An astrophysicist and a surgeon walk into a bar. No, this is not the start of a bad joke. A few years ago, an astrophysicist Franco Vazza I met my childhood friend Alberto FerrettiAnd then he became a neurosurgeon. Vazza was modeling the structure of the universe, while Ferretti was delving into the brain. The two men reminisced and talked about their work. And then an idea occurred to them: What if they compared?
Vazza, based at the University of Bologna in Italy, has done just that. He used statistical techniques to compare neurons in a region of the brain called the cortex to the cosmic web, the pattern of matter distribution throughout the universe. Vazza looked at the number of nodes in each network and how densely connected each node is. The results surprised him.“It's a really interesting level of similarity,” he says. Ignoring the difference in the structures' sizes, which are about 27 orders of magnitude, “the two patterns kind of overlap,” Vazza says.
Some physicists cannot ignore this similarity, suggesting that the universe may “think” – that is, be conscious in some sense – an idea that has roots in the philosophy of panpsychism.
Traditionally, researchers have explained consciousness in one of two ways. Materialists argue that there is only matter, and consciousness somehow arises from that. Dualists argue that there are fundamentally two kinds of matter: matter and consciousness. There has been much discussion about the shortcomings of both views. For example, how can consciousness arise from pure matter?
Hydrogel-made brain sensor is small enough to be injected with a needle
Hanchuan Tang and Jianfeng Zang
Tiny sensors can be injected into the skull with a needle to monitor brain health until they dissolve within a few weeks. These sensors have been tested in animals, and in the future, they may enable minimally invasive, implantable sensors in the human body that can monitor traumatic brain injury and neurological disorders such as epilepsy.
“To my knowledge, this is the first wireless sensor that can monitor conditions inside the body without the need for surgery,” he said. Jules Magda The researcher is from the University of Utah, but was not involved in the study.
The sensor is a soft hydrogel cube about 2 millimeters wide, about the width of a grain of rice. Jiangfeng Zhan Professors from China’s Huazhong University of Science and Technology created structured “metagel” sensors by creating precisely spaced air columns throughout a hydrogel. When an external ultrasound source is aimed at the sensor, the channels guide the ultrasound waves. The shape of the sensor changes subtly in response to changing conditions in the brain, such as pressure or temperature, which can be seen in the reflected ultrasound.
“No wiring or electronics are required,” Zhang says. “It’s as if the metagel acts as a tiny acoustic mirror that changes its reflection depending on the environment.”
Zhang and his colleagues showed that when metagel sensors were injected into the brains of rats and pigs, they could measure pressure, temperature, pH levels, and flow rates in nearby blood vessels. They obtained results comparable to wired probes traditionally used to monitor brain health. Their experiments also found that metagel broke down into relatively harmless components, such as water and carbon dioxide, within four to five weeks.
Injecting the sensor into the brain requires a thick needle, which could still cause pain or discomfort, Magda said, and he noted that researchers also need to make sure the dissolved metagel is non-toxic.
Zhang says that the rats in the study showed little swelling in brain tissue or buildup of immune cells after the sensors were implanted and degraded, but he says that longer-term testing in larger animals is still needed to show that the metagel works reliably and safely before clinical trials in humans can begin.
Studies indicate that adolescents with internet addiction exhibit alterations in brain chemistry that can contribute to further addictive behaviors.
In a study published in PLOS Mental Health, researchers analyzed fMRI studies to explore how brain regions interact in individuals with internet addiction.
The findings revealed changes in neural network activity in the brains of young individuals, with increased activity during rest and reduced connectivity in areas involved in cognitive functions like memory and decision-making.
These alterations were linked to addictive behaviors, mental health issues, cognitive abilities, and physical coordination in adolescents.
The study reviewed 12 prior studies involving 237 young individuals diagnosed with internet addiction from 2013 to 2023.
Recent surveys show that nearly half of British teens feel addicted to social media platforms.
Lead researcher Max Zhang from the University of London emphasized the vulnerability of adolescents to internet addiction due to developmental changes during this crucial stage.
The study suggests that early intervention for internet addiction is essential to mitigate negative impacts on adolescent behavior and development.
Experts recommend targeted treatments focused on specific brain regions or therapies to combat internet addiction symptoms.
Parental education plays a crucial role in preventing internet addiction, enabling better management of screen time and impulsive online behaviors.
Lead author Eileen Li from GOS ICH emphasizes the importance of setting boundaries on internet usage and being mindful of its effects on mental and social well-being.
The COVID-19 pandemic has had long-lasting impacts on society and the health of millions of Americans who are still experiencing symptoms. Long-haul COVID-19 can result in chronic symptoms lasting for months, including weakness, palpitations, fatigue, headaches, and cognitive impairment. Scientists are still uncertain about the extent to which COVID affects brain function, leading to what is colloquially known as “brain fog.” Forgetfulness.
So, what causes brain fog in long COVID-19 patients? Researchers propose that the dysfunction of specialized cells lining the brain’s blood vessels plays a crucial role. Known as the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB), this filter prevents toxins, pathogens, and large molecules from entering the brain. It is theorized that a leaky BBB could allow harmful substances to enter, disrupting normal processes and causing brain fog.
To investigate the link between a leaky BBB and COVID-related brain fog, researchers led by Matthew Campbell, PhD, and Colin P. Dougherty, PhD, examined the brains of patients previously infected with COVID. They studied a group of men and women over 18 years old, including 10 COVID survivors and 22 long-haul COVID patients (symptoms lasting more than 12 weeks), with 11 experiencing brain fog and 11 without it.
Using high-resolution MRI, the team measured BBB permeability by injecting a contrast agent into the patients’ blood to track blood flow through the BBB and into the brain. Patients with brain fog showed higher leakage rates compared to those without brain fog, suggesting a link between BBB dysfunction and persistent brain fog.
Further analysis revealed that patients with long COVID and brain fog had elevated levels of inflammatory markers in their blood, indicating brain inflammation potentially caused by a leaky BBB. The team also observed higher levels of a cell-signaling protein associated with chronic fatigue syndrome in patients with brain fog.
Investigating the immune system’s role in brain inflammation during long COVID, researchers examined gene activity in white blood cells. White blood cells from long COVID patients with brain fog showed significantly more active genes related to sustaining the immune response, suggesting ongoing inflammation causing BBB dysfunction and brain fog.
Lab experiments with brain cells exposed to patient blood samples further supported the link between inflammation, BBB dysfunction, and brain fog. Additionally, direct exposure of brain cells to COVID virus proteins resulted in increased inflammatory gene activity.
In conclusion, researchers found that BBB dysfunction during long COVID leads to chronic inflammation, contributing to brain fog. This insight may aid in understanding other long-term COVID effects and could guide future research on restoring BBB function to treat long COVID patients.
Continued use of drugs such as cocaine and morphine is thought to affect the way the brain prioritizes the body’s basic needs, but we are only now understanding how this happens.
When people repeatedly misuse drugs, they can experience long-term behavioral changes, where they choose to take drugs instead of doing what they need to do, such as eating or drinking.
A brain pathway called the mesolimbic reward system is thought to be involved in this process, but few studies have directly compared the system’s response to drug intake and its response when its innate needs are not met.
now, bowen tan from Rockefeller University in New York and colleagues showed that the same neurons are activated in these two situations. They revealed this using sophisticated microscopy equipment that can track the activity of individual neurons in the brains of mice in a state of withdrawal after repeated exposure to these drugs.
“There has long been a debate in this field about whether there are specialized cell types that encode only drug value and specialized cell types that encode only natural reward value,” Tan said. To tell. “What we saw is that these drugs of abuse typically activate the same set of neurons as natural rewards.”
The researchers also observed that after giving mice cocaine or morphine, their food and water intake decreased, while the neural responses needed to satisfy basic needs were disrupted.
“What’s really remarkable about this finding is that the strong neural responses to food and water are almost replaced by responses to drugs,” he says. Jeremy Day At the University of Alabama at Birmingham. “[This suggests] Drug rewards can override the way the brain converts desire states into behaviors that satisfy those desires.”
Tan and his team also identified a gene called.Rev which appears to be necessary for the drug to have this effect. Rev Because it is part of a cell signaling pathway that is also found in humans, future research could explore how inhibiting this pathway could be used as a treatment for substance misuse, he said. To tell.
Hala Point neuromorphic computer is powered by Intel’s Loihi 2 chip
Intel Corporation
Intel has developed the world’s largest neuromorphic computer, a device that aims to mimic the behavior of the human brain. The company hopes to be able to run more advanced AI models than traditional computers can run, but experts say the device will not be able to compete with, let alone surpass, the cutting-edge. says there are engineering hurdles to overcome.
Expectations for neuromorphic computers are high because they are inherently different from traditional machines. While regular computers use a processor to perform operations and store data in separate memory, neuromorphic devices use artificial neurons for both storage and calculation, similar to our brains. To do. This eliminates the need to pass data between components, which can be a bottleneck in today’s computers.
This architecture has the potential to result in much greater energy efficiency, and Intel says its new Hala Point neuromorphic computer will solve an optimization problem that involves finding an optimal solution to a problem given certain constraints. It claims to use 100 times less energy than traditional machines when running. It also trains and runs AI models that use chains of neurons, similar to how a real brain processes information, rather than mechanically passing input through each layer of artificial neurons as in current models. New methods may also become possible.
Hala Point contains 1.15 billion artificial neurons across 1152 Loihi 2 chips, capable of 380 trillion synaptic operations per second. mike davis Despite this power, Intel says it takes up only six racks of space in a standard server case, which is about as much space as a microwave oven. Larger machines will also be possible, Davis said. “We built a system of this scale because, honestly, one billion neurons was a good number,” he says. “So there were no special technical engineering challenges that would cause us to stop at this level.”
No other existing machine can match Harapoint’s scale, but Deep South, a neuromorphic computer due for completion later this year, is said to be capable of 228 trillion synaptic operations per second.
The Loihi 2 chip is still a prototype that Intel has produced in small numbers, but Davis said the real bottleneck is the processing required to take a real-world problem, translate it into a format that can run on a neuromorphic computer, and run it. It is said to be in the software layer. process. This process, like neuromorphic computing in general, is still in its infancy. “Software is a big limiting factor,” he says. That means there’s still little point in building a large machine.
Intel has suggested that machines like Hala Point could create AI models that continuously learn, rather than having to be trained from scratch to learn new tasks like current models do. Masu.but james knight Researchers at the University of Sussex in the UK dismissed this as “hype”.
Knight points out that current models like ChatGPT are trained using graphics cards running in parallel, which means many chips can be used to train the same model. But since neuromorphic computers operate on a single input and cannot be trained in parallel, it could take decades to even initially train something like ChatGPT on such hardware. He says it’s expensive, let alone come up with a way to enable continuous learning once it’s up and running.
