the UK and Ireland, contact Samaritans at Freephone 116 123 or email jo@samaritans.org or jo@samaritans.ie. In the US, call or text National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at 988, chat at 988lifeline.org, or text HOME to reach a crisis counselor at 741741. Crisis Support Services in Australia can be reached at Lifeline at 13 1114. Additional international helplines are available at befrienders.org.
The Gobi Wall is a 321 km long edifice constructed from soil, stone, and wood, located in the Gobi Highlands desert of Mongolia. It represents the least understood segment of the medieval wall system that extends from China to Mongolia. In a recent study, archaeologists sought to uncover information about the builders, purpose, and timeline of this structure. Their findings indicate that the principal structure and its usage evolved during the Xi Xia dynasty (1038-1227 CE), a time notable for its sophisticated frontier defense systems and significant geopolitical transformations.
Aerial drone photograph depicting preserved stone segments of the Gobi walls traversing the hillside. Image credit: Golan et al. , doi: 10.3390/land14051087.
Stretching 321 km through Mongolia’s highland desert, the Gobi Wall forms part of a comprehensive wall system that once extended across China to Mongolia.
Previously, its origins, functions, and historical significance remained largely uncharted.
“The medieval wall system spans roughly 4,000 km across the vast territories of northern China and Mongolia, making it a distinct segment of Siberia,” remarked Professor Gideon Sheraha Ravi from Hebrew University and his collaborators.
“It stands out as one of East Asia’s most expansive yet mysterious architectural structures.”
“In recent years, numerous projects have delved into various sections of this wall line, yielding substantial research findings.”
“Such studies have established that this extensive system of earthen walls was constructed by different empires from the 10th to the 13th centuries.”
“Among the various parts of the system, the segment within the Gobi Desert in southern Mongolia is the least explored and, as of yet, unrecognized.”
“Our investigation concentrates on a 321-km segment of this wall line in the Omnogovi region of Mongolia, which we refer to as the Gobi Wall.”
In this study, Professor Shelach-Lavi and his co-authors uncovered new insights into the building and purposes of the wall.
They found that the wall and its associated garrison were primarily constructed during the Xi Xia period (1038-1227 CE), a dynasty governed by the Tangot peoples in western China and southern Mongolia.
This era is marked by the growth of frontier defense strategies amid considerable geopolitical upheaval.
Contrary to conventional perspectives that view walls solely as defensive constructions, this research emphasizes the multifaceted roles of the Gobi walls in boundary integration, resource regulation, and imperial governance.
While the main construction and habitation phases align with the Xi Xia dynasty, the research also refuted evidence for consistent habitation of this remote area from the 2nd century BC to the 19th century AD.
The fortress comprises a plunging earth foundation bolstered by stone and wooden reinforcements, showcasing the adaptive use of local materials within this arid, isolated setting.
Additionally, ecological and spatial assessments from this study indicate that the wall routes were strategically selected based on resource accessibility, particularly water and timber.
The fort’s location and garrison positioning utilized natural geographical features such as mountain paths and sand dunes to enhance the wall’s effectiveness.
“This study challenges long-held beliefs regarding the empire’s frontier systems in Asia,” stated Professor Sheraha Ravi.
“The Gobi Wall was not merely a barrier, but an adaptive mechanism for regulating movement, commerce, and territorial authority in a demanding environment.”
This finding sheds light on how environmental adaptation and state power interacted within medieval empires, offering broader insights into ancient infrastructure and its relevance to contemporary political and ecological contexts.
“This study advocates for a wider rethinking of medieval frontiers, not just as static defensive barriers, but as dynamic management frameworks,” asserted the archaeologist.
“The Gobi Wall illustrates the Xi Xia Statecraft model, which uses architectural endeavors to manage population dynamics and territorial delineations.”
“Such an understanding aligns with a theoretical framework that perceives frontiers as zones of control and interaction, rather than rigid dividers, prompting a broader comparative analysis throughout Eurasia.”
The findings were published in a paper in the journal land.
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Dangoran et al. 2025. Exploring the Gobi Wall: Archaeology of a large medieval frontier system in the Mongol Desert. land 14(5): 1087; doi: 10.3390/land14051087
Have you ever made your food too spicy? In the future, there might be “anti-spice” seasonings, inspired by compounds in chili peppers that could help mellow the heat.
The spiciness in chili peppers is due to a compound called capsaicinoids, which activate receptors in the mouth’s nerve fibers, sending signals to the brain that create a burning sensation similar to that of actual heat or painful injuries.
Chilean enthusiasts have developed a Scoville scale to measure the heat levels in various pepper strains based on capsaicinoid concentrations. However, some peppers do not always match their Scoville ratings accurately. To explore this, Devin Peterson from Ohio State University and his team employed liquid chromatography mass spectrometry to analyze the capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin levels in 10 different chili powders, including Chile de árbol, African bird’s eye, and Scottish bonnet peppers.
They then mixed these powders with tomato juice and presented it to a panel of tasters, ensuring each sample had equal amounts of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin, expected to yield a mild heat level of about 800 Scoville units.
