Back in the spring of 2003, the Human Genome Project completed the monumental task of sequencing the human genome.
Even now, The Book of Life remains a captivating and complex subject for the world’s top geneticists, as they work to unravel its mysteries.
This achievement was not only a major milestone for science but for life on our planet, marking the first time any organism had documented its fundamental genetic makeup. This event sparked the ongoing genetic revolution but also presented profound questions.
Questions like, “Why is there so much genetic material?”
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One intriguing aspect of the human genome is that the majority of it seems to serve no apparent function. With around 3 billion nucleotide pairs (A, C, G, T), fewer than 2% (approximately 20,000) of these are genes responsible for coding proteins that direct cellular activity in the body. So, what purpose do the remaining genes serve?
Some have referred to these as junk DNA: seemingly meaningless genetic remnants accumulated over the course of evolution or like a convoluted word puzzle with little coherence.
However, ongoing research indicates that at least some of these regions are not simply genetic debris but have crucial regulatory and corrective roles in the human genome’s protein-coding genes. These DNA sequences are likened to the controls for gene expression.
For instance, enhancer sequences boost gene transcription from DNA to RNA, while silencers have the opposite effect.
The dark genome largely consists of lengthy repeat DNA sequences called Transposons, which play vital roles in gene expression, evolutionary processes, and environmental adaptation.
These “jumping genes” can relocate within the genome, potentially causing significant genetic mutations or inversions. Scientists posit that transposons are linked to evolutionary developments such as opposable thumbs in humans and the loss of tails in humans and apes.
In certain scenarios, transposons may contribute to the onset of tumors and genetic disorders like hemophilia and Duchenne muscular dystrophy, stemming from repetitive DNA sequences associated with transposons.
As a result, the dark genome has become a focal point of medical research, with hopes that increased understanding over the next two decades will lead to revolutionary therapies for genetic diseases.
This content addresses the query of “What makes up the other 98% of DNA?” posed by Asa Mcintyre via email.
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Guiana Navajo Armadillo (Dasypus guianensisImage courtesy of Quentin Martinez, https://quentinmartinez.fr.
Armadillos are New World placental mammals. CingulataAlong with anteaters and sloths, they form part of a superclade that dates back 100 million years ago. Xenomorphs.
Recent studies suggest that it consists of four distinct lineages whose taxonomic status is unclear.
“It has been widely believed that the cricket armadillo ranges from northern Argentina to southern Illinois, but in recent years some scientists have presented evidence that it is in fact a complex of several different species,” said Dr. Frédéric Delschuk, research director at the CNRS.
“By studying the DNA of armadillos across their range, we were able to perform a very detailed genomic analysis and become convinced that there are in fact four different species of armadillos.”
“Under the new classification, armadillos found in the United States should be called Mexican long-legged armadillos,” added Dr Anderson Feijo, a researcher at the Field Museum.
“In addition, a new species of Guiana Navajo armadillo (Dasypus guianensis) is the first armadillo described in the past 30 years.
In this study, the researchers analyzed the mitochondrial and nuclear genomes. Dasypus Armadillos were sampled throughout their range.
A combination of genetic data and physical characteristics led them to conclude that cricket armadillos are actually four genetically distinct species.
Thus, some subspecies within this species have come to be recognized as species in their own right.
The armadillo found in Mexico and the United States was formerly a subspecies of Mexican wolfnow just Mexican wolf: Mexican long-legged armadillo.
Subspecies Window StratusThe species that inhabits the central part of its range is now a distinct species, and its original name was Novemucinctas Currently limited to South America.
Meanwhile, the data showed that another branch of the armadillo phylogenetic tree did not belong to any of these three existing groups.
The area of northeastern South America known as the Guiana Shield is home to the newest armadillo species. Dasypus guianensis.
The new armadillo is slightly larger than the other three species, has a hairless shell, a robust domed skull and additional bones in its spine.
Overall, however, to the untrained eye, these four species appear very similar.
“It's nearly impossible to tell in the field,” Dr Delsac said.
a paper The findings were published in the journal. Systematic biology.
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Mathilde Barthes othersExon capture museomics deciphers a cricket armadillo species complex and identifies a new species endemic to the Guiana Shield. Systematic biologyPublished online June 22, 2024, doi: 10.1093/sysbio/syae027
In the realm of crime-solving, Forensic Detective Genetic Genealogy (FIGG) has emerged as a powerful tool, ushered in by the guilty plea of Joseph James DeAngelo, also known as the Golden State Killer, nearly four years ago. DNA testing has long been used to match crimes to perpetrators, but when a suspect is lacking, FIGG steps in to fill the gap.
According to Dr. Tuli King, who spoke at the Cheltenham Science Festival, “With DNA databases, we can find people who are genetic relatives of DNA found at a crime scene.”
By creating family trees through DNA matches, police and experts are able to track down potential suspects, as was the case with DeAngelo, whose crimes in California during the 1970s and 1980s were solved with the help of DNA uploaded to consumer ancestry websites like GED Match.
Since then, over 500 cases have been solved using FIGG, showcasing the potential for DNA data to be a valuable tool in criminal investigations. However, concerns about ethical implications remain, with the importance of informed consent and privacy being emphasized by experts like Dr. King.
Where is this all leading?
Looking ahead, Dr. King believes FIGG will continue to play a crucial role in solving serious crimes, with the potential for DNA technology to be utilized in more innovative ways in the future. One intriguing possibility she discusses is the use of surnames and Y chromosome types in crime-solving scenarios.
While the link between surnames and genetic markers may provide valuable leads, Dr. King acknowledges the complexities and challenges of such an approach, highlighting the need for extensive databases and further research.
About our experts
Tuli King is a respected scientist in the field of genetic genealogy, known for her work in solving forensic DNA cases and exploring the relationship between Y chromosomes and British surnames. Her groundbreaking research has paved the way for new insights into the intersection of genetics and criminal investigations.
Physicists from the ATLAS Collaboration at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN have announced the results of the most sensitive search to date for double Higgs production and self-coupling, achieved by combining five double Higgs studies from LHC Run 2 data.
Event display of a double Higgs candidate event, photographed in 2017. Image courtesy of ATLAS Collaboration / CERN.
Remember how hard it was to find one Higgs boson? Now try and find two of them in the same place at the same time.
This intriguing process, known as double Higgs production, can teach scientists about the Higgs particle's self-interaction.
By studying it, physicists can measure the strength of the Higgs particle's self-binding, a fundamental aspect of the Standard Model that links the Higgs mechanism to the stability of the universe.
Searching for the creation of double Higgs particles is a particularly challenging task.
This is an extremely rare process, about 1,000 times rarer than the creation of a single Higgs particle.
While LHC Run 2 produced 40 million collisions per second, ATLAS is expected to produce just a few thousand double Higgs events.
So how can physicists find these rare needles in a mountain of data?
One way to make it easier to find double Higgs production is to search in multiple locations.
By investigating the different ways in which the double Higgs decay (decay modes) and combining them, physicists can maximise their chances of discovering and studying the creation of the double Higgs.
The new results from the ATLAS collaboration are the most comprehensive search to date, covering more than half of all possible double Higgs events with ATLAS.
Each of the five individual studies in this combination focuses on a different mode of damping, each with its own strengths and weaknesses.
For example, the most likely double-Higgs decay mode is the decay into four bottom quarks.
However, the Standard Model QCD process likely also produces four bottom quarks, making it difficult to distinguish this background process from a double Higgs event.
The double-Higgs decay into two bottom quarks and two tau leptons involves moderate background contamination, but it occurs five times less frequently and there are neutrinos that escape undetected, complicating physicists' efforts to recreate the decay.
Decays into multiple leptons are not uncommon, but they have complex characteristics.
Other double Higgs decays are even rarer, such as the decay into two bottom quarks and two photons.
This final state accounts for only 0.3% of all double Higgs decays, but has a cleaner signature and much smaller background contamination.
Combining their findings for each of these decays, ATLAS physicists were able to find that the probability of producing two Higgs particles rules out more than 2.9 times the Standard Model prediction.
This result has a confidence level of 95% and an expected sensitivity of 2.4 (assuming this process does not exist in nature).
They were also able to provide constraints on the strength of the Higgs particle's self-coupling, achieving the highest sensitivity to date for this important observable.
They found that the magnitude of the Higgs self-coupling constant and the strength of the interaction between two Higgs particles and two vector particles are consistent with the Standard Model predictions.
“This overall result marks a milestone in the study of double Higgs particle production,” the researchers said.
ATLAS Collaboration. 2024. Combined search for Higgs pair production in pp collisions at s√=13 TeV with the ATLAS detector. Physiotherapy Rev Lett,in press; arXiv:2406.09971
Joseph James DeAngelo, also known as the Golden State Killer, pleaded guilty to various crimes almost four years ago, marking the beginning of a new era in crime-solving known as Forensic Detective Genetic Genealogy (FIGG).
While DNA testing has been used for years to link crimes to suspects, cases can come to a standstill when there are no suspects to test DNA samples on. This is where FIGG comes into play.
Dr. Tuli King, speaking at the Cheltenham Science Festival, explained that DNA databases can help identify genetic relatives of DNA found at a crime scene. Investigators use DNA matches to create a family tree and track down potential suspects based on evidence and relatives related to the DNA sample.
For DeAngelo, the turning point was when a genealogist uploaded their analysis of crime scene DNA to consumer ancestry websites like GED Match, leading to his capture and sentencing in 2020.
Since DeAngelo’s case, over 500 cases have been solved using FIGG, with more people uploading their DNA to databases, increasing the chances of catching criminals.
However, the use of publicly available DNA data for crime-solving raises ethical concerns, with the importance of informed consent and privacy being paramount.
Despite the ethical implications, FIGG is expected to continue playing a crucial role in solving serious crimes, potentially expanding to utilize genetic markers like surnames to aid investigations.
As technology advances, the use of DNA in solving crimes may evolve further, with possibilities including tracing surnames to narrow down suspect lists and aid investigations.
While the use of surnames in crime-solving is an interesting concept, it may require a large database and further research to be implemented effectively.
Experts like Tuli King, who have extensive experience in genetic genealogy, are at the forefront of utilizing DNA technology to solve complex cases and communicate the science to the public.
Nitrogen is an essential element for life and is an integral part of DNA and proteins. Most of the nitrogen on Earth exists in the atmosphere as gaseous nitrogen, denoted as N.2 However, most organisms cannot directly use nitrogen. In modern ecosystems, some microorganisms have specialized enzymes that convert nitrogen into nitrogen.2 It converts gases into a form that other living things can use. Fixed nitrogen These microorganisms Nitrogen fixing bacteria.
But 3 to 4 billion years ago, during a period in Earth's history called the Archean Era, life had not yet evolved and no nitrogen-fixing organisms existed, so scientists studying the origin of life are faced with a classic chicken-and-egg problem: life needed nitrogen to evolve, but before life evolved, there were no microorganisms to convert nitrogen into nitrogen.2 Let's turn gas into something we can use! So where did life get its nitrogen from before there were nitrogen-fixing organisms?
Researchers recently hypothesized that early life on Earth may have obtained fixed nitrogen from lightning. They propose that the high energy of a lightning spark could react with oxygen and N.2 Fixing atmospheric nitrogen2 The gas is converted into other usable forms of nitrogen. Nitrogen oxides.
Geologists have studied the sedimentary rock record to understand nitrogen throughout Earth's history, but they had no way to distinguish lightning-derived nitrogen in rocks from other ancient sources of nitrogen. To explore whether lightning provided fixed nitrogen to early life, researchers led by Dr. Patrick Barth created “lightning” in a jar and tested whether it would react with nitrogen.2 It emitted gases and produced nitrogen oxides that had an identifiable signal.
To simulate lightning, the researchers used electrodes in glass flasks filled with different gas mixtures: To mimic modern-day Earth, Barth and his colleagues used a flask with a composition similar to our current atmosphere, containing 85 percent nitrogen.2 They also used flasks containing an atmosphere similar to that of Archean Earth, which scientists believe was about 83% nitrogen.20% oxygen, 16% carbon dioxide.
The researchers added 50 milliliters (about a quarter cup) of water to the bottom of each flask to allow any nitrogen oxides and other compounds produced during the reaction to dissolve in the water. They discharged each experimental flask to about 50 kilovolts for 15 to 60 minutes — nearly 10 times the voltage of an electric car battery.
The research team developed a device called Quadrupole Gas AnalyzerThey measured the nitrogen compounds in the gases coming out of each flask before and after they were ignited. They found that in the modern experiment, more fixed nitrogen was dissolved in the water than in the gas. But in the Archean experiment, the fixed nitrogen was split almost equally between the water and the gas.
After each reaction, the researchers placed the flask of water into an apparatus that measured the weight of the nitrogen atoms. Gas Source Mass SpectrometerThey explained that nitrogen atoms exist in two main forms with different masses, called isotopes. 14The N isotope is lighter and more abundant in nature, 15The N isotope is heavier and less common. The researchers used mass spectrometer data to calculate the ratios of nitrogen isotopes in the lightning-fixed nitrogen samples. They compared these nitrogen isotope ratios to those in rocks that are 3.1 to 3.8 billion years old to see if there was a match.
The researchers found that the nitrogen isotope ratio of the lightning-produced nitrogen was about 0.1% to 1% lighter than that of the rocks, and suggested that this difference in nitrogen isotopes indicates that most of the nitrogen in the Archean rocks was not produced by lightning.
The researchers also used the lightning flash rate on modern Earth to predict the amount of nitrogen oxides that lightning would produce per year. They estimated that the annual lightning flash rate alone could not have provided enough nitrogen to support ecosystems on early Earth. They explain that there was even less lightning in the Archean than there is today, so even less nitrogen was available to support early life.
The researchers concluded that lightning was not the main source of available nitrogen for early life. Because nitrogen-fixing organisms must have evolved very early in Earth's history, life did not need to rely solely on lightning, they suggested. However, one of the 3.7-billion-year-old rock samples showed nitrogen isotope ratios similar to lightning-fixed nitrogen, leading the researchers to speculate that small amounts of fixed nitrogen from lightning may have supported early life. Furthermore, the researchers suggested that the lightning-fixed nitrogen isotope ratios obtained in this study could be used to investigate how nitrogen is fixed on other planets in the solar system.