Although current neuromorphic hardware is not suitable for training large-scale AI models from scratch, Davis said that one day pre-trained models could be used to learn new tasks over time. He said he hopes it will be possible. “Although this method is still in the research phase, this is a kind of continuous learning problem that large-scale neuromorphic systems like Hala Point can solve in a very efficient way in the future. “It’s considered,” he says.
Knight said neuromorphic computers could solve many other computer science problems as the tools needed for developers to write software for these problems to run on their own hardware become more mature. We are optimistic that we can improve this and increase efficiency at the same time.
It may also offer a better path toward human-level intelligence, also known as artificial general intelligence (AGI), although many AI experts believe that large-scale language models that power things like ChatGPT I think it’s impossible. “I think it’s becoming less and less of a controversial opinion,” Knight says. “The dream is that one day neuromorphic computing will allow us to create brain-like models.”
A lawyer representing O.J. Simpson, who passed away from cancer at the age of 76 last week, announced on Sunday that Simpson’s body will be cremated in the coming days and there are no plans to donate his brain for research purposes, according to his attorney Malcolm LaVergne.
LaVergne mentioned that there had been inquiries about studying Simpson’s brain for chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a degenerative brain disease linked to repeated head trauma in football players, but stated firmly that the entire body, including the brain, will be cremated.
Further details about the cremation and decision regarding brain research were first reported in The New York Post.
As the executor of Simpson’s estate, LaVergne mentioned plans for a small “celebration of life” gathering restricted to close friends and family. Simpson had three children from his previous marriages and was famously acquitted in the murders of his ex-wife Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald Goldman in 1995.
Regarding financial matters, LaVergne expressed that he does not want the Goldman family, victims’ relatives, to receive any funds from Simpson’s estate. He acknowledged the need to handle the situation calmly and impartially.
Mr. Simpson’s debts, including those to the IRS, will be addressed as his estate is evaluated, and assets are inventoried to settle claims. Creditors will be prioritized for payment, with the Goldman family amongst them.
Despite potential legal battles over financial assets, Cook emphasized that the main goal is post-acquittal justice and accountability for the deaths of Brown Simpson and Goldman.
Looking ahead, LaVergne seeks funding for a suitable memorial at Simpson’s burial site as specified in his will, emphasizing the importance of carrying out his wishes without contention.
If you’ve ever felt like your cognitive abilities are not as sharp as they used to be, you might be struggling to recall names of actors or politicians in the news, for example. Perhaps mental arithmetic is not as easy for you anymore. This reflection may lead you to ponder the state of your brain and whether it’s on a downward trajectory.
It’s important to consider these aspects early on because brain development typically peaks in your 20s, and then cognitive functions gradually decline with age. Additionally, there is a growing risk of dementia, particularly associated with diseases like Alzheimer’s, in aging populations. However, both cognitive decline and dementia risk can be influenced by what experts call “modifiable risk factors,” offering a beacon of hope that there are lifestyle changes you can make to maintain mental acuity and lower the risk of dementia.
Be mentally active and boost your cognitive reserve
Psychologists and gerontologists often talk about cognitive reserve, which refers to the brain’s ability to adapt to aging and disease challenges. People with high cognitive reserve can perform well on cognitive tests despite exhibiting biological markers of Alzheimer’s disease, like protein build-up that impairs brain function. Engaging in activities such as reading, learning a new language, solving puzzles, and playing musical instruments can help boost cognitive reserve and maintain mental agility.
Interact with others
While brain-training games may not have broad benefits beyond the specific tasks they target, socializing with peers has been found to be a potent brain-training activity. Social isolation is considered a major risk factor for dementia, emphasizing the importance of engaging in lively conversations, joining clubs, or volunteering to keep your brain active and healthy.
Stay physically active
Physical activity not only benefits cardiovascular health but also contributes to better brain function and reduced cognitive decline. Incorporating exercises like running, swimming, or even gardening into your routine can help maintain cognitive abilities and lower the risk of dementia.
Eat a healthy diet
Avoiding excessive saturated fats and consuming plenty of fruits and vegetables can support brain health by eliminating harmful byproducts and providing essential nutrients. The Mediterranean diet, rich in fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, and olive oil, has been recommended for its brain-protective properties.
Stay curious
Personality traits like openness to experience are linked to better brain health and lower dementia risk. Activities that spark curiosity and awe can enhance cognitive abilities and mental flexibility. Incorporating habits like exploring new environments, trying new experiences, and enjoying cultural activities can promote brain health.
Think positively
Your mindset about aging can significantly impact your brain health. Maintaining a positive outlook, along with engaging in mentally stimulating activities and healthy habits, can contribute to long-lasting mental sharpness. Seeking out positive role models and adopting a proactive approach to brain health can help unlock your brain’s full potential.
Memory is a mysterious phenomenon. Some life events remain sharp in our memories no matter how long ago they occurred, while details from the previous day can quickly fade away.
A recent study published in the journal Science has uncovered the mechanism behind this phenomenon. Researchers have identified a system in the brains of humans and other mammals that determines which experiences are significant enough to be stored in long-term memory and which are forgotten.
Experiments conducted on mice demonstrated that specific patterns of brain activity called “sharp ripples” in the hippocampus, the area responsible for memory formation, occur during wakefulness. These patterns act as tags for important experiences, which are then transferred to long-term memory during sleep.
Although the study was carried out on mice, the lead author, Dr. Johnson, believes that the findings are applicable to humans as well, given the similarities in certain brain processes across mammalian species.
György Buzaki, the Biggs Professor of Neuroscience at New York University Langone Health, emphasized the unconscious nature of this memory consolidation process.
In the study, mice were rewarded with a treat after successfully navigating a maze, while their brain activity was monitored using implanted electrodes. The researchers observed that specific brain activity patterns observed during wakefulness were replayed during sleep, facilitating the conversion of important experiences into long-term memories.
This process highlights the crucial role that sleep plays in memory formation, as experiences deemed important during waking hours are transformed into lasting memories during rest.
According to the researchers, experiences that do not trigger the formation of sharp ripples are less likely to be stored in long-term memory.
To enhance the likelihood of memory retention, Dr. Buzaki suggests taking breaks after significant experiences to allow for the consolidation of memories.
Long-term memory requires relaxation
Research indicates that intentional pauses after experiences can aid in the formation of long-term memories. Dr. Buzaki recommends engaging in relaxing activities post-experience to facilitate the creation of sharp ripples in the brain, a process crucial for memory storage.
For example, after watching a movie, going for a leisurely walk can enhance the chances of remembering the film, as it allows for the encoding of memories.
Dr. Daniela Schiller, a professor of neuroscience and psychiatry at Icahn School of Medicine, highlighted the study’s intriguing discovery regarding brain activity patterns during rest and their resemblance to real-life experiences.
Dr. Daphna Shohamy, director of the Zuckerman Institute at Columbia University, emphasized the importance of pauses and bursts of brain activity in memory formation, noting that these elements enhance the likelihood of experiences being stored in long-term memory.
In conclusion, the study provides valuable insights into the unconscious mechanisms behind memory formation and underscores the significance of rest and relaxation in preserving lasting memories.
Living a healthier life can be achieved in many ways. Simple activities like daily walks, healthy eating, and brain-boosting puzzles like Sudoku can keep your mind and body active. For a unique approach, consider trying neuromodulation, which involves sending electric shocks to the brain.
Neuromodulation is an innovative method that uses a stimulator placed on the head to deliver electrical shocks directly to the nervous system. This non-invasive technique offers numerous health benefits and has gained traction as a cutting-edge technology for enhancing well-being.
The concept of neuromodulation has been around for some time, but companies like Parasin and gamma core have reignited interest in recent years. These companies claim to improve mental performance and overall health with their devices that can be used conveniently at home.
Research from reputable institutions like UCL, Harvard University, and University College London supports the effectiveness of neuromodulation. Even tech entrepreneurs like Brian Johnson have shown interest in this technology.
What is neuromodulation and how does it work?
Neuromodulation is a technique that alters neural activity by delivering electrical signals to specific areas. Imagine it as a dimmer switch that can increase or decrease nerve or brain activity. This method can excite or inhibit nerves to alleviate pain and modify neural patterns associated with various conditions like epilepsy and Parkinson’s disease.
Companies like Parasym use “auricular vagal neuromodulation therapy” to deliver electrical signals through the ear to target the vagus nerve, which plays a crucial role in connecting the brain, heart, and digestive system.
How technology can slow aging
Neuromodulation can help slow down the aging process by combating chronic inflammation, enhancing cognitive function, and improving cardiovascular health. Research shows promising results in addressing age-related issues like Alzheimer’s disease and heart conditions.
While neuromodulation offers benefits like improved heart rate variability and reduced fatigue and depression, it remains in the early stages of development. Safety concerns and experimental results underscore the need for further research and validation.
Is neuromodulation safe?
Neuromodulation has evolved since its inception in the 1960s, with modern devices providing safer options for users. Implantable devices offer more effective treatment but come with higher risks, including infections and other complications.
Non-invasive wearable devices like those from Parasym are considered safer, with minor side effects like skin irritation being the main concern. These devices require consistent use to deliver optimal results, making them a more accessible but less durable alternative to implantable devices.
While neuromodulation technology shows promise in improving health and well-being, users should weigh the benefits against the costs and potential risks before investing in these innovative devices.
Cerebellum of a person suffering from kuru disease
Liberski PP (2013)
Genetic research in a very remote community in Papua New Guinea has revealed new insights into a brain disease that is spread when people eat dead relatives and has killed thousands of people over two decades.
Dotted with mountains, gorges, and fast-flowing rivers, Papua New Guinea’s Eastern Highlands province is extremely isolated from the rest of the world, and it wasn’t until the beginning of the 20th century that outsiders realized that about 1 million people lived there.
Some tribes known as the Fore practiced a form of cannibalism called “funeral feasts,” in which they consumed the bodies of their deceased relatives as part of their funeral rites. This could mean they ingested an abnormally folded protein called a prion, which can cause a fatal neurodegenerative condition called kuru associated with Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD). However, the local people believed that the Kuru phenomenon was caused by witchcraft. At least 2,700 Kuru deaths have been recorded in the eastern highlands.
Simon Mead Researchers at University College London examined the genomes of 943 people representing 68 villages and 21 language groups in the region. Although this region of Papua New Guinea covers just over 11,000 square kilometers, smaller than Jamaica, researchers say the different groups are as genetically different as the peoples of Finland and Spain, some 3,000 kilometers apart.
The study found that not everyone who attended the funeral died from the disease. Mead and his colleagues say it appears communities were beginning to develop a resistance to kuru, which led to tremors, loss of coordination, and, ultimately, death.
The study found that some of the elderly women who survived the feast had mutations in the gene encoding the prion protein, which likely conferred resistance to kuru disease.