However, the tasters perceived the heat levels differently among the 10 types of peppers. This led Peterson and his team to conduct further chemical analyses, revealing that three compounds—capsianoside I, balasoside, and ginger glycolipid A—were present in larger quantities. Interestingly, these compounds did not exhibit the expected heat intensity according to Scoville ratings. All three compounds contain glucosides and glucose.
A group of 37 tasters was then asked to evaluate two samples simultaneously. One sample contained these newly discovered compounds, while the other did not. The placement of each on different sides of the tongue was intended to counteract the burning sensation in the second taste test. The feedback indicated that these compounds reduced perceived heat strength by an average of 0.7 to 1.2 points on a 15-point scale.
“These compounds act as effective ‘anti-spicing’ agents,” Peterson notes. Although the exact mechanism remains unclear, it’s hypothesized that they could alter the nerve receptor responses in the mouth, thereby diminishing the burning sensations.
Understanding the nature of these anti-spice chemicals could enable growers to breed and genetically modify plants, nurturing varieties that produce both fiery and mild fruits.
Peterson believes that utilizing these compounds could lead to the development of consumer products that alleviate excessive heat in dishes, offering relief from intense pain by blocking nerve signals.
“When dining with kids, if the food is too spicy, it can be a deal-breaker,” Peterson says. “The idea of having a natural compound to dial down the heat could be quite intriguing.”
The research methodology, which involved half-tasting, was praised by Barry Smith from the University of London’s Advanced Research School, who added that the Scoville scale isn’t always the most accurate tool for measuring chili heat.
Smith speculates that the perceived intensity of cooling agents like menthol might similarly be diminished by such compounds, much like how capsaicinoids trigger a burning sensation.
Recent archaeological findings indicate that well-preserved mummies were air-dried using long chips, twigs, cloth, and zinc chloride inserted into the rectum.
The 280-year-old remains belong to an Austrian priest and represent the first documented case of such an unusual but effective preservation method.
“The remarkably preserved mummy found in the Church District of St. Thomas am Brassenstein is that of Franz Zaber Sidler von Rosenage, a local pastor who passed away in 1746,” said Professor Andreas Nellich, a pathologist from Ludwig Maximilians University, Germany, involved in the Frontiers of Medicine study.
“Our investigation revealed that excellent preservation was achieved by packing the abdomen with wood chips, twigs, and dough, coupled with zinc chloride for internal desiccation.”
The mummy’s body walls were entirely unharmed, though more decay was evident on the head and legs. – Credit: Andreas Nellic
The upper body of the mummy remained largely intact, while significant collapse was observed in the head and lower body.
Nerlich, along with a global team of researchers, conducted thorough analyses, including computed tomography scans (using X-rays and computers to construct detailed body images), radiocarbon dating, and chemical assessments.
These studies confirmed Sidler’s identity, indicating he died between 1734 and 1780 at the age of 35-45.
Further discoveries of unique fabric tissues from materials found in the mummy’s abdominal cavity. Left: A piece of cotton with an intricate floral pattern. Right: A silk fabric fragment. – Credit: Andreas Nellic
In their efforts, scientists removed preservatives from Sidler’s body, uncovering that the abdominal and pelvic cavities were filled through the rectum with family and spruce chips, along with linen, hemp, and flax fabrics.
These materials were readily available in the small Austrian village where Sidler lived. Additionally, silk and embroidered linen were discovered within his remains, suggesting that the stuffing absorbed much of his abdominal fluids.
Toxicological examinations indicated that zinc chloride, a potent drying agent, was used to maintain the body’s condition.
Moreover, researchers found a small glass bead, likely lost within Sidler during the preservation process.
Left: The removal of some foreign materials from the dorsal abdominal wall revealed a mix of white fabric, plant matter, and brownish amorphous tissue residues. Right: A round object found in the left pelvis had a small hole with raised lips. – Credit: Andreas Nellic
Nerlich stated that the extent of rectal preservative use among mummies remains unknown, and other well-preserved bodies may have previously gone unreported.
The reasons behind Sidler’s preservation method remain unclear, though Nellich suggested:
“It’s possible the pastor was intended for transportation to his home monastery, but for reasons unknown, that plan may have failed.”
While researching crystal formation, scientists at New York University discovered a unique rod-shaped crystal previously unrecognized.
Zangenite. Image credit: Shihao Zang/Nyu.
Crystals are solid substances composed of particles arranged in repeating patterns.
This self-organization process—often described by researchers as “regulating order from chaos”—was traditionally believed to follow a predictable, classical growth model.
However, they are discovering that crystals can grow through more intricate pathways rather than simply forming building blocks step by step.
To investigate crystal formation, some researchers utilize crystals consisting of small spherical particles known as colloidal particles. These particles are significantly larger than the atoms in other types of crystals.
“Studying colloidal particles allows us to observe the crystallization process at the level of individual particles, which is challenging for atoms due to their small size and rapid movement,” explained Stefano Sacanna, a professor at New York University.
“With colloids, we can visually analyze the shape of the crystal under a microscope.”
To gain insight into how colloidal crystals form, Professor Sacanna and his team conducted experiments observing the behavior of charged colloidal particles under various growth conditions as they transitioned from a salty suspension into a fully developed crystal.