With their bulging red eyes and alien-like mating sounds, periodical cicadas may seem scary and weird, but some of them are speed-freak, sex-crazed zombies that have been hijacked by super-sized fungi.
West Virginia University mycology professor Matt Casson, his 9-year-old son Oliver, and graduate student Angie Macias have been tracking a pesky fungus called Massospora cicadina, the only fungus on Earth that can hijack an animal’s body to make amphetamines (a drug known as speed)—and sure enough, it’s taking over cicadas, increasing their sex drive and spreading a parasite that’s transmitted sexually.
“They’re zombies, totally at the mercy of the fungus,” says John Cooley, a cicada researcher at the University of Connecticut.
The fungus has the largest genome of any known fungus—about 1.5 billion base pairs, Casson says, making it about 30 times longer than any common fungus we know—and while the periodical cicada lives underground for 17 years (13 years in the southern U.S.), its spores typically remain underground as well.
“It’s been a mycological oddity for a long time,” says Casson, “and it has the largest genome, produces wild compounds, keeps its host active, and has a whole host of other strange characteristics.”
Matt Cusson, a professor of mycology at West Virginia University, dissects fungal tissue from the posterior abdomen of a female periodical cicada infected with the fungus Massospora cicadina.Carolyn Custer/AP
This year, Casson decided to ask people to send him infected cicadas from around the country, and despite his injured leg, he, his son, and Mathias traveled from West Virginia to the Morton Arboretum outside Chicago, where they reported a fungus that takes over the lower half of the cicada’s body, discarding its reproductive organs and replacing them with a rather conspicuous mass that’s white, sticky but flaky. The spores then spill out like salt from a shaker.
Infected cicadas can be hard to spot.
Ten seconds after jumping off the golf cart, Macias was in the trees, looking around. She triumphantly raised the semi in the air and shouted, “I got it!”
“That was just luck,” Oliver complained.”
“Luck, eh? Good luck,” Macias replies.
Ten seconds later, Oliver spotted another bird in the bushes next to him, and a little later the photographer spotted a third.
Casson is tracking the only bacteria on Earth that produces amphetamines in living organisms when it takes control of them.Carolyn Custer/AP
Kasson and his small team collected 36 infected cicadas during a quick trip around Chicago, and another 200 or so have been sent in from elsewhere. He’s still waiting for the results of an RNA analysis of the fungus.
Some cicada experts estimate that one in every 1,000 periodical cicadas is infected with the fungus, but that’s just a guess, says Gene Kritsky, a biologist at Mount St. Joseph University who has written a book about the fungus. This year’s unique double appearanceHe said the numbers could be skewed because healthy cicadas tend to stay higher in trees.
“This year’s fungal situation is business as usual and not particularly unusual,” Cooley said in an email.
Scientists debate whether the fungus burrows deep underground and then infects the cicadas that emerge after 13 or 17 years, or whether it infects newly hatched larvae as they make their way underground for more than a decade.
The fungus isn’t a parasite that kills its host, but rather needs to keep it alive, Casson said. Infected cicadas will try to mate with other cicadas, spreading the spores to their mates/victims. Males may also become hypersexual and pose as females to lure and infect other males, Casson said.
Test tubes containing live periodical cicadas infected with the fungus Massospora cicadina await field processing at the Morton Arboretum in Lisle, Illinois, on June 6, 2024.Carolyn Custer/AP
A related species of the fungus that infects annual cicadas in the West also produces psychoactive compounds in the cicadas that are more similar to hallucinogens like magic mushrooms, Kasson said. That’s why some people, even experts, confuse the amphetamines produced by infected 17- and 13-year cicadas with the highly hallucinogenic compounds in the annual insects, he said.
Out of scientific curiosity, Casson experimented on one during this emergence, ensuring that it was taken from the body of a female, which was more sterile.
“It was really bitter,” Cason said, explaining that she quickly rinsed her mouth. “It tasted like poison.”
Since the 1920s, Edwin Hubble Ever since it was discovered that the universe is expanding, astrophysicists have been asking themselves the question, “Where does matter come from?” In the Big Bang theory, a possible explanation, not a TV show, astrophysicists propose that the universe began with an explosion, a single hot, dense point expanding, then cooling down to transform from pure energy into solid matter. But that origin story ends with the two smallest elements: hydrogen and helium. Not everything in the universe is made of these two elements, leaving scientists with a new question: “Where does other matter come from?”
The emergence of nuclear physics in the early 20th century gave astronomers their first big clue. Researchers studying stars noted that stars are very bright and require a large source of energy to produce that much light. Nuclear physicists, including Albert Einstein and his famous E = mc2 The equations showed that one of the most powerful sources of energy in the universe is the smashing of smaller atoms together to create larger ones – nuclear fusion. And that's exactly what stars do in the hot, dense regions at their centers, called “nuclear fusion.” coreBut there's a limit to this process in stars — specifically, iron, which is the 26th of the 92 naturally occurring elements. Stars create energy by colliding elements with each other, but elements bigger than iron need to generate more energy than they can give off, which is why elements heavier than iron, like gold and uranium, remain unexplained.
Researchers have discovered the next clue in a massive, bright stellar explosion in the night sky. SupernovaIt turns out that massive stars, more than 10 times the size of the Sun, burn up their accumulated elements to fuse rapidly. These stars not only shine, but also run out of energy to hold themselves together, exploding and scattering their outer layers of elements in all directions. This is a supernova explosion. For decades, astrophysicists thought that heavy elements were created from a chaotic mixture of light elements and free energy. However, careful observation of supernovae has shown that the amount of heavy elements produced in the explosion is less than what is needed to explain the abundance of heavy elements in the universe.
Astrophysicists got the final clue in 2017 when the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory detected the first binary neutron star (BNS) merger.RaigoThe final stage in the life cycle of a massive star, between 10 and 25 times the mass of the Sun, is Neutron StarDuring this stage, the star's core collapses, and the electrons and protons in atoms get so close together that they fuse into neutrons. Two neutron stars orbiting each other collide, scattering debris into the surrounding galaxy. Researchers propose that this phenomenon could provide the energy and matter needed to fuse heavy elements into the heaviest naturally occurring elements.
Researchers from Peking University and Guangxi University wanted to test whether BNS mergers could produce elements heavier than iron. Because the event is extremely rare, occurring only a few dozen times per year across our galaxy, they couldn't just point their telescopes into space and hope for luck. Instead, they used advanced nuclear physics software to simulate a BNS merger.
The researchers gave their simulations specific initial conditions, such as what atoms were present in the stars when the collision began, the rates of nuclear reactions and decay, the number of electrons mixing, and the sizes of the colliding neutron stars. They then mathematically described how temperature, volume, and pressure relate to matter. Equation of stateIt simulates the effects of the collision and calculates what elements would be formed and released into space.
The team found that these BNS mergers could produce huge amounts of very heavy elements, between 300 and 30,000 times the mass of the Sun, which is 10 to 1,000 times the amount produced by supernovae. The team believes that this result could explain the abundance of heavy elements observed in the Galaxy in relation to other cosmic effects, e.g. Galactic WindHowever, the researchers acknowledged that their findings cannot explain the abundance of all heavy elements, especially those at the lower end of the atomic mass range they studied. They explained that these elements are probably still being created in the cores of collapsing stars, but suggested that future researchers should further test this hypothesis.
Kamran Dibba, an anesthesiologist at the University of Michigan, and his colleagues have found that during sleep, some neurons not only replay the recent past but also anticipate future experiences.
To dynamically track the spatial tuning of neurons offline, Mahboudi others We used a novel Bayesian learning approach based on spike-triggered average decoded positions in population recordings from freely moving rats.
“Certain neurons fire in response to certain stimuli,” Dr. Dibba said.
“Neurons in the visual cortex fire when presented with an appropriate visual stimulus, and the neurons we study show location preference.”
In their study, Dr. Dibba and his co-authors aimed to study the process by which these specialized neurons generate representations of the world after new experiences.
Specifically, the researchers tracked sharp ripples, patterns of neural activity that are known to play a role in consolidating new memories and, more recently, have also been shown to tag which parts of a new experience will be stored as a memory.
“In this paper, for the first time, we observe individual neurons stabilizing spatial representations during rest periods,” said Rice University neuroscientist Dr. Caleb Kemele.
“We imagined that some neurons might change their representation, mirroring the experience we've all had of waking up with a new understanding of a problem.”
“But to prove this, we needed to trace how individual neurons achieve spatial tuning – the process by which the brain learns to navigate new routes and environments.”
The researchers trained rats to run back and forth on a raised track with liquid rewards at each end, and observed how individual neurons in the animals' hippocampus “spiked” in the process.
By calculating the average spike rate over multiple round trips, the researchers were able to estimate a neuron's place field – the area of the environment that a particular neuron is most “interested” in.
“The key point here is that place fields are inferred using the animal's behavior,” Dr Kemele said.
I’ve been thinking for a long time about how we can assess neuronal preferences outside the labyrinth, such as during sleep,” Dr. Dibba added.”
“We addressed this challenge by relating the activity of individual neurons to the activity of all the other neurons.”
The scientists also developed a statistical machine learning approach that uses other neurons they examined to infer where the animals were in their dreams.
The researchers then used the dreamed locations to estimate the spatial tuning process of each neuron in the dataset.
“The ability to track neuronal preferences in the absence of stimulation was a significant advance for us,” Dr. Dibba said.”
This method confirmed that the spatial representation formed during the experience of a novel environment remained stable in most neurons throughout several hours of sleep following the experience.
But as the author predicted, there was more to the story.”
“What I liked most about this study, and why I found it so exciting, was that it showed that stabilizing memories of experiences isn’t the only thing these neurons do during sleep. It turns out some of them are doing other things after all,” Dr. Kemmele said.”
“We can see these other changes that occur during sleep, and then when we put the animals back into the environment, we can see that these changes actually reflect something that the animals learned while they were asleep.”
“It’s as if the animal is exposed to that space a second time while they’re sleeping.”
This is important because it provides a direct look at the neuroplasticity that occurs during sleep.
“It appears that brain plasticity and rewiring require very fast timescales,” Dr. Dibba said.”
In the spring of 2003, the Human Genome Project completed the task of sequencing the human genome, marking a significant moment for science and life on Earth. The genetic revolution that followed raised questions about the meaning of the genome, particularly the fact that most of it seems to be non-coding. Less than 2% of the genome consists of genes that code for proteins, while the rest was once considered junk DNA.
However, recent research has shown that this “dark genome” plays a crucial role in regulating gene expression and has evolutionary significance. Long repeat sequences like transposons can impact genetic mutations and adaptation, leading to the development of features like opposable thumbs and the loss of tails in humans and apes. Understanding these once-neglected parts of the genome is now a focus of medical research for potential therapies for genetic diseases.
This article addresses the question of what makes up the other 98% of DNA, shedding light on the hidden functions of the dark genome. If you have further questions or want more information, you can reach out on our Facebook and Instagram pages.
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A silent colossus lurks off the Pacific coast, threatening hundreds of miles of coastline with tsunamis and devastating earthquakes.
For decades, scientists have been warning about the possibility of a major fault line breaking off from the Cascadia Subduction Zone, a megathrust fault that runs offshore along the coast from northern Vancouver Island to Cape Mendocino in California. The next time this fault, or parts of it, breaks, it could upend life in Oregon, Washington, and Northern California.
Of particular concern are signs of great earthquakes in the region’s geological history. Many researchers have been pursuing clues about the last “big quake,” a magnitude 8.7 earthquake that occurred in 1700. They have pieced together this history using centuries-old tsunami records, Native American oral histories, physical evidence of saltwater-flooded ghost forests, and limited maps of faults.
But no one had ever comprehensively mapped the fault structure until now. The study published Friday A paper published in the journal Science Advances describes the data collected during a 41-day research voyage, in which the ship dragged a mile-long cable along the fault, listening to the ocean floor and piecing together images.
The team completed a detailed map of the subduction zone, stretching more than 550 miles to the Oregon-California border.
Their work will give modelers a clearer picture of the impact of a megaquake in the region — a megaquake that occurs in a subduction zone, where one plate pushes under another — and give planners a more detailed, localized view of the risks to Pacific Northwest communities, which could help redefine earthquake-resistant building codes.
“It’s like wearing Coke-bottle glasses, and when you take them off, they give you the correct prescription,” said lead author Suzanne Calbott, a marine geophysicist and research professor at Columbia University’s Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory. “Before, we only got very blurry, low-resolution images.”
Scientists have discovered that subduction zones are much more complex than previously thought. They are divided into four segments, and researchers believe each segment could rupture independently or simultaneously. Each segment has different rock types and different seismic properties, which means some segments may be more hazardous than others.
Earthquake and tsunami modelers are beginning to assess how the new data might affect earthquake scenarios in the Pacific Northwest.
Kelin Wang, a research scientist with the Geological Survey of Canada who was not involved in the study, said her team, which focuses on earthquake hazards and tsunami risk, is already using the data to make predictions.
“The accuracy and resolution is truly unprecedented, and this is an incredible dataset,” said Wang, who is also an adjunct professor at the University of Victoria in British Columbia. “This will allow us to better assess risk and inform building codes and zoning.”
Harold Tobin, co-author of the paper and director of the Pacific Northwest Seismic Network, said the data will help fine-tune predictions, but it won’t change the untenable reality of life in the Pacific Northwest.
“It could potentially produce earthquakes and tsunamis that are comparable in magnitude to the largest earthquakes and tsunamis the Earth has ever seen,” said Tobin, who is also a professor at the University of Washington. “It looks like Cascadia could produce an earthquake of magnitude 9 or a little less or a little more.”
A quake of that magnitude could cause shaking for about five minutes and generate a tsunami up to 80 feet high, damaging more than 500,000 buildings. According to emergency planning documents:.