By the 1950s, funeral feasts had become illegal, and the kuru epidemic began to subside, but visitors say that the number of women in some villages had dwindled because so many women had died from kuru. It pointed out. Mead said women and children are most susceptible to the disease, likely because they ate the brains of deceased relatives.
However, genetic evidence shows that despite fears of the disease, there was a large influx of women into Fora tribal areas, particularly in areas where the highest levels of kuru were present.
“We believe it is likely that the sexual prejudice caused by Kuru caused single men in Kuru-affected communities to look further afield for wives than usual because they were unable to find potential wives locally. “We will,” Meade said.
He said the team wants to understand what factors confer resistance to prion diseases such as CJD, which caused a severe epidemic in the UK in the 1990s.
“[Our work sets] “This is a site to detect genetic factors that may have helped the Fore people resist kuru,” Mead said. “Such resistance genes may suggest therapeutic targets.”
Ira Debson Researchers from the Garvan Institute of Medical Research in Sydney, Australia, say the study provides new insight into the “rich and unique cultural, linguistic and genomic diversity” of the Eastern Highlands region.
“This is a demonstration of how genomics can be used to look almost back in time, reading the genetic signature of past epidemics and understanding how they have shaped today’s populations. It helps.”
Noland Arbor can play chess using Neuralink implant
Neuralink
Neuralink, the brain-computer interface company founded by Elon Musk, has revealed the identity of its first patient who says its implant “changed his life.” But experts say it’s not yet clear whether Neuralink has done more than replicate existing research efforts.
Who was Neuralink’s first patient?
Musk announced in January that the first human patient had received a Neuralink implant, but few details were released at the time. We now know from something. Live stream video by company – Who is that person and how will the test be done?
Noland Arbaugh explains in the video that an accident eight years ago dislocated his fourth and fifth vertebrae, leaving him a quadriplegic. He previously controlled the computer with a mouth interface, and is shown moving the cursor with just his thoughts, apparently using a Neuralink implant.
“Once I started imagining the cursor moving, it became intuitive,” Arbaugh says in the video. “Basically, it was like using ‘force’ on the cursor, and I was able to move the cursor anywhere I wanted. I could just look anywhere on the screen and the cursor would move where I wanted it. It was a very wild experience.”
He uses the device for reading, language learning, and computer games such as chess, and claims he uses it for up to eight hours at a time, at which point he needs to charge the device. “It’s not perfect, I’ve run into some problems. But it’s already changed my life,” he says.
What does the implant contain?
Neuralink did not respond to requests for an interview, but its website says the current generation coin-sized implant, called N1, generates neural activity through 1,024 electrodes distributed across 64 threads that extend into the user’s brain. It is said that it records. These are so fine that they must be placed by a surgical robot.
In a livestream video, Arbaugh said he was discharged from the hospital the day after his implant surgery, and that from his perspective the surgery was a relatively simple process.
The implant uses a small battery that is charged through the skin by an inductance charger and communicates wirelessly with an app on your smartphone.
Does this mean the first human trials were successful?
Reinhold Scherrer Researchers at the University of Essex in the UK will decide whether Neuralink’s first human trial was a success because the company “has not released enough information to form an informed opinion” He said it was too early.
“While the video is impressive and there is no doubt that it took a lot of research and development work to get to this stage, it is unclear whether what is being shown is new or groundbreaking,” he said. Masu. “Although control appears to be stable, most of the studies and experiments presented so far are primarily replications of past studies. Replication is good, but major challenges still remain. ”
Who else is working on brain implants?
Neuralink isn’t the only group exploring this idea. A number of academic organizations and commercial startups have already conducted human experiments that have successfully interpreted brain signals and produced some sort of output.
A team at Stanford University in California placed two small sensors just below the surface of the brain of a man who was paralyzed from the neck down. Researchers may be able to interpret the brain signals when a man decides to put pen to paper and translate them into text that can be read on a computer.
When will Neuralink be available and how much will it cost?
It’s too early to tell, as this has a long way to go before it becomes a commercial product, with much testing and certification to come. But Musk has made it clear that he intends to commercialize the technology.of The first product planned was named Telepathy.allows users to take control of their mobile phones and computers.
A 1,000-year-old human brain unearthed from a churchyard in Ypres, Belgium.The tissue folds, which are still soft and wet, are stained orange with iron oxide.
Alexandra L. Morton Hayward
Studies of human brains that have been naturally preserved for hundreds or thousands of years have identified 1,300 cases in which the organ survived when all other soft tissue had decomposed. Some of these brains are over 12,000 years old.
“This type of brain is the only one with preserved soft tissue and has been found in sunken ships and flooded graves with only floating bones.” alexandra morton hayward at Oxford University. “It's really, really weird.”
“To be honest, we don't expect the brain to be preserved in any environment,” she says. “As an archaeologist, if you were to dig a grave and find a brain rattling inside a skull, you would be shocked. But you don't expect soft tissue to be preserved, especially in a waterlogged environment. yeah.”
Morton-Hayward first became interested in brain preservation while working as a mortician. “The brain is known to be one of the first organs to decompose after death. I saw it liquefy pretty quickly. But I also saw it preserved.” she says.
Many researchers point out that the human brain is preserved more often than expected and in surprising circumstances, says Morton-Hayward. Now, she and her colleagues are conducting the first-ever systematic study of this phenomenon. They compiled a database of more than 4,400 preserved human brains found around the world.
They also collected and studied many preserved brains themselves. “We actually put it in an MRI machine, and that was a terrible mistake. We didn't know how much iron was in there,” says Morton Hayward.
In most cases, brain preservation can be explained by known processes. For example, the brains of sacrificial Incas buried atop volcanoes in South America around 1450 AD were freeze-dried along with the bodies, Morton-Hayward said.
2,400 years ago, the bodies and brains of swamp people like Tollundman, who was hanged and dumped in a swamp in what is now Denmark, were preserved through a tanning process similar to that used for leather.
Saponification, in which fatty substances are turned into a soap form called grave wax, also preserved the brains of some people who were shot and buried in mass graves in 1936 during the Spanish Civil War.
However, the known process preserves all soft tissue, not just the brain. They do not account for the 1300 cases in which the brain is the only surviving soft tissue.
“This unknown mechanism is completely different,” says Morton-Hayward. “The key feature of this device is that only the brain and bones remain. There is no skin, no muscle, and no intestines.”
For example, St. Hedwig of Silesia was buried in Poland in 1243. When her body was exhumed in the 17th century, it was discovered that her brain was preserved, and at the time it was thought to be due to divine powers.
Alexandra Morton Hayward holds a preserved 1000-year-old brain
graham poulter
Morton-Hayward's working hypothesis is that under certain circumstances, substances such as iron can catalyze the formation of cross-links between proteins and lipids, forming more stable molecules that resist degradation. The nature or ratio of proteins and lipids in the brain may be key.
“The mechanisms are similar to those seen in neurodegenerative diseases such as dementia,” she says. “So if we can understand what happens to the brain after death, we may be able to understand what happens to the brain as it ages during life.”
“It's great news that the data is being made public,” he says. brittany moeller He is one of the researchers at James Cook University in Melbourne, Australia who discovered that: Brain preservation is more common than thought. “This may raise researchers' awareness of the possibility of preserving brain material,” she says.
This is important because preserved brains are often the same color as the surrounding soil. “Therefore, it is very likely that brain material is not recognized for what it is and is frequently discarded during archaeological excavations,” Moller says.
Although this study focused on the human brain, the findings should also apply to animals. Morton Hayward says there are at least 700 examples of animal brains preserved as fossils, the oldest of which he says is an arthropod from 500 million years ago.
Cerebellum of a person suffering from kuru disease
Liberski PP (2013)
Genetic research in a very remote community in Papua New Guinea has revealed new insights into a brain disease that is spread when people eat dead relatives and has killed thousands of people over two decades.
Dotted with mountains, gorges, and fast-flowing rivers, Papua New Guinea’s Eastern Highlands province is extremely isolated from the rest of the world, and it wasn’t until the beginning of the 20th century that outsiders realized that about 1 million people lived there.
Some tribes known as the Fore practiced a form of cannibalism called “funeral feasts,” in which they consumed the bodies of their deceased relatives as part of their funeral rites.
This could mean they ingested an abnormally folded protein called a prion, which can cause a fatal neurodegenerative condition called kuru associated with Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD). there was. However, local people believed that the Kuru phenomenon was caused by witchcraft. At least 2,700 Kuru deaths have been recorded in the eastern highlands.
simon mead Researchers at University College London examined the genomes of 943 people representing 68 villages and 21 language groups in the region. Although this region of Papua New Guinea covers just over 11,000 square kilometers, smaller than Jamaica, researchers say the different groups are as genetically different as the peoples of Finland and Spain, some 3,000 kilometers apart. ing.
The study found that not everyone who attended the funeral died from the disease. Meade and his colleagues say it appears that communities were beginning to develop a resistance to kuru, which led to tremors, loss of coordination and, ultimately, death.
The study found that some of the elderly women who survived the feast had mutations in the gene encoding the prion protein, which likely conferred resistance to kuru disease.
By the 1950s, funeral feasts had become illegal and the kuru epidemic began to subside, but visitors say that the number of women in some villages had dwindled because so many women died from kuru. It pointed out. Mead said women and children are most susceptible to the disease, likely because they ate the brains of deceased relatives.
However, genetic evidence shows that despite fears of the disease, there was a large influx of women into Fora tribal areas, particularly in areas where the highest levels of kuru were present.
“We believe it is likely that the sexual prejudice caused by Kuru caused single men in Kuru-affected communities to look further afield for wives than usual because they were unable to find potential wives locally. “We will,” Meade said.
He said the team wants to understand what factors confer resistance to prion diseases such as CJD, which caused a severe epidemic in the UK in the 1990s.
“[Our work sets] “This is a site to detect genetic factors that may have helped the Fore people resist kuru,” Mead said. “Such resistance genes may suggest therapeutic targets.”
Ira Debson Researchers from the Garvan Institute of Medical Research in Sydney, Australia, say the study provides new insight into the “rich and unique cultural, linguistic and genomic diversity” of the Eastern Highlands region.
“This is a demonstration of how genomics can be used to almost look back in time, reading the genetic signature of past epidemics and understanding how they have shaped today’s populations. It helps.”
BLaine computer interface technology is at the heart of movies like Ready Player One, The Matrix, and Avatar. But outside of the world of science fiction, BCIs are used on Earth to help paralyzed people communicate, to study dreams, and to control robots.
Billionaire entrepreneur Elon Musk announced in January that his neurotechnology company Neuralink had implanted the first computer chip in a human. In February, he announced that patients can now control a computer mouse with their thoughts.
Neuralink’s purpose is noble. It is about helping people who are unable to communicate or interact with their environment. But details are scant. The project quickly raised alarms about brain privacy, the risk of hacking, and other potential issues.