They also conducted thousands of computer simulations to model the growth of the crystals and to explain their experimental observations.
The researchers found that colloidal crystals form through a two-stage process: the initial amorphous mass of particles condenses, followed by a transformation into an ordered crystal structure, resulting in a diverse range of crystal types and shapes.
During the experiments, New York University PhD student Shihao Zan encountered a rod-shaped crystal that he could not identify.
While it appeared similar to a previously discovered crystal, detailed examinations revealed differences in the grain combinations and the presence of a hollow channel at the tips of the crystal.
He compared the unknown structures with over 1,000 crystals found in nature but found no match.
By utilizing computer modeling, the researchers were able to simulate the exact crystals, enabling them to study the elongated, hollow shapes more closely.
“This was somewhat perplexing, as crystals are typically dense; however, this one featured empty channels running throughout its length,” remarked Dr. Glenn Hocky from New York University.
“The combined effects of this experiment and simulation led me to realize that this crystal structure had never been documented before,” added Professor Sacanna.
They named the newly identified crystal l3s4 and informally referred to it as “Zangerite” during a lab meeting, reflecting its composition as per Zang’s discovery.
“We study colloidal crystals to replicate the real-world scenarios of atomic crystals, but we never anticipated discovering crystals that wouldn’t resemble those found in nature,” stated Zan.
The discovery of Zangenite holds potential for exploring applications related to hollow low-density crystals and may lead to the identification of more new crystals.
“The channels within Zangenite resemble characteristics found in other materials and may aid in filtering or enclosing internal contents,” Dr. Hocky noted.
“We once thought it was uncommon to find new crystal structures, but we may now be on the verge of discovering additional, yet uncharacterized, structures,” Professor Sacanna added.
A paper detailing this study was published in the journal Nature Communications.
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S. Zan et al. 2025. Direct observation and control of nonclassical crystallization pathways in binary colloid systems. Nat Commun 16, 3645; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-58959-0
A diverse group of neuroscientists evaluated two rival theories of consciousness: Integrated Information Theory (IIT) and Global Neuron Workspace Theory (GNWT). IIT posits that consciousness arises when information within a system is intricately connected and unified, provided it is consciously recognized and functions as a cohesive entity. In contrast, GNWT proposes that a network of brain regions emphasizes significant information, bringing it to the forefront of our awareness and broadly sharing it as it enters consciousness, thereby forming a conscious experience.
Various theories elucidate how subjective experiences emerge from neural activity. While these theories have independent support, they have not been directly compared. Ferrante et al. We present an open science adversarial collaboration that juxtaposes Integrated Information Theory (IIT) with Global Neuron Workspace Theory (GNWT) through a theoretical Chinese consortium. Image credit: NASA/ESA/JPL-CALTECH/STSCI/SCI.NEWS.
Both philosophers and scientists have engaged in the pursuit of understanding the subjective aspects of consciousness (like experiencing pain or seeing vivid rainbows) and their connection to brain’s physical processes.
This endeavor has led to the simultaneous development of various consciousness theories, offering conflicting interpretations of the neural foundations of consciousness.
Moreover, empirical support for any given theory often hinges on methodological choices, pointing to potential confirmation bias in testing these theories.
A convergence of consciousness theories into a broadly accepted neuroscience framework could have profound medical, social, and ethical repercussions.
To facilitate this aim, the authors examined both IIT and GNWT through expansive open science adversarial collaborations designed to foster progress in consciousness research based on constructive disagreements.
“IIT proposes that consciousness results from the cooperation of various brain regions, integrating information much like a cohesive team effort,” the researchers noted.
“It arises from how these regions are interconnected and how they communicate, extending beyond just individual brain parts.”
“However, this research did not uncover sufficient sustained connections in the brain’s posterior areas to substantiate this notion.”
“The GNWT posits that consciousness is localized in the brain’s frontal regions, but this study also found inadequate evidence to support this idea,” they added.
This study included 256 participants, marking a significant milestone for this kind of experimentation.
Researchers displayed various visual stimuli and monitored the brain’s activity while participants viewed these stimuli using three common neuroimaging methods that track blood flow and electrical/magnetic activity.
“Our findings indicate a functional link between neurons in the early visual areas and those in the frontal regions, helping illuminate how perceptions are intertwined with thoughts,” they remarked.
“These results underscore the prefrontal cortex’s significance in consciousness, suggesting that while it plays a vital role in reasoning and planning, consciousness itself may be tied to sensory processing and perception.”
“In essence, intelligence pertains to actions taken, while consciousness refers to mere existence.”
“This discovery could reshape our understanding of consciousness and inform issues related to loss of consciousness, such as in comas and nutrition.”
Understanding the origins of consciousness could aid in identifying “secret awareness” in patients who are severely injured yet unresponsive.
“It became evident that no theory could definitively refute the other,” commented Professor Anil Seth from the University of Sussex.
“The theories pursue fundamentally different objectives in their assumptions and explanations, and the available experimental methods are too coarse to allow one theory to conclusively prevail over the other.”