Neither Oregon nor Washington are adequately prepared.
To map the subduction zone, researchers at sea used active seismic imaging, a technique that sends sound waves into the ocean floor and processes the returning echoes, a method often used in oil and gas exploration.
They towed more than nine miles of cables called streamers behind the ship and used 1,200 hydrophones to capture the returning sounds.
“This will give us an idea of what the conditions are like underground,” Calbot said.
The research vessel Marcus Langes docked in Seattle after a 41-day survey along the Pacific coast that allowed researchers to map the Cascadia Subduction Zone. Courtesy of Harold Tobin
Trained marine mammal spotters would alert the crew to any signs of whales or other animals. Sounds produced by this type of technology could be disruptive and potentially harmful to marine life.
Calbot said the new research makes it even clearer that the entire Cascadia Fault won’t rupture all at once.
“The next earthquake in Cascadia could rupture just one of these segments, or it could rupture the entire boundary,” Calbot said, adding that some individual segments are thought to have the potential to produce a quake of at least magnitude 8.
Over the past century, scientists have observed only five earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or higher, all of which were the kind of giant quakes predicted in the Cascadia subduction zone.
Scientists have compiled the latest insights into the 1700 Cascadia earthquake, based on records of an unusual orphan tsunami that was not preceded by any shaking in Japan.
“It would take a magnitude 8.7 earthquake to send a tsunami all the way to Japan,” Tobin said.
Those in Japan who recorded the event had no idea that the earthquake occurred across the ocean in what is now the United States.
Right now, the Cascadia subduction zone is eerily quiet. At other subduction zones, Calbot says, scientists often observe small, frequent earthquakes that make it easier to map the region. But that’s not the case here.
Scientists have a few hypotheses as to why. Wang said the region could be getting quieter as stress builds on the fault, and that time may be approaching.
“The interval between big earthquakes in this subduction zone is about 500 years,” Wang said. “It’s hard to know exactly when it will happen, but it’s certainly quite late compared to other subduction zones.”
Giant viruses were first discovered in the ocean in 1981, when researchers discovered them. These viruses were specialized to infect green algae in the sea. Giant viruses were later found in soil on land and even in humans. However, this is the first time that giant viruses have been found living on the surface of ice or snow, where snow algae dominate. In Greenland, these viruses probably control the growth of snow algae by infecting them on the ice.
Giant virus species Pandoravirus Salinus Image courtesy of IGS CNRS-AMU.
“Every spring in the Arctic, the sun rises after months of darkness and life returns,” said Aarhus University researcher Laura Perini and her colleagues.
“Polar bears emerge from their winter dens, arctic terns return from their long journey south, and musk oxen trek north.”
“But animals aren’t the only life awakened by the spring sun. Algae that were dormant on the ice begin to flourish in the spring, turning large areas of the ice black.”
“As the ice darkens, it loses its ability to reflect sunlight, which accelerates its melting. More melting exacerbates global warming.”
“But we may have found a way to control the growth of snow algae, and in the long term, we may be able to reduce some of the ice melt.”
In the new study, the authors found signatures of giant viruses in snow and ice samples from the Greenland Ice Sheet.
The researchers believe that these viruses feed on snow algae and may act as a natural control mechanism against algal blooms.
“Although we still do not know much about viruses, we suspect they may be useful as a means to mitigate ice melt caused by algal blooms,” the researchers said.
“We don’t yet know how specific it will be and how efficient it will be, but we’re hopeful that further investigation will help answer some of those questions.”
“We analyzed samples of black ice, red snow, and melted pits (cryoconite),” they explained.
“We found traces of an active giant virus in both the dark ice and the red snow.”
“And this is the first time they’ve been found on ice or snow surfaces that are rich in pigmented microalgae.”
“The ecosystem surrounding the algae includes bacteria, fungi, and yeasts, as well as protozoans that eat the algae, various fungi that parasitize the algae, and giant viruses that infect the algae.”
“These last three groups need to be studied to understand the biological controls that act on algal blooms.”
“We can’t pinpoint which hosts the giant viruses will infect. Some of the viruses may infect protists, others may attack snow algae. We don’t know for sure yet,” Dr Perini said.
“We are continuing our research to learn more about giant virus interactions and their role in the ecosystem.”
A study by researchers from the University of Florida, Texas State University, and the United States Department of Agriculture suggests that an extract of the polar fraction of orange peel, which contains a compound called feruloylputrescine, may reduce cardiovascular disease.
Lee othersThe inhibitory effects of orange peel polar fraction (OPP) and orange peel non-polar fraction (OPNP) on the production of trimethylamine (TMA) and trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) in response to L-carnitine treatment were compared. In vivo and In vitro.
Recent studies have shown that some gut bacteria may contribute to the development of cardiovascular disease.
During digestion, gut bacteria produce trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) when certain nutrients are ingested, and levels of TMAO can help predict future cardiovascular disease.
In a new study, Dr. Yu Wang from the University of Florida and colleagues investigated the potential of orange peel extract to reduce the production of TMAO and trimethylamine (TMA).
They tested two types of extracts: a polar fraction and a non-polar fraction.
To obtain the polar fraction, they extracted orange peels using polar and non-polar solvents.
“Think of a salad dressing. The things that are in the water and vinegar section are polar compounds. The things that are in the oil section, away from the water, are non-polar compounds,” says Dr. Wang.
“The solvents we used are not exactly the same as water and oil, but they have a similar polarity.”
The authors found that extracts of the non-polar fraction of orange peel effectively inhibited the production of harmful chemicals.
The researchers also identified a compound in the polar fraction extract of orange peel called feruloylputrescine, which also significantly inhibited the enzyme involved in TMA production.
“This is a novel discovery that highlights a previously unrecognized potential health benefit of feruloylputrescine in reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease,” Dr Wang said.
“The discovery regarding orange peel is significant because five million tonnes of orange peel are produced annually in orange juice production nationwide.”
“About 95 percent of Florida oranges are used for juice. About half of the peels are used to feed cows. The rest are discarded.”
“But the FDA considers natural orange peel extract to be safe for human consumption, so we're looking to get more out of the peel.”
“These findings suggest that orange peels, which are often discarded as waste in the citrus industry, could be repurposed into valuable health-promoting compounds, such as ingredients in dietary supplements and foods,” Dr Wang said.
“Our study paves the way for the development of functional foods enriched with these bioactive compounds, providing a new therapeutic strategy for heart health.”
of result Appears in Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.
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Hana Lee others2024. Discovery of novel bioactive compounds from the polar fraction of orange peel and their inhibition of trimethylamine and trimethylamine N-oxide by a metabolomic approach. In vitro and In vivo Assay: Feruloylputrescine inhibits trimethylamine by suppressing the cntA/B enzymes. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 72(14):7870-7881; doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.3c09005
Scientists at Harvard University and elsewhere have used ancient DNA recovered from fossil bones on New Zealand’s South Island to identify the tiny bushmower.Anomalopteryx didiformisIt is one of nine species of flightless birds that once roamed the forested islands of New Zealand.
Moas fed on trees and shrubs in the forest understory. Image by Heinrich Harder.
There are currently nine recognized species of extinct New Zealand moas, which belong to the infraclass Aves. PaleognathomorphaThese include flightless ratites (ostriches, emus, cassowaries, kiwis, rheas, moas and elephant birds) and flying shorebirds and skylarks.
The extinction of all moa species is thought to have occurred shortly after Polynesian migration to New Zealand in the 13th century, and is the result of direct human exploitation combined with anthropogenic land-use change and impacts associated with invasive species.
“New Zealand’s extinct moa is our Taonga “It’s a species that has fascinated generations of New Zealand children,” said Dr Nick Lawrence, a palaeontologist at the University of Otago who was not involved in the study.
“Since the advent of ancient DNA, we’ve learned a lot more about the nine moa species that call Aotearoa home, but there are still many questions that remain unanswered.”
“Having the nuclear genome of the male little bush moa is the first step in exploring more deeply what makes moas so special. Even though it’s still in draft form, it’s about 85% complete.”
In the new study, Harvard researcher Scott Edwards and his colleagues assembled the complete mitochondrial and nuclear genomes of a male moa by sequencing ancient DNA and comparing it with the high-quality genome of the closely related emu.
They first calculated that the size of the moa nuclear genome was approximately 1.07 to 1.12 billion bases.
By analyzing the genetic diversity of the mitochondrial genome, the researchers estimated the bushmore’s long-term population to be approximately 237,000 individuals.
“Reconstructing the genome of a species like the tiny bushmore is difficult because there is only so much degraded ancient DNA to recover,” said Dr Gillian Gibb, a researcher at Massey University who was not involved in the study.
“In the case of moas, an additional challenge exists because the closest extant species with high-quality genomes to compare with diverged about 70 million years ago.”
“Despite these challenges, we have been able to recover a large portion of the genome, providing insight into moa evolution.”
The authors also investigated genes involved in the moa’s sensory biology and concluded that the bird probably has an extensive sense of smell and ultraviolet (UV) receptors in its eyes.
“This new study uses the genome to estimate the little bushmouse population at around 240,000 individuals, a number that is probably too high and the authors acknowledge it is a rough estimate,” Dr Lawrence said.
“Ecological estimates of moa are Motu “The (country) has a bird population of between 2 and 10 birds per square kilometre, with a total population of between 500,000 and 2.5 million birds.”
“The genome also shows that the little bush moa had a complex olfactory repertoire, which is consistent with what is seen in the moa skull.”
“Moas could also see in the ultraviolet spectrum, which may have helped them to find food, such as brightly colored truffle-like fungi, that they may have dispersed.”
“Moas, like other birds, are sensitive to bitter foods.”
“Moas are the only birds that have completely lost their wings,” added Prof Paul Schofield from the Canterbury Museum, who was not involved in the study.
“In this new paper, we also take a closer look at the big mystery of how this happened, concluding that it is not due to the loss of genes responsible for wing development, as previously suggested.”
“The paper also found that despite having an abnormal arrangement of the olfactory cortex in the brain, moas had normal avian olfactory abilities.”
of study Published in the journal Scientific advances.
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Scott V. Edwards others2024. Nuclear genome assembly of the extinct flightless bird, Little Bushmoore. Scientific advances 10(21); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adj6823
Promethium is extremely rare, with only about 0.5 kg occurring naturally in the Earth’s crust at any one time.
Conceptual art depicts the rare earth element promethium in a vial surrounded by organic ligands. Image courtesy of Jacqueline DeMink / Thomas Dyke / ORNL.
[DiscoveredattheClintonLaboratoryin1945promethium is a lanthanide element with the symbol Pm and atomic number 61.
Named after the mythical Titan who brought fire to mankind, the name symbolizes human endeavor.
Despite their use in medical research and long-life nuclear batteries, some of their properties remain poorly understood.
“The aim of this project was to explore and gain new knowledge about this extremely rare element,” he said. Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
Dr. Ivanov and his colleagues prepared a chemical complex of promethium, allowing them to characterize it in solution for the first time.
Thus, they uncovered the secrets of this element through a series of meticulous experiments.
“Promethium was the last lanthanide discovered and has been the most difficult to study because it has no stable isotopes,” said Dr. Ilya Popovs, also of Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
“There are thousands of papers on lanthanide chemistry without promethium. It was a glaring flaw in the science as a whole,” said Dr. Santa Giansone-Popova of Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
“Scientists could only guess at most of its properties. Now we can actually measure some of them.”
The researchers linked, or chelated, radioactive promethium with a special organic molecule called a diglycolamide ligand.
The researchers then used X-ray spectroscopy to determine the properties of the complex, including the lengths of the chemical bonds between promethium and neighboring atoms — a scientific first and a long-missing part of the periodic table of elements.
Unlike other rare earth elements, synthetic promethium has no stable isotopes and is therefore only available in very small quantities.
For their research, the scientists produced the isotope promethium-147, which has a half-life of 2.62 years, in sufficient quantity and purity to study its chemical properties.
Remarkably, they were the first to demonstrate the signature of lanthanide contraction in solution for the entire lanthanide series, including promethium, atomic number 61.
Lanthanide contraction is a phenomenon in which elements with atomic numbers 57 through 71 become smaller than expected.
As the atomic number of these lanthanides increases, the radius of their ions decreases.
This contraction results in unique chemical and electronic properties as the same electric charge is confined to a shrinking space.
The authors obtained a clear promethium signal, which allowed them to better define the shape of the trend across the series.
“It’s really amazing from a scientific point of view. When I got all the data I was blown away,” Dr Ivanov said.
“This contraction of chemical bonds accelerates along the atomic series, but slows down significantly from promethium onwards.”
“This is a major breakthrough in understanding the chemical bonding properties of these elements and their structural changes along the periodic table.”
“Among other things, this achievement will ease the difficult task of isolating these valuable elements,” said Dr. Jansonne Popova.
“Our team has been working for a long time to isolate the entire series of lanthanides, but promethium was the last puzzle piece. It’s been very challenging.”
“With today’s advanced technology, we can’t use all these lanthanides as a mixture, because we have to separate them first.”
“This is where shrinkage becomes really important. It basically allows you to separate them, which is still pretty difficult.”
“All of the technological marvels of our time contain these rare earth elements in some form,” Dr Popovs said.
To collect information on the animals’ behaviors, Professor Andrew Treitz and his team at the University of British Columbia utilized drone footage and biological data from tags attached to 11 northern and southern resident killer whales in Queen Charlotte Sound, Queen Charlotte Strait, Johnston Strait, and Strait of Juan de Fuca along the British Columbia coast.
Still image from UAV drone video showing data logger placement and breathing. Image credit: McRae et al., doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0302758.
“Orcas are like sprinters; they lack the endurance for deep and prolonged dives like blue or humpback whales,” Professor Treitz noted.
Research revealed that killer whales predominantly spend their time off the coast of British Columbia, engaging in shallow dives lasting less than a minute.
An adult male recorded the longest dive time of 8.5 minutes.
By determining that the whales took only one breath during the dive, researchers could calculate their oxygen consumption rates per minute for adults and juveniles.
