Ancient humans took two distinct pathways to reach modern Australia.
Helen Farr and Eric Fisher
The timeline and means by which ancient humans made their way to what is now Australia and New Guinea have sparked much debate over the years. Recent genetic studies indicate this event likely occurred at least 60,000 years ago and involved two separate routes.
The regions of modern-day Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea were once part of Sahul, an ancient continent that emerged during the peak of the ice age when sea levels were significantly lower. Researchers have been keen to understand human migration into these regions as it necessitated navigating dangerous ocean stretches of over 100 kilometers, even during low sea levels.
There are two primary theories regarding the arrival of humans in Sahul: one suggests it took place at least 60,000 years ago, while the other posits a timeline of around 45,000 years ago.
Regarding the approach taken, scientists have put forth two main routes. The southern route is believed to have led to Australia by sea from present-day mainland Southeast Asia through the Sunda region that comprises Malaysia, Indonesia, and Timor. The northern route, however, has more compelling supporting evidence, indicating that humans migrated through the Philippines and Sulawesi to reach modern-day New Guinea, where ancient hominin stone tools dating back millions of years were recently found.
To unravel these migrations, Martin Richards and his colleagues from the University of Huddersfield in the UK examined approximately 2,500 genome sequences from Indigenous Australians, Papua New Guineans, and various populations across the Western Pacific and Southeast Asia.
By analyzing DNA mutation rates and the genetic ties between these populations, the researchers determined that the initial human settlement of Sahul occurred via both routes, but predominantly through the northern pathway.
The question of timing has also been addressed by the researchers. “We traced both dispersals to around the same period, approximately 60,000 years ago,” Richards noted. “This lends support to the ‘long chronology’ of settlement as opposed to the ‘short chronology’ suggesting arrival around 45,000 to 50,000 years ago.”
The findings further illustrate that migration wasn’t a straightforward process, partially based on the discovery of ancient genetic lineages in a 1,700-year-old burial site in Sulawesi. The team also detected evidence indicating that shortly after their arrival on Sahul, coastal and marine communities began migrating towards what we now refer to as the Solomon Islands.
Adam Blum, a professor at Griffith University in Brisbane, asserted that the field of paleogenetics, which investigates history through preserved genetic materials, “seems to adjust the narrative with each new study.”
“We believe this research bolsters the idea that the northern route played a crucial role in the early populating of Australia,” Blum remarked. “Considering the ancient cave art found on Sulawesi, the possibility is rapidly becoming more plausible.”
This remarkable rock artwork has been dated to at least 51,200 years ago, Blum explained. “I have a strong suspicion that individuals were crafting art in Sulawesi’s caves and shelters over 65,000 years ago.”
Peter Veth and his team at the University of Western Australia in Perth assert that even the most conservative estimates from the Majedbebe site in Australia’s Northern Territory suggest human activity traces exceeding 60,000 years. New research further underscores the significance of early human arrival in Sahul.
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Every year, we dispose of hundreds of millions of tons of plastic
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By incorporating chemicals that imitate natural polymers like DNA into plastics, we can develop materials that decompose in days, months, or years instead of persisting in landfills for centuries. Researchers are optimistic that this innovative approach will produce plastic items that fulfill their function and then safely disintegrate.
In 2022, over 2.5 billion tonnes of plastic are expected to be discarded globally, with merely 14 percent being recycled while the rest is either incinerated or buried. The quest for effective biodegradable plastics has spanned at least 35 years, utilizing various organic sources like bamboo and seaweed. However, in practice, many of these materials prove to be challenging to compost, and their manufacturers often make exaggerated claims.
Currently, Gu Yuwei, a professor at Rutgers University, is working on technology that creates plastics with precisely calibrated lifetimes, allowing them to break down swiftly in compost or natural environments.
Gu questioned why natural long-chain polymers such as DNA and RNA decompose relatively rapidly, while synthetic polymers like plastics do not, and whether it’s possible to replicate this process.
Natural polymers possess chemical structures known as adjacent groups, which facilitate their breakdown. These structures trigger an internal reaction called nucleophilic attack that disrupts the bonds in the polymer chains, which is energetically demanding for standard plastics.
Gu and his team synthesized artificial chemical structures that resemble these adjacent groups and incorporated them during the manufacturing of new plastics. They discovered that the resulting material could degrade easily, and by altering the structure of these additions, they could adjust how long the material remained intact before degradation.
As the plastic decomposes, Gu anticipates that the long polymer chains will fragment into smaller components that can either be repurposed to produce new plastics or dissolve safely in the environment.
“This method is optimized for plastics that require controlled degradation within days to months, so we believe it holds significant potential for uses like food packaging and other transient consumer products,” Gu explains. “It is not currently suitable for plastics that must remain intact for decades, such as construction materials and long-lasting structural components.”
Nonetheless, several challenges must be addressed before these plastics can be used in commercial applications. The liquid residue after the plastic’s decomposition consists of polymer chain fragments, necessitating further testing to ensure this mixture is non-toxic and can be safely released into the ecosystem.
Moreover, while UV light is presently required to initiate the degradation, natural sunlight is enough. Therefore, until the research team discovers a method to create materials that can decompose in darkness, buried or obscured plastics may persist in the environment indefinitely.
Paleontologists conducted an analysis of the path taken by an exceptionally long sauropod at the West Gold Hill Dinosaur Tracking Station in Colorado, USA. Their findings suggest that the massive dinosaurs responsible for it might have exhibited a limp.
Aerial view of the West Gold Hill dinosaur track site in Colorado, USA. Image credit: USDA Forest Service.
Paleontologist Anthony Romilio from the University of Queensland and his team examined over 130 footprints along a 95.5-meter trail that dates back 150 million years.
“This is a remnant from the late Jurassic period, a time when long-necked dinosaurs like diplodocus and camarasaurus thrived across North America,” stated Dr. Romilio.
“This track is particularly special because it forms a complete loop.”
“Although the reason for the dinosaur’s turnaround remains unclear, this trajectory provides a rare chance to analyze how the substantial sauropod executed a sharp turn before returning to its original direction.”
“The scale of the West Gold Hill Dinosaur Track necessitated a novel approach,” remarked Paul Murphy, a paleontologist from the San Diego Museum of Natural History.
“Given the size of the tracks, capturing these footprints from the ground proved to be quite challenging.”
“We utilized a drone to photograph the entire track in high resolution.”
“These images can now be leveraged to create detailed 3D models that can be digitally examined in the lab with millimeter-level accuracy.”
The virtual model reconstructed the sauropod’s movement throughout the entire path.
“It became evident right away that this animal started moving northeast, looped around, and ultimately ended up facing the same direction,” Dr. Romilio explained.
“Within that circular path, we discovered subtle yet consistent indications of its behavior.”
“A notable observation was the variance in width between the left and right footprints, which changed from very narrow to distinctly wide.”
“This transition from narrow to wide footprints suggests that the width may naturally fluctuate as dinosaurs walked. This implies that short segments of seemingly uniform width could misrepresent their typical walking style.”
“We also noted a small but ongoing difference in stride length of roughly 10 cm (4 inches) between the left and right sides.”
“It’s challenging to determine if this signifies a limp or merely a preference for one side.”
“Many extensive dinosaur trails worldwide could benefit from this method to uncover previously hidden behavioral insights.”
The team’s study was published in the journal Geography.
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Anthony Romilio et al. 2025. Track by track: West Gold Hill Dinosaur Tracking Site (Upper Jurassic, Bluff Sandstone, Colorado) reveals sauropod rotation and lateralized gait. Geography 5(4):67;doi: 10.3390/geomatics5040067
The wolf, the wild ancestor of dogs, stands as the sole large carnivore domesticated by humans. Nonetheless, the exact nature of this domestication remains a topic of debate—whether it was a result of direct human control over wild wolves or a gradual adaptation of wolf populations to human environments. Recent archaeological findings in the Stra Fjärväl cave on the Swedish island of Stra Karsø, located in the Baltic Sea, have revealed the remains of two canids with genetic ties to gray wolves. This island, measuring just 2.5 km2, possesses no native land mammals, similar to its neighboring Gotland, and thus any mammalian presence must have been human-introduced.
Canadian Eskimo Dog by John James Audubon and John Bachman.
“The discovery of wolves on such a remote island was entirely unexpected,” remarked Dr. Linus Gardland Frink, a researcher from the University of Aberdeen.
“They not only had genetic links indistinguishable from other Eurasian wolves but also seemed to coexist and feed alongside humans in areas that were only reachable by boat.”
“This paints a complex picture of the historical dynamics between humans and wolves.”
Genomic analysis of the canid remains indicates they are wolves, not dogs.
However, their traits suggest a level of coexistence with humans.
Isotope analysis of their bones indicates a diet high in marine proteins, such as seals and fish, mirroring the diet of the humans on the island, suggesting they were likely fed.
Furthermore, these wolves were smaller than typical mainland counterparts, and one individual demonstrated signs of low genetic diversity—a common outcome due to isolation or controlled breeding.
This findings challenge long-standing notions regarding the power dynamics between wolves and humans and the domestication of dogs.
While it is unclear if these wolves were domesticated, confined, or managed, their presence in human-occupied areas suggests deliberate and ongoing interactions.
“The fact that it was a wolf and not a dog was a complete surprise,” stated Dr. Pontus Skoglund from the Francis Crick Institute.
“This provocative case suggests that under certain conditions, humans may have kept wolves in their habitats and found them valuable.”
“The genetic findings are intriguing,” noted Dr. Anders Bergström from the University of East Anglia.
“We discovered that the wolf with the most complete genome showed less genetic diversity than any ancient wolf previously analyzed.”
“This resembles what is observed in isolated or bottlenecked populations, or in domesticated species.”
“Although we cannot completely dismiss the idea that low genetic diversity may occur naturally, it implies humans were likely interacting with and managing wolves in ways not previously considered.”
One Bronze Age wolf specimen also presented advanced pathology in its limb bones, which would have restricted its mobility.
This suggests care or adaptation to an environment where large prey hunting was unnecessary for survival.
Professor Jan Stroh of Stockholm University stated: “The combined data offers new and unexpected perspectives on human-animal interactions during the Stone and Bronze Ages, especially regarding wolves and dogs.”
“These findings imply that prehistoric interactions between humans and wolves were more intricate than previously understood, involving complex relationships that extend beyond simple hunting or avoidance, hinting at new aspects of domestication unrelated to modern dogs.”