Dr Steve Kassem, senior research scientist at Neuroscience Research Australia, said the Neuralink news should be taken with a “large pinch of salt”. It’s not the first company to do neural implants, he says. In fact, Australia is a ‘hotspot’ for relevant neurological research.
Does the patient dream of electric sheep?
The University of Technology Sydney project, which has received millions of dollars in funding from the Department of Defense, is now in its third phase to demonstrate how soldiers can use brain signals to control robotic dogs.
“We succeeded [demonstrating] Handa can use his brain to issue commands that direct the dog to reach its destination completely hands-free…so the dog can use its hands for other purposes. ” he says.
Soldiers use assisted reality glasses with special graphene interfaces to issue brain signal commands to send the robot dog to different locations. Lin said he is working on making the technology multi-user, faster and able to control other vehicles such as drones.
Meanwhile, Sydney company Neurode has developed a headset to help people with ADHD by monitoring the brain and sending electronic pulses to help them cope with changes. Another his UTS team is working on it. dream machine, which aims to reconstruct dreams from brain signals. It uses artificial intelligence and brainwave data to generate images from your subconscious mind.
And then there are the implants.
good signal
Synchron started at the University of Melbourne and is now based in New York. it is, Mesh inserted into blood vessels in the brain This allows patients to use the Internet by transmitting signals that operate similar to Bluetooth. People can shop, send emails, and communicate online using technology that controls computers.
Synchron has implanted and monitored mesh in many patients, including one in Australia. Patient P4, who has motor neuron disease, had mesh implanted several years ago.
“I think he’s had over 200 sessions,” says Gil Lind, Sychron’s senior director of advanced technology. “He is still progressing well with his implant treatment and is working very closely with us.
“He was able to use the computer through the system…As the disease progressed, it became very difficult to use the physical buttons.
“This allows for online banking, communication with caregivers, [with] Someone I love. ”
Dr Christina Maher from the University of Sydney’s Brain and Mind Center said Synchron’s technology is “miles ahead” of Elon Musk’s, and is more sophisticated and safer as it does not require open brain surgery. Stated. The researchers have also published more than 25 papers, she said.
“As for Neuralink, we don’t know much about it.
“My understanding is that the top priority for them is to test the effectiveness and safety of surgical robots…so they are focusing more on the robotic side of things, and this is a commercial It makes sense from a perspective.”
Need for regulation
But amidst the hype and promise of neurotechnology, there are concerns about who will have access to the beneficial technologies and how they will be protected.
Maher says it’s important to balance the need for innovation with appropriate regulation while allowing access to those who really need it. She says the “gap between the haves and have-nots” is being discussed not just in Australia but around the world.
“As brain-computer interfaces become more common, people will be divided into those who can afford them and those who cannot,” she says.
Lind said Synchron is focused on those who have the most to gain, such as quadriplegic patients. “We want to expand it as much as possible. We hope to reach a bigger market and help more people in need,” he says.
A personal and pivotal moment for him, he says, was seeing the faces of the clinicians, team, and family of the first patient who received a successful implant.
At Neuralink, Kasem warns that there are always risks when technology is developed by a company that exists to make a profit. “A cell phone plan for the brain is not what we want,” he says.
“And what if this gets hacked? There’s always a risk when it’s not a closed system.”
But it’s more likely that Neuralink will use people’s data.
“Like every app on your phone or computer, Neuralink monitors everything it can. Everything it can,” Kasem says.
“It will be stored somewhere.”
Protect your brain data
Maher agrees that data is a big issue, saying the risk of hacking remains when devices are connected to the internet. She says much of the social media, biometrics, and other data is already out there, but her brain’s data is different.
“meanwhile [BCI companies] They are subject to the same data privacy laws…The difference in many people’s minds is that brain data is very private and it’s your personal thoughts.
“The big picture here is that once you start recording large amounts of brain data, there are absolutely megatons of data out there,” she says.
Despite privacy concerns, Kasem says interacting with the brain has exciting potential.
“We need to remember how powerful and important the brain is. All you are, all you have been, and all you will ever be is your brain and nothing else.” he says.
Quoting American physicist Emerson Pugh, he says the brain has trillions of neural connections that lead to “infinite opportunities.” hand. ”
During the activities, participants wore headsets that detected brain waves and filled out questionnaires detailing their emotional states afterward.
Researchers discovered that when playing with Aro using sound-producing toys or taking him for a walk along a park path, participants’ alpha brain waves, indicating stability and relaxation, were more pronounced. This suggests an increased sense of rest and relaxation.
Engaging with Alo, brushing, and giving gentle massages to the dog strengthened beta brain waves associated with attention and concentration. This indicates improved concentration without added stress.
After completing all eight activities, participants reported feeling less stressed, tired, and depressed.
Studies have shown that activities like massaging Aro, offering treats, and hugs can enhance people’s moods. Participants also felt more at ease and relaxed while walking and massaging the dog.
“This study illustrates that certain activities with dogs can boost relaxation, emotional stability, alertness, concentration, and creativity by stimulating increased brain activity,” said Yoo. “Interacting with dogs can reduce stress and evoke positive emotional responses.”
Past studies indicate that dogs may help alleviate symptoms of depression and post-traumatic stress disorder, although the efficacy of the intervention remains ambiguous.
A 2022 survey revealed that veterans and first responders with service dogs experienced fewer PTSD symptoms than those without. However, having a dog as a pet had a minimal impact.
A 2020 clinical trial indicated that service dogs were slightly more effective in improving PTSD symptoms in veterans compared to emotional support dogs. Regardless, both types of dogs demonstrated some improvement in PTSD symptoms.
Therapy dogs from an organization called UCLA People-Animal Connection shake hands. Provided by Jennifer Dobkin
Research also suggests that for “pet therapy” to be effective, individuals must have a liking for animals.
“I was actually traumatized by dogs when I was younger, so I never fully embraced them to know if I would feel the same level of comfort,” stated Kathryn Magruder, a professor of psychiatry at the university and author of the 2020 clinical trial.
Jennifer Dobkin manages an animal therapy program called UCLA People-Animal Connection for medical patients and staff and has witnessed firsthand how interactions with dogs can aid in focus and relaxation.
“Staff members who are stressed and having a rough day visibly relax their posture. They smile. They tell us things like ‘You have no idea how much I needed this,'” she remarked.
Dobkin recounted a situation where her terrier mix dog, Toto, helped a grieving family find solace amid the sorrow and stress of losing a loved one.
Children at Stuart House in Santa Monica, Calif., also engaged with therapy dogs like a golden retriever and Labrador named North, bringing comfort and support to those coping with traumatic experiences.
“Our dogs are present to help children navigate discussions about extraordinarily stressful events they have endured. I believe it aids in concentration and provides a sense of comfort,” Dobkin concluded.
Neuroscientists at the University of Michigan have identified thermoreceptors that mediate the sensation of cold in somatosensory neurons.
GluK2 KO mice have a defect in cold sensing.Image credit: Kai other10.1038/s41593-024-01585-8.
“The field began elucidating such temperature sensors more than 20 years ago with the discovery of a heat-sensing protein called TRPV1,” said Professor Sean Hsu of the University of Michigan.
“While various studies have discovered proteins that sense hot, warm, and even cold temperatures, we have not identified any proteins that sense temperatures below about 15 degrees Celsius (60 degrees Fahrenheit).”
In 2019, scientists discovered The world's first cold receptor protein Caenorhabditis elegans a millimeter-long nematode species that the lab is studying as a model system for understanding sensory responses.
Because the gene that codes for it is Caenorhabditis elegans This protein is evolutionarily conserved across many species, including mice and humans, and this discovery was a starting point for testing cold sensors in mammals. Glutamate ion channel receptor kainate type subunit 2 (GluK2).
In a new study, Professor Xu and colleagues tested that hypothesis in mice with the deficiency. GluK2 Because of the gene, the GluK2 protein could not be produced.
Through a series of experiments testing animals' behavioral responses to temperature and other mechanical stimuli, they found that mice responded normally to hot, warm, and cold temperatures, but not to harmful cold.
GluK2 is primarily found in neurons in the brain, where it receives chemical signals and facilitates communication between neurons.
However, it is also expressed by sensory neurons in the peripheral nervous system (outside the brain and spinal cord).
“We found that this protein serves a completely different function in the peripheral nervous system, processing temperature cues instead of cold-sensing chemical signals,” said Dr. Bo Duan from the University of Michigan.
of GluK2 This gene has relatives across the evolutionary tree, going back to single-celled bacteria.
“Bacteria don't have brains, so why have they evolved a way to receive chemical signals from other neurons?” Professor Xu said.
“But the need to sense its environment, and perhaps both temperature and chemicals, will be very strong.”
“Thus, I suspect that temperature sensing is an ancient function, at least for some of these glutamate receptors, that was eventually adopted as organisms evolved more complex nervous systems. .”
of result appear in the diary natural neuroscience.
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W. Kai other. The kainate receptor GluK2 mediates cold sensing in mice. nut neurosi, published online on March 11, 2024. doi: 10.1038/s41593-024-01585-8
Alzheimer’s disease is a neurological disease that impairs brain functions such as memory and reasoning, and there is currently no known cure. People with this disease begin with basic forgetfulness, gradually lose control of their motor skills, and eventually become unable to complete normal daily activities.
Scientists have discovered that abnormal proteins that accumulate in and around brain cells are the main cause of Alzheimer’s disease. They also discovered that the disease depends on genetics, aging, and lifestyle choices such as being active and eating a healthy diet. However, it is not known how other disorders, such as sleep disorders, may exacerbate symptoms.
Scientists have hypothesized that brain activity during sleep may be related to Alzheimer’s disease because many important memory-related events occur during sleep. Scientists are therefore hoping to find out whether disruptions in brain function during sleep are related to the development of Alzheimer’s disease.
Researchers at Washington University in St. Louis recently tested whether Alzheimer’s disease is related to electrical activity that occurs in the brain during sleep. Most people experience changes in brain activity early in the night as the body relaxes and goes to sleep. Each of these changes sleep vibration event, lasts about 20-40 minutes. The researchers hypothesized that the interactions of brain circuits during sleep oscillations are different in patients with early Alzheimer’s disease and could be used for diagnostic purposes.
To test their hypothesis, the scientists used a machine that measures electrical activity in the brain. electroencephalograph, or brain waves.They chose 205 political partiesParticipants who have previously completed at least 3 nights of EEG measurements, 1 night of home sleep apnea testing, and clinical dementia testing.Based on dementia testing, most One participant had no cognitive impairment, some participants had very mild cognitive impairment, and one participant had mild cognitive impairment.
The researchers asked participants to wear the EEG as a headband while they slept, allowing them to measure brain waves during the sleep oscillation phenomenon. The three types of sleep oscillatory events they measured during the experiment were: theta burst, sleeping spindleand slow waves.