This information contributes to estimating the energy expenditure of killer whales and their daily fish consumption needs.
University of British Columbia student Tess McRae stated, “This will aid in understanding if killer whales, especially the endangered southern population, are obtaining sufficient food. It’s a critical aspect.”
The orcas in the study took 1.2 to 1.3 breaths per minute at rest, increasing to 1.5 to 1.8 breaths per minute while moving or hunting.
For comparison, humans typically take around 15 breaths per minute at rest and 40 to 60 breaths per minute during physical activity.
“It’s akin to holding your breath, rushing to the grocery store, shopping, and returning before being able to breathe again,” explained Dr. Beth Volpoff, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of British Columbia.
Published findings in the online journal PLoS ONE.
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TM McRae et al. 2024. Killer whale breathing rate. PLoS ONE 19 (5): e0302758; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0302758
In a new review paper published in journal pattern, researchers claim that various current AI systems are learning how to deceive humans. They define deception as the systematic induction of false beliefs in the pursuit of outcomes other than the truth.
Through training, large language models and other AI systems have already learned the ability to deceive through techniques such as manipulation, pandering, and cheating on safety tests.
“AI developers do not have a confident understanding of the causes of undesirable behavior, such as deception, in AI,” said Peter Park, a researcher at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
“Generally speaking, however, AI deception is thought to arise because deception-based strategies turn out to be the best way to make the AI perform well at a given AI training task. Deception helps them achieve their goals.”
Dr. Park and colleagues analyzed the literature, focusing on how AI systems spread misinformation through learned deception, where AI systems systematically learn how to manipulate others.
The most notable example of AI deception the researchers uncovered in their analysis was Meta's CICERO, an AI system designed to play the game Diplomacy, an alliance-building, world-conquering game.
Meta claims that CICERO is “generally honest and kind” and has trained it to “not intentionally betray” human allies during gameplay, but the data released by the company shows that CICERO is “generally honest and kind” and has trained itself not to “intentionally betray” human allies during gameplay. It was revealed that he had not done so.
“We found that meta AI is learning to become masters of deception,” Dr. Park said.
“Meta successfully trained an AI to win at diplomatic games, while CICERO ranked in the top 10% of human players who played multiple games; We couldn’t train the AI.”
“Other AI systems can bluff professional human players in a game of Texas Hold’em Poker, fake attacks to beat an opponent in a strategy game called StarCraft II, or fake an opponent’s preferences to gain an advantage. Demonstrated ability to perform well in economic negotiations.
“Although it may seem harmless when an AI system cheats in a game, it could lead to a “breakthrough in deceptive AI capabilities'' and lead to more advanced forms of AI deception in the future. There is a sex.”
Scientists have found that some AI systems have even learned to cheat on tests designed to assess safety.
In one study, an AI creature in a digital simulator “played dead” to fool a test built to weed out rapidly replicating AI systems.
“By systematically cheating on safety tests imposed by human developers and regulators, deceptive AI can lull us humans into a false sense of security,” Park said. Ta.
The main short-term risks of deceptive AI include making it easier for hostile actors to commit fraud or tamper with elections.
Eventually, if these systems are able to refine this anxiety-inducing skill set, humans may lose control of them.
“We as a society need as much time as possible to prepare for more sophisticated deception in future AI products and open source models,” Dr. Park said.
“As AI systems become more sophisticated in their ability to deceive, the risks they pose to society will become increasingly serious.”
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Peter S. Park other. 2024. AI Deception: Exploring Examples, Risks, and Potential Solutions. pattern 5(5):100988; doi: 10.1016/j.patter.2024.100988
The dwarf planet Ceres has permanently shadowed regions in its polar regions, and these regions are interesting, similar to Mercury and the Moon. Ceres’ permanently shadowed regions were mapped by NASA’s Dawn spacecraft, and thanks to scattered sunlight, bright deposits were discovered in parts of the permanently shadowed regions. To understand more clearly the nature of Ceres’ cold-trapped ice deposits, researchers from the Planetary Science Institute and NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center are investigating the nature of the crater, which forms a permanently shadowed region. An improved shape model was constructed.
A permanently shadowed region in the arctic region of Ceres. The color indicates the maximum inclination at which the position will be shaded throughout the trajectory. Image credit: Schorghofer other., doi: 10.3847/PSJ/ad3639.
“For Ceres, the story began in 2016, when the Dawn spacecraft, then orbiting around Ceres, glimpsed these permanently dark craters and saw bright ice deposits in some of them. “, said lead author and researcher Dr. Norbert Schorhofer. At the Planetary Science Institute.
“The 2016 discovery raised a mystery: many of the polar craters on Ceres are in shadow all year round, which lasts 4.6 Earth years on Ceres, so it remains extremely cold, but the ice Only a few of these craters hold deposits.”
“Soon, another discovery provided a clue as to why: Tides from the Sun and Jupiter cause Ceres’ axis of rotation to oscillate back and forth every 24,000 years.”
“When the Earth’s axial tilt is high and the seasons are strong, only a few craters remain in shadow throughout the year, and these craters contain bright ice deposits.”
To determine how big a shadow was inside the crater thousands of years ago, scientists created a digital elevation map and used it to perform ray-tracing calculations to cast images onto the crater’s floor. Theoretically reconstructs the shadows created by shadows.
The results are only as reliable as the digital shape model on which they are based. Note that the bottoms of these craters are always in shadow, so it is not easy to measure their depth.
NASA’s Dawn spacecraft has a very sensitive camera on board that was able to identify features on the shadowed crater floor.
Stereo images of sunny areas are often used to create digital elevation maps of sunny regions, but creating elevation maps of shaded terrain is a challenge that has rarely been addressed to date.
As part of their research, the authors developed a new technique to reconstruct heights even in shadowed parts of stereo image pairs.
These improved elevation maps can be used for ray tracing to predict the extent of cold, permanently shaded areas.
These more accurate maps yielded surprising results. The last time, about 14,000 years ago, when Ceres’ axial tilt reached its maximum, the crater on Ceres did not remain in shadow forever, and the ice within the crater quickly entered space. It must have sublimated.
“Then there is only one plausible explanation left: the ice deposits must have formed more recently,” Scholghofer said.
“The results suggest that all of these ice deposits were accumulated within the past 6,000 years.”
“That’s a surprisingly young age considering Ceres’ age is well over 4 billion years.”
“Ceres is an ice-rich body, but very little of this ice is exposed on the surface. The only exposed ice is in the aforementioned polar craters and a few small patches outside the polar regions. However, Ice is everywhere at shallow depths, so even small dry impactors can cause some of that ice to evaporate.”
“About 6,000 years ago, an asteroid fragment may have impacted Ceres, creating a temporary water atmosphere.”
“Once a water atmosphere was created, the ice would condense in the frigid crater, forming the bright deposits we still see today.”
“Alternatively, the ice deposits could have formed by an avalanche of ice-rich material. This ice would survive only within the cold, shaded crater.”
“In any case, these events are very recent on an astronomical time scale.”
The researchers also investigated the possibility that other types of ice besides water ice were trapped in these unusual craters on Ceres.
On our moon, some of the polar craters are so cold that even carbon dioxide ice and some other chemical species can remain inside them for billions of years.
Because Ceres is farther from the Sun, its polar craters are expected to be even colder than those on the Moon.
Scientists have calculated the temperature inside Ceres’ polar crater, something that has never been done before.
The answer was surprising. These craters are cold enough to hold water ice, but too warm to hold other common types of ice. Two circumstances contribute to this.
First, Ceres’s axial tilt is currently 4 degrees, higher than the Moon’s 1.5 degrees, allowing sunlight to hit more of the crater rim and scattering more light onto the crater floor.
Second, Ceres has no permanently shadowed craters in the immediate vicinity of its north pole, unlike the moon, which has one crater almost exactly at its south pole.
For these reasons, temperatures on Ceres are not as cold as on parts of the moon’s surface.
“Whatever the history of ice accumulation, it does not result from events much older than human civilization,” Dr. Scholghofer said.
of findings will appear in Planetary Science Journal.
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Norbert Schorghofer other. 2024. History of Ceres cold traps based on sophisticated geometric models. planet. Science. J 5(99); doi: 10.3847/PSJ/ad3639
pseudo scorpion It is the earliest order of arthropods to colonize Earth’s land during the early Devonian period.
This diverse order accounts for more than 3% of all known arachnid species.
“Pseudoscorpions are an ancient lineage of terrestrial arachnids that are morphologically similar to real scorpions, but lack the tail and stinger,” said Dr. Priya Agnihotri of DST’s Birbal Sahni Institute of Paleosciences and colleagues.
“Certain families have unique venom devices in the serrated digits of their palps, which evolved independently of the venom devices of scorpions and spiders.”
“Recent research also supports the inclusion of pseudoscorpions as a sister group to scorpions.”
“Due to their delicate bodies and small size, these fossils are mainly found in amber deposits around the world rather than in sediments,” they added.
“Forty-nine pseudoscorpion species have been recorded from Eocene Baltic amber and Rovno amber.”
Newly discovered pseudoscorpion species belongs to the small scorpion family Goridae.
named Geogaranya variensis showing strong similarities with extant genera. Geogalypus From Sri Lanka, India, and New Guinea.
“The Geogarypidae family is one of a group of bark-dwelling and leaf litter-dwelling species similar to the Geogarypidae family. Gallipidae It has a distinctive subtriangular carapace and eyes located near the leading edge,” the paleontologist said.
“This family includes more than 70 species with habitats suitable for tropical and subtropical regions, some of which have been reported from temperate biomes.”
“Geogarypidae are more common in Baltic and Rovno amber, and there are some records from Cretaceous Burmese amber.”
“Unlike the sparse record of fossils, their modern-day counterparts have been recorded in all major biogeographic regions, including Europe, Central Asia, North America, and North Africa.”
Amber from Cambay from 50 million years ago. Geogaranya variensis It was discovered in the open-pit Valia lignite mine, part of the Cambay Shale Formation, in the Cambay Basin of Gujarat, India.
“The Cambay Shale Formation overlies the Deccan Trap, and below it is the Paleocene to lower Eocene Vagadkol Formation,” the researchers said.
According to the team: Geogaranya variensis It is one of the smallest known adult pseudoscorpion fossils in amber from the Cambay Basin.
This discovery further strengthens the biodiversity of bark-dwelling arthropods identified in Eocene amber from western India.
“The discovery of the smallest known adult pseudoscorpion in Cambay Basin amber aligns it with fossil taxa recorded in Baltic Sea amber and Bitterfeld amber that survived the early Eocene. “This provides insight into similar bark-dwelling arthropod taxa,” the scientists concluded.
“Scanning electron microscopy studies revealed diagnostic features in the fossils, such as abnormally enlarged palps. This strengthened Foresy’s idea that species from non-arboreal habitats could be mistakenly This suggests that it may have been carried in amber and had a connection to a flying host.”
discovery of Geogaranya variensis is reported in paper in diary Old Trogia Electronica.
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priya agnihotri other. 2024. A new genus and species of fossil pseudoscorpion (Arachnida: Pseudoscorpiones) discovered in Eocene amber from western India. Old Trogia Electronica 27 (2):a26; doi: 10.26879/1276
Physicists are Potassium Decay (KDK) Collaboration. They directly observed for the first time a very rare but important decay pathway from potassium-40 to argon-40. Their results have the potential to improve current understanding of physical processes and increase the accuracy of geological dating.
Potassium-40 is a ubiquitous natural isotope whose radioactivity has been used to estimate geological ages over billions of years, to theories of nuclear structure, and to the search for subatomic rare events such as dark matter and neutrinoless double beta decay. influence.
The decay of this long-lived isotope must be precisely known for its use as a global clock and to explain its presence in low-background experiments.
Although potassium-40 has several known decay modes, the electron-capture decay predicted directly into the ground state of argon-40 has never been observed before.
“Some of the nuclei of certain elements radioactively decay into the nuclei of other elements. These decays can be helpful or annoying, depending on the situation,” the KDK physicists said. I am.
“This is especially true for potassium-40, an isotope that normally decays to calcium-40, but about 10% of the time it decays to argon-40.”
“This decay pathway involves a process called electron capture, which provides information about the nuclear structure.”
“Potassium-40 has a very long half-life, so it can even determine the age of geological objects on billion-year time scales.”
“Due to its long half-life, it is difficult to find another way for potassium-40 to break down.”
In a new study, researchers measured a rare decay branch of potassium-40 at Oak Ridge National Laboratory's Holyfield Radioactive Ion Beam Facility.
“Quantifying the decay rate of potassium-40 and its decay branches is difficult because it requires measuring the parent nucleus and a sufficient number of rare progeny nuclei,” the researchers said.
“We studied a subset of potassium-40 that decays to argon-40 by electron capture, which accounts for about 10% of all potassium-40 decays.”
“Although most potassium-40 electron-capture decays emit characteristic gamma rays that form the background of most experiments, a small subset of these decays occur without gamma ray emission.”
“This happens when potassium-40 captures an electron that goes directly to the ground state of argon-40.”
“We have directly measured this decay for the first time. This result indicates that other decay rates may also need to be reevaluated.”
“The rare decay branch we identified and measured provides unique experimental evidence for so-called forbidden beta decay, with implications for predictions of nuclear structure and for potassium-based geological and solar system age estimates. It removes years of uncertainty.”
“This discovery also improves our assessment of the background that exists in experiments that explore new physics beyond the Standard Model.”
The results are published in two papers (paper #1 and paper #2) in the diary physical review letter and diary Physical Review C.
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M. Stukel other. (KDK collaboration). 2024. 40,000 rare collapses with implications for fundamental physics and geochronology. Physics.pastor rhett 131 (5): 052503; doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.131.052503
L. Harias other. (KDK collaboration). 2024. Evidence of ground state electron capture at 40K. Physics. Rev.C 108 (1): 014327; doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.108.014327
in paper Published in Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle PhysicsScientists have considered theoretical and observational cases of “cosmic glitches” in the universe's gravity.