A study detailing this research was published on November 24th in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Linus Gardland-Frink et al. 2025. A gray wolf in the anthropogenic setting of a small prehistoric Scandinavian island. PNAS 122 (48): e2421759122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2421759122
Kissing is common among most living great apes and likely was practiced by Neanderthals, having evolved in the ancestors of these groups between 21.5 million and 16.9 million years ago, according to a study led by researchers from Oxford University.
Neanderthal. Image credit: Gemini AI.
Kissing can be observed in various animal species, yet it poses an evolutionary enigma. While it carries significant risks, such as disease transmission, it lacks clear reproductive or survival advantages.
Until now, the evolutionary background of kissing has received limited attention, despite its cultural and emotional importance across numerous human societies.
In this recent study, Dr. Matilda Brindle and her team from the University of Oxford undertook the first investigation into the evolutionary history of kissing, utilizing a cross-species perspective based on primate family trees.
The findings indicated that kissing is an ancient characteristic of great apes, having developed in their ancestors between 21.5 and 16.9 million years ago.
This behavior has persisted through evolution and is still evident in most great apes.
The researchers also concluded that Neanderthals, distant relatives of modern humans, likely engaged in kissing as well.
This evidence, alongside earlier studies showing that humans and Neanderthals exchanged oral microbes (through saliva) and genetic material (via interbreeding), strongly implies that kissing occurred between the two species.
Dr. Brindle stated: “This marks the first exploration of kissing from an evolutionary standpoint.”
“Our results contribute to an expanding body of research that illuminates the incredible variety of sexual behaviors found among our primate relatives.”
To carry out the analysis, scientists needed to define what constitutes a kiss.
This task was challenging due to the numerous mouth-to-mouth interactions resembling kisses.
Given their investigation spanned a diversity of species, the definition had to be suitable for a wide range of animals.
Consequently, they defined kissing as non-aggressive mouth-to-mouth contact that does not involve food transfer.
After establishing this definition, the researchers concentrated on groups of monkeys and apes that evolved in Africa, Europe, and Asia, gathering data from the literature where kissing has been documented in modern primates.
Among these are chimpanzees, bonobos, and orangutans, all of which have displayed kissing behavior.
Following that, they conducted a phylogenetic analysis, treating kissing as a “trait” to map onto the primate family tree.
Using a statistical method known as Bayesian modeling, they simulated various evolutionary scenarios along the tree’s branches and calculated the chances that different ancestors also kissed.
The model ran 10 million simulations, producing robust statistical estimates.
Professor Stuart West from the University of Oxford noted: “Integrating evolutionary biology with behavioral data enables us to draw informed conclusions about non-fossilized traits like kissing.”
“This paves the way for studying the social behaviors of both extant and extinct species.”
While the researchers caution that current data is limited, particularly beyond great apes, this study sets a framework for future inquiries and offers primatologists a consistent method for documenting kissing behaviors in non-human animals.
“Though kissing may seem like a universal act, it’s only documented in 46% of human cultures,” remarked Dr. Katherine Talbot from the Florida Institute of Technology.
“Social customs and situations differ vastly among societies, prompting the question of whether kissing is an evolved behavior or a cultural construct.”
“This research represents a first step in addressing that question.”
Matilda Brindle et al. 2025. A comparative approach to the evolution of kissing. Evolution and Human Behavior in press. doi: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2025.106788
Romantic kisses may trace back to our evolutionary history
ATHVisions/Getty Images
Ancient beings like Neanderthals likely engaged in kissing, and our primate ancestors might have practiced it as far back as 21 million years ago.
There is considerable discussion regarding the origins of romantic kissing among humans. While ancient texts suggest sexual kissing existed in Mesopotamia and Egypt around 4,500 years ago, such evidence has only surfaced within the past 4,000 years. Some suggest that 46 percent of human cultures argue that kissing is a relatively recent cultural phenomenon.
However, it’s noted that Neanderthals shared oral bacteria, and kissing has also been documented in chimpanzees, bonobos, and orangutans, suggesting the practice may precede existing historical records.
To explore this further, Matilda Brindle and colleagues from the University of Oxford investigated the evolutionary background of kissing. “Kissing appears to be an evolutionary paradox; it likely doesn’t contribute directly to survival and can even pose risks in terms of pathogen transmission,” she states.
The researchers defined kissing in a manner applicable across various species, describing it as non-hostile, mouth-to-mouth contact that involves lip movements but excludes the exchange of food.
This definition eliminates many forms of affection, such as kisses on the cheek. “If you kiss someone on the cheek, it feels like a kiss, but according to our definition, it’s not,” Brindle explains. “Humans have elevated kissing to a new level.”
They then examined scientific literature and consulted primate researchers for instances of kissing among modern monkeys and apes from Africa, Europe, and Asia.
To gauge the probability that various ancestral species also engaged in kissing, Brindle and her team mapped this data onto the primate family tree, employing a statistical method called Bayesian modeling to simulate diverse evolutionary scenarios.
The findings indicate that kissing likely originated in the ancestors of great apes approximately 21.5 to 16.9 million years ago, with an 84 percent probability that Neanderthals also practiced it.
“Clearly, it involves Neanderthals kissing, though we can’t ascertain whom they were kissing,” Brindle notes. “Nevertheless, the similarity in oral microbiomes between humans and Neanderthals, coupled with the fact that many non-African humans carry Neanderthal DNA, supports the idea that they probably shared kisses. This certainly adds a romantic dimension to human-Neanderthal relationships.”
Brindle acknowledges a lack of sufficient data to explain why kissing developed but proposes two hypotheses.
“In the context of sexual kissing, assessing mate quality could enhance reproductive success,” she suggests. “If a partner has poor oral hygiene, they might decide against mating with them.”
Moreover, sexual kissing could facilitate post-coital success by heightening arousal and fostering conditions that allow for faster ejaculation and a vaginal pH more accommodating to sperm.
Another prevailing theory is that non-sexual kissing evolved from grooming, which serves to strengthen social bonds and alleviate tension. “Chimpanzees literally kiss and reconcile after conflicts,” Brindle points out.
“Based on current evidence, I believe kissing undoubtedly serves an affiliative purpose,” says Zanna Clay from Durham University, UK. “We know, for instance, that in chimpanzees, it plays a vital role in mending social ties. However, I find the sexual aspect somewhat uncertain.”
Regarding whether kissing is an evolved behavior or a cultural construct, Brindle asserts, “Our findings strongly indicate that kissing has evolved.”
Trolls Punk Arbor, a professor at the University of Copenhagen, who traced the initial references to kissing in ancient Mesopotamian texts, concurs. “This provides a well-rounded foundation for asserting that kissing has been a part of human behavior for an extended period,” he states.
Nonetheless, this does not encompass the entire narrative, considering many individuals do not engage in kissing. “I believe there is a significant cultural element involved, which likely varies across different cultural contexts,” Clay observes.
Ancient caves, the origins of humanity: Northern Spain
Explore some of the planet’s oldest cave paintings in the picturesque region of northern Spain. Travel back 40,000 years to uncover how our ancestors lived, played, and worked. From ancient Paleolithic art to stunning geological formations, each cave conveys a singular and timeless narrative.
TThere’s an enduring saying that history is penned by the victors, and this is just as true for video games as it is for any other arena. It’s easy to think of the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) as the sole gaming console of the mid-to-late 1980s. For those who grew up in Nintendo’s key markets of Japan and North America, this bulky device was essentially the only option available, especially with its iron grip on third-party developers that crafted a monopoly on prominent titles. However, in Europe, where home computers thrived, the NES struggled against superior competitors.
The Sega Master System first made its debut in Japan in the fall of 1985, originally branded as the Sega Mark III. Powered by the renowned Z80 CPU (which was also utilized in home computers like the Spectrum, Amstrad, and TRS-80) and a robust Sega-designed video display processor, it comes equipped with 8kb of RAM, boasts a 64-color palette, and can render 32 sprites on-screen simultaneously, making the NES (which uses the antiquated 6502 processor) look like an antiquity.
Initially marketed in Japan as an extension of Sega’s SG-1000 series, this device resembled a budget-friendly home computer rather than a pure gaming console, complete with optional keyboard and printer. Nonetheless, as the NES surged in popularity across Japan and the United States, Sega reassessed its strategy, stripping away some computer functions before reintroducing the Mark III as the Master System in 1986. This sleek, angular console stood in stark contrast to the beige Betamax aesthetic of the NES.
Sega Master System titles were available in two formats: cartridges and Sega cards for shorter, more affordable games. Photo: booksR/Alamy
Included with the Master System was a light gun, and Sega also introduced 3D glasses compatible with specific games. “We refer to it as a 3D version of Outrun,” says programmer Chris White, who later developed the Master System emulator for Sega’s PlaySega website. “It definitely gave me a headache, and the flashing lenses caused mild disorientation, but it was a reflection of Sega’s willingness to experiment boldly.”
Initially, Sega managed the distribution of the Master System in the U.S., but they sought local partners to navigate the more fragmented European market. In the UK and France, later expanding to Spain, Virgin Mastertronic took on that role. “Sega’s partners had a stronger marketing position in Europe,” noted Nick Alexander, Virgin Mastertronic’s managing director during that time. “They also established better retail and distribution relationships compared to Nintendo. There was a running joke in Computer Trade Weekly, a video game trade magazine, stating that Nintendo viewed Europe as a land of dragons. They were out of touch and concerned, which is why they focused primarily on the U.S.”
Alexander, who led Virgin Games since 1983, embraced the company’s innovative, youth-oriented marketing approach. “We envisioned video games as equivalent to a band on tour,” he shared. “Thus, we procured a double-decker bus and traveled across the country, visiting school playgrounds and shopping centers. This garnered significant press attention. While Nintendo targeted family entertainment, we understood that in Europe, it resonated primarily with Germany. We aimed at teenagers, knowing that if we won them over, their younger siblings would also be drawn to the Master System. That was our formula for overshadowing Nintendo in Europe.”
While Nintendo had Mario, Sega possessed a significant asset: arcade heritage. The company ported many of its popular arcade hits to the console, including Space Harrier, Outrun, Golden Ax, and Afterburner, marketing it in the West as a home arcade experience. Even though these weren’t perfect conversions of the original games, they were notably faster and more vibrant than those previously available on home computers. For teenage arcade enthusiasts at the time, this felt revolutionary.