“Regardless, the findings from this collaboration remain invaluable. There’s a wealth of insights to gain about both theories, along with new understandings of when and where visual experiences can be discerned in the brain.”
Survey results this week will be featured in the journal Nature.
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O. Ferrante et al. (Cogged the consortium). An antagonistic examination of global neuronal workspace and integrated information theory. Nature Released on April 30th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-0888-1
The recently identified planet orbits a binary system comprising two equal brown dwarf stars positioned at a 90-degree angle from 2mass J15104786-2818174 (hereafter referred to as 2M1510).
This diagram illustrates exoplanets orbiting two brown dwarfs. Image credit: ESO/M. Kornmesser.
Cardiovascular planets represent the realm of diabetes found within a binary star system.
These planets generally have orbits aligned with the planes in which their host stars revolve around one another.
Previously, there were indications that planets might exist in vertical or polar orbits. Theoretically, these orbits were stable, and disc formations observed suggested potential planets around polar orbits of stars.
However, astronomers have now obtained clear evidence of the existence of these polar planets.
“We are thrilled to have played a role in finding robust evidence for this configuration,” stated PhD candidate Thomas Beycroft from the University of Birmingham.
The newly discovered exoplanet, 2M1510B, orbits a unique pair of young brown dwarfs.
These brown dwarfs undergo mutual solar eclipses as viewed from Earth, a characteristic that qualifies them within what astronomers refer to as a binary system.
This configuration is exceptionally rare, marking only the second identified pair of brown dwarfs and the first solar system discovered at a right angle relative to the orbit of its two host stars.
Artist’s impression of the unusual trajectory of 2M1510B around the brown dwarf. Image credit: ESO/L. Calsada.
“The planet revolving around the binary brown dwarfs in a polar orbit is remarkably thrilling,” commented Amalie Triaudo, a professor at the University of Birmingham.
Astronomers discovered 2M1510B by refining the trajectories and physical characteristics of the two brown dwarfs using UV and Visual Echelle Spectroscopy (UVES) at ESO’s Very Large Telescope.
The researchers observed strange forces acting on the trajectory of the brown dwarf, leading to speculation about a unique formation with an unusual orbital angle.
“After considering all plausible scenarios, the only explanation consistent with our data is that the planet within this binary is in polar orbit,” Beycroft noted.
“This discovery was fortuitous, as our observations weren’t initially aimed at studying the composition or orbit of such a planet, making it an exciting surprise,” Professor Triaud explained.
“Overall, I believe this not only showcases our astronomers’ capabilities but also illuminates the possibilities within the intriguing universe we inhabit.”
This image depicts the triple system 2M1510. Image credits: Centre Donna Astromyk destrasbourg/Sinbad/Panstars.
This discovery was made possible due to innovative data analysis developed by Dr. Larita Sylum of Cambridge University.
“We can derive their physical and orbital parameters from the variation in speed between the two brown dwarfs, although these measurements were previously uncertain,” Dr. Sairam remarked.
“This improvement has revealed that the interactions between the two brown dwarfs are intricately influenced.”
Study published in the journal Advances in Science.
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Thomas A. Baicroft et al. 2025. Evidence of polar drainage bulges orbiting a pair of brown dwarfs. Advances in Science 11 (16); doi:10.1126/sciadv.adu0627
Can improving brain health be as simple as navigating your way through life? That’s the intriguing question posed in recent research published in the British Medical Journal, which found that being a taxi or ambulance driver may offer protection against dementia.
A study by Harvard researchers examined the working lives and causes of death of millions of Americans and discovered that taxi and ambulance drivers have the lowest incidence of Alzheimer’s disease-related deaths among about 400 different occupations.
The theory suggests that frequent navigation tasks could play a role in protecting against Alzheimer’s disease, which is a significant cause of mortality. In fact, between 2012 and 2021, more people died from dementia in the UK than from any other cause. According to Alzheimer’s Disease Research UK, 75,000 Britons succumbed to the disease in 2023 alone.
Navigating without GPS may help keep your brain sharp – Illustration Credit: Kyle Smart
As we live longer, the risk of dementia increases. The question arises: should we ditch the map app and rely on our natural navigation skills for a longer, healthier life? Previous research has shown that training to become a London taxi driver can actually alter the brain’s structure.
London cabbies, who undergo the rigorous “knowledge” test to master the city’s streets, show an enlargement of the hippocampus, the brain area responsible for spatial processing and navigation. This is significant because the hippocampus is one of the first areas affected by Alzheimer’s disease.
While Harvard’s research suggests that taxi and ambulance drivers have a lower risk of Alzheimer’s disease, it also points out that they tend to have shorter lifespans. This raises questions about the longevity of individuals in these professions and their susceptibility to the disease.
Despite the potential benefits of navigation tasks for brain health, researchers indicate that the study’s findings need to be interpreted within the context of historical mortality data. The widespread use of GPS today could impact the results, as navigation skills may vary among different generations.
Experts like Professor Hugo Spiers of UCL believe that honing navigation skills, especially through outdoor activities, can contribute to overall brain health. Engaging in activities that challenge spatial thinking and physical activity, such as walking in nature, can have positive effects on brain function and may help prevent Alzheimer’s disease.