The researchers explained that theta bursts occur when humans are in light sleep and help process information and form memories. Sleep spindles occur during non-rapid eye movement sleep and are involved in memory consolidation. Slow waves occur during deep sleep, slowing heart and breathing rates, and also play a role in memory development.
The researchers categorized each patient’s individual slow-wave events by how often they coincided with sleep spindles and theta bursts. They classified sleep spindle and slow wave events that occur within 1.5 seconds of each other as coupled events. They also classified theta burst and slow wave events that occurred within 0.5 seconds of each other as coupled events.
The researchers found that people with cognitive impairment had weaker electrical activity during theta bursts and greater differences in brain electrical activity during theta bursts and slow waves. They also found that people with cognitive impairment and other biomarkers of Alzheimer’s disease had fewer slow waves with theta bursts and sleep spindles. The researchers interpreted their results to confirm that disruptions in brain circuits involved in memory function during sleep may be associated with Alzheimer’s disease.
The researchers concluded that the EEG pattern of sleep oscillatory events could be used as a biomarker for Alzheimer’s disease. Researchers suggested that early signs of the neurodegenerative process associated with Alzheimer’s disease could be detected in sleeping patients’ brain waves, even before they develop cognitive symptoms. They also believe that the results may provide an accessible and cost-effective tool for monitoring brain health and early Alzheimer’s disease, allowing for earlier responses and improved patient treatment. suggested something.
Some cancer treatments can cause so-called chemobrain, commonly defined as problems with memory and concentration.
One Bar/Alamy
An experimental treatment for Alzheimer’s disease that involves flickering lights and low-pitched sounds may also help prevent cognitive impairment after cancer treatment, also known as chemical brain, a study in mice suggests.
In the case of Alzheimer’s disease, light and sound stimulation has been shown in small human trials to reduce memory and concentration problems, but larger studies are still investigating it.
The light flashes 40 times per second, or 40 Hz, and the sound also has a frequency of 40 Hz. This frequency was originally chosen because the brainwave intensity of Alzheimer’s patients is lower than 40 Hz and is associated with memory processing. The idea was that this treatment would stimulate these brain waves.
Subsequent research has shown that such brain waves may have a wide range of benefits for the brain, including increased immune cell activity and, more recently, strengthened drainage systems that may help remove a toxic protein called beta-amyloid. It suggests that there is.
Cai Li Hui The Massachusetts Institute of Technology researchers who developed this approach thought it could help cancer patients who have memory and concentration problems after chemotherapy and other cancer treatments. It is thought that these may be caused by damage to brain cells, but the exact mechanism is unknown and there is no cure.
In the latest study, Professor Tsai’s team exposed cancer-free mice to light and sound for one hour a day while being given a common chemotherapy drug called cisplatin, compared to those who had just received chemotherapy. They found that they experienced less decline in mental acuity than mice.
Acuity was assessed by a memory test in which mice were exposed to either new or familiar objects, and the animals typically showed more interest in things they had never seen before. Chemotherapy reduced the mice’s ability to identify objects, but this was prevented by light and sound treatment.
The therapy had several effects, including reducing inflammation in the brain, reducing DNA damage, and reducing the loss of myelin, the insulation around nerve cell fibers.
nazanin derakshan Researchers at Britain’s University of Reading say the idea needs to be tested in people to see if it has any overall benefits. If this treatment is given at the same time as chemotherapy and reduces cell death in the brain, it may help cancer cells survive there, she says.
According to a new study from Washington University in St. Louis, individual neurons work together to generate rhythmic waves that propel fluid through dense brain tissue, cleaning it in the process.
Accumulation of metabolic waste products is a major cause of many neurological diseases, but there is still limited knowledge about how the brain performs self-cleaning.Jean Xie other. They demonstrate that neural networks synchronize individual action potentials to generate large-amplitude, rhythmic, self-perpetuating ion waves within the brain's interstitial fluid. Image credit: Jiang-Xie other., doi: 10.1038/s41586-024-07108-6.
“These neurons are miniature pumps,” said Dr. Li-Feng Jiang-Xie, lead author of the study.
“Synchronized neural activity facilitates fluid flow and removal of debris from the brain.”
“If we can develop this process, we could slow or prevent neurological diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, where excess waste products such as metabolic waste and junk proteins accumulate in the brain and cause neurodegeneration. It may be possible.”
Brain cells form a dynamic network that coordinates thoughts, emotions, and body movements and is essential for memory formation and problem solving.
But to perform these energy-intensive tasks, your brain cells need fuel. When you take in nutrients from your diet, metabolic waste products are produced in the process.
“It is important that the brain processes metabolic waste products that can accumulate and contribute to neurodegenerative diseases,” said Professor Jonathan Kipnis, senior author of the study.
“We knew that sleep is a time when the brain begins a cleansing process to flush out waste and toxins that have accumulated during wakefulness. But how does that happen? I didn't understand.”
“These findings may point us to strategies and potential treatments to accelerate the removal of hazardous waste and remove it before it leads to dire consequences.”
However, cleaning the dense brain is not an easy task. The cerebrospinal fluid that surrounds the brain enters a complex network of cells, collecting toxic waste as it passes through it.
On leaving the brain, contaminated fluids must pass through a barrier in the dura mater (the outer layer of tissue that surrounds the brain under the skull) before flooding into the lymph vessels.
But what powers the flow of fluid into, into, and out of the brain?
“Researchers studied the brains of sleeping mice and discovered that neurons work together to fire electrical signals that generate rhythmic waves in the brain, prompting cleaning efforts,” says Jean. Dr. Shi said.
The study authors determined that such waves drive fluid movement.
They silenced certain brain areas so that neurons in those areas no longer produced rhythmic waves.
Without these waves, fresh cerebrospinal fluid cannot flow through the silenced brain areas and trapped waste products cannot exit the brain tissue.
“One of the reasons we sleep is to cleanse the brain,” Professor Kipnis says.
“And if we can enhance this cleansing process, perhaps we can sleep less and stay healthy.”
“Not everyone can benefit from eight hours of sleep each night, and lack of sleep can affect your health.”
“Other studies have shown that mice genetically short-sleeping have healthier brains.”
“Is it to remove waste products from the brain more efficiently?”
“Is it possible to strengthen the brain purification ability of people suffering from insomnia so that they can live with less sleep?”
of study Published in the Journal on February 28, 2024 Nature.
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LF.Jean Xie other. Neurodynamics directs cerebrospinal fluid perfusion and brain clearance. Nature, published online on February 28, 2024. doi: 10.1038/s41586-024-07108-6
Cross-section of a mouse brain highlighting neurons that appear to release molecules that increase toxin clearance
Tsai Laboratory/MIT Picower Laboratory
A new explanation has emerged for why an experimental treatment for Alzheimer’s disease that involves flickering sounds and lights may help slow cognitive decline. This frequency appears to strengthen the brain’s waste processing network, helping to remove beta-amyloid and other toxic proteins that contribute to memory and concentration issues.
“Once we understand the mechanism, we can probably understand how to further optimize this whole concept and improve its effectiveness,” he says. Cai Li Hui at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
The treatment involves exposure to light that flashes at a frequency of 40 times per second, or 40 hertz, and to a bass sound, also at 40 hertz. Typically, stimulation is given for one hour per day.
The key to this new approach is that large networks of brain cells naturally fire in sync with each other at different frequencies, known as brain waves. Brain waves around 40 Hz are common when people are concentrating and forming or accessing memories.
In 2016, Tsai’s team wondered if 40Hz stimulation could enhance cognitive performance in Alzheimer’s patients, since visual or auditory stimulation at a certain frequency is known to enhance brain waves at that same frequency. I decided to investigate.
Their group and other researchers have shown that this reduces amyloid accumulation in mice with Alzheimer’s disease and has cognitive benefits. Small trial in people with this condition, an even larger trial is underway. However, it is unclear how this treatment works, and another idea is that it boosts the function of immune cells in the brain.
Well, the special light and sound appears to work by enhancing the function of the brain’s drainage system, also known as the glymphatic system.
In the latest study, Tsai’s team conducted a series of experiments to study the mechanism of treatment in mice that were genetically modified to have amyloid buildup that normally occurs with age and to have worse memory than typical mice. carried out.
As expected, when the animals were exposed to light and sound, the amount of amyloid decreased. The new findings were that during treatment, the amount of cerebrospinal fluid entering the brain increased, and the amount of waste fluid leaving the brain through the glymphatic vessels increased.
This appears to occur because nearby blood vessels pulsate more, which may help glymph fluid flow through the blood vessels, allowing more water to flow into the glymph system.
The research team also found that the activity of a particular type of brain cell known as an interneuron appears to cause an increase in glymph flow by releasing a molecule called vasoactive intestinal peptide. When the research team chemically blocked the production of this molecule, the treatment no longer accelerated amyloid clearance.
Miken Nedergaard A professor at the University of Rochester in New York who helped discover the glymphatic system says the discovery is consistent with what we already know about it. “The brain, blood, and cerebrospinal fluid are all contained within the skull. When the blood volume expands, the brain tissue cannot be compressed, so the cerebrospinal fluid volume must also move.”
In the accompanying article natural medicineDr. Nedergaard says that a better understanding of the mechanisms of toxin removal in the brain “could be the key to unlocking that.” [their] Treatment Possibilities.”
we heard it all. Men's brains are larger and have better spatial awareness. Women's brains are adapted for multitasking and emotional intelligence. Stereotypes about how sex influences behavior abound, and as increasingly sophisticated brain-scanning technology emerges, claims about such inconsistencies are becoming more apparent.
But as we discovered in our feature on the human brain (“Your Amazing Brain: 10 Challenging Questions That Uncover Amazing New Discoveries About the Human Brain”), men's and women's behaviors, interests, We are trying to identify the biological reasons for population differences in . The issue of occupation is a delicate debate that includes not only sex but also gender, and has never been resolved.
Still, we should keep trying. In particular, if there really are gender-related brain differences, this would have a major impact on our health. That's because many pathologies related to the brain and neural branches affect men and women at different rates and in different ways. For example, women have higher rates of depression, anxiety, and eating disorders. Men have higher rates of autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
There are many possible reasons for this imbalance in the gender ratio. For example, autism may be underdiagnosed among girls, or typical behaviors may manifest differently. Similarly, biological factors may make women more susceptible to depression because they tend to have lower incomes or because men are less likely to seek help for mental health problems. .
However, brain differences between the sexes may also exist. If so, the photo is not yet complete. These may not be due to direct genetic or sex hormonal effects, but may be due to the way society generally treats men and women differently throughout their lives.
Elucidating all of this could shed light on the mechanisms behind these symptoms and lead to better treatment strategies. After all, this is not a competition between male and female brains, but an initiative that has the potential to help everyone.
Micrograph of a cross-section of a mouse brain highlighting neural pathways (green)
Mark and Mary Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute/Scientific Photo Library
By analyzing a mouse’s brain activity, scientists can tell where the animal is and the exact direction the mouse is looking. With further research, the findings could one day help robots navigate autonomously.