“Game center in my living room”… Shinobu of Sega Master System. Photo: ArcadeImages/Alamy
“Thanks to the impressive hardware of the Master System, games visually surpassed other Z80-based systems,” White asserts. “It gives developers the ability to create scrollable tilemaps and dynamically position sprites, which makes programming straightforward and alleviates a lot of processing demands from the CPU. This design shared numerous similarities with Sega’s arcade technology; in fact, it was originally derived from the graphics chip used in Sega’s arcade machines, the TMS9918. ”
For European developers, mastering the hardware was a dream. “We had been developing for the Spectrum and Amstrad, and our titles were being ported to the C64,” recalls Andrew Oliver, who, along with his brother Philip, created Dizzy games for Codemasters. “I vividly remember attending the CES show in Las Vegas, where Sega had an extensive booth that stood alongside Nintendo, promoting their message of ‘speed.’ Back then, computers were all about vibrant visuals and rapid execution. Ultimately, Codemasters signed a licensing agreement and obtained a development kit for the console. It operates on a Z80, similar to the Spectrum, yet the graphics chip is reminiscent of the C64, resulting in fast performance with impressive parallax scrolling and sprites. The programming process was quite straightforward.”
Additionally, British developers believed that Sega offered a more useful platform than Nintendo. Mike Simpson, a programmer at the British publisher Personal Software Services, later acquired by MirrorSoft, shared, “We established a small in-house studio in Coventry, employing around 20 people to port various titles.” He continued, “Someone approached us about porting Xenon 2, a top-tier 16-bit Amiga game, to the Master System. It seemed like an impossible task, but we had to give it a shot. I was even invited to Japan for training in programming. I spent a week at Sega in Tokyo, getting insights from Mark Cerny,” [the later lead architect of PlayStation 4 and 5]. “I recall rows of tightly packed desks and conference room chairs being used as makeshift beds.”
A classic console… Sonic the Hedgehog. Photo: Sega
Even with the arrival of the Mega Drive, the Master System maintained its popularity in Europe (and later in Brazil) and continued to be supported with simplified versions of Mega Drive hits like Sonic the Hedgehog. Sonic Chaos, a beloved offshoot developed for both the Master System and Sega’s handheld devices (which shared the same hardware), stands out as a highlight of the series. Subsequently, Sega released a revamped Master System 2 at a budget-friendly price of £50, bundled with Sonic.
However, the Master System offered more than just ports and arcade classics. It has a rich legacy with iconic platformers like Wonder Boy III: The Dragon’s Trap, Psycho Fox, Fantasy Zone, Alex Kidd’s Miracle World, the groundbreaking role-playing adventure Phantasy Star, and the excellent Zelda-like Golbelius: Valley of Fate. These titles, as well as many often overlooked from the NES era, remain true gems. Unlike many classic Nintendo games, Master System titles are now more accessible to modern collectors.
Indeed, while the NES dominated in America to the point where “Nintendo” became synonymous with gaming, the Master System emerged victorious in Europe, Brazil, and elsewhere. Historical accounts may be harsh, but for those of us who lived through it, who read European gaming magazines or flipped through Sega catalogs in the annual Argos and Grattan Christmas sales, the Master System was more than a console; it was an arcade experience that foretold the future of gaming. A promise that the Mega Drive would continue to uphold.
“Textbooks indicate that RNA is highly unstable and generally degrades within minutes of exiting a living cell,” remarked Marc Friedlaender, a computational biologist at Stockholm University and one of the study authors. “It’s truly remarkable that we discovered RNA dating back 40,000 years. No one thought this was feasible.”
This research may open up new avenues into historical understanding. Erez Eiden, a professor of biochemistry and molecular biology at the University of Texas Medical Branch, who was not involved in the study, noted that scientists will continue to refine the techniques used to analyze ancient RNA, similar to how they have done for years with ancient DNA.
Incorporating RNA analysis into the study of ancient genetics could fundamentally alter our perception of the biological history of the Earth, Eiden stated.
“We will be able to construct a more comprehensive and quantitative narrative of life’s history on our planet,” he added. “Suddenly, the Rosetta Stone appeared.…This is like an ancient hieroglyph of life.”
The discovery of RNA was facilitated by the find of Yuka in 2010, when members of the Yukagir community unearthed a mammoth in melting permafrost near the Arctic Ocean. Yuka was found resting on a cliff, partially mummified, and encased in a mat of strawberry blonde hair and flesh that remained pink until her discovery.
Paleontologists believe Yuka was pursued to death. Some evidence points to the creature being chased by a cave lion or possibly killed by modern humans. There are indications supporting both theories, with each species potentially playing a role in the extinction of this ancient animal.
In a world populated by cave lions, this creature experienced significant stress prior to its death.
Indeed, recent RNA analyses indicate that the profiled RNA displayed signs of physiological stress. The researchers utilized samples taken from the animal’s slow-twitch muscle fibers.
“We discovered that stress genes were activated,” Friedlander stated.
Laboratory work in an ultra-clean environment at the Paleogenetics Center in Stockholm where ancient RNA was extracted. Provided by: Jens Olof Razin
RNA is synthesized from its DNA template through a process known as transcription. During transcription, certain genes are activated while others remain dormant.
This process is dynamic, and the genes expressed can fluctuate from day to night, according to Marmol Sanchez.
The researchers also identified a novel form of microRNA (a type of RNA governing gene expression) in mammoths that is unknown in modern elephants.
The RNA technology being developed may assist efforts to revive the woolly mammoth, as noted by Eiden, who is a member of the scientific advisory board for Colossal Biosciences, the company aiming to “resurrect” the woolly mammoth.
Professor Friedlander remarked that further research could also shed light on how some ancient viruses, which lack DNA, evolved over time.
“To understand the history of RNA viruses like SARS-CoV-2, we must detect these RNA molecules in historical and ancient samples to comprehend their evolution,” Friedlander explained.
Viruses such as Ebola, HIV, and influenza possess RNA genomes.
More research is required. In this study, the scientists investigated 10 mammoths but only obtained reliable RNA signals from three, including Yuka, the best-preserved specimen.
Since 2010, Yuka has been thought to be a female mammoth, but RNA and DNA analyses have revealed that she is, in fact, male.
Eiden highlighted that the RNA study underscores how little is understood about death and the varying rates of molecular breakdown after an organism’s demise.
“Our theories about what occurs to the physical matter of an organism post-mortem are still inadequate,” Eiden said. “What information is retained, and how legible can it remain over time? These are some intriguing questions.”
Recent discoveries by archaeologists in Ukraine’s Crimean Peninsula, home to significant Middle to Late Paleolithic sites like Starosele, include a 5-centimeter-long bone fragment from a Neanderthal man, dating between 46,000 and 44,000 years ago. Genetic analysis shows this individual to be closely related to Altai Neanderthals through mitochondrial DNA, indicating that Neanderthal populations traveled great distances across Eurasia. Under favorable climatic conditions, these migrations likely involved the spread of the Micocchia stone tool industry, highlighting cultural continuity and regional adaptability during the Late Pleistocene.
A group of Neanderthals in a cave. Image credit: Tyler B. Tretsven.
Crimea is rich in well-preserved layered Paleolithic sites, many reflecting the biocultural and human occupation transition that occurred approximately 47,000 to 42,000 years ago.
According to earlier radiocarbon dating studies, the peninsula has been recognized as a refuge for late Neanderthals who survived just before their extinction.
Starosele, a rock shelter located in a steep valley, features four distinct cultural layers and has been researched since 1952.
“The archaeological layers of this site are rich in cultural artifacts,” stated Emily Piggott, a PhD student at the University of Vienna, along with her colleagues.
“Levels 1, 2, and 4 are linked to stone tools from the Crimean Mikokian stone tool industry, associated with Neanderthals.”
This study aimed to identify potential human remains from the thousands of fragmented bones excavated from the Starosele site.
From the 150 bone fragments analyzed, 97.3% contained sufficient collagen for taxonomic identification.
Approximately 93% of the remains belonged to horses and deer, with fewer found from mammoths and wolves, indicating that Paleolithic humans in Crimea heavily relied on horse hunting.
Notably, one bone fragment, measuring 49.8 mm in length and 18.8 mm in width, was classified as hominin.
Radiocarbon dating indicated an age range of 46,000 to 45,000 years, coinciding with the transitional period before the extinction of Neanderthals and the emergence of Homo sapiens in Western Europe.
“Particularly the remains of humans before Starosele are from a much later era of Homo sapiens,” Piggott remarked.
“Upon receiving the radiocarbon results, we realized we had uncovered a true Paleolithic hominin.”
“Neanderthals went extinct across Eurasia, replaced by Homo sapiens, yet genetic information about these earlier human populations is scarce.”
Researchers then sequenced the mitochondrial genome from this bone, confirming the individual was part of the Neanderthal lineage.
The mitogenome of this individual aligns with other Neanderthal mitogenomes previously documented in the Altai region of Siberia.
“Surprisingly, this individual shared the closest genetic ties with Neanderthals from Altai, over 3,000 kilometers to the east, as well as with Neanderthals that once roamed areas of Europe such as Croatia,” highlighted the researchers.
“This finding reaffirms previous studies suggesting that Neanderthals migrated extensively across Eurasia, traversing from central Europe to central Eurasia during the late Pleistocene.”
“This research highlights Crimea as a crucial junction in the Neanderthal migration routes.”
The findings of this study will be published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Emily M. Piggott et al. 2025. A new late Neanderthal from Crimea reveals long-distance connections across Eurasia. PNAS 122 (45): e2518974122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2518974122
Paleontologists have identified a new early Miocene species of rhinoceros from the genus Epiaceratherium, based on fossilized remains uncovered in the Canadian Highlands Arctic.
Reconstruction of Epiaceratherium ijirik in a forested lake habitat on Devon Island. The flora and fauna depicted are based on fossils found locally, including the transitional seal species Puigila dalwini. Image credit: Julius Csotony.
This new rhinoceros existed in present-day Canada around 23 million years ago during the early Miocene epoch.
Named Epiaceratherium ijirik, it is most closely related to other rhinoceros species that thrived in Europe millions of years ago.
“Currently, there are only five species of rhinos found in Africa and Asia, but they were once widespread in Europe and North America, with over 50 species documented in the fossil record,” stated Dr. Daniel Fraser, a researcher from the Canadian Museum of Nature, Carleton University, and the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History.
“The inclusion of this Arctic species enriches our understanding of the evolutionary history of rhinoceroses.”
Epiaceratherium ijirik was relatively small and slender, comparable in size to a modern Indian rhinoceros, but notably lacked a horn.
The fossilized remains were excavated from the sediments of a fossil-abundant lake in Horton Crater on Devon Island, Nunavut.