So, the next time you’re choosing a route, consider stepping outside and navigating your way to improved brain health. Who knows, it might just be the key to a healthier, sharper mind.
About our experts
Hugo Spiers is a professor of cognitive neuroscience at UCL, leading the taxi brain project at the university. His research has been featured in prestigious journals like Nature, Proceedings of the United States Academy of Sciences, and Public Library Science.
Once upon a time, a strong and attractive hero lost one or both of his parents. He then overcomes a series of obstacles and faces off against a monster that terrorized his community. The hero defeated the monsters and was celebrated.
If this story sounds familiar, it’s because it’s a path traveled by Superman, Harry Potter, Luke Skywalker, and countless other fictional heroes dating back centuries. Its enduring appeal has been baffling researchers for almost a long time. However, in recent years, storytelling research has been energized as linguists, psychologists and cultural evolutionary experts have begun to investigate subjects using myths and large private databases, powerful algorithms and evolutionary mindsets. We have finally begun to connect answers to key questions, such as why we make a good story, why there are more permanent than others, and how we can trace the roots of the most popular, and how stories can pass through time and space.
It’s an epic quest, but there has never been a better time to take on it. Unlike his brother Grimm and other early folktales collectors, modern surveyors of storytelling don’t need to do any painstaking fieldwork. They don’t even have to stray from computer screens and diagram the emergence and evolution of stories. “Social media is an almost natural experiment in storytelling, and we do our collections through that platform,” says Timothy Tangerini, folklore player and ethnic editor at the University of California, Berkeley. Furthermore, this new scientific approach can illuminate some phenomena that look like modern times…
meet xingxiulong yueorum A new species of early extermination Zauropodmorph dinosaurs that lived in present-day China during the early Jurassic period.
Fossilized skeleton of xingxiulong yueorum. Image credit: Chinese Academy of Sciences.
xingxiulong yueorum It belongs to Masopoda A large group of Sauropodomorph dinosaurs described in 2007.
The new species is merely the second member of the previous monopolar genus. xingxiulong.
“xingxiulong yueorum It is distinguished from xingxiulong chengi By owning a pendant-shaped fourth trochanter with a distal end, an Astragalus with a rear almost straight dorsal margin, and a Pedalgiet V with two factors” Paleonanthropology and Chinese Academy of Sciences University, and colleagues.
Partial postcranial skeletal structure of xingxiulong yueorum It was discovered in 2015 near the city of Lufen in Yunnan Province, China.
“The Rufen Formation is one of the most important sedimentary units for understanding the evolution of early Jurassic sauropod dinosaurs,” the paleontologist said.
xingxiulong yueorum Estimated to reach lengths of 8-10 m (26-33 feet) – twice the size xingxiulong chengi.
“Both of both species xingxiulong There are usually four sacral vertebrae associated with delayed sauropods and sauropods, suggesting a complex early evolution of sauropods,” the researchers said.
According to the team, the discovery xingxiulong yueorum Adds diversity of Sauropodomorph dinosaurs from the Lufeng Formation.
“This finding contributes to an understanding of the complex patterns that characterize the early evolution of Asian sauropods,” the authors concluded.
Their paper It was published in the journal on February 3, 2025 Historical Biology.
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Xiang-Yuan Chen et al. New species of xingxiulong (Dinosaur, Sauropodmorpha) from the lower Rufen Formation in the Jurassic region of Yunnan Province, China. Historical BiologyPublished online on February 3, 2025. doi:10.1080/08912963.2025.2458130
Astronomers have imaged planetary belts of 74 planetary systems as part of resolved ALMA and SMA observations in nearby star (reason) investigations (reason).
The gallery contains 74 images of different star systems with exoconterry belts taken at the Sub-Millimeter Array (SMA) and Atacama's Large Millimeter/Sub-Millimeter (ALMA) Wireless Telescope Facility. Image credit: Luca Matrà.
To find evidence of comets outside our solar system, astronomers have turned to two facilities that detect specific bands of radio waves: sub-millimeter arrays (SMAs) and large millimeters/sub-millimeters in Atacama Meter array (ALMA).
Due to the dust and rock size of these belts, this type of light is especially good for finding and imaging these structures.
The stars in this study ranged from very young to middle-aged ages like our Sun.
“The joint programme between SMA and Alma Dubbed reasons presents a significant milestone in the Exometallibelt study, as its images and subsequent analysis reveal where the pebbles and exomets are located. is”
“In these regions, it's very cold (minus 250 to minus celsius), so most compounds, including water, are frozen like ice from these exomets.”
“Exocomet is a rock and ice rock of at least 1 kilometre in size, and it collides together within these belts, and here produces pebbles that are observed in an array of telescope Alma and SMA,” says Dr. Matra. said.
“The Exometallibelt is located in at least 20% of our planetary systems, including our solar system.”
“The Kuiper Belt is an example of the comet belt of our own solar system.”
“Far beyond Pluto's orbit, some scientists believe the Kuiper belt is the source of the internal solar system where Earth was located, delivered through comets billions of years ago.”