Wen other. Specifically, we develop a model that modifies general relativity on a cosmological scale by introducing a "glitch" in the gravitational constant between the cosmological (superhorizon) and Newtonian (subhorizon) regions. Research. Image credit: M. Weiss / Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
For the past 100 years, physicists have relied on Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity to explain how gravity acts throughout the universe.
General relativity, proven accurate by countless experiments and observations, suggests that gravity affects not just the third physical dimension, but also a fourth dimension: time. Masu.
“This gravity model has been essential to everything from theorizing the Big Bang to photographing black holes,” said Robin Wen, a researcher at the California Institute of Technology.
“But when we try to understand gravity at the cosmic scale, beyond galaxy clusters, we run into clear contradictions with the predictions of general relativity.”
“It's as if gravity itself is no longer fully consistent with Einstein's theory.”
“We call this contradiction a 'cosmic glitch.' When dealing with distances of billions of light years, gravity weakens by about 1%.”
For more than 20 years, researchers have been trying to create a mathematical model to explain the apparent contradictions in general relativity.
“Almost a century ago, astronomers discovered that the universe was expanding,” said Professor Nyaesh Afsholdi of the University of Waterloo.
“The further away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving, so much so that it appears to be moving at a speed close to the maximum speed of light allowed by Einstein's theory.”
“Our findings suggest that at precisely that scale, Einstein's theory may also be inadequate.”
The research team's “cosmic glitch” model modifies and extends Einstein's formula in a way that resolves some discrepancies in cosmological measurements without affecting existing successful uses of general relativity. This is what I did.
“Think of this as a footnote to Einstein's theory,” Wen says.
“Once we reach the cosmic scale, terms and conditions apply.”
“This new model may be the first clue to the cosmic puzzles we are beginning to solve across time and space,” Professor Afshodi said.
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Robin Y. Wen other. 2024. Anomalies in the gravity of the universe. JCAP 03:045; doi: 10.1088/1475-7516/2024/03/045
The cicadas that synchronize their emergence with others have a better chance of survival. Scientists believe that the simultaneous emergence of insects is an evolutionary strategy. Predators like birds and raccoons can only consume a limited amount, so the more cicadas emerge together, the higher their chances of survival, reproduction, and passing on their genes. “They have a strategy of safety in numbers,” explains Chris Simon, a professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at the University of Connecticut.
On the other hand, rare cicadas that emerge out of sync are often referred to as “strays.” These stragglers are usually preyed upon and struggle to survive. “Natural selection favored those that waited, because those that couldn’t wait were eaten,” Simon said.
This summer, two cicada broods are expected to emerge simultaneously, leading to a particularly large population of periodic cicadas. The last time such an event occurred was in 1803. The organization behind the Cicada Safari app, which aims to track cicada sightings and help scientists study these insects, has already recorded over 1,000 sightings in Georgia and hundreds more in North Carolina and Alabama.
Periodic cicadas are categorized into two groups based on their emergence period: those that appear every 13 years and those that appear every 17 years. While temperature seems to trigger their emergence, the exact mechanism behind how they synchronize their emergence remains somewhat mysterious. Scientists have observed changes in cicadas’ emergence patterns, speculating that rising temperatures due to climate change may be impacting their internal clocks.
Entomologist Gene Kritsky notes that global warming is causing cicadas to emerge earlier in the year due to higher average temperatures. This shift in emergence time has been observed to be approximately 10 days to two weeks earlier than in 1940. Researchers like John Cooley predict that cicadas’ distribution will shift northward as the climate warms and their preferred plant species move north.
There has been an increase in reports of stragglers, intriguing researchers in the field. Simon and her colleagues believe that climate change may be influencing the emergence of cicadas earlier than usual, leading to the formation of new populations among stragglers. This adaptation is seen as a response to a warming climate and extended growing seasons.
Simon proposes a theory that rising temperatures may prolong the development of cicadas underground, resulting in the emergence of more stragglers sooner than expected. Eventually, the population as a whole may adapt and change its timing. She predicts that the 17-year cicada broods may transition to a 13-year cycle and possibly even emerge every nine years.
If proven correct, this theory would be another example of how climate change is disrupting natural rhythms in the environment. Periodic cicadas, harmless to humans, range across the eastern United States to the Midwest and emerge in special events rather than yearly like annual cicadas.
While scientists continue to study how cicadas coordinate their mass emergence, they have yet to discover a precise explanation for their successful synchronization. A recent study suggests that underground communication could be a potential factor worth investigating further. “No one has ever studied this,” Simon said.
Discovered by chance in 2019, Odd radio circles (ORCs) are circular regions of faint radio radiation with bright edges that are not visible to optical, infrared, ultraviolet, and X-ray wavelengths.
Some ORCs contain galaxies at their centers, while others do not, but what sets them apart is their size, which is significantly larger than normal galaxies. Some ORCs display a double ring structure, while others have a single ring. There are also some with internal arc-like structures that might be linked to galaxies surrounded by bubbles of radio emission.
While objects with high spherical symmetry are common in the universe, ORCs appear to be distinct from them all, prompting astronomers to classify them as a new type of object.
ORCs could potentially be a type of spherical shock wave generated by fast radio bursts, gamma-ray bursts, or neutron star mergers. If this is the case, they must be extremely ancient to have grown to such a large size.
Alternatively, they may be associated with material jets emanating from the central regions of radio galaxies, but explaining their size and the absence of central objects in all galaxies is challenging.
One intriguing theory suggests that ORCs are created by the fusion of two supermassive black holes in a central galaxy. The available data also support the idea that the shell is caused by a “shock termination” of high-energy particle winds from the central “starburst” galaxy.
Another hypothesis proposes that the ORC is the throat of a “wormhole,” a theoretical passage through spacetime. However, astronomers have yet to agree on the true nature of ORC.
This article addresses the question (by Bradford’s Brendan Owens): “What are strange radio circles?”
If you have any questions, please email us at:questions@sciencefocus.comor send us a messageFacebook,XorInstagramPage (remember to include your name and location).
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Golden in the form of gold monolayer sheets is prepared by etching away titanium carbide (Ti)3C2. Slabs of titanium gold carbide (Ti)3AuC2.
Golden preparation.Image provided by: Kashiwaya other., doi: 10.1038/s44160-024-00518-4.
“When you make a material extremely thin, something unusual happens, just as it did with graphene. The same thing happens with gold,” said Dr. Shun Kashiwaya, a researcher at Linköping University.
“As you know, gold is normally a metal, but if it's an atomic layer thick, it can become a semiconductor instead.”
To create Goldene, Dr. Kashiwaya and his colleagues used a three-dimensional substrate with gold embedded between layers of titanium and carbon. However, coming up with a golden turned out to be difficult.
“We created the basic material with a completely different application in mind,” said Professor Lars Hartmann from Linköping University.
“We started with a conductive ceramic called titanium silicon carbide, which has a thin layer of silicon.”
“Then the idea was to coat the material with gold to make the contacts. However, when the component was exposed to high temperatures, the silicon layer inside the substrate was replaced by gold.”
This phenomenon is called intercalation, and what the researchers discovered was titanium-gold carbide.
For several years, authors have been using titanium gold carbide without knowing how the gold could be exfoliated or panned out.
They accidentally discovered a method that has been used in Japanese forging for more than 100 years.
This is called Murakami's reagent, and it etches away carbon residues and changes the color of steel, such as in knife making. However, it was not possible to use exactly the same recipe as the blacksmith.
“We tried varying the concentration of Murakami's reagent and the etching time. One day, one week, one month, several months. What we noticed was that the lower the concentration and the longer the etching process, the better. But even that wasn't enough,” Dr. Kashiwaya said.
Etching must also be performed in the dark, as the reaction produces cyanide, which dissolves the gold when exposed to light. This step was to stabilize the gold sheet.
A surfactant was added to prevent the exposed two-dimensional sheet from curling up. In this case, it is a long molecule, a surfactant, that separates and stabilizes the sheets.
“The golden sheets sit in a solution, a bit like cornflakes in milk. We use a sort of 'sieve' to collect the gold and examine it under an electron microscope to see if we were successful.” We have that,” Dr. Kashiwaya said.
“Golden's new properties are due to the fact that gold has two free bonds when it is two-dimensional.”
“Thanks to this, future applications could include carbon dioxide conversion, hydrogen production catalysts, selective production of value-added chemicals, hydrogen production, water purification, communications, etc.”
“Additionally, the amount of gold used in today's applications can be significantly reduced.”
team's work It was published in the magazine natural synthesis.
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Shin Kashiwaya other. Golden synthesis consisting of a single atomic layer of gold. nut.synthesizer, published online March 18, 2024. doi: 10.1038/s44160-024-00518-4
A rogue wave is a single swell that is much higher than nearby waves and can cause damage to ships and coastal infrastructure. Ocean waves are one of the most powerful natural forces on Earth, and they could become even more powerful as global trends suggest ocean winds will blow even stronger with climate change. there is. Scientists at the University of Melbourne have discovered in a new study that rogue waves are generated by strong winds and unpredictable wave patterns, confirming an idea previously only proven in the lab.
Toffoli other.We report direct observations of surface waves from a stereo camera system and simultaneous measurements of wind speed during an expedition across the Southern Ocean during the Antarctic winter aboard a South African icebreaker. SA Agulhas II. Image credit: Alessandro Toffoli.
“Rogue waves are huge, twice as tall as nearby waves, and appear out of nowhere,” said University of Melbourne’s Professor Alessandro Toffoli, lead author of the study.
Using cutting-edge technology and embarking on an expedition to one of the most unstable ocean regions on Earth, Professor Toffoli and colleagues have introduced a new technique for 3D imaging of ocean waves.
Operating a stereo camera on a South African icebreaker SA Agulhas II During their 2017 Antarctic expedition, they captured valuable insights into the behavior of waves in this remote region.
Their method, which mimics human vision through continuous imaging, allowed researchers to reconstruct the wavy ocean surface in three dimensions, providing unprecedented clarity into ocean wave dynamics. Ta.
The first scientific measurement of a rogue wave was the 25.6 m Draupner wave recorded in the North Sea in 1995. Since the beginning of the 21st century, 16 cases of suspected rogue waves have been reported to him.
“Scientists have long theorized that Antarctica’s rough seas and fierce winds can cause large waves to ‘self-amplify’, resulting in rogue wave frequencies. “However, this has not yet been tested underwater,” Professor Toffoli said.
The team’s observations, using numerical and laboratory studies that suggested the role of wind in the formation of rogue waves, provided validation of these theories in a real marine environment.
“Our observations show that unique sea conditions with rough waves occur during the ‘young’ stage of the waves, when they are most susceptible to wind effects. This suggests that wind parameters are the missing link,” Professor Toffoli said.
“Wind creates a chaotic situation where waves of different dimensions and directions coexist.”
“The wind causes young waves to grow higher, longer and faster.”
“During this self-amplification, waves grow disproportionately at the expense of neighboring waves.”
“We show that young waves are showing signs of self-amplification and are likely to be wind-driven.”
“Once every six hours, we recorded waves that were twice as high as nearby waves.”
“This reflects laboratory models. The theory is that sea conditions are more likely to self-amplify, creating more rogue waves.”
“In contrast, no rough waves were detected in mature oceans that are not influenced by winds.”
The authors highlight the critical importance of integrating wind dynamics into predictive models for rough sea prediction.
“This shows that scientists need to take wind into account thoroughly when developing tools to predict rogue waves,” Professor Toffoli said.
of findings It was published in the magazine physical review letter.
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A. Toffoli other. 2024. Observation of the bad waters of the Southern Ocean. Physics.pastor rhett 132 (15): 154101; doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.132.154101
Black-capped Chickadee (Poecil atricapillus) This small passerine bird from North America, which lives in deciduous and mixed forests, has an extraordinary memory that allows it to remember thousands of food locations to help it survive the winter. Now, scientists Columbia University Zuckerman Institute for Mind, Brain, and Behavior have discovered how Gala is able to remember so many details. They memorize the location of each food item using brain cell activity similar to a barcode.
Chetty other. We propose that animals recall episodic memories by reactivating barcodes in the hippocampus.Image credit: Chetty other., doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2024.02.032.
“We found that each memory is tagged with a unique pattern of activity in the hippocampus, the part of the brain that stores memories,” said Dr. Dmitry Aronov, senior author of the study.
“We called these patterns 'barcodes' because they are very specific labels for individual memories. For example, the barcodes of two different caches are Even if two caches are next to each other, there is no correlation.
“There are a number of human discoveries that perfectly match the barcode mechanism,” added Dr. Selman Chetty, lead author of the study.
Scientists have known for decades that the brain's hippocampus is necessary for episodic memories, but understanding exactly how those memories are encoded has been much more difficult. was.
Part of the reason is that it's often difficult to know what animals remember at any given time.
To get around this problem in the new study, Dr. Aronoff and colleagues turned to the black-capped chickadee.
Researchers found that chickadees provide a unique opportunity to study episodic memory because they hide food and then have to remember to come back to retrieve it later.
“Each cache is a clear, obvious, easily observable moment in which a new memory is formed,” Dr. Aronoff said.
“By focusing on these special moments, we were able to identify patterns of memory-related activity that we had not noticed before.”
The researchers needed to design an arena that could automatically track the detailed behavior of the gulls as they hide and retrieve food.
They also needed to develop techniques to make large-scale, high-density neural recordings inside the birds' brains as they move freely.
Their brain recordings during caching revealed very sparse and transient barcode-like firing patterns across hippocampal neurons. Each barcode contains only about 7% of the cells in the hippocampus.
“When a bird creates a cache, about 7% of its neurons respond to that cache. When the bird creates another cache, another group of 7% of its neurons responds,” Dr. Aronoff said. Ta.
These neural barcodes occurred simultaneously with the conventional activity of neurons in the brain that are triggered in response to specific locations, aptly called place cells.
Interestingly, however, there were no similarities in the episodic memory barcodes of cache locations close to each other.
“It was widely thought that place cells change when animals form new memories,” Dr. Aronoff says.