“What’s impressive about this Arctic rhinoceros is the excellent condition of the fossilized bones,” remarked Dr. Marisa Gilbert, also from the Canadian Museum of Nature.
“They are three-dimensionally preserved and only partially mineralized.”
“Approximately 75 percent of the skeleton has been recovered, which is remarkably complete for a fossil.”
By analyzing the occurrences of 57 other now-extinct rhino species, researchers traced the family tree of Epiaceratherium ijirik.
The findings were derived from visits to museum collections, reviews of scientific literature, and database analyses.
The researchers were also able to geographically categorize each rhino species across five continental regions.
This exhaustive process employed mathematical modeling techniques to gauge dispersal rates among different continents within the Rhinocerotidae family, with scoring based on their locations.
The analysis sheds light on how rhinoceroses utilized the North Atlantic land bridge for migration between North America and Europe (via Greenland) over millions of years.
Previous studies indicated that the land bridge may have served solely as a migration route until about 56 million years ago.
However, the new analysis implies that Epiaceratherium ijirik and its relatives suggest that these migrations from Europe to North America could have occurred much more recently, potentially as late as the Miocene.
“Discovering and describing new species is always thrilling and enlightening,” noted Dr. Fraser.
“But there is more to be gleaned from this identification: Epiaceratherium ijirik reveals that the North Atlantic played a more significant role in rhinoceros evolution than previously acknowledged.”
“Overall, this study reaffirms that the Arctic continues to unveil new insights and discoveries, enhancing our understanding of mammalian diversification across epochs.”
Results of this research are published in the journal Nature Ecology and Evolution.
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D. Fraser et al. Dispersal of rhinos through the North Atlantic during the mid-Cenozoic Era. Nat Ecol Evol published online October 28, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41559-025-02872-8
Scientists have uncovered ice and air that is 6 million years old from a shallow ice core in the Arran Hills of East Antarctica. They believe this ancient ice showcases a preserved surface snowpack or permafrost due to the development of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet during the mid-Miocene to late Miocene epochs.
Ancient ice extracted from the ALHIC1902 ice core. Image credit: Shackleton et al., doi: 10.1073/pnas.2502681122.
“Ice cores function as time machines, allowing researchers to glimpse Earth’s past,” stated Dr. Sarah Shackleton, a scientist at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
“With the Allan Hills Core, our timeline extends much further than we previously thought was possible.”
“This is a groundbreaking discovery for the NSF-funded Center for Oldest Ice Exploration (COLDEX),” remarked Dr. Ed Brook, COLDEX director and paleoclimatologist at Oregon State University.
“We were aware that the ice in this area was ancient. Our initial estimates placed its age at around 3 million years, or perhaps slightly older, but this discovery has far surpassed our expectations.”
COLDEX is engaged in a friendly race with various international teams to push the ice core record beyond its historical 800,000-year threshold.
A European research team recently reported finding a continuous ice core dating back 1.2 million years deep within East Antarctica.
For months, the team operated in a remote field camp within East Antarctica’s Arran Hills, drilling 100 to 200 meters into the outskirts of several ice sheets, where ice movement and rugged mountain landscapes work together to safeguard ancient ice and bring it closer to the surface for easier retrieval.
In contrast, obtaining the oldest continuous ice cores from archaeological sites in East Antarctica necessitates drilling deeper than 2,000 meters.
“We are still exploring the specific conditions that enable such ancient ice to remain near the surface,” Dr. Shackleton explained.
“Besides the terrain, factors like intense winds and extreme cold may play a role.”
“The winds can disperse newly fallen snow, while the cold can slow down accumulation until the ice is nearly stationary.”
This makes the Arran Hills one of the premier locations globally for discovering shallow, ancient ice, while also being one of the most challenging environments for fieldwork.
The air trapped within these new ice cores enables scientists to directly ascertain the age of the ice by precisely measuring isotopes of the rare gas argon.
This direct dating method means that scientists can derive age indicators directly from the ice, instead of making assumptions based on accompanying features or deposits.
While this ancient ice record doesn’t form a continuous stretch, its age is unparalleled, the researchers noted.
“By dating multiple samples, our team has compiled a library of ‘climate snapshots’ approximately six times older than previously recorded ice core data, supplemented by more detailed younger data from other Antarctic ice cores,” Dr. Higgins stated.
Temperature records derived from oxygen isotope measurements in the ice indicate that the region underwent a gradual cooling of about 12 degrees Celsius (22 degrees Fahrenheit) over an extended timespan.
This marks the first direct assessment of the cooling extent in Antarctica over the past six million years.
Ongoing analyses of these ice cores aim to reconstruct atmospheric greenhouse gas levels and ocean heat content, which hold significant implications for understanding the drivers of natural climate change.
“The COLDEX team plans to return to the Arran Hills for additional drilling in the coming months, potentially yielding more detailed snapshots and even older ice,” Dr. Brook shared.
“In light of the unexpectedly ancient ice recovered in the Arran Hills, we are preparing a comprehensive, long-term study of the region with the goal of extending the record even further, which we hope to commence between 2026 and 2031.”
The team’s paper has been published today in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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S. Shackleton et al. 2025. Miocene and Pliocene ice and air from the Allan Hills blue ice belt in East Antarctica. PNAS 122 (44): e2502681122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2502681122
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Our Expiry Date
Unfortunately, we have some bad news. Humanity’s time is marked; experts predict our extinction by 2339, leaving us only a few centuries (as of now).
News Editor Jacob Aaron presented this startling information. A paper not yet peer-reviewed was shared on the social science preprint server SocArXiv. In their work, demographers David Swanson and Jeff Tayman discuss how the human population could decline from the current 8.1 billion to zero.
Their reasoning is straightforward: “Considering the decrease in birth rates from 2019 to 2024 and applying probabilistic forecasting methods, by 2139, the world’s population will fall between 1.55 billion and 1.81 billion… By 2339, humanity will be extinct,” they assert.
Swanson and Tayman highlight that this extinction timeline is “only 314 years away.” One might think the estimate could have been rounded to 300 to incorporate some necessary uncertainty in the predictions, but the confidence displayed is noteworthy.
This may seem evident, but we cannot base projections for the next three centuries on just five years of data — especially from 2019 to 2024, a period marked by significant global events that likely impacted birth rates.
They employed three different methodologies: the Cohort Component Method, the Hamilton-Perry Method, and even the notable Espenshade-Tiemann Method. Despite this, the prediction remains flawed. However, it’s likely our audience has already deduced this.
For a moment, we questioned if the paper was intended as satire, aiming to mislead unsuspecting science journalists into reckless reporting. However, this seems unlikely as Mr. Swanson shared it at a conference in September. Following his presentation, “a robust discussion unfolded.“Oh, I can’t believe I was heading straight for that wall.
This might hint at a precursor to a new belief system, positioning the apocalypse conveniently three centuries away to avoid embarrassment if it doesn’t come to pass.
Oh, No More
The feedback reveals that US President Donald Trump referred to climate change as “a scam, deeming renewable energy sources like wind power as “pathetic.”
This came in the wake of a government report published in July, generated by “independent researchers,” attempting to justify ceasing climate change mitigation efforts. Carbon Brief reviewed the report and identified over 100 misleading statements. Across the pond, the British Conservative Party has pledged to repeal climate change legislation upon regaining power.
The feedback notes that renewable energy has surpassed coal to become the leading source of electricity by mid-2025, which doesn’t seem particularly pathetic. Meanwhile, we’re reminded of that memorable scene from Monty Python and the Holy Grail, where monks beat their heads in a rhythmic fashion. We can only assume that these individuals read Swanson and Tayman’s paper and concluded that 2339 was too far off.
A Simple Thank You
One of the hallmarks of being an excellent researcher is to explore questions that others haven’t considered. Consequently, a study was published in the journal Socius in September: “‘This Task Would Have Been Impossible‘… A study examining the length of acknowledgments in sociology books.” Yes, that’s correct. This is an entire sociology paper dedicated to the acknowledgments section of sociology literature.
The first takeaway, as noted by the authors, is that they are not the first to pose this question. Back in 1972, Kenneth Henry Mackintosh published a study titled Approval Patterns in Sociology. When I searched for feedback online, I was disappointed to find that it was over 300 pages long and, even if the table of contents was accurate, it lacked an acknowledgments section.
What of the new research? The researchers evaluated 411 books written by 317 sociologists and examined the acknowledgments (excluding 7 percent for rudeness). A significant statistical trend revealed that female authors wrote longer acknowledgments than their male counterparts.
Similarly, books released by university presses contained longer acknowledgments compared to those from other publishers. It remains unclear whether this means they were thanking more individuals or simply elaborating more extensively.
Naturally, I was curious about the acknowledgments section of this very paper, so I scrolled down. We were pleased to see it consisted of 218 words and included a heartfelt mention of “steadfast love and support.”
I would like to acknowledge the cats who prevented me from stepping on my laptop keyboard while writing this article.
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Small, isolated groups of the Common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) were present in the upper reaches of the Rhine River in southwestern Germany during the Middle Ages. New research indicates their presence during the Weichselian period, which spanned from approximately 47,000 to 31,000 years ago.
Radiocarbon dating indicates that the common hippopotamus was present in the middle Weichselian (Hippopotamus amphibius) in the upper reaches of the Rhine River, Germany. Image credit: Gemini AI.
Hippos likely made their way into Europe from Africa through multiple waves, involving various species within the Hippopotamus genus, including the common hippo, which currently inhabits only sub-Saharan Africa.
At their peak distribution in Europe, hippos were found from the British Isles in the northwest to the Iberian and Italian peninsulas in the south.
Their fossil record generally suggests they thrived in temperate climates, characterized by denser vegetation and abundant freshwater bodies.
Nevertheless, their origins and relation to today’s African hippos, as well as the precise timing of their extinction in central Europe, remain ambiguous.
“Previously, it was thought that the common hippopotamus extirpated from central Europe around 115,000 years ago with the conclusion of the last interglacial period,” stated co-senior author Professor Wilfried Rosendahl, general director of the Ries-Engelhorn Mannheim Museum.
“Our findings reveal that hippos inhabited the Upper Rhine Valley in southwestern Germany from about 47,000 to 31,000 years ago.”
For this study, Professor Rosendahl and his team analyzed 19 hippo specimens collected from a fossil site located in the rift valley upstream of the Rhine River.
“The Upper Rhine Rift Valley serves as a significant continental climate archive,” noted study co-author Dr. Ronnie Friedrich, a researcher at the Kurt Engelhorn Zentrum Archaeological Institute.