The new image shows a significant diversity of structures within the belt. Some are narrow rings, while others are wider and may be classified as discs rather than belts.
Additionally, some of the 74 Exocomet systems have multiple rings or discs, some of which are eccentric. In other words, it's more like an elliptical shape, not a circular orbit.
This provides evidence that there are still undetectable planets or possibly moons, and that their gravity affects the distribution of pebble in these systems.
“The arrays like Alma and SMA used in this work are extraordinary tools that continue to give us incredible new insights into the universe and how it works,” says Harvard & Smithsonian Astrophysics. said Dr. David Wilner, an astrophysicist at the Center for Science.
“The research requires extensive community effort and has incredible legacy value with multiple potential pathways for future research.”
“The dataset of belt and planetary systems properties enables research into the birth and evolution of these belts, as well as the study of tracking observations across next-generation wavelength ranges from the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webspace Telescope. “The huge telescope and future plans for Alma are plans to zoom further into the details of these belts.”
a paper The explanation of the results was published in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.
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L. Matra et al. 2025. Reasons for the nearby stars Alma and SMA: population resolved 74 planetary belts at millimeter wavelengths. A&A 693, A151; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202451397
The Paleolithic rock shelter at Segonyol 3 in the Paris Basin contains a miniature representation of the surrounding landscape, according to a team of archaeologists from the University of Adelaide and Paris Mines Paris PSL.
Segonyol 3 3D map display on the floor of the rock shelter. Image credit: Médard Thiry.
The Segonyol 3 Rock Shelter has been known since the 1980s for its artistic carvings of two horses in Upper Paleolithic style on either side of a female pubic statue.
In 2017, archaeologists discovered that Paleolithic people manipulated sandstone to reflect the female figure, opening cracks that allowed water to seep into the sandstone, resulting in runoff at the base of the pelvic triangle. I discovered something.
A new study shows that some of the sandstone shelter floors were shaped and adapted by Paleolithic peoples about 13,000 years ago, and modeled to reflect the area’s natural water flow and topographic features. It suggests that it has been converted.
“What we have described is not a map of distance, direction, and travel time as we understand it today, but a three-dimensional map that depicts features of the landscape, such as outflows and confluences from uplands to streams and rivers. It’s a miniature of the original. Dr Anthony Milnes, an archaeologist at the University of Adelaide, said:
“Perception of the direction of water flow and landscape features may have been more important to Paleolithic people than modern concepts such as distance and time.”
“Our study shows that anthropogenic changes to the hydraulic behavior in and around the shelter have extended to modeling natural water flow in the landscape of areas surrounding rock shelters. “
“These are exceptional discoveries that clearly demonstrate the mental, imaginative and engineering abilities of our distant ancestors.”
Thanks to extensive research into the origins of the Fontainebleau sandstone, the authors recognized several minute morphological features that could not have formed naturally and suggest that they were modified by early humans. Masu.
“Our research showed that Paleolithic humans carved sandstone to facilitate specific flow channels for infiltrating and directing rainwater, something previously recognized by archaeologists.” said Dr. Medard Tilly of Paris Mines – PSL.
“Perhaps this metal fitting has a deeper mythical meaning related to water.”
“The two hydraulic installations, the sexual sculpture and the miniature landscape, are located 2-3 meters apart from each other and certainly convey the deep meaning of the concepts of life and nature that are never accessible to us.”
Researchers discovered the existence of three-dimensional modeling by looking closely at fine-scale geomorphological features.
“This brand new discovery provides a better understanding and insight into the capabilities of these early humans,” said Dr. Tilly.
Prior to this discovery, the oldest known three-dimensional maps were understood to be large portable rock slabs carved by Bronze Age people some 3,000 years ago.
The map depicts the local river network and embankments, and reflects the concept of more modern maps used for navigation.
“Collaboration across disciplines, such as archaeology, geology and geomorphology, is vitally important in science,” Dr Milnes said.
“We believe that the most productive research results are at the boundaries between disciplines.”
“It is important to reevaluate field studies and conduct frequent site visits,” Dr. Tilley said.
“It is clear from our ongoing projects that insights and interpretations do not emerge immediately, but through new observations and interdisciplinary discussions.”
This finding is reported in the following article: paper in Oxford Archeology Journal.
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Medard Tilly and Anthony Mills. 2025. Paleolithic map carved to show the flow of water to the shelters of the Paris Basin. Oxford Archeology Journal 44 (1): 2-26;doi: 10.1111/ojoa.12316
called radiation-resistant bacteria Deinococcus radiodurans It can withstand radiation doses thousands of times higher than what would kill a human. The secret behind this resistance is the existence of a collection of simple metabolites that combine with manganese to form a powerful antioxidant. Now, Northwestern University professor Brian Hoffman and his colleagues have discovered how this antioxidant works.
First discovered in 1956, Deinococcus radiodurans It is one of the most radiation-resistant organisms known.
It was isolated in an experiment aimed at determining whether high doses of gamma rays could be used to sterilize canned food.
In a new study, Professor Hoffman and co-authors characterized a synthetic designer antioxidant called MDP. Deinococcus radiodurans'Resilience.