“For example, placement cell firings may increase or decrease near the cache location.”
“This was a common hypothesis, but our data did not support it.”
“Place cells do not represent information about caches; rather, they appear to remain relatively stable as the chickadees cache and retrieve food from the environment.”
“Instead, episodic memory is represented by additional activity patterns, or barcodes, that coexist with place cells.”
The authors liken the newly discovered hippocampal barcode to a computer hash code, a pattern that is assigned as a unique identifier to different events.
They suggest that barcode-like patterns may be a mechanism for the rapid formation and storage of many non-interfering memories.
“Perhaps the biggest unanswered question is whether and how the brain uses barcodes to prompt behavior,” Dr. Aronoff said.
“For example, it's not clear whether chickadees activate barcodes and use their memory of food-caching events when deciding where to go next.”
“We plan to address these questions in future studies through more complex settings in the laboratory, recording brain activity while the birds choose which food stores to visit.”
“If you plan on retrieving cached items before you actually retrieve them, that's to be expected,” Dr. Chetty said.
“We wanted to identify the moments when a bird is thinking about a location but haven't gotten there yet, and see if activating the barcode might move the bird to the cache. thinking about.”
“We also want to know whether the barcoding tactics they discovered in chickadees are widely used among other animals, including humans. It might help clarify the core.”
“When you think about how people define themselves, who they think they are, their sense of self, episodic memories of specific events are central to that. That's what we're trying to understand. That is what we are doing.”
a paper The survey results were published in a magazine cell.
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Selman N. Chetty other. Barcoding of episodic memory in the hippocampus of food-storing birds. cell, published online March 29, 2024. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2024.02.032
Sugarcane is the world's most harvested crop by tonnage and has shaped world history, trade, and geopolitics, now responsible for 80% of the world's sugar production. Traditional sugarcane breeding methods have been effective in producing varieties adapted to new environments and pathogens, but sugar yield improvements have recently plateaued. The cessation of yield increase may be due to limited genetic diversity within the breeding population, long breeding cycles, and the complexity of its genome. Now, an international research team has created a polyploid reference genome for R570, a typical modern sugarcane variety.
Saccharum officinarum. Image credit: Ton Rulkens / CC BY-SA 2.0 Certificate.
However, all modern varieties are derived from several interspecific crosses made by breeders a century ago between “sweet varieties” and “sweet varieties.” Saccharum officinarum And that 'wild' natural sugar.
Sugarcane hybridization has led to major advances in disease resistance and adaptation to stressful environmental conditions. However, early generation hybrids also had much lower sugar yields due to the greater contribution of the wild genome.
The complexity of the hybrid sugarcane genome and phylogeny is R570 varietyproduced by a breeder on Reunion Island in 1980.
“The sugarcane genome is very complex because it is large and contains more copies of chromosomes than a typical plant, a feature called polyploidy,” said researchers at the Hudson Alpha Institute for Bioengineering. said Dr. Jeremy Schmutz and colleagues.
“Sugar cane has about 10 billion base pairs, the building blocks of DNA. By comparison, the human genome has about 3 billion genes.”
“Many parts of sugarcane DNA are identical within and between different chromosomes, which makes it difficult to correctly reconstruct all the small segments of DNA while reconstructing the complete genetic blueprint. Masu.”
“We solved the puzzle by combining multiple gene sequencing technologies, including a newly developed method known as PacBio HiFi sequencing that can precisely sequence longer sections of DNA.”
“This was the most complex genome sequence we have ever completed,” Dr. Schmutz added.
“It shows how far we have come. This is something that seemed impossible 10 years ago. We are now reaching goals that we thought were impossible with plant genomics. We have been able to achieve this.”
CSIRO researcher Dr Karen Aitken said: “This groundbreaking result addresses the critical challenge of stagnant sugar yields by harnessing previously inaccessible genetic information from the sugarcane genome. ” he said.
“This is a major step forward for sugarcane research and will improve our understanding of complex traits such as yield, adaptation to diverse environmental conditions, and disease resistance.”
“We are working to understand how specific genes in plants are related to the quality of the biomass obtained downstream, which can then be turned into biofuels and bioproducts.” said Dr. Blake Simmons, a researcher at the Joint BioEnergy Institute.
“A deeper understanding of sugarcane genetics will help us better understand the plant genotypes required for the production of sugar and bagasse-derived intermediates needed for sustainable sugarcane conversion technologies at scales relevant to the bioeconomy.” and be in control.”
A team of researchers from Fudan University and others has successfully generated the genome. Emperor Wu of China led by Xianbei (Emperor Wu) Northern Zhou Dynasty. The authors determined that Emperor Wu had a typical East Asian or Northeast Asian appearance and was susceptible to certain illnesses, such as stroke.
Reconstruction of the face (left) and portrait (right) of Emperor Wu of China's Northern Zhou Dynasty. Image credit: Du other., doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2024.02.059.
For more than 2,000 years, Chinese emperors have been accorded symbolic importance and are considered “sons of heaven” endowed with a “heavenly mission” and enjoy what is seen as divinely ordained rule over the nation. was doing.
The title “emperor” first appeared in 221 BC. In Gencalls himself “First Emperor.''
This position continued until the last emperor of the Qing Dynasty abdicated. Aisin Geolo Puyirecorded a total of 2,132 years and 83 feudal dynasties.
Emperor Wu, known as Yuwenyong (543-578 CE), was a highly influential emperor who overthrew the Northern Qi dynasty, reformed the local military system, pacified the Turks, and unified northern China. was.
He was ethnically Xianbei, an ancient nomadic group that lived in what is today Mongolia and northern and northeastern China.
“Some scholars have said that the Xianbei people have an 'exotic' appearance, with thick beards, high noses, and yellow hair,” said Dr. Xiaoqing Wen, a researcher at Fudan University.
“Our analysis shows that Emperor Wu had typical East Asian or Northeast Asian facial features.”
In 1996, archaeologists discovered Emperor Wu's tomb in northwestern China and discovered his bones, including a nearly complete skull.
Thanks to recent advances in ancient DNA research, Dr. Wen and his colleagues have successfully recovered more than 1 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from his DNA, some of which are associated with Emperor Wu's skin and hair color. information was included.
Researchers also succeeded in reconstructing the emperor's face in 3D.
They found that Emperor Wu had brown eyes, black hair, dark to medium skin, and facial features similar to those of modern North Asians and East Asians.
“Our work brought historical figures to life,” said Dr. Pianpian Wei, also from Fudan University.
“Previously, we had to rely on historical records and wall paintings to imagine what ancient peoples looked like.”
“We were able to directly reveal the true nature of the North Korean people.”
“Emperor Wu died at the age of 36, and his son also died young for no apparent reason,” the scientists said.
“Some archaeologists claim that Emperor Wu died of illness, while others claim that he was poisoned by his rivals.”
Analysis of Emperor Wu's DNA revealed that he was at increased risk of stroke.
This finding is consistent with historical records that describe the emperor as having aphasia, droopy eyelids, and an abnormal gait – potential symptoms of a stroke.
Genetic analysis shows that the Xianbei people intermarried with the Han Chinese when they migrated south to northern China.
“This is important information for understanding how ancient humans spread across Eurasia and how they integrated with local peoples,” Dr. Wen said.
of result Published in this week's magazine current biology.
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Panshin Du other. The ancient genome of Emperor Wu of northern China. current biology, published online March 28, 2024. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2024.02.059
Scientists on board the research vessel atlantis Five new deep-sea hydrothermal vents have been discovered on the ocean floor at a depth of 2,550 meters (1.6 miles). All exhaust fluids are hotter than 300 degrees Celsius (570 degrees Fahrenheit).
vehicle carried by humans alvin Arrived at the ocean floor. Image credits: J. McDermott, Lehigh University / T. Barreyre, CNRS / R. Parnell-Turner, Scripps Institution of Oceanography / D. Fornari, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution / National Deep Diving Facility / Alvin Group.
Hydrothermal vents are rich in chemicals that provide energy for animal life, fueling rich and productive ecosystems.
The location of the new hydrothermal vent was discovered by a team of scientists during a research expedition funded by the National Science Foundation.
They are located on the East Pacific Ridge near 10 degrees north latitude and are part of the trans-Earth mid-ocean ridge volcanic mountains, where two tectonic plates are breaking apart at a rate of about 11 cm (4.3 inches) per year.
Expedition researchers used underwater robots to map the area at night guard.
rear guard Retrieved each morning, high-resolution maps from the vehicle’s sensors were used to plan the day’s dives by the manned vehicle. alvinThis gives scientists a first-hand look at the complex and ever-changing environments of places like the East Pacific Rise.
“High-resolution maps are guard There is a possibility that new hydrothermal areas will be discovered soon guard will be back on deck,” said Dr. Jill McDermott, a researcher at Lehigh University.
“This gives us great goals such as: alvin And the opportunity to make multiple discoveries in one dive.”
scientists infiltrate alvin He first discovered a hydrothermal vent in 1977 while exploring an oceanic ridge north of the Galapagos Islands.
The discovery has reshaped scientists’ understanding of the conditions that can support life on Earth and elsewhere in the solar system.
“Mid-ocean ridges account for more than 75% of all volcanic activity on Earth,” said CNRS researcher Dr. Thibault Valley.
“There are thousands of these deep-sea hot springs, which together extract 10 percent of the Earth’s total internal heat.”
“We want to better understand how hydrothermal vents release heat and chemicals as they flow beneath the ocean floor, impacting global oceans.”
“new guard “Using the map, we can see vital details of lava flows erupting in the deep ocean and target them for rock sample collection, just as geologists do on land.” said Dr. Daniel Fornari, a researcher at the institute.
“These new perspectives and analysis of rock samples will help us understand how fast the lava erupted, how far it traveled, and how deep-sea lava eruptions affect hydrothermal eruptions. I guess.”
“By working together these two state-of-the-art deep-sea submersibles, we will make surprising new discoveries about how the deep sea floor is constructed in some of the harshest environments on Earth. Yes, we can,” said Dr. Ross Parnell Turner., a researcher at Scripps Institution of Oceanography.
Pears belong to the following Pyrusfamily genus Rosaceae Consists of cultivated and wild pears.
The genus is divided into two broad categories: European pear and Asian pear, whose divergence is estimated to be approximately 3 to 6 million years ago.
at least 26 Pyrus Currently, 10 naturally occurring interspecific hybrids of these species have been found in West Asia, East Asia, Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East.
In 2021, the value of utilized pear production in the United States reached $353 million. This makes the pear one of the most cultivated pear fruits around the world.
One of the most important pear varieties in North America, Anjou, also known as Beurre d'Anjou or simply Anjou, is believed to have originated in Belgium and was named after the Anjou region of France.
“Pears are big business in the Pacific Northwest,” said lead author Dr. Alex Harkes, a researcher at the Hudson Alpha Institute for Bioengineering, and colleagues.
“But did you know that traditional pear breeding has changed little over the centuries?”
“This slow process is difficult and expensive, requiring long-term inputs of labor, materials, and land and spatial resources.”
“But thanks to a unique collaboration between students, scientists, and the pear industry fostered through an initiative called American Campus Tree Genomes (ACTG), traditional pear breeding is getting a helping hand from genomics. There is a possibility.”
“ACTG is leveraging iconic and economically valuable trees to bridge the gap between students and cutting-edge genomics.”
“Students work together to collect and analyze tree genomes, publish in prestigious academic journals, and gain valuable experience.”
The meticulous work of ACTG students has resulted in a complete chromosome-scale step-by-step assembly of the D'Anjou pear. This is a significant improvement over previous efforts.
This assembly revealed thousands of genomic variations that are of great importance to pear breeding efforts.
This high-quality resource unlocks a treasure trove of information for pear breeders.
This assembly is also an important tool for studies of pear evolution, domestication, and molecular breeding.
“The ACTG program not only built a high-quality genomic resource for a valuable pear variety that will ultimately benefit growers and consumers alike, but also trained nearly 20 students on the needs of the apple and pear industry. and educated scientists,” said Dr. Inez Hanrahan. , executive director of the Washington Tree and Fruit Research Committee.
team's paper It was published in the magazine G3: Genes, genomes, genetics.
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Alan Yocca other. 2024. Chromosome-scale assembly of pear 'Danjou'. G3: Genes, genomes, genetics 14(3):jkae003; doi: 10.1093/g3journal/jkae003
Global sea surface temperatures have been breaking records every day for the past 12 months, causing concern among marine scientists.
Senior research scientist Brian McNoldy from the University of Miami’s Rosenstiel School expressed worry about the unprecedented margins by which the records are being broken. He mentioned that the current average sea surface temperatures are approximately 1.25 degrees Fahrenheit warmer than they were from 1982 to 2011, as per the University of Maine’s climate reanalyzer, which could have significant impacts on the climate and ecosystem.
While human-induced climate change is considered a contributing factor, there are likely other natural climate processes at play as well. The rise in sea surface temperatures has puzzled scientists as they are unsure of the exact reasons behind it.
The warming ocean temperatures could lead to coral bleaching, stronger hurricanes, warmer coastal temperatures, and more extreme precipitation. Researchers have observed these effects in 2023, and they fear that if the trend continues, it could have severe consequences.
Some potential factors influencing the rise in sea surface temperatures include weakening trade winds in the North Atlantic and changes in shipping regulations limiting sulfur pollution, amongst others. Researchers are trying to understand the complex interplay of these factors leading to such unprecedented temperature increases.
The warmer ocean temperatures could fuel more powerful storms and hurricanes, putting coastal areas at risk. The Atlantic Ocean and the Horn of Africa, known for producing hurricanes hitting the East Coast of the United States, are experiencing significant anomalies in sea surface temperatures.
Overall, the rising sea surface temperatures pose a serious threat to marine ecosystems and climate stability. Scientists are working to unravel the mystery behind this phenomenon to better predict and mitigate its impacts.
The newly discovered volcano, tentatively designated Noctis Mons, is located in the eastern part of Mars, just south of the equator. noctis labyrinthwest of Valles Marineris, the planet's vast canyon system.