“Animal bones preserved for millennia in gravel and sand deposits provide invaluable data for scientific inquiry.”
“It’s astonishing how well-preserved the bones are,” he added.
“In many human remains, we’ve successfully obtained samples suitable for analysis, but such conditions are not to be expected after such extended periods.”
By analyzing ancient DNA, researchers discovered that Ice Age hippos in Europe share a close relationship with modern African hippos, being part of the same species.
Radiocarbon dating confirmed their existence during the mid-Weichselian temperate climatic phase.
Furthermore, extensive genome-wide analyses indicated very low genetic diversity, suggesting a small, isolated population in the upper Rhine region.
These results, in conjunction with additional fossil evidence, imply that the heat-loving hippos coexisted with cold-adapted species such as mammoths and woolly rhinos.
“This finding indicates that hippos did not vanish from central Europe at the end of the last interglacial period, as was previously thought,” stated study lead author Dr. Patrick Arnold, a researcher at the University of Potsdam.
“Thus, there’s a necessity to reevaluate other continental European hippo fossils typically considered to belong to the last interglacial period.”
“This study provides significant new insights that compellingly demonstrate that the Ice Age was not uniform everywhere but rather that regional specificities contributed to a complex picture,” remarked Professor Rosendahl.
“It would be intriguing and valuable to further examine other heat-loving animal species that have so far been linked to the last interglacial.”
This result was published in the journal on October 8, 2025, in Current Biology.
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Patrick Arnold et al. Ancient DNA and dating evidence show hippos dispersed into central Europe during the last ice age. Current Biology published online October 8, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.09.035
When the Australian Christian College, a secondary school situated in Melbourne’s Casey suburb, enforced a mobile phone ban, it was driven by numerous factors. There was an escalation in peer conflicts online, students had difficulty maintaining focus, and teachers noticed students engaging in “code-switching on notifications.”
Caleb Peterson, the school’s principal, stated, “When a phone is within arm’s reach, a student’s attention is only half in the room. We aimed to reclaim their full attention.”
Traditionally, cell phone bans in educational institutions necessitate that devices be stored in bags or lockers during class hours, with confiscation upon discovery to be retained in the school office until the day’s end. This month signifies the two-year mark since the introduction of phone bans across many Australian states. Victoria notably pioneered this move by prohibiting mobile phone usage in public primary and secondary schools back in 2020. By the close of the fourth term in 2023, Western Australia, Tasmania, New South Wales, and South Australia implemented similar measures, with Queensland limiting mobile phone use starting early 2024.
The announcement regarding the ban received endorsement from both parents and politicians, many of whom contended that: restricting access to phones enhances focus and minimizes distractions, though some experts expressed doubts concerning its efficacy. Two years later, what has truly transpired within Australia’s phone-free schools?
At a high school in New South Wales, students’ mobile phones are being stored in a container after being “checked in.” Photo: Stephen Safoir/AAP
“The effects have been evident,” Peterson remarked. “Post-ban, we’ve enhanced class beginnings, diminished disruptions, and improved class dynamics. Conflicts related to devices have reduced, and recess and lunch have transformed. We now see games, conversations, and positive interactions among students and staff. That’s the atmosphere young people seek.”
Research from South Australia—released earlier this March—indicated that 70% of educators noticed increased focus and engagement during learning periods, while 64% noted “a reduction in the rate of serious incidents” attributable to device usage.
Lucaya, a graduate from a western Sydney high school in 2024, views the ban as an “overreaction.” Having experienced both unrestricted cell phone use and the ban during her final year, she reports that students still find covert ways to use their devices.
“Teenagers regard cell phones as vital,” she asserts. “It provides them with a sense of safety and security. Denying them something that holds such significance will only exacerbate stress and anxiety, complicating matters for teachers and administrators.” [and] assisting staff in coping.”
Several students believe that the removal of cell phones from the classroom has curtailed their options to cheat. Photo: Mike Bowers/The Guardian
Nevertheless, anecdotal evidence from dialogues with students and staff across various public and private institutions suggests a general consensus that the ban has yielded positive outcomes. An anonymous high school teacher noted that simply having mobile phones present in classrooms can prove distracting, even if not actively used. “They simply offer opportunities,” she commented. “You can distinctly notice the difference in their absence.”
Many students believe the ban has created a more equitable learning environment. Amy, a Year 11 student at a public high school in Sydney’s west, remarked that eliminating mobile phones in classrooms has curtailed misbehavior while also fostering social connections for those who spend excess time online.
“Students [feel more at ease] “It fosters a safe environment where we don’t have to stress about people sharing pictures of us,” she stated.
Mariam, a Year 11 student at a public high school in Sydney’s south, felt that the phone ban was “unjust” and claimed that teachers occasionally used it to exert authority, but admitted it positively influenced learning outcomes. Aisha, a Year 11 student from a private Islamic school in Sydney’s west, noted that the phone ban has helped her “maintain attention longer and perform better academically.”
Dr. Tony Mordini, principal of Melbourne High School, a public selective institution, has observed this heightened attention firsthand. His school adopted a no-phone policy in January 2020, following guidelines from the Victorian Department of Education.
“From a professional perspective, this ban has clearly had a beneficial impact,” he stated. “Students exhibit increased focus during lessons and are less sidetracked by online distractions. Furthermore, the absence of phones has significantly curtailed opportunities for cyberbullying and harassment in classrooms.”
However, Mordini acknowledges that the ban also curtails certain student opportunities.
“It’s crucial to recognize what we’ve surrendered,” he remarks. “Mobile phones can serve as powerful educational tools, capable of storing extensive content, assisting with research, capturing photographs, creating videos, and hosting valuable applications. Lacking a mobile phone necessitates reliance on the traditional resources and devices provided by the school.”
Professor Neil Selwyn from Monash University’s School of Education, Culture, and Society, stated, “We’ve been informed that banning phones will curb cyberbullying, enhance concentration in class, and reduce the need for teachers to discipline for phone misuse.” Some politicians promised to boost student learning and mental health, but a significant impetus behind these bans was their popularity.
He suggested that schools might serve as a stand-in for wider concerns about children and their device usage, but questions whether schools serve as the optimal solution.
“Young people spend a significant amount of time outside school, thus parents and families must engage in discussions on regulating their children’s device usage at home,” he emphasizes. “Regrettably, this isn’t a priority for most policymakers, so enacting phone bans in schools feels like an easy way to address the broader issue of excessive digital device use.”
Mr. Selwyn indicated that Australia’s phone ban was not implemented “with the intent of thoroughly investigating its effectiveness” and termed specific research into this field as “not conclusive or particularly rigorous.”
He further asserted that recent government data from New South Wales and South Australia is “not particularly illuminating.”
“The critical concern remains how these bans will affect us over time,” he noted. “Claims suggesting these bans suddenly result in dramatic improvements may sound politically appealing, but the tangible impact of these bans necessitates more comprehensive and ongoing investigation.
“We must go beyond merely asking principals if they believe student learning has enhanced. We need to enter classrooms and engage students and teachers about their varied experiences with the ban, and the potential benefits they foresee moving forward.”
He referenced a recent UK study of 30 schools and over 1,200 students which concluded that “students in schools devoid of smartphones showed no notable differences in mental health, sleep, academic performance in English or mathematics, or even disruptive behavior in class.”
“Phone bans are not a silver bullet, but they serve as an important tool,” Peterson comments. Photo: Dan Peled/AAP
“While some studies imply a connection between phone bans and improved academic performance, they are not deemed to provide reliable evidence of direct causation,” he states. “It would be imprudent to assume a phone ban would singularly and significantly rectify these issues.”
Peterson takes care not to “exaggerate” the ban’s implications but asserts that it aims to “foster conditions conducive to successful learning and friendships.” Despite exempting medical management, disability support, or assistive translation applications, he contends that academic flow is enhanced, conflict is reduced, and social unity is improved. His school’s “health metrics” indicate “lessened psychological distress.”
“Phone bans are not a panacea,” he notes. “However, they are a valuable resource, particularly when paired with digital citizenship, mental health advocacy, and positive playground initiatives.”
Peterson conveyed that numerous students suggested the ban offers them a “reprieve.”
“Phone bans have now simply become the norm, with real and modest benefits that are genuinely worthwhile.”
Parkinson’s disease is currently the fastest-growing neurological disorder in the United States; currently, 90,000 individuals have been diagnosed—a staggering 50% increase since the mid-1980s. The situation mirrors global trends, with an expected 25 million diagnoses by 2050, effectively doubled compared to today’s figures.
In summary, this is a significant issue. However, these numbers aren’t entirely surprising, considering longer life spans and growing populations. What is truly alarming, and frankly, unsettling, is how unprepared we are for this impending wave.
The available treatments are limited. Diagnostic tools are inadequate. Honestly, we still don’t really understand what causes Parkinson’s disease.
Yet, before you plunge into the depths of neurodegenerative despair, there is hope. Scientists worldwide are actively working to change the narrative surrounding Parkinson’s.
In particular, researchers are revolutionizing how we can detect Parkinson’s disease. Armed with cutting-edge technologies, AI, and a fundamentally evolving understanding of disease manifestation throughout the body, they’re aiming to detect it decades before any symptoms present themselves, rather than years.
Presently, there is no single definitive test for Parkinson’s disease. Instead, doctors diagnose it based on physical symptoms like tremors, slow movement, and muscle stiffness, often requiring assessments of tasks such as writing and speaking.
“Today’s neurodegenerative disease is what cancer used to be 50 years ago,” states Professor Hermona Solek, a leading researcher in next-generation diagnostic tools. “We often finalize a diagnosis only when all involved nerve cells are already dead, leaving us unable to properly treat the patient.”
But what if there were a way to diagnose Parkinson’s disease before it could do any significant harm? What if it could be caught on its way, before brain cells face irreversible damage?
This is no longer just a theory. In fact, there are multiple methods emerging.
AI Desk Accessories
Not all breakthroughs in diagnostics require a blood sample; some new innovations could be found right on your desk.
At the University of California, Los Angeles, Professor Junchen‘s lab claims to have developed a diagnostic pen that detects Parkinson’s disease by analyzing your writing.
This unique pen’s soft tip is crafted from an innovative magnetoelastic material that alters the magnetic field in response to pressure or bending—a phenomenon previously known in rigid metals but now applied to soft polymers, creating a new type of highly sensitive and user-friendly sensor.
“Utilizing magnetoelastic effects with soft materials represents a new operational mechanism,” Chen explains. “It can translate small biomechanical pressures, like arterial vibrations, into high-fidelity electrical signals.”