They show that the components of MDP, manganese ions, phosphates, and small peptides, form a ternary complex that is a much more powerful protector from radiation damage than when manganese is combined with other individual components alone. I discovered that.
This discovery could ultimately lead to new synthetic antioxidants specifically tailored to human needs.
Applications include protecting astronauts from intense space radiation during deep space missions, preparing for radiation emergencies, and producing radiation-inactivated vaccines.
“This ternary complex is MDP's excellent shield against the effects of radiation,” said Professor Hoffman.
“It has long been known that manganese ions and phosphates together make a powerful antioxidant, but now we discover and understand the 'magical' potency brought about by the addition of a third ingredient. That's a breakthrough.”
“This study provided the key to understanding why this combination is such a powerful and promising radioprotector.”
In a previous study, researchers found that: Deinococcus radiodurans It can withstand 25,000 Grays (or units of X-rays and gamma rays).
But in a 2022 study, Professor Hoffmann and his team found that this bacterium, when dried and frozen, can withstand 140,000 Gy of radiation, 28,000 times the dose that would kill humans. did.
Therefore, if there are dormant frozen microbes buried on Mars, they may have survived the onslaught of galactic cosmic radiation and solar protons to this day.
In an effort to understand radioresistance in microorganisms, researchers investigated a designer decapeptide called DP1.
When combined with phosphate and manganese, DP1 forms the free radical scavenger MDP, which protects cells and proteins from radiation damage.
Professor Michael Daly, from Uniformed Services University, said: “This new understanding of MDP could lead to the development of even more powerful manganese-based antioxidants with applications in areas such as medicine, industry, defense and space exploration. Yes,” he said.
of result will appear in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Hao Yang others. 2024. A ternary complex of Mn2+, synthetic decapeptide DP1 (DEHGTAVMLK), and orthophosphate is an excellent antioxidant. PNAS 121 (51): e2417389121;doi: 10.1073/pnas.2417389121
Messier 77 is a relatively nearby and well-known bright spiral galaxy with a supermassive black hole at its center.
Messier 77 concept by artist. It is characterized by its powerful black hole and accretion disk, as well as the polarized light of water masers located outside the Milky Way. Image credit: NSF / AUI / NRAO / S. Dagnello.
Messier 77 is a barred spiral galaxy located 62 million light-years away in the constellation Cetus.
Also known as NGC 1068, LEDA 10266, and Cetus A, it has an apparent magnitude of 9.6.
Messier 77 was discovered in 1780 by French astronomer Pierre Méchain, who initially identified it as a nebula. Méchain then relayed this discovery to his colleague, the French astronomer Charles Messier.
Messier believed that the extremely bright objects he saw were clusters of stars, but as technology advanced, their true status as a galaxy was recognized.
At 100,000 light-years in diameter, Messier 77 is one of the largest galaxies in the Messier catalog, and its gravity is enough to twist and distort other galaxies nearby.
It is also one of the closest galaxies to active galactic nuclei (AGNs).
These active galaxies are among the brightest objects in the universe, emitting light in many if not all wavelengths, from gamma rays and X-rays to microwaves and radio waves.
But Messier 77's accretion disk is hidden by a thick cloud of dust and gas, despite being a popular target for astronomers.
Several light-years in diameter, the outer accretion disk is dotted with hundreds of different water maser sources that have been hinting at deeper structures for decades.
Masers are clear beacons of electromagnetic radiation that shine at microwave or radio wavelengths. In radio astronomy, water masers, observed at a frequency of 22 GHz, are particularly useful because they can shine through many of the dusts and gases that block the wavelengths of light.
Bucknell University astronomer Jack Gallimore and his colleagues began observing Messier 77 with two goals in mind: astronomical mapping of the galaxy's radio continuum and measuring the polarization of water masers.
“Messier 77 is a bit of a VIP among active galaxies,” says Dr. CM Violette Impellizzeri, an astronomer at the Leiden Observatory.
“There's an accretion disk right next to the black hole, and it's unusually powerful. And because it's so close, it's been studied in great detail.”
But the study authors looked at Messier 77 in an entirely new way.
Their observations were recently upgraded High sensitivity array (HSA) consists of the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array, the Very Long Baseline Array, and NSF's NRAO telescope at the Green Bank Telescope.
By measuring the water maser's polarization and the continuous radio emission from Messier 77, they reveal the compact radio source, now known as NGC 1068*, and the mysterious extended structure of the fainter emission. I created a map to
Mapping the astronomical distribution of galaxies and their water masers reveals that they are spread along structural filaments.
“These new observations reveal that the maser spot filaments are actually arranged like beads on a string,” Dr. Gallimore said.
“We were stunned to see that there was an apparent offset, or displacement angle, between the radio continuum, which describes the structure of the galaxy's core, and the position of the maser itself.”
“The configuration is unstable, so we're probably looking at a magnetically ejected source.”
Measuring the polarization of these water masers with HSA revealed significant evidence of a magnetic field.
“No one has ever seen polarization in water masers outside of our galaxy,” Dr. Gallimore said.