The mammalian brain uses two main types of neurons for navigation. “Head direction cells” indicate where the animal is facing, and “grid cells” help provide her two-dimensional brain map of where the animal is located.
To learn more about the firing of these neurons, Vasilios Marlas and colleagues at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, worked with the U.S. Army Research Laboratory to analyze data from previous studies.
In this experiment, probes were inserted into the brains of several mice. They then combined data about their neural firing patterns with video footage showing their position and head position as they moved around their open environment.
Because of this, Marlas and his colleagues developed an artificial intelligence algorithm that can figure out where the mouse is looking and where it is.
In practice, it’s similar to the drop pins and directional arrows on your smartphone’s map app, except instead of connecting to GPS satellites, scientists analyze the subjects’ brain activity.
“This method eliminates the reliance on updating GPS coordinates based on preloaded maps, satellite data, etc.,” Marulas says. “In a sense, the algorithm ‘thinks’ and perceives space in the same way as a mammalian brain.”
AI could eventually allow intelligent systems to move autonomously, he says. “In other words, we are taking advantage of the way the mammalian brain processes data and incorporating it into the architecture of our algorithms.”
Adam Hines Researchers from Australia’s Queensland University of Technology say the smartphone app analogy is helpful. “The location information (drop pin) and the direction (blue arrow) match, and during navigation, as he moves, the two pieces of information are constantly updated. Grid cells are like GPS, heading cells are It’s like a compass.”
The lamprey and human hindbrains are built using very similar molecular and genetic toolkits, according to a new study led by the Stowers Institute for Medical Research.
These images show an adult lamprey (top and left) and a developing lamprey embryo. Image credit: Stowers Medical Research Institute.
“Our research on the hindbrain (the part of the brain that controls important functions such as blood pressure and heart rate) is essentially a window into the distant past and can serve as a model for understanding the evolution of complexity. “, said Dr. Hugo Parker. Researcher at Stowers Medical Research Institute.
Like other vertebrates, sea lampreys have a backbone and skeleton, but they noticeably lack a jaw, a characteristic feature of the head.
Most vertebrates, including humans, have jaws, so this striking difference in sea lampreys makes it a valuable model for understanding the evolution of vertebrate traits.
“About 500 million years ago, at the origin of vertebrates, there was a split between jawless and jawed animals,” said Dr. Alice Bedois, also of the Stowers Institute for Medical Research.
“We wanted to know how vertebrate brains evolved and whether there is something unique to jawed vertebrates that jawless vertebrates don't.”
Previous research had identified genes that structure and subdivide the sea lamprey's hindbrain as identical to genes in jawed vertebrates, including humans.
However, these genes are part of an interconnected network or circuit that needs to be initiated and directed to properly build the hindbrain.
In a new study, the authors identify common molecular cues known to direct head-to-tail patterning in a variety of animals as part of a genetic circuit that guides hindbrain patterning in the lamprey. .
“We found that the same genes, as well as the same cues, are involved in hindbrain development in sea lampreys. This suggests that this process is ancestral to all vertebrates. ,” Dr. Bedwa said.
“This signal is called retinoic acid, commonly known as vitamin A.”
Researchers have known that retinoic acid signals the genetic circuits that build the hindbrains of complex species, but they believe it is involved in more primitive animals like sea lampreys. was not considered.
Surprisingly, they discovered that the lamprey's core hindbrain circuit is also initiated by retinoic acid, providing evidence that these sea monsters and humans are much more closely related than expected.
“People thought that because lampreys don't have jaws, their hindbrains don't form like other vertebrates,” says Dr. Rob Krumlauf, a researcher at the Stowers Institute for Medical Research.
“We showed that this fundamental part of the brain is built exactly the same way as in mice, and even in humans.”
Signaling molecules that signal cell fate during development are well known.
Now, researchers have discovered that retinoic acid plays another key role in signaling important steps in development, such as the formation of the brainstem.
Furthermore, if hindbrain formation is a conserved feature in all vertebrates, other mechanisms must be involved to explain its incredible diversity.
“We all come from a common ancestor,” Dr. Bedwa said.
“The lamprey provided further clues.”
“We now need to go further back in evolutionary time to discover when the genetic circuits controlling hindbrain formation first evolved.”
of study It was published in the magazine nature communications.
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AMH Bedwa other. 2024. Lamprey reveals the origins of retinoic acid signaling and its coupling to vertebrate hindbrain segments. Nat Commune 15, 1538. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-45911-x
It's easy to name people who have evolved human thinking, from Jane Austen to Albert Einstein, Zaha Hadid to Ai Weiwei, but why are these people so much more creative than others? It's much more difficult to explain what kind of thinking you do. Are their brains just built that way, or can anyone learn it? The mystery of creativity has long puzzled scientists. Now, researchers are finally making some progress towards closing the curtain. Even better, their insights can help us all exercise a little more original thinking.
Some of them are exciting insights This stems from the “dual process theory” of creativity, which distinguishes between idea generation and idea evaluation. Idea generation involves digging deep into existing knowledge for seeds of inspiration. Perhaps it is done by drawing analogies from completely different areas. Free association is key at this stage, as one thought leads to another, more original insight. The second phase, idea evaluation, requires you to apply a more critical eye to select the ideas that best fit your goals. Novelists must decide whether strange, supernatural plot twists will excite readers or turn them off. Engineers must consider whether a fish-inspired airplane would be practical and efficient. Large projects require these two stages to be repeated many times during the long and winding journey from concept to completion.
Brain scans of people engaged in creative problem solving suggest that idea generation and evaluation relies on…
Crescent Nebula: More complex than the human brain?
Reinhold Wittich/Stocktrek Images/Alamy
Back in 2012, neuroscientist Christoph Koch wrote in his book: Consciousness: Confessions of a Romantic Reductionist The human brain is “the most complex object in the known universe.” This seems intuitive, given that the brain has approximately 86 billion neurons, which are connected in ways that are still beginning to be understood. But when I put it, David Wolpert At New Mexico's Santa Fe Institute, founded in the 1980s as a hub for the budding field of complexity science, he doesn't think so. “It's almost a travesty that we are the most complex system in the universe,” he says. “That question is actually misguided.”
Nevertheless, I persevere. Is there a common measure of complexity that can be applied to complex systems of all kinds? After all, if you squint, galaxy clusters and the filaments that connect them look like intertwined circuits of neurons. Masu. The human brain even has almost as many neurons as there are galaxies in the observable universe. This formal similarity may have something to do with the general laws by which complexity emerges, he says. Ricard Sole At Pompeu Fabra University in Barcelona, Spain. Or maybe not. “By chance, it might show up in both systems, but that doesn't mean anything,” he says.
Moreover, complexity is not defined by components and their interconnections. It's the idea that the whole is more than just something.
The human brain is likely the most advanced computer in the world. While it operates differently than a traditional computer and has a much softer structure, its computing power is unparalleled.
Neuromorphic computing, which models machines after the human brain and nervous system, has been a growing concept since the 1980s. Many attempts have been made to achieve this, with the DeepSouth project at the International Center for Neuromorphic Systems at Western Sydney University aiming to be the most advanced yet, with the potential to perform 228 trillion actions per second.
How does a brain computer work?
DeepSouth uses an approach to computing that is inspired by the human brain and body, aiming to combine processing power and memory just like the human brain does. By distributing power to billions of tiny units (neurons) that interact through trillions of different connections (synapses), the brain becomes incredibly powerful while consuming very little energy.
What does this mean for the future of computers?
This approach could lead to significant improvements in energy efficiency and battery life for devices such as smartphones. It could also enable the development of smaller and more powerful computers, bringing high-powered computing to a variety of applications and industries.
How DeepSouth can help fight aging
While the primary goal of DeepSouth is to improve computing technology, the neuromorphic approach also offers insights into the workings of the human brain. This could lead to a better understanding of diseases such as Alzheimer’s, dementia, and Parkinson’s and potentially aid in developing treatments for these conditions.
Forgetting may be essential for the brain to remember
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There's nothing more frustrating than trying to remember a fact or memory only to realize it's gone. You may ask yourself, is this the beginning of mental decline or the beginning of a degenerative brain disease? You probably don't think forgetting is a good thing. But it's possible. New research on memory suggests that it is actually a healthy and necessary brain function that is becoming increasingly important in our rapidly changing lives. “You want to be able to adapt to your environment because the environment is always changing. But if you get too attached to your initial experience, you won't be able to act adaptively,” he says. thomas ryan At Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland. Interestingly, his research also suggests that forgotten memories remain in the brain and could be restored if needed.
Everyday forgetfulness, such as not remembering what you had for dinner last week, is called natural forgetfulness. This is in contrast to pathological forgetfulness caused by conditions such as brain injury or Alzheimer's disease. Far from being a problem, natural forgetfulness supports one of our most unique and powerful traits: our ability to generalize. There are times when having a very detailed memory can be invaluable, such as when reviewing for an exam or acting as a witness to a crime, but you can't generalize without considering the specifics quickly and flexibly. says Mr. edwin robertson At the University of Glasgow, UK. “For a chair to be considered a chair…
Thomas Edison says: He held a steel ball in each hand as he prepared for a nap.. When he nodded, they would fall and wake him up so he could write down ideas that came to him in the moments just before sleep, when he believed he was most creative. But are there really specific times when our brains perform better? And more broadly, are we better at different kinds of thinking at different stages of life? If so, it's worth asking how you can make the most of these mental peaks and maximize your brain's capabilities.?
Edison's methods may have been unorthodox, but It turned out that he was onto somethingas Delphine Audinet It was discovered in 2021 by the Paris Brain Institute and colleagues. They gave 103 slightly sleep-deprived people a seemingly complex math problem that they could solve with simple creative insight. Participants who woke up immediately after falling asleep were almost three times more likely to take a creative leap and solve a problem than those who stayed awake throughout the experiment.
This knowledge may be useful if you are looking for inspiration. But if that's the memory you're trying to optimize, deep sleep is when your brain does the heavy lifting, accumulating new long-term memories from the day's experiences. To get the most out of this, you need plenty of sleep. Adults need 7 to 9 hours of sleep each night. If you are among them, A lot of people…
Biologists from the Altos Institute, Cambridge Institute of Science, and the University of Cambridge have discovered that genetic elements derived from retroviruses (retrotransposons) are essential for the production of myelin (the insulating sheath that surrounds nerve axons) in mammals, amphibians, and animals. I discovered that fish. This gene sequence, called retromyelin, is likely the result of an ancient retroviral infection, and comparisons of retromyelin in mammals, amphibians, and fish indicate that retroviral infection and genome invasion events occurred separately in each of these groups. suggests that it has occurred.
gauche other. suggest that retrovirus internalization played an important role in the emergence of vertebrate myelin. Image credit: Ghosh other., doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2024.01.011.