The pen, filled with magnetized ink, captures movements occurring both on paper and in the air, subsequently sending this data to a computer. Here, AI models analyze specific patterns linked to Parkinson’s motor symptoms.
Smart pens can be especially beneficial in countries where affordable diagnostic tools are needed—UCLA Jun Chen Lab
In a pilot study, the system successfully distinguished individuals with Parkinson’s disease from healthy controls with over 96% accuracy. Even better, Chen believes this pen can be mass-produced for merely $5 (£3.70).
“We have already filed for a patent and aim to commercialize this pen,” Chen states. “Simultaneously, we are working on optimizing it to improve our diagnostics’ accuracy.”
If handwriting isn’t your preferred method, Chen’s team has you covered. They’ve also created a Smart Keyboard utilizing the same principles.
This keyboard tracks subtle changes in pressure and rhythm as users type—often imperceptible to the naked eye—and relays that information to machine learning algorithms.
Initial tests indicate that it can identify characteristic motor abnormalities in Parkinson’s disease, and the team is combining this technology with a mobile app for continuous remote monitoring.
Together, these intelligent desk tools offer a glimpse into what Chen describes as the “personalized, predictive, preventive, participatory” future of Parkinson’s healthcare; a future where diagnosis is as simple as taking notes or sending emails.
This portable, soft keyboard employs magnetic elasticity to detect Parkinson’s disease and sends results to your smartphone—UCLA Jun Chen Lab
Parkinson’s Eye Test Detects Changes Two Decades in Advance
Picture diagnosing Parkinson’s disease during a routine eye exam, potentially decades before symptoms manifest. This is the promise of new non-invasive techniques developed by Victoria Soto Linan and her colleague at Laval University in Canada, using an established eye test known as electroretinography (ERG).
According to Soto Linan, this eye test serves as a “window to the brain,” as it’s part of the central nervous system. Issues like blurred vision and diminished contrast sensitivity manifest long before the well-known symptoms of tremors and stiffness.
The Soto Linan team collected data on how the retina responds to light flashes from both mice engineered to develop Parkinson-like symptoms and newly diagnosed human patients.
They identified unique retinal signals demonstrating “sick signatures,” particularly in women. Crucially, this weakened signal appeared in the mice prior to any behavioral disease signs.
This leads Soto Linan to believe that this eye test could detect Parkinson’s as much as 20 years before symptoms arise.
Read more:
And unlike other early diagnostic methods, this one is already well ahead of the game.
“ERGs are now employed in clinics to diagnose eye diseases,” she explains. “They also have the major advantage of being non-invasive.”
The patient sits before a dome that flashes lights, capturing how the retina responds. This could easily be integrated into a few minutes of your annual vision test.
The team is currently focusing on enhancing the testing process, with hopes of linking it to machine learning algorithms that will accelerate results, perhaps even making them portable to smartphones.
While the research is still in its early stages, its potential ramifications are enormous. As Soto Linan states, “This tool could identify at-risk individuals up to 20 years before symptoms emerge. Imagine how much less damage could be done by then.”
“Even if there is no treatment available, early intervention can often improve the quality of life in the long run.”
Detecting Parkinson’s Through Vocal Patterns
Can your voice indicate Parkinson’s disease before your physical body does? Recently, preprint research has explored whether AI can identify Parkinson’s simply by analyzing a person’s speech.
Around 90% of individuals with Parkinson’s develop motor speech disorders known as dysarthria, which can lead to issues like irregular pitch and breath control.
Globally, over 8.5 million individuals live with Parkinson’s disease—Getty
These vocal changes often arise earlier than more noticeable motor symptoms like tremors, thus serving as promising early indicators.
The research team collected brief audio recordings from 31 to 195 individuals, which included 33 individuals with the disease. Their data served to train four different AI models to recognize disease-related vocal patterns. When tested on new recordings from the same participants, the models identified Parkinson’s with an accuracy exceeding 90%.
These changes are subtle and occur early, and researchers suggest that speech-based assessments could provide low-cost, non-invasive diagnostic options.
Blood Tests for Diagnosing Parkinson’s
In April 2025, SOREQ and her colleagues—including her son—announced a groundbreaking new study.
The findings were surprising; they revealed a simple and inexpensive blood test utilizing PCR technology (remember this from COVID-19?) that can accurately detect Parkinson’s disease a few years prior to symptom onset.
This test functions by measuring the ratio between two markers that SOREQ and her team discovered in human blood.
Specifically, individuals with Parkinson’s exhibit abnormally high levels of certain molecules known as transfer RNA (tRNA) fragments, identifiable by a specific repeating pattern called conserved sequence motifs.
A new blood test can detect early Parkinson’s by analyzing the unique imbalance of small RNA molecules in your blood—Credit: Getty
Simultaneously, the team uncovered reduced levels of tRNA associated with mitochondria (the “powerhouses” of cells, responsible for producing most of your body’s energy) in the blood of Parkinson’s patients.
“We proposed that if there’s an increase in one sequence and a decrease in another, we could calculate the ratio and identify a probable diagnosis,” says Soreq.
If this ratio exceeds a specific threshold, it strongly indicates a diagnosis.
According to SOREQ, a traditional diagnosis of Parkinson’s can cost up to $6,000 (£4,400). The two PCR tests required for their method? Only $80 (£60).
“This is monumental. It makes a substantial difference,” she states. With some luck, the team anticipates this will become widely available within the next decade, potentially providing a crucial lifeline for patients globally.
Approximately 12,000 years ago, during the Pleistocene-Chlorocene transition, humans navigated a network of seasonal waters in Northern Arabia, marking significant locations with camels, ibex, wild equids, gazelles, and monumental rock carvings of Auloc, as well as establishing access routes.
Jebel Arnaan rock art panel. Image credit: Mariaguanine.
As part of the Green Arabia Project, archaeologist Michael Petraglia from Griffith University and his team have uncovered over 60 rock art panels featuring 176 sculptures in three previously unexplored locations.
The sculptures predominantly illustrate camels, ibex, equids, gazelles, and aurochs, comprising 130 life-size and naturalistic figures, with heights exceeding 3 meters and 2 meters.
This sculptural activity occurred between 12,800 and 11,400 years ago, a time when seasonal water bodies re-emerged following a period of severe aridity.
These water sources, identified through sediment analysis, facilitated early human migration into the interior desert and offered rare survival opportunities.
“These large-scale sculptures are not just rock art; they likely represent assertions of existence, access, and cultural identity,” noted Dr. Maria Guanine, an archaeologist at the Max Planck Institute.
“Rock art signifies water sources and movement routes, potentially indicating territorial rights and intergenerational memory,” added Dr. Seri Shipton, an archaeologist at the University of London.
In contrast to previously known sites where sculptures were hidden in crevices, the Jebel Mleiha and Jebel Arnaan panels were carved on the face of a towering 39-meter cliff, making them visually dominant.
One panel required ancient artists to ascend narrow ledges to create their work, emphasizing the effort and significance attributed to the imagery.
Various artifacts, including Levantine-style Erkiam, Hellwan stone points, green pigments, and dental beads, indicate extensive connections to pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN) populations in the Levant.
Nevertheless, the size, content, and arrangement of these Arabian sculptures distinguish them from others.
“This unique form of symbolic representation reflects a distinct cultural identity evolved to thrive in harsh, arid environments,” stated Dr. Faisal Al Ghibrien, a heritage researcher at the Saudi Ministry of Culture.
“The project’s interdisciplinary approach aims to bridge significant gaps in the Northern Arabian archaeological record between the last Glacial Maximum and the Holocene, shedding light on the resilience and innovation of early desert communities,” remarked Dr. Petraglia.
The team’s paper has been published in the journal Nature Communications.
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M. Guanine et al. 2025. Monumental rock art indicates that humans thrived in the Arabian desert during the Pleistocene and Holocene transitions. Nature Communications 16, 8249; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-63417-y
Dyson’s profits have been nearly halfway through a challenging year, during which the home appliance company, established by billionaire Sir James Dyson, reduced over a quarter of its UK workforce.
Since relocating to Singapore in 2019, Dyson has reported selling over 20 million products, emphasizing its shift towards being “proof of the future.”
Nonetheless, filings in Singapore reveal a revenue drop of more than £500 million, bringing it down to £6.5 billion.
The slowing economic growth and reduced consumer confidence have been intensified by one-off challenges, including the pound’s strength against the Asian currencies where many of its products are sold.
The bagless vacuum cleaner and hand dryer segments also faced one-off expenses related to global restructuring, leading to about 1,000 job cuts in the UK.
Consequently, pre-tax profits dipped 47% to £561 million in 2024.
Hanno Kirner, the company’s CEO, described 2024 as a “tough but essential year” for Dyson. The annual dividends paid to the family holding entity have seen significant reductions.
Distributions to Weybourne Holdings, which includes the Dyson family’s rapidly expanding investment in farmland and agriculture, fell from £700 million to £200 million in 2024.
A memo attached to the accounts indicated that Dyson finalized payments with a dividend of £225 million in January and February this year.
Founded in Malmesbury, Wiltshire, in 1991, most Dyson products are manufactured abroad; however, the majority of research, development, and design occur at the UK facility.
Despite criticism over moving the company to Singapore, particularly given his support for Brexit, Dyson stated that the UK would remain the primary hub for research and development.
The 78-year-old entrepreneur is among the largest landowners in the UK, having heavily invested in agriculture and advanced food production; two of his children, Jacob and Sam, are executives at Dyson Holdings. All three are categorized as “permanent residents” of Singapore in corporate filings.
The entrepreneur and his family ranked fourth on the 2025 Sunday Times Rich List, with a wealth estimated at £20.8 billion.
In the results statement, Dyson highlighted a new product launched in 2024, featuring a “complete reinvention of hair dryers” along with hair care products using chitosan, a plant-derived polymer from oyster mushrooms.
He remarked: “We are incredibly excited for the launch after 2025. This will introduce significant innovation into homes, including a total redesign of hair dryers and vacuum cleaner models, with new wet and dry cleaning technologies, robotics, and purification systems.”
This year saw the release of the “world’s slimmest vacuum,” boasting a diameter of 38mm.
In 2019, the company abandoned its plans to create an electric vehicle.
A supernova may have directed cosmic rays towards Earth
Muratart/Shutterstock
Approximately 10 million years ago, a volatile star might have unleashed cosmic rays toward Earth, and astronomers are currently narrowing down the potential culprits behind this cosmic event.