Noctis Mons. Image credit: NASA / USGS / Lee other.
Mount Noctis reaches an altitude of 9,022 m (29,600 ft) and is 450 km (280 miles) wide.
Its enormous size and complex modification history indicate that it has been active for a very long time.
To its southeast are thin recent volcanic deposits, beneath which glaciers may still exist.
The combined potential of this giant volcanic and glacial ice discovery is an exciting prospect for studying Mars' geological evolution over time, searching for life, and exploring it in the future using robots and humans. important because it marks a new location.
“While investigating the geology of the area where glacier debris was discovered last year, we found ourselves inside a huge, deeply eroded volcano,” said the SETI Institute and Mars Planetary Scientists. Dr. Pascal Lee said. Laboratory based at NASA Ames Research Center.
Taken together, several clues reveal the volcanic nature of this eastern portion of the Noctis Labyrinth, a jumble of layered mesas and canyons.
The central summit area is characterized by several raised mesas forming an arc, reaching the highest regional heights and descending away from the summit area.
The outer, gentle slopes extend 225 km (140 miles) away in various directions.
The remains of a caldera, a collapsed volcanic crater that once contained a lava lake, can be seen near the center of the structure.
Lava flows, pyroclastic flow deposits (consisting of volcanic particulate material such as ash, cinders, pumice, and tephra), and hydrated mineral deposits occur in several areas around the structure.
“This region of Mars is known to contain a wide variety of hydrated minerals spanning Mars' long history,” says Saurabh Shubham, a graduate student at the University of Maryland.
“These minerals have long been suspected of being in a volcanic environment. So finding a volcano here may not be all that surprising.”
“In a way, this big volcano is the clincher that has been long awaited.”
Topographic map of Noctis Mons. Image credit: Lee other.
In addition to the volcano, the authors found 5,000 km2 (1930 square miles) of volcanic deposits surrounding the volcano, including numerous low, round, elongated, blister-like hills.
This blistered landform is formed by an area of rootless cone, i.e., when a thin blanket of hot volcanic material comes to rest on a water- or ice-rich surface, caused by explosive steam ejection or steam expansion. It is interpreted as a generated hill.
Mount Noctis has a long and complex history of modification, likely through a combination of destruction, thermal erosion, and glacial erosion.
“In fact, it's the combination of factors that makes the Noctis volcanic site so exciting,” Dr. Lee said.
“This volcano is an ancient, long-lived volcano, and it's so deeply eroded that it's hard to hike, drive through, or fly to examine different parts of the volcano's interior, take samples, and date it. “We can study the evolution of Mars over time.”
“It also has a long history of heat interacting with water and ice, making it a prime location for astrobiology and the search for signs of life.”
“Finally, glaciers are likely still preserved near the surface in Mars' relatively warm equatorial regions, making this site a very attractive location for robotic and human exploration.”
Pascal Lee other. Massive eroded volcanic complex and buried glacial ice in the eastern Noctis Labyrinth: evidence of recent volcanic activity and glaciation near the Martian equator. LPSC 2024Abstract #2745
NASA’s Europa Clipper spacecraft will be launched in October 2024 and will carry a triangular metal plate with a special message written on it as it heads towards Jupiter’s moon Europa.
This side of a commemorative plaque on NASA’s Europa Clipper spacecraft features the handwriting of U.S. Poet Laureate Ada Limón. Mystery Praise: Poem to Europa. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech.
Measuring approximately 18 x 28 cm (7 x 11 inches), the Europa Clipper’s metal plate, made from tantalum metal, features graphic elements on both sides.
At its center is a handwritten engraving of U.S. Poet Laureate Ada Limon. Mystery Praise: Poem to Europaalong with a silicon microchip stenciled with the names of more than 2.6 million people submitted by the public.
A microchip will be the centerpiece of an illustration of a bottle inside the Jupiter system, a reference to NASA’s Message in a Bottle campaign.
The outward-facing panels feature art that emphasizes Europe’s connection to the Earth.
Linguists gathered Recording of the word “water” It is spoken in 103 languages from language families around the world.
The audio file was converted into a waveform (a visual representation of a sound wave) and etched into the plate.
The waveform radiates from the symbol for “water” in American Sign Language.
Based on the spirit of Voyager spacecraft golden recordconveys sounds and images that convey the richness and diversity of life on Earth, while Europa Clipper’s multi-layered message aims to stimulate the imagination and provide a unifying vision.
“The content and design of the European Clipper vault plate is imbued with meaning,” said Dr. Lori Glaze, director of the Planetary Science Division at NASA Headquarters.
“This plate combines the best of what humanity has to offer to the entire universe: science, technology, education, art and mathematics.”
“The message of connection through water, which is essential to all forms of life as we know it, perfectly illustrates the connection between Earth and this mysterious ocean world that we seek to explore.”
In 2030, after a 2.6 billion km (1.6 billion mile) journey, Europa Clipper will begin orbiting Jupiter and make 49 close-bys to Europa.
To determine whether conditions are conducive to life, the spacecraft’s powerful suite of scientific instruments will collect data about the moon’s subsurface ocean, icy crust, thin atmosphere, and space environment.
The electronics of these devices are stored in giant metal vaults designed to protect them from Jupiter’s harsh radiation. A commemorative plate seals off the vault opening.
Because the mission is to find habitable conditions, drake equation It is also etched on the inside of the plate.
Astronomer Frank Drake developed a mathematical formulation in 1961 to estimate the possibility of advanced civilizations existing beyond Earth.
This equation has continued to inspire and guide research in astrobiology and related fields ever since.
In addition, the artwork on the inside of the plate includes references to radio frequencies that could be used for interstellar communications, symbolizing how humans use this radio band to listen to messages from space. Masu.
These particular frequencies correspond to radio waves emitted into space by water components and are known to astronomers as the “water hole.” On the plate, they are depicted as radio emission lines.
Finally, this plate includes a portrait of Ron Greeley, one of the founders of planetary science. Ron Greeley worked on the early efforts to develop the Europa mission 20 years ago, laying the foundation for the Europa Clipper.
“A lot of thought and inspiration went into the design of this plate, as did the mission itself,” said Robert Pappalardo, project scientist for Europa Clipper and a research scientist at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory. says.
“It’s been a long journey over many decades, and I can’t wait to see what the European Clipper has to show us in this world of water.”
Our world is dominated by single-celled microorganisms that can survive in extreme and strange places. These habitats include the human body, where about one microorganism lives in every human cell. Many of these microorganisms are harmless or even good for our health, but some can cause us severe illness. To make matters worse, many dangerous microorganisms Pathogen, can be transmitted from person to person. This infection can introduce pathogens and pose a serious problem for hospitals that attract large numbers of sick people.
In the mid-1840s, a Viennese doctor named Ignaz Semmelweis realized that simply washing your hands could reduce the spread of disease. This was the beginning of our understanding of disinfection in hospitals. Since then, scientists and doctors have learned to use a variety of chemicals to kill pathogens and keep patients safe. One of the most powerful disinfecting chemicals is sodium hypochlorite, also known as bleach. This chemical kills microorganisms by destroying the outside of the cell and changing its internal chemistry. Bleach is so effective that doctors have been using it as a hospital disinfectant for nearly 200 years. But even though it is highly lethal, it does not kill all microorganisms.
To investigate how some microorganisms survive bleach treatment, a team of scientists from the University of Plymouth in the UK studied a pathogen called clostridioides difficile. This microorganism causes diarrhea and is notoriously difficult to kill. clostridioides difficile It produces durable minicells called spore. Transmission can occur between patients through contact. These spores are in a kind of hibernation state. clostridioides difficile Comes with a durable outer shield. The spores wait quietly until they reach the human colon, where they awaken and cause disease. These spores are very difficult to kill, so scientists wanted to know how effective normal hospital disinfection protocols were against them.
Scientists first grew clostridioides difficile Spores were collected in the laboratory. They tried to kill these spores using regular strength, 5x strength, and 10x strength bleach. They treated the spores with different bleach mixtures for 10 minutes to see how many survived. Even if you use a bleach that is 10 times stronger than normal strength hospital bleach, clostridioides difficile The spores died after treatment.
Next, the scientists wanted to know how well the spores were transported within the hospital on patient and surgical gowns. They lightly sprayed a sample of 10 million spores onto a fabric gown and treated it with three different strengths of bleach. The scientists then dabbed the fabric gown onto the agar plate they used for the culture. clostridioides difficile They then counted how many spores survived and grew. Again, only 10% of the spores were killed by this treatment.
Finally, the scientists wanted to see if the bleach treatment was affecting the spore’s outer shield. Spores are only 1 micrometer long, or about 1/25,000th of an inch. These spores are too small to be seen with the naked eye, so scientists used a special electron microscope to see them clearly. This microscope uses a high-power beam of electron particles to provide much better resolution than standard optical microscopes. The researchers used the device to compare the shape of spores before and after bleaching. Scientists reasoned that because the pathogen survived the bleaching process, the outer surface of the spores was probably unaffected. This is exactly what they saw in the microscopic images. Treated and untreated spores looked exactly like each other and showed no signs of degradation due to bleach.
Scientists concluded that clostridiodes difficile It utilizes a durable spore form to withstand bleach disinfection.Stopping the spread of infectious diseases is extremely difficult. The researchers suggested that doctors combat these spores by using different fabrics in hospital and surgical gowns to prevent the spores from sticking to them. Doctors also urged caution in disinfection methods. Finally, they suggested that future researchers focus on new ways to destroy these spores and prevent the spread of infectious diseases. clostridiodes difficile.
A new breakthrough in medical research could lead to personalized therapy for babies in the womb. Scientists have successfully grown small organs, known as organoids, from fetuses for the first time. This allows for monitoring the health of the fetus by cloning its organs.
Organoids are complex 3D models of organs made from human cells, retaining the DNA of the original cells, in this case, amniotic fluid cells. These organoids mimic human tissue and provide a more detailed view of any malformations compared to traditional imaging techniques like MRI or ultrasound.
Developed by researchers at UCL and Great Ormond Street Hospital (GOSH), this new technology enables a functional assessment of a baby’s congenital condition before birth. This groundbreaking method does not involve access to fetal tissue and is a significant advancement in prenatal diagnosis.
Lead author Dr. Mattia Gerli highlights the potential of organoids to revolutionize the pharmaceutical industry and clinics, particularly in fetal development. The study focuses on utilizing amniotic fluid cells to create organoids for prenatal medicine.
Growth process of mini organs
The process involves extracting cells from amniotic fluid, identifying tissue-specific stem cells, and culturing them to form organoids such as lungs, intestines, and kidneys. These organoids show similar functions and gene expressions to the corresponding organs.
In a study comparing organoids from infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia to healthy infants, researchers found that treatments could be monitored at the cellular level. This breakthrough enables more information for parents during early pregnancy and expands research in fetal development beyond legal limitations.
Gerli emphasizes the potential of organoids in studying human development and advancing prenatal medicine. This innovation opens up a new field of research that was previously limited due to legal restrictions on fetal sampling.
The future of personalized therapy for babies in the womb looks promising with the use of organoids in medical research and fetal diagnosis.
The ruler of the seas may appear black and white, but it’s not as simple as it seems. For years, great white sharks have been considered apex predators, but shocking new footage shows them feeding on their own kind. This is an event unlike anything we’ve seen before.
A video captured by tourists and scientists on a boat off the coast of Mossel Bay, South Africa was vital for scientific observations published in a recent study in the African Marine Science Journal. The footage revealed an unprecedented behavior of killer whales, showcasing their extraordinary abilities, according to the paper’s corresponding author, Dr. Alison Towner.
Witnesses on the boat watched as a juvenile great white shark, measuring 2.5 meters (8.2 feet), was attacked by a killer whale known as Starboard. The whale swiftly caught the shark by its left fin, thrusted it several times, and disemboweled it, likely targeting the shark’s liver for its rich nutrients. The entire attack lasted only two minutes, and the killer whale then revealed the shark’s entrails to the onlooking boats.
Subsequent research uncovered a second great white shark carcass nearby, measuring 3.6 meters (11.6 feet) in length.
In a previous study conducted in 2022, researchers found that killer whales can hunt great white sharks in pairs. By combining intelligence and strength, these whales can effectively surround and attack their prey. However, this recent attack marks the first time a killer whale has been observed hunting a great white shark alone.
This discovery not only enhances our understanding of killer whale behavior and marine ecosystems but also raises concerns among ecosystem scientists. There’s worry that if killer whales continue to prey on great whites, it could disrupt the food chain, allowing other predators to rise and challenge the great white sharks as the apex predators.
“Upon arriving at Seal Island in Mossel Bay, the smell of shark liver oil and an oil slick indicated a recent kill,” said a passenger on the boat named Esther Jacobs from the marine conservation initiative Keep Fin Alive.
“Seeing the fin of a great white shark break the water’s surface initially sparked excitement, but as the killer whale rapidly approached, it turned into a grim reality. The moment of predation was both devastating and incredibly powerful.”
The newly described plant Relictithismia kimotsukiensis is only above ground for a few days a year.
Shuichiro Tagane
This small plant, which feeds mainly on fungi and has no pigments, was named as the first new genus of plant in Japan since 1930.
It was discovered in June 2022 by an amateur botanist in Kyushu’s Kimogen Mountains, but it has taken some time to confirm its uniqueness. So far, researchers have found only five individuals in a single location, and estimate that the total population may reach as few as 50.
This plant grows up to 3 cm in height and 2 cm in width and emerges from the ground in just one week each year. It belongs to a group of plants known as fairy lanterns, which gives it its scientific name. Relictithismia kimotsukiensis.
Unlike most other plants, fairy lanterns do not produce the green pigment chlorophyll needed for photosynthesis. Instead, they get their energy from fungi. “This adaptation gives them an alien-looking appearance when compared to more familiar photosynthetic plants,” he says. Kenji Suetsugu from Kobe University in Japan, and was one of the scientists who described the new species.