Myelin, the complex fatty tissue that lines vertebrate nerve axons, allows rapid impulse conduction without the need to increase axon diameter. This means that the nerves can be packed more closely together.
It also provides metabolic support for the nerves, allowing them to lengthen.
Myelin first appeared on the tree of life around the same time as the jaw, and its importance in vertebrate evolution has been recognized for a long time, but until now it is unclear what molecular mechanism caused its appearance. was.
Tanay Ghosh and colleagues at Altos Labs-Cambridge Institute of Science noticed the role of retromyelin in myelin production while studying the gene networks used by oligodendrocytes, the cells that produce myelin in the central nervous system. .
Specifically, they were studying the role of non-coding regions, including retrotransposons, in these gene networks. This has not been previously studied in the context of myelin biology.
“Retrotransposons make up about 40% of our genome, but we know nothing about how they helped animals acquire specific traits during evolution.” said Dr. Ghosh.
“Our motivation was to learn how these molecules serve evolutionary processes, especially in the context of myelination.”
Researchers discovered that in rodents, retromyelin RNA transcripts regulate the expression of myelin basic protein, one of the key components of myelin.
When we experimentally inhibited retromyelin in oligodendrocytes and oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (the stem cells from which oligodendrocytes are derived), the cells were no longer able to produce myelin basic protein.
To find out whether retromyelin is present in other vertebrate species, scientists looked for similar sequences within the genomes of jawed vertebrates, jawless vertebrates, and some invertebrate species. Searched for.
They identified similar sequences in all other classes of jawed vertebrates (birds, fish, reptiles, amphibians) but found no similar sequences in jawless vertebrates or invertebrates. did not.
Robin Franklin, a neuroscientist at the Altos Institute at the Cambridge Institute of Science, said: “There was an evolutionary drive to speed up the conduction of impulses in axons, because the faster the impulse conduction, the faster we can grab objects and move away from them.'' Because they can run away.”
Next, the authors wanted to know whether retromyelin was integrated once in the ancestor of all jawed vertebrates, or whether there were separate retroviral invasions in different branches.
To answer these questions, they constructed a phylogenetic tree from 22 jawed vertebrate species and compared their retromyelin sequences.
This analysis revealed that retromyelin sequences are more similar within species than between species, suggesting that retromyelin has been acquired multiple times through a process of convergent evolution.
The researchers also showed that retromyelin plays a functional role in myelination in fish and amphibians.
When they experimentally disrupted the retromyelin gene sequence in fertilized zebrafish and frog eggs, they found that the developing fish and tadpoles produced significantly less myelin than normal.
“Our findings open new avenues of research exploring how retroviruses are involved in directing evolution more generally,” said Dr. Ghosh.
Comparisons are difficult because men’s brains tend to be larger than women’s.
Sergiy Tryapitsyn / Alamy
Are male and female brains that different? A new way to investigate this question has led us to the conclusion that they exist, but we need artificial intelligence (AI) to tell them apart.
The question of whether we can measure differences between male and female brains has long been debated, and previous studies have yielded conflicting results.
One problem is that men’s brains tend to be slightly larger than women’s. This is likely due to the fact that men are generally larger, and some previous studies have compared the size of various small areas of the brain. Unable to adjust whole brain volume. However, no clear findings have been made so far. “When you correct for brain size, the results change quite a bit,” he says. Vinod Menon at Stanford University in California.
To tackle this problem in a different way, Menon’s team used a relatively new method called dynamic functional connectivity fMRI. This involves recording the brain activity of people lying in a functional MRI scanner and tracking changes in how activity in different areas changes in sync with each other.
The researchers designed an AI to analyze these brain scans and trained it on the results of about 1,000 young people from an existing database in the United States called the Human Connectome Project, identifying which individuals are male and which individuals. told the AI whether the person was female. In this analysis, the brain was divided into 246 different regions.
After this training process, the AI was able to differentiate between a second set of brain scan data from the same 1000 men and women with approximately 90% accuracy.
More importantly, the AI was equally effective at differentiating male and female brain scans from two different, never-before-seen brain scan datasets. Both consisted of about 200 people of similar age, ranging in age from 20 to 35, from the United States and Germany.
“What we bring to the table is a more rigorous study with replication and generalization to other samples,” Menon says. None of the people in the training or testing data were transgender.
“Replication with a completely independent sample from the Human Connectome Project gives us even more confidence in our results,” he says. Camille Williams At the University of Texas at Austin.
The next question is whether the AI will be just as accurate when tested on an additional, larger set of brain scan results. “Time will tell what results we get with other datasets,” he says Menon.
If confirmed, the findings could help us understand why some medical conditions and forms of neurodiversity, such as depression, anxiety, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, differ by gender. No, says Menon.
“If we don’t develop these gender-specific models, we will miss important aspects of differentiating factors.” [for example]”An autistic man and a control man, and an autistic woman and a control woman,” Menon said.
It looked like a classic case of Alzheimer's disease. The man, in his 70s, had been experiencing severe cognitive decline for three years. Frequently forgetting the names of his family members, he was unable to drive or leave the house alone. Further deterioration seemed inevitable. But then his doctor tested him and found that his cerebrospinal fluid sample I noticed a fungus called Cryptococcus neoformans. They put him on antifungal medication and the results were amazing. Within two years he had his driver's license reinstated and returned to his job as a gardener.
Neuroscientists have long suspected that certain infections can increase the risk of dementia.For example, both Porphyromonas gingivalisthe bacteria behind periodontal disease, the herpes simplex virus that causes cold sores, It has been pointed out that there is a relationship with Alzheimer's disease.. However, cases of “reversible dementia” are emerging from the idea that our brains are teeming with microbes and that imbalances in this “brain microbiome” can make people more susceptible to neurodegenerative diseases. is beginning to arouse great interest.
Until recently, it was thought that the brain was free of microorganisms. This was especially due to the blood-brain barrier, a special membrane that protects pathogens and toxins in the blood from the brain. Therefore, the idea of a brain microbiome was controversial. But new research seems to confirm the case. Richard Leeds University of Edinburgh, UK and colleagues Analyzed data obtained from postmortem brains It is housed in four brain banks in the UK and US. They discovered a wide variety of microorganisms of different types.
When you look in the mirror, you may notice slight imbalances in your facial features, such as your nose crooked to the left, a wrinkle that only appears under one eye, or your ears slightly higher than the other. .
For centuries, this lack of perfect balance has been thought to detract from our beauty, and there are a number of services aimed at “fixing” it, from photo filters to cosmetic surgery. But asymmetry is built into the human body and brain, and for good reason. Moreover, new research suggests that it has little effect on your appeal to others.
First, lopsided arrangement of our internal organs. For most people, the heart, stomach, and spleen are all on the left side of the spinal cord, and the liver and gallbladder are on the right side. This makes more efficient use of thoracic and abdominal space compared to a structure that aligns all organs to the spine.
Why is the human brain asymmetrical?
What about your brain? Although her two hemispheres may appear to be reflective of each other, corresponding areas on each side have different responsibilities. You will notice the effect this has on your movements. If you're right-handed, it's because the left hemisphere of your brain, which is connected to the right side of your body, is slightly more specialized in controlling the fine muscles of your fingers, increasing your manual dexterity. .
You may be surprised to find that this “lateralization” is seen in many fields…
Protein plaques in the brain may be caused by mitochondrial dysfunction
Sebastian Kauritzky/Alamy
If you own a car, you’ve probably noticed that your engine becomes less efficient over time. The farther you drive, the more fuel it takes to cover the same distance. Eventually, you’ll end up with so little power that you need a physical push to climb a gentle hill.
It is now becoming clear that much the same holds true for the human brain. Microscopic structures called mitochondria, found in all brain cells, are literally the engines of our thoughts and emotions. As we age, we find it increasingly difficult to generate enough energy to power mental activity. Worse, just like an old car leaves behind a cloud of smoke, the power source of our cells begins to produce unnecessary waste products that slowly pollute our brains. This means that mitochondrial dysfunction may underlie some of the most serious brain diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, and motor neuron disease.
According to this “grand unified theory” of neurodegeneration, recharging neurons through restoration of their power plants can prolong healthy brain function. This idea has already inspired some exciting new treatments for age-related brain diseases, with multiple drug candidates under investigation. Some researchers are exploring the possibility of transplanting healthy mitochondria into damaged, aging brains to reactivate them. “If you keep replacing the parts in your car, it can last forever,” he says. claudio soto, a neurologist at the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston. “So what happens if we try to run this…
Humans are not the fastest or strongest species. We have no wings, fangs, claws, poison, or armor. Physically, we are primarily controlled by nature.
However, the words “run the same way'' are ironic. This is because humans physically dominate all other species in one area: long-distance running. Thanks to our bipedalism and unique sweat glands, humans can continue running long after other species have collapsed from exhaustion.
Humans have evolved to train their bodies, or exercise, over long periods of time. But while many people actually enjoy exercise, they're in the minority (as evidenced by uncrowded gyms and abandoned New Year's resolutions in mid-February).
So why doesn't everyone enjoy exercise, even though we've evolved to do so? It’s because of the mysterious complexity of the human brain.Evolving abilities does not automatically evolve want to use it. Armored creatures do not want to be actively attacked.
Although physical exercise is not that Bad, but still usually unpleasant and uncomfortable. It must be so. You end up pushing your body to its physical limits, which leads to significant discomfort. There are limits for a reason.
What does the brain think about exercise?
Another problem is that the human brain is extremely sensitive to wasted effort. Research has shown that the insular cortex contains dedicated circuitry. Calculate the effort required for an action – They are there to ask “Is it worth it?”
This is a trend that evolved to prevent us from wasting vital resources on pointless endeavors, such as walking 20 miles to buy a handful of berries.
However, regular exercise to “get in shape” requires constant and great effort. It's all about gradual progress and uncertain rewards (it's impossible to guarantee success in advance). In other words, your brain tends to ask, “Is it worth it?” It would be difficult to keep quiet.
This trait also means that we typically prefer things that give us the most reward with the least amount of effort. So we choose the path of least resistance, stick to our routine, and stay in our comfort zone.
Starting to exercise means changing everything for an uncertain result. To keep us safe, our brains typically tend to value risk over reward, making us more reluctant to engage in physically demanding activities.
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So while our bodies may be adapted to continuous exercise, our brains are adapted to avoid it in many ways. And we have built a world for ourselves where avoiding physical activity is a viable option.
Thankfully, the human brain is an incredibly complex organ, so there are some metaphorical tricks up your sleeve. Most obviously, it is not dominated by more primitive and direct instincts and impulses. Many species' thought processes are limited to “Food, eat!”, “Danger, run!”, “Pain, avoid!”, but we have evolved beyond that.