Earlier this year, Dominique Koll of Helmholtz Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf and his colleagues in Germany discovered a spike in radioactive beryllium trapped in five kilometers of sediment in the Pacific Ocean, dating back over 10 million years. This form of beryllium is generated exclusively when cosmic rays collide with the Earth’s atmosphere, leading Koll and his team to hypothesize that a supernova explosion might be the origin of this event.
Nonetheless, alternative explanations cannot be dismissed. These include the Sun’s magnetic influence on Earth at that time and the possibility of ocean currents from Earth’s poles contributing to beryllium deposition, areas where cosmic rays and beryllium production are typically more intense.
Now, Efrem Maconi from the University of Vienna and his team have pinpointed two likely supernova candidates using data obtained from the Gaia space telescope.
By examining the trajectories of roughly 2,700 stars near our Sun over the past 20 million years and assessing their potential to produce supernovae, Macconi and his colleagues determined that there is a 70% probability of such events occurring among these star clusters.
Researchers have identified two possible progenitors for the explosion. The most probable one, located about 200 light years away, is a relatively young cluster named ASCC 20, while the cluster OCSN 61, situated further away, is also a potential source.
Additional support for the supernova theory is that 10 million years ago, our solar system was engulfed in a bustling region of the galaxy, surrounded by extensive clouds of gas, dust, and stars known as the Radcliffe waves.
“This is a promising indication that warrants further investigation,” says Koll. “If [Maconi] were to claim we could fully eliminate this possibility, I would happily accept that as a solid conclusion. However, in this instance, it certainly remains intriguing.”
Further modeling of stellar movements will be necessary to ascertain whether these stars indeed played a role, yet this hypothesis aligns well with other findings in Earth’s geological history. Unlike cosmic rays that travel close to the speed of light, dust moves much slower, making it plausible that beryllium spikes resulted from cosmic rays from a supernova initially impacting Earth.
World Capital of Astronomy: Chile
Explore the astronomical wonders of Chile. Visit some of the most cutting-edge observatories and gaze at the stunning starry skies beneath some of the clearest atmospheres on Earth.
Archaeologists have unearthed two Neanderthal track sites across various regions in Europe. At Monte Clerigo, approximately 78,000 years ago, three distinct trackways illustrate how Neanderthals traversed the dune landscape. This behavior implies advanced route planning, as the dune environment may have been conducive for ambush hunting and stalking prey. Additionally, a solitary footprint found at the Praia do Telheiro site indicates the presence of Neanderthals in the Dune Ecosystem 82,000 years ago.
Following guidance, a reconfiguration scenario for Monte Clérigo TrackSite generated by AI tools. Image credit: JM Galán/ai.
“Footprints provide a snapshot of a specific moment, capturing events such as group movements, tracking, and interactions with particular landscapes.”
“The footprints reveal how Neanderthals utilized their environment, exploring coastal areas, forests, sand dunes, and riverbanks.
Neanderthal footprints have been identified at two distinct locations.
At Monte Clerrigo, five tracks and 26 footprints were left by both adults and children over a year old on the steep slopes of coastal sand dunes.
At Praia do Telheiro, isolated footprints were found, likely made by teenagers or adult women, alongside bird tracks typical for coastal and rocky environments.
“The quantity, size, and arrangement of footprints enable us to deduce the minimum number of individuals present, their age ranges (children, adolescents, adults), and even the specific activities (like a hunting party),” noted the researcher.
“Child and baby footprints, which seldom separate from archaeological traces, are identifiable due to their smaller size, offering insights into their social structure.”
“These footprints provide a unique perspective on daily life, serving as a snapshot from tens of thousands of years ago.”
A general view of the main truck site with the human trackway on the north cliffs of Monte Crerigo Beach, Portugal. Image credit: de Carvalho et al. , doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-06089-4.
The analyzed footprints reveal exercise strategies adapted to the landscape, suggesting planned routes, proximity to living areas, potential hunting activities, and coexistence with other species.
For instance, one track shows evidence of interactions with human footprints alongside newly formed deer tracks, supporting theories of pursuit or ambush tactics in the dune environment.
The findings confirm that Neanderthals primarily consumed deer, horses, and marine resources, exhibiting a varied dietary strategy.
“The consistent presence of these mammalian species underscores their role as reliable food sources, regardless of the varying environments occupied by Neanderthals,” stated the scientists.
“Additionally, the Neanderthal diet also included species from nearby coastal habitats, showing an extensive foraging strategy that utilized local biodiversity.”
The team’s research paper was published on July 3rd in Scientific Reports.
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Cn de Carvalho et al. 2025. The Neanderthal coast and the first Portuguese human track site. Sci Rep 15, 23785; doi:10.1038/s41598-025-06089-4
A single blood test can unveil the biological ages of 11 distinct organs and systems in the body, potentially indicating disease risks in those areas.
“Our objective is to enhance care using one test that reflects not just the overall biological age, but identifies which system is primarily influencing it,” explains Raghav Sehgal from Yale University. “This way, individuals can receive tailored lifestyle or treatment recommendations based on their profiles.”
To evaluate an individual’s lifespan and health risks, biological age serves as an indicator of the rate at which their body ages, contrasting this with chronological age, according to Morgan Levine at Altos Labs in California. Researchers have designed an epigenetic watch to assess DNA methylation, which involves the addition or removal of chemical tags that toggle genes on and off.
While it’s convenient, its accuracy is questioned by Levine. Different organs and systems age at varied rates, heavily influenced by genetics and medical history, she highlights.
“There is a common belief that within an individual, organs and systems can be distinct.” Vadim Gladyshev from Harvard University, who did not partake in the research, notes. “Some brains may exhibit older characteristics, while kidneys may age differently compared to other organs.”
Thus, Sehgal, Levine, and their colleagues embarked on creating methylation tests that target aging states in various body parts. Initially, they assessed physical measurements, including blood tests, medical histories, and grip strength from around 7,500 individuals involved in two major research programs, namely the Health and Retirement Study—a database of U.S. residents over 50 and some U.S. families contributing DNA for genomic research.
Researchers searched for clear connections between age-related conditions, encompassing immune, inflammatory, hematological, musculoskeletal, hormonal, and metabolic systems along with five key organs linked to the heart, lungs, kidneys, liver, and brain. They then correlated these findings with DNA methylation patterns, trained computer models to recognize those patterns, calculated the biological age of each system, and generated an overall biological age.
After training their models, the team tested it on blood samples from another 8,125 individuals whose data originated from four other studies. They discovered, for instance, that the model’s heart score could predict heart disease, brain scores were associated with cognitive decline, and musculoskeletal scores indicated whether individuals were likely to have arthritis-like conditions.
Comparing their findings with established epigenetic clocks, the researchers noted that organ-specific scores demonstrated strong accuracy, with many yielding excellent results. “It’s quite remarkable that a single factor measured through a blood test can effectively estimate aging across multiple systems,” remarks Levine.
Daniel Belsky from Columbia University in New York describes the epigenetic clock as representing “significant” advancements in aging research. “This marks the initial foray into developing interpretable measures of biological aging that allow for simultaneous analysis of multiple systems, guiding back to specific tissues or organs,” he explains. “It provides a pathway for reverse-engineering from aggregate measurements to pinpoint where health issues may emerge.”
Nonetheless, he cautions that this method might deviate from the overarching objectives of the field. “The essence of genetic science and the potential of aging biology resides in perceiving humans as coherent systems where we seek to identify the weakest links to bolster and avert failures,” Belsky asserts. “Maintaining this integrated perspective is crucial.”
Crucially, Levine clarifies that this test is not intended for diagnostic purposes but for risk assessment. “All assessments, including those in our studies, aim to provide estimates and insights into the inner workings of our bodies,” she emphasizes. “Future research should yield stronger and more precise estimates of aging by integrating various approaches, capturing the complexity and diversity of the aging process.”
Gladyshev envisions that this research could lead to personalized disease prevention strategies. “This represents the core implication of this series of studies,” Belsky adds, while emphasizing the need for further investigation. “We’re not quite there yet.”
The immense black hole at the center of Radio Quasar RACS J032021.44-352104.1 (shortened to RACS J0320-35) is currently expanding at one of the fastest rates ever recorded.
Artist illustrations and x-ray images from Chandra for Racs J0320-35. Image credits: NASA/CXC/INAF-BRERA/IGHINA et al. / SAO / M. WEISS / N. WOLK.
The black hole residing in RACS J0320-35 has a mass approximately 1 billion times greater than that of the sun.
This system is situated about 12.8 billion light-years away from Earth, meaning astronomers are observing it as it existed just 920 million years after the universe’s inception.
It emits more X-rays than any other black hole identified in the universe’s first billion years.
Black holes are the driving force behind what scientists refer to as quasars.
This luminous giant’s energy is fueled by the significant amount of material that falls into the black hole.
The same research team discovered this black hole two years prior, but further observations from Chandra were required in 2023 to gain more insights.
Data from X-ray observations suggests that this black hole is expanding at a rate that exceeds the typical limits for such objects.
“It was somewhat surprising to observe such a dramatic growth in this black hole,” commented Dr. Luca Idina, an astronomer at the Harvard & Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
As material is drawn towards the black hole, it heats up and generates intense radiation across a wide spectrum, including X-rays and optical light. This radiation creates pressure on the infalling material.
Once the falling speed reaches a critical threshold, the radiation pressure counterbalances the black hole’s gravity, making it usually impossible for material to fall inward more rapidly. This upper limit is known as the Eddington limit.
Researchers believe that black holes growing slower than the Eddington limit must originate with solar masses exceeding 10,000, allowing them to achieve a mass of 1 billion solar masses in the early universe.
Such massive black holes may originate from unique processes, often linked to incredibly dense clouds of gas that contain heavier elements than helium.
Interestingly, RACS J0320-35 is expanding at a remarkable speed, estimated to be 2.4 times greater than the Eddington limit, indicating that its formation may have followed a more typical path, beginning with a mass of less than 100 solar masses resulting from massive star explosions.
“By determining a black hole’s mass and growth rate, we can infer its initial size,” said Dr. Alberto Moretti, an astronomer at INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera.
“This calculation permits us to evaluate various theories regarding the formation of black holes.”
To investigate how rapidly this black hole is growing (at rates between 300 and 3,000 solar masses per year), researchers compared the theoretical model with Chandra’s X-ray spectra, assessing the X-rays emitted at various energy levels.
The findings indicated that Chandra’s spectrum closely matched their expectations based on a model for black holes developing beyond the Eddington limit.