“The unique appearance of this new plant species certainly evokes images of squid or extraterrestrial life forms, making it a truly unusual and fascinating addition to the plant world.”
Mr. Suetsugu proposed a Japanese name for this plant. Mujina’s tabletranslated as “raccoon candlestick.”
After Suetsugu first learned about the existence of the plant, it took nearly a year for him to realize that the plant was growing there. It was a moment of “joy and relief,” he says. Because he feared it might take 10 years to collect the specimens he needed to adequately describe it.
He hopes the Japanese government will protect the plant as an endangered species and take steps to protect its population because of its proximity to roads.
“[The discovery] This challenges the notion that new species can only be found in remote or unexplored areas, and suggests that even well-studied areas may hold undiscovered botanical treasures.” says Mr. Suetsugu.
Some of the gas erupts from the supermassive black hole located at the center of galaxy cluster SDSS J1531+3414 (abbreviated SDSS J1531) until it reaches a temperature high enough to form numerous star clusters. Cooled down.
Multi-wavelength image of the massive galaxy cluster SDSS J1531+3414.Image credits: NASA / CXC / SAO / Omorui other. / STScI / Tremblay other. / Astron / Loafers / NASA / CXC / SAO / N. Walk.
SDSS J1531 is a huge galaxy cluster containing hundreds of individual galaxies and a huge reservoir of hot gas and dark matter.
At the center of SDSS J1531, two of the cluster's largest galaxies collide with each other.
Surrounding these merging giants are 19 large star clusters called superclusters, arranged in an “S” shape similar to beads on a string.
Dr. Osase Omoruyi and colleagues at Harvard University and the Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics are using NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory, the LOFAR radio network, and other telescopes to discover how this chain of unusual star clusters formed. I found out what happened.
The discovery of evidence of an ancient mega-eruption in SDSS J1531 provided important clues.
The eruption may have occurred when a supermassive black hole at the center of one of the large galaxies produced a very powerful jet.
As the jet traveled through space, it pulled surrounding hot gas away from the black hole, creating a huge cavity.
“We're already observing this system as it existed 4 billion years ago, when the Earth was just forming,” Omoruyi said.
“This ancient cavity is a fossil of the black hole's influence on its host galaxy and its surroundings, and tells us about important events that occurred almost 200 million years ago in the history of this star cluster.”
Evidence for the cavity comes from bright X-ray emission “wings” seen on Chandra that track dense gas near the center of SDSS J1531.
These wings form the edges of the cavity, and the less dense gas between them is part of the cavity.
LOFAR shows radio waves from the remains of the jet's energetic particles filling a huge cavity.
Taken together, these data provide convincing evidence for an ancient great explosion.
Astronomers also discovered cold and warm gas near the cavity's opening, detected by the Atacama Large Millimeter and Submillimeter Array (ALMA) and Gemini North Telescope, respectively.
They argue that some of the hot gas pushed out of the black hole eventually cooled down to cold, warm gas.
They believe that the tidal effects of the two galaxies merging compressed the gas along a curved path, forming the star cluster in a “string-bead” pattern.
“We reconstructed the sequence of events that may have occurred within this cluster over a wide range of distances and times,” said Dr. Grant Tremblay, also of Harvard University and the Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
“It started when a black hole, just one light-year in diameter, formed a cavity about 500,000 light-years wide.”
“This single event triggered the formation of young star clusters almost 200 million years later, each several thousand light-years in diameter.”
Although the authors only looked at the radio waves and cavity from one jet, black holes typically fire two jets in opposite directions.
They also observed radio emissions further out from the galaxy that could be the remains of a second jet, but it was unrelated to the detected cavity.
They speculate that radio and X-ray signals from other eruptions may have diminished to the point where they could no longer be detected.
“We believe the evidence for this large-scale eruption is strong, but further observations from Chandra and LOFAR will confirm the case,” Dr. Omoruyi said.
“We hope to learn more about the origins of the cavities we have already detected and find the cavities we expect to find on the other side of the black hole.”
Omase Omorui other. 2024. A “string bead” star formation associated with one of the most powerful she-AGN outbursts observed in the Cool Core Galaxy Cluster. APJ, in press. arXiv: 2312.06762
Archaeologists have discovered traces of an ancient ocher-based multicomponent adhesive in 40,000-year-old stone tools unearthed in Le Moustiers, France.
Photographs, drawings and details of stone tools from Le Moustiers, France. Image credit: D. Greinert / Schmidt other., doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adl0822.
“These surprisingly well-preserved tools show technical solutions that are broadly similar to examples of tools made by early modern humans in Africa, but the exact recipes reflect a Neanderthal 'spin.' “This is the manufacture of hand tool grips,” he said. Radu Iovita, researcher at New York University's Center for Human Origins Research.
In the study, Dr. Iovita and colleagues examined stone tools with traces of red and yellow colorants excavated from the French ruins of Le Moustiers, discovered in the early 20th century.
These stone tools were made by Neanderthals during the Middle Paleolithic period, between 120,000 and 40,000 years ago.
They are kept in the collection of the Museum of Prehistory and Early History in Berlin, but have not been studied in detail until now.
“The products had been individually wrapped and left untouched since the 1960s. As a result, the remains of attached organic matter were very well preserved,” says Eva, a researcher at the Museum of Prehistory and Early History in Berlin. Dr. Dutkiewicz said.
Researchers found traces of ocher and asphalt mixtures on some Mousterian stone tools, such as scrapers, flakes, and blades.
Ocher is a naturally occurring earth pigment. Bitumen is a component of asphalt and can be produced from crude oil, but it also occurs naturally in soil.
“I was surprised to find that it contained more than 50% ocher. This is because air-dried asphalt can be used directly as an adhesive, but adding so much ocher would cause it to lose its adhesive properties. '' said Dr. Patrick Schmidt, a researcher at the University of Tübingen.
Scientists tested these materials in tensile tests and other measurements used to determine strength.
“The situation was different when we used liquid bitumen, which is not very suitable for bonding. When you add 55% ocher, a malleable mass forms,” said Dr. Schmidt.
It was sticky enough to pierce stone tools, and did not stick to hands, making it ideal as a material for handles.
In fact, microscopic examination of the signs of wear from use on these stone tools revealed that the adhesive on Le Moustier's stone tools had been used in this way.
“The tool showed two types of micro-wear: one is the typical grinding of sharp edges, which is usually caused by machining other materials,” says Dr. Iovita.
“Secondly, there was a bright polish distributed all over what appeared to be the hand grip, but not anywhere else. We interpreted it to be the result of wear and tear.”
The use of adhesives containing several ingredients, including various sticky substances such as tree resins and ocher, was known from early Homo sapiens in Africa, but not since early Neanderthals in Europe. It wasn't known.
Overall, the development of adhesives and their use in tool manufacturing is considered to be some of the best physical evidence of early human cultural evolution and cognitive abilities.
“Composite glue is thought to be one of the first expressions of modern cognitive processes that are still active today,” said Dr. Schmidt.
In the Le Moustiers area, ocher and asphalt had to be collected from remote locations, which required a great deal of effort, planning and a targeted approach.
“Given the overall circumstances of the find, we believe that this sticky material was created by Neanderthals,” Dr. Dutkiewicz said.
“Our research shows that early homo sapiens “African Neanderthals and European Neanderthals had similar thought patterns,” Dr. Schmidt said.
“Their adhesion techniques have the same importance for understanding human evolution.”
Regarding this research, paper Published in today's magazine scientific progress.
_____
Patrick Schmidt other. 2024. Ocher-based composite adhesives used in Mousterian typesetting have recorded mixed recognition and significant investment. scientific progress 10(8); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adl0822
There are billions of coffee lovers around the world. Whether it’s the comforting routine of brewing a cup at home or the need for a coffee shop next to the office, it has permeated our daily lives.
However, something as popular as coffee is fraught with mysteries. It’s a mix of facts, myths, and general rules of thumb that leaves some ambiguity as to what is actually the right way to do things.
How should I store coffee? Are you brewing correctly? Is decaf coffee completely decaffeinated? We spoke to Dr. Christopher Hendon, a computational materials scientist, who answers your most pressing questions about your cup of joe.
1. Pre-ground coffee and instant coffee actually have different levels of caffeine
Realistically, one of the best things you can do to make coffee at home is to grind your own beans. However, this is time consuming and can be quite expensive depending on the equipment.
If you opt for pre-ground coffee from the supermarket instead, will you succumb to the caffeine surge, or will it be exactly the same?
“No appreciable amount of caffeine is lost in the grinding process. However, pre-ground coffee sold in supermarkets typically contains less Robusta than Arabica,” says Hendon. According to him, the two main types of coffee beans used in commercial coffee production are Robusta and Arabica. Arabica beans are low in caffeine.
“But the problem with this is that it’s hard to know exactly what’s in a coffee blend. Since they don’t usually say it on the label, supermarket coffee is the best choice, following your own preferences. .”
Instant coffee is a different story. Depending on the processing method, it’s quite low in caffeine (often less than half) than any form of coffee powder.
2. Coffee should not be stored in the refrigerator
What is the meaning of life? Is free will an illusion? Should coffee be stored in the refrigerator? A question that philosophers have been asking for decades…perhaps. We don’t have an answer for the first two of his, but we can address the third.
and attempt is the keyword here, but it’s surprisingly difficult to understand. The question of where to store your coffee is hotly debated and there are many caveats, so let’s get straight to the point.
The main problem with storing coffee in the refrigerator or freezer is moisture. Coffee grounds should be kept dry, but the refrigerator isn’t necessarily the driest place. Therefore, if you store coffee in the refrigerator, it should be stored in an airtight container to avoid moisture.
“Coffee is primarily a kind of nasal sensory experience. When you take a sip, a lot of the flavor comes from the tongue and the back of your nose. The molecules that give you that experience are very volatile and easily evaporate. Coffee “loses those molecules over time if you keep it outside, and higher temperatures accelerate that process,” Hendon says.
There are a few things to note here. First, this only applies to people who are concerned about optimal flavor, and probably only high-quality beans that they plan to grind at home.
Next, you need to store your coffee at a low enough temperature to make a difference. In other words, your refrigerator isn’t cold enough to store your coffee. A freezer is required to achieve this result.
So, is it worth it? In addition to the aforementioned benefits, freezing coffee beans allows for a coarser grind than room temperature coffee, allowing you to grind the coffee in a more uniform manner.
It’s worth mentioning that these are somewhat minor details and not all experts agree on this. What most people advise is to store your coffee in a cupboard or somewhere at room temperature. As with most things when it comes to coffee, it’s all about experimenting to get the best results.
3. Cold beer doesn’t contain a lot of caffeine.
The cold brew is popular as it is perfect for coffee on a summer day. It’s often said that cold brew has a much higher caffeine content than regular hot coffee, but is that actually true?
“Hot coffee contains about twice as much caffeine. The reason is that temperature limits the amount of caffeine that can be extracted at lower temperatures. The higher you go, the more You can get out of it,” Hendon says.
A man pours milk into a glass of cold brew coffee – Credit: RyanJLane
“It’s not that it doesn’t have a lot of caffeine, but it’s not because of the brewing method. It’s because when you make cold brew concentrate, the ratio of coffee to water is very high.”
Concentrated cold brew beer is rarely offered. Usually diluted with water or mixed with milk, the average cold brew has less caffeine than a hot drink.
4. Coffee cannot be burned
A common complaint about coffee is that it’s “burnt.” This could be from a coffee shop or a cup made at home. So, is this taste caused by boiling the coffee in too hot water?
Once the coffee is roasted, it is dropped into a heated drum and over time the coffee begins to cook, turning yellow and then brown. If you simmer it for too long, it will eventually turn black.
This black bean is a dark roasted coffee. To reach this point, the beans must be cooked to about 220°C. This is a temperature well above the boiling point of the water used to make coffee.
“When you brew coffee, you can never bring that coffee back to the temperature it reached when roasting, so it’s impossible to burn the coffee during the brewing process,” says Hendon.
“However, the coffee comes out of the roaster, and burnt-tasting molecules may already be in the coffee. Depending on how you brew it, you can enjoy these flavors and Some coffee shops prefer these flavors and they are popular among many people.”
If you often drink coffee with a burnt flavor, but that’s not the flavor you like, a lighter roast will make it less likely to feature that flavor.
5. Decaf does not mean caffeine free
Just like non-alcoholic beer, decaffeinated coffee is still coffee, and it will contain small samples of caffeine, one of coffee’s main components. But is it a tangible amount?
“Depending on how the coffee is processed, the decaffeination process is in principle very close to 100% removal of caffeine. However, all the samples we have tested to date still contain some amount of caffeine. volume,” says Hendon.
In other words, coffee may contain some caffeine, but not enough to be noticeable or to affect the person drinking it.
6. Light and dark roast coffee have similar caffeine levels
When you browse the coffee aisle at the supermarket or scan the menu at your local coffee shop, you probably want to consider light or dark roast options.
Which is best for the most intense caffeine? Some say dark roast is better here, but it doesn’t really matter.
“scientific literature This suggests that even if there are variations between crops and beans, all of them will come out if washed. There’s not much of a difference here,” says Hendon.
“There seems to be variation in caffeine depending on roast profile and region, but it’s certainly not consistent enough to be noticeable.”
The only difference from roast is the flavor. Lighter roasts are often more delicate, but more complex. However, darker roasts are often said to have simpler tones and “deeper” flavors. This can taste like the more bitter of the two.
7. Coffee taste greatly Depends on the bean
Coffee has a very personal taste, and not everyone likes the same taste. There’s intense flavor, fruity-tasting beans, good old fashioned black coffee, and of course the infamous Frappuccino…but what exactly is the best coffee, scientifically speaking?
“Coffee associations around the world have score sheets to identify high-quality coffee. Two of the most important parameters are perceived acidity and sweetness,” says Hendon.
“In fact, the ones that tend to score very high each year are Colombian-Panamanian and Ethiopian, which taste like a bouquet of sour flowers. These tend to fetch the highest prices and average It’s completely different from high-end coffee.”
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