The human brain is capable of forming multiple long-term goals and ambitions. We are rarely satisfied with just day-to-day survival. We simply simulate a desired future scenario, figure out how to achieve it, and then…do it. Or at least strive towards it.
This directly affects how our brains process motivation and willpower in many interesting ways. First, it allows you to delay gratification. In other words, you will realize that it is important to refuse the reward now.Can lead to bigger rewards later, and act accordingly.
In this case, eating four bags of potato chips as a family while watching TV is fun in the moment, but going to the gym will make you fitter, stronger, and fitter later on.
And then there's the “just world” fallacy. Here we assume the world is fair and that is what makes us believe. research shows this – No matter how much suffering you suffer, it will always lead to reward. As the saying goes, no pain, no gain.
How the brain increases motivation
So how does the brain process all these different motivations? Self-contradiction theory suggests that we have multiple “selves” active in our minds at any given time. The “real” self, the “ideal” self, and the “ideal” self.
Your “actual” self is your current state, or how you are right now. Your “ideal self” is yourself. want Something to do. And your “ideal” self is one that does whatever it takes to become your “ideal” self.you do what you do should What I'm doing. In other words, if your “ideal” self is a professional soccer player and your “real” self is not, then the “ideal” you is someone who has to train, exercise, and train a lot to get better at soccer. It's someone who spends their time.
This is just one framework for how motivation works when it comes to physical exercise. Of course, there are many other factors that play an important role, such as time constraints, body image, and ease of movement.
However, as far as the brain is concerned, there are processes that prevent movement and processes that promote movement. Ideally, you'll end up focusing more on the latter than the former. Also, moving weights is a classic exercise, so it's a good idea to start somewhere.
Two weeks before the pandemic lockdown in March 2020, I flew to Tucson, Arizona, and knocked on the door of a suburban ranch-style home. I was there to visit Stuart Hammeroff. He is an anesthesiologist and co-inventor with Nobel Prize-winning physicist Roger Penrose of a radical proposal for how conscious experience arises: that it has its origins in quantum phenomena in the brain.
Such ideas, in one form or another, have existed on the fringes of mainstream consciousness research for decades. There is no solid experimental evidence that quantum effects occur in the brain, as critics claim, and aside from a clear idea of how quantum effects produce consciousness, they come in from the cold. Not that it was. “It was very popular to bash us,” Hammeroff told me.
But after a week of questioning him about the concept, I realized that at least his version of quantum consciousness is widely misunderstood. Partly, I think it’s Hammeroff’s fault. He gives the impression of a single package. In fact, his ideas are a series of independent proposals, each forcing us to confront important questions about the relationship between fundamental physics, biology, and the indescribable thing called consciousness. I am.
Furthermore, during my visit I saw several experiments that Hammeroff had proposed come to fruition, and it became clear that his ideas could be applied to experimental research. Researchers have now provided preliminary evidence suggesting that fragile quantum states can persist in the brain and that anesthetics can influence those states.
Veterans saw improvement in combat-related brain injury after taking psychedelic drugs
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The psychedelic substance ibogaine has the potential to treat chronic disorders caused by traumatic brain injury (TBI). A single dose of this drug resulted in sustained improvements in physical and social function, cognition and mood in veterans with combat-related traumatic brain injury.
“This is the first time someone has actually been able to show that there is a neurorehabilitation effect with psychedelic drugs and that there are fairly deep signs of improvement,” he says. nolan williams at Stanford University in California.
He and his colleagues recruited 30 male veterans with traumatic brain injuries to attend a treatment facility in Mexico for five days. They were each given ibogaine, a hallucinogenic substance extracted from the iboga plant, which is native to Africa. Everyone met with a therapist before and after taking ibogaine to discuss preparation for the psychedelic experience. Participants can also participate in activities such as yoga, massage, and meditation on-site.
Participants took 12 milligrams of ibogaine per kilogram of body weight and received an intravenous infusion of magnesium to prevent heart problems associated with the drug. The researchers measured participants' disability before and after treatment on a scale of 0 to 100, with higher scores indicating greater disability. At the beginning of the study, participants' average score was 30, meaning mild to moderate disability. After 4-5 days of treatment, this score dropped below 20, and after 1 month it was around 5, indicating no disability.
At least 83 percent of participants no longer met criteria for depression, anxiety, or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) one month after treatment. They also saw significant improvements in processing speed, problem solving, and working memory.
However, it is unclear whether this effect is solely due to hallucinogens. “The big problem is [that] Without a control group, it will be nearly impossible to say for sure what's going on here. ” Albert Garcia Lomu at Johns Hopkins University in Maryland. He says talking to a therapist, participating in wellness activities, and even traveling may have contributed to these improvements.
But many of these variables have previously been studied as treatments for neurological diseases with little success, Williams said. He believes a series of mechanisms could explain how ibogaine can treat traumatic brain injury. For example, he says, the drug is known to increase neuroplasticity, or the brain's ability to rewire.
Hypnosis may involve a therapist bringing a patient into a deeply relaxed state to treat symptoms or change habits.
Voisin/Fanny/Science Photo Library
Sending electrical pulses to certain parts of the brain can make people more susceptible to hypnosis. Although the research is still in its early stages, it could eventually lead to more widespread use of hypnotherapy for conditions such as chronic pain.
“There are a lot of different ways to treat different disorders and symptoms, both in psychology and psychiatry,” he says. Afik Furman at Stanford University in California. “Hypnosis is one psychological technique that has been proven to be effective for anxiety, depression, and especially pain.”
Faerman and colleagues focused on the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, located at the front of the brain, and administered transcranial magnetic stimulation to 40 people with the chronic pain condition fibromyalgia. This was administered as 800 pulses to the scalp via a paddle, and the procedure lasted just over 1.5 minutes. This method uses a magnetic field to stimulate nerve cells in the target tissue.
Another 40 people with the same symptoms were given the sham treatment. At the start of the study, none of the participants were thought to be susceptible to hypnosis.
Hypnotherapy is generally defined as the use of hypnosis to treat symptoms or change habits. Susceptibility to hypnosis was assessed by the “hypnoinduction profile,” a standard method for measuring hypnotic efficacy.
After just one session, the group that received electrical brain stimulation had increased hypnotic susceptibility for up to an hour, while the other groups showed no change.
The researchers did not measure whether fibromyalgia symptoms improved in either group. “Our main goal was to figure out whether it was possible to alter the hypnotic state, so we were really excited to be able to do that,” say team members. nolan williams at Stanford University.
Researchers now hope to repeat the study with more people with more diverse symptoms. They also want to see whether fine-tuning the length or number of electrical stimulation pulses a person receives affects hypnotic susceptibility.
Despite showing some promise as a medical use, hypnotherapy is not routinely covered by health insurance companies in the United States or the National Health Service in the United Kingdom.
Ozempic is a diabetes drug, but it is also often used for weight loss.
fcm82/shutterstock
Weight loss and diabetes injections such as Wigovy and Ozempic (both semaglutide) are more widely used than initially thought after studies in mice suggest they act on the brain and reduce inflammation throughout the body. Possible medical benefits.
This finding may explain why this class of drugs appears to reduce heart attacks more than would be expected from weight loss effects alone.
It also supports their use in combating a wide range of health conditions that involve inflammation, including Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease, which is being studied in clinical trials.
Semaglutide works by mimicking a gut hormone called GLP-1. Normally released after a meal, GLP-1 reduces appetite, makes you feel full, and triggers the release of insulin, a hormone involved in blood sugar regulation.
Some studies suggest that semaglutide not only reduces weight, but also reduces inflammation, and is a mild increase in certain types of immune system activity.Lowers levels of a compound in the blood called C-reactive protein (CRP) is a well-established sign of inflammation. Daniel Drucker At the University of Toronto, Canada.
A growing body of research suggests that inflammation is involved in many conditions not previously associated with the immune system, such as heart disease and Alzheimer’s disease, but this does not yet lead to new treatments available in the clinic. has not been applied.
Because obesity is also associated with inflammation, semaglutide’s effect on CRP may simply be a side effect of weight loss, rather than the drug itself reducing inflammation.
To find out, Drucker and his colleagues investigated how several GLP-1 mimics affect inflammation in mice. First, they injected bacteria from the mice’s intestines into other parts of their abdomens, causing bacterial infections in their blood. This triggers a strong immune response and causes inflammation.
Some mice were also injected with GLP-1 mimics, either semaglutide or another member of this drug class called exenatide.
GLP-1 mimics reduced the animals’ inflammatory response to infection, but this did not occur when the researchers used mice genetically modified so that their brain cells lacked receptors for GLP-1. Ta.
The researchers also found no reduction in inflammation when they tested genetically normal mice whose brains were injected with compounds that block GLP-1 receptors.
Taken together, these results show that GLP-1 mimetics such as Ozempic act on brain cells to reduce inflammation, and that this is not just a side effect of weight loss.
“Losing weight is good, but you don’t need to lose weight to be effective,” Drucker says. For example, in Wegovy’s recent randomized trial, he says, the drug started preventing heart attacks within the first few months, before people lost significant weight.
“It was known that these drugs acted on inflammation,” he says. Ivan Koichev at Oxford University. “This paper is helpful because it reveals the underlying mechanism.”
In theory, anti-inflammatory drugs could cause people to develop additional infections, but this has so far not been observed in people who received the shots for weight loss or diabetes, Koychev says. .
A new study led by Harvard Medical School has revealed the neurological foundation of daydreaming. Conducted in mice, the study found that neurons in the visual cortex fired in patterns similar to those seen during the viewing of images, indicating daydreaming. This was especially pronounced during early daydreams and could predict future brain responses to visual stimuli, implying a role in brain plasticity. The study suggests that daydreaming may play a role in learning and memory processes in mice and potentially in humans. Credit: SciTechDaily.com
However, most neuroscientists do not understand what happens in the brain during daydreaming. A team of researchers at Harvard Medical School used mice to investigate the activity of neurons in the visual cortex of the brain during quiet wakefulness and found that these neurons fire in patterns similar to when the mouse views images, indicating that the mouse was daydreaming about the image. Furthermore, the brain showed the same firing pattern during daydreams as when it was seeing an image, suggesting that the mouse was imagining the image. These daydreams occurred only when the mouse was relaxed and had a calm behavior and small pupils.
The researchers found that mice were biased towards daydreaming about recently viewed images, and this daydreaming was more prominent at the beginning of the day. The daydreams influenced the brain’s future responses to images, indicating a role in brain plasticity. The two regions of the brain, the visual cortex and the hippocampus, were also found to communicate during daydreaming. Subsequent research with imaging tools will examine how these connections change when the brain sees an image.
While it remains an open question whether human daydreams involve similar patterns in the visual cortex, preliminary evidence suggests that a similar process occurs during the recall of visual images. The findings suggest that giving the mind waking downtime is crucial for daydreams, which is important for brain plasticity. This research was published on December 13th in Nature.
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