“Similar to the loop structures seen as prominences on the Sun's surface, the polarization patterns of these water masers clearly indicate that there is also a magnetic field at the root of these light-year-scale structures.”
“Looking at the filaments and making sure the polarization vector is perpendicular to the filaments is key to confirming that they are magnetically driven structures. It's exactly what you expected. It’s a thing.”
Previous studies of the region have suggested patterns, usually related to magnetic fields, but such conclusions were until recently beyond the scope of observational techniques.
The discovery reveals evidence for a compact central radio source (the galaxy's supermassive black hole), distinct polarization of water masers indicating structure within Messier 77's magnetic field, and spectacular extended signatures across the radio frequency continuum. It became.
Taken together, these findings indicate that magnetic fields are the underlying driving force for these phenomena.
However, many mysteries remain. For example, within the radio continuum map there is a diffuse, faint protrusion that the team has dubbed the foxtail foxtail, extending northward from the central region.
“When we set out on this, we said to ourselves, 'Let's really push the limits and see if we can get good continuum and polarization data,' and those goals were both It was a success,” Dr. Gallimore said.
“Using the NSF NRAO High Sensitivity Array, we detected the polarization of a water megamaser for the first time. We also created a very surprising continuum map, which we are still trying to understand.”
a paper The results will be explained today. Astrophysics Journal Letter.
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Jack F. Gallimore others. 2024. Discovery of polarized water vapor megamaser emission in molecular accretion disks. APJL 975, L9; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ad864f
Physicists have discovered a new way to look inside protons using data from smashups of high-energy particles. Their approach uses quantum information science to map how the tracking of particles flowing from electron-proton collisions is affected by quantum entanglement inside the protons. As a result, it became clear that quarks and gluons, the basic building blocks of the proton’s structure, are affected by so-called quantum entanglement.
Data from past proton-electron collisions provide strong evidence that proton quarks and gluon oceans are entangled, which plays a key role in strong force interactions. There is a possibility that there are. Image credit: Valerie Lentz / Brookhaven National Laboratory.
“Until we did this work, no one had observed the internal entanglement of protons in experimental high-energy collision data,” said Brookhaven Laboratory physicist Zhoudunming (Kong) Tu. states.
“For decades, we have had the traditional view of the proton as a collection of quarks and gluons, and we have had many questions about how the quarks and gluons are distributed within the proton, so-called single particles. The focus has been on understanding the nature of
“Now that we have evidence that quarks and gluons are entangled, this situation has changed. We have a much more complex and dynamic system.”
“This latest paper further deepens our understanding of how entanglement affects the structure of protons.”
“Mapping the entanglement between quarks and gluons inside the proton provides insight into other complex questions in nuclear physics, such as how parts of the larger nucleus affect the proton’s properties. There is a possibility that
“This will be one of the focuses of future experiments at the Electron-Ion Collider (EIC), a nuclear physics research facility scheduled to open at Brookhaven Laboratory in the 2030s.”
In their study, Dr. Tu and his colleagues used the language and equations of quantum information science to predict how entanglement would affect particles flowing from collisions between electrons and protons.
Such collisions are a common approach to probing the structure of protons, most recently performed at the Hadron Electron Ring Accelerator (HERA) particle collider in Hamburg, Germany, from 1992 to 2007, and were used to investigate the future EIC. Experiments are also planned.
The equation predicts that if quarks and gluons are entangled, it can be revealed from the entropy of the collision, or disorder.
“Think of a child’s cluttered bedroom with laundry and other things strewn about. Entropy is very high in that cluttered room,” Dr. Tu said.
Calculations show that protons with maximally entangled quarks and gluons (high “entanglement entropy”) should produce a large number of particles with a “random” distribution (high entropy).
“For maximally entangled quarks and gluons, a simple relationship exists that predicts the entropy of particles produced in high-energy collisions,” says the theory, which is affiliated with both Brookhaven Institute and Stony Brook University. said Dr. Dmitri Kharziyev of the house. .
“In our paper, we used experimental data to test this relationship.”
The scientists started by analyzing data from proton-proton collisions at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider, but they also wanted to look at “cleaner” data produced by electron-proton collisions. .
Physicists have cataloged detailed information from data recorded from 2006 to 2007, including how particle production and distributions change, as well as a wide range of other information about the collisions that produced these distributions. It became.
When we compared the HERA data with the entropy calculations, the results were in perfect agreement with our predictions.
These analyzes, including the latest results on how the particle distribution changes at different angles from the point of collision, provide strong evidence that quarks and gluons inside the proton are maximally entangled .
“Unraveling the entanglement between quarks and gluons reveals the nature of their strong force interactions,” Dr. Kharziyev said.
“It could provide further insight into what confines quarks and gluons inside protons, one of the central questions in nuclear physics investigated at the EIC.”
“Maximum entanglement inside the proton appears as a result of strong interactions that produce large numbers of quark-antiquark pairs and gluons.”
of the team work appear in the diary Report on advances in physics.
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Martin Henczynski others. 2024. QCD evolution of entanglement entropy. Progressive member. physics 87, 120501; doi: 10.1088/1361-6633/ad910b
This article is based on a press release provided by Brookhaven National Laboratory.
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