Supporting data from optical and infrared observations further corroborates the conclusion that this black hole is accumulating mass faster than the Eddington limit permits.
“How did the universe generate the first generation of black holes?” mused Dr. Thomas Connor, an astronomer at the Harvard & Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
“This is one of the most pressing questions in astrophysics, and this singular object propels our quest for answers.”
Moreover, this research also sheds light on the origins of the jets of particles emitted by some black holes that approach the speed of light, as observed in RACS J0320-35.
“Jets like these are uncommon in quasars, suggesting that the accelerated growth of black holes may play a role in the formation of these jets,” the author remarked.
Their paper is set to be published in the Astrophysical Journal.
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Luca Idina et al. 2025. X-ray investigation of the possibility of Super Eddington accretion in a wireless loudsal of Z = 6.13. apjl 990, L56; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/aded0a
Collection of Stone Tools from Milovice IV Archaeological Site
Martin Novak
The discovered series of stone tools in the Czech Republic appears to belong to hunter-gatherers who roamed the area roughly 30,000 years ago. Among the 29 artifacts, which include blades and points used for hunting, skinning, and cutting wood, researchers gain rare insights into the daily lives of ancient hunters, as noted by Dominik Chlachula from the Chekoa Academy of Sciences in Brno.
The investigation began in 2009 when a village road collapsed in the Pavlovskövurky Mountains, revealing an old cellar. By 2021, archaeologists uncovered a deeper site known as Mirovice IV, which yielded charcoal dating back approximately 29,550-30,550 years. Here, researchers found horse and reindeer bones, along with a collection of stone tools that seemed to have been preserved in leather pouches over time, although the material has since decayed.
The tools exhibited significant wear, according to Chlachula. Most blades showed signs of extensive cutting, while several had holes near the handle. Some points displayed fractures or microscopic damage, indicating their use as spear or arrow tips.
Certain pieces appear to have been repurposed from older tools, hinting at the scarcity of quality stones or indicating that hunters aimed to conserve their resources, he adds.
Further examinations revealed that around two-thirds of the tools were made from glacial sediment stones originating from at least 130 kilometers away in the north, a considerable distance, particularly when traversing winding routes. The remaining tools seemed to come from western Slovakia, roughly 100 kilometers southeast. It’s still uncertain whether the owner procured the stones directly or through trade networks.
Many of the artifacts were too damaged to be usable, Chlachula explains. Nevertheless, hunters may have chosen to keep them for their sentimental value.
Neanderthals, Ancient Humans, Cave Art: France
Join new scientist Kate Douglas as she embarks on an enchanting voyage through time, exploring significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Rocky, Earth-sized planets in our Milky Way may be surrounded by atmospheres, with new research indicating a strong possibility of liquid water on their surfaces, supporting the potential for life.
Two separate papers, to be released on Monday in the Astrophysical Journal Letters, focus on the TRAPPIST-1 system, which contains seven rocky planets orbiting a single star. Both studies present initial findings from NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope, suggesting that one planet, TRAPPIST-1e, could possess a nitrogen-rich atmosphere, although further research is necessary to confirm this.
These findings represent significant progress in the search for extraterrestrial life both within our solar system and beyond.
Recently, NASA revealed that rock samples from Mars may harbor evidence of ancient microorganisms. Presently, Mars has a thin atmosphere made primarily of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and argon, but billions of years ago, it likely possessed a much thicker atmosphere that allowed liquid water to exist on its surface.
For quite some time, scientists have maintained that water is a crucial element for life.
For a planet or moon to retain water in liquid form, it must have an atmosphere that prevents instant evaporation into space. This makes the search for exoplanet atmospheres one of the most exciting and promising areas of astronomical research.
“Ultimately, our goal is to identify planets that can support life,” stated Ryan McDonald, an exoplanet astronomer at St Andrews University, Scotland, and co-author of both studies. “To do this, we first need to identify whether these planets have atmospheres.”
The TRAPPIST-1 system is located 40 light-years from Earth and has been extensively studied since its discovery in 2016, as some of its planets may have conditions suitable for extraterrestrial life.
Specifically, TRAPPIST-1e is thought to reside in the so-called “habitable zone,” where liquid water could be present on the surface—not too close to the star to be scorching hot and not too far to freeze.
In a recent study, astronomers utilized NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope to observe four “transits” of TRAPPIST-1e, which occur when the planet passes in front of its star. While the telescope did not directly detect the planet’s atmosphere, it measured how light passing through the atmosphere was absorbed, if one is present.
Like a prism, light can be split into different color bands across the spectrum, and variations in how particular colors are filtered or absorbed can help identify the presence of specific atoms or gas molecules.
For instance, if a specific color is absorbed, it may indicate a high concentration of carbon dioxide, while other color changes could suggest the presence of hydrogen, oxygen, methane, or nitrogen.
“If no color variation is present, the planet is likely just a barren rock,” McDonald noted. “Barren rocks won’t show any color changes in response to light.”
During the four transits, researchers found no signs of a hydrogen-rich atmosphere surrounding TRAPPIST-1e, nor did they observe any indications of a carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere. However, observations from the Webb telescope suggest a potential nitrogen-rich atmosphere.
“This is an exciting development that will significantly narrow down the prospects for a more Earth-like atmosphere,” remarked Caroline Piaulett Graeb, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Chicago who was not involved in the new research.
Earth’s atmosphere is composed of a significant amount of nitrogen gas. Titan, one of Saturn’s moons, has an atmosphere primarily made of nitrogen and is believed by NASA to harbor a vast underground sea. Although it may be habitable, the methane-rich environment of the moon differs greatly from conditions on Earth.
Piaulet-Ghorayeb, the lead author of a study published last month in the Astrophysical Journal, focused on another planet in the TRAPPIST-1 system, TRAPPIST-1d. This planet is also located within the habitable zone, but the study found no evidence of common Earth-like molecules such as water, carbon dioxide, or methane.
Studying these distant worlds poses significant challenges.
The TRAPPIST-1 star is small and exceptionally active, producing considerable background noise that complicates researchers’ efforts. McDonald and his team dedicated over a year to analyzing data from the Webb telescope in order to isolate and identify chemical signatures from TRAPPIST-1e and its star.
To confirm the presence of an atmosphere, McDonald and his colleagues plan to observe TRAPPIST-1e during an additional 15 transits over the coming years.
They are also looking into three other planets, TRAPPIST-1f, TRAPPIST-1g, and TRAPPIST-1h, which are located further out in the system.
This research aims to bring scientists closer to answering some of the most persistent questions regarding exoplanets and the existence of life.
“We have not yet reliably confirmed the atmosphere of rocky planets outside our solar system, but it opens the door to studying temperate planets,” said Piaulett-Ghorayeb. “However, there is still much to explore.”
Utilizing data gathered by NSF’s Gemini South Telescope and NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope, astronomers have identified methane signatures (CH4), water (H2O), and silane (SiH4) in the cold brown dwarf gas WISEA J153429.75-104303.3 (shortened to W1534). Silanes are predicted to act as significant reservoirs of silicon, the element responsible for the large clouds of gas that surround giant worlds, but their presence had remained undetected until now, masked by the development of deep silicate clouds in the observable atmosphere.
This artist’s illustration depicts a brown dwarf with an atmosphere filled with gas and dust clouds. Image credits: Noirlab/NSF/Aura/R. Proctor.
The W1534, referred to as the accident, is situated approximately 50 light years from Earth in the Libra constellation.
This brown dwarf was likely formed between 100 and 120 billion years ago and ranks among the oldest brown dwarfs discovered to date.
First identified in 2020 by citizen scientists participating in the Backyard Worlds: Planet 9 Citizen Science Project, its unusual light profile captivated astronomers.
Using two of the world’s most advanced terrestrial and space-based telescopes, astronomers examined its atmosphere to analyze its properties and composition.
The survey commenced with NSF’s Noirlab Astronomer Sandy Leggett capturing near-infrared images of W1534 with a Gemini South telescope in Chile, part of the International Gemini Observatory.
This initial work laid the groundwork for further explorations using Webb, guided by Noirlab Astronomer Aaron Meisner.
“W1534 is quite faint, and Gemini South is the only ground-based telescope capable of detecting it,” Dr. Meisner stated.
“The Gemini discovery paved the way for Webb’s observations by revealing the deeper atmospheric layers of this mysterious object and enabling us to determine the exposure time necessary to gather useful near-infrared data on its composition.”
Within W1534’s atmosphere, the team uncovered the crucial signature of silane, a compound formed from silicon and four hydrogen atoms.
Planetary scientists have long theorized the existence of this molecule within gas giants, attributing potential significance to its role in cloud formation within the atmosphere.
Despite extensive searches, its atmospheric presence has remained elusive in our solar system’s gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn, although thousands of studies on brown dwarfs and gas giants orbiting other stars have occurred.
This marks the first discovery of silanes in any brown dwarf, exoplanet, or solar system object.
The absence of this molecule in all but one singular brown dwarf suggests intriguing insights into the chemistry occurring in such an ancient environment.
“Often, it is these extreme objects that help us understand the average,” remarked Dr. Jackie Faherty, a researcher at the American Museum of Natural History.
The presence of silanes in W1534’s atmosphere implies that in very ancient objects, silicon is capable of bonding with hydrogen to form lighter molecules that can ascend to the upper layers of a gas giant’s atmosphere.
In contrast, more recently formed objects, such as Jupiter and Saturn, result in silicon bonding with readily available oxygen, producing heavier molecules that settle deeper into the atmospheric layers.
The evidence gleaned from W1534’s atmosphere further validates astronomers’ comprehension of gas giant cloud formation and sheds light on how primitive conditions influence atmospheric composition.
Moreover, it indicates that worlds formed billions of years ago display characteristics distinctly different from those formed during the early solar system.
“The formation and detection of silanes highlight an essential relationship among composition, cloud formation, and atmospheric mingling in cold brown dwarfs and planetary atmospheres,” the authors concluded.
Exciting indications suggest that one of the planets in the TRAPPIST-1 star system, located around 40 light-years away, may have an atmosphere suitable for life. However, scientists aim to obtain 15 additional images to confirm this.
TRAPPIST-1 is a small red star hosting at least seven planets. Discovered in 2016, it has become a focal point for astronomers hunting for extraterrestrial life, as three of its planets lie within the Goldilocks Zone, where liquid water can exist.
Ryan McDonald from St Andrews University, UK, states that the discovery of TRAPPIST-1 stirred considerable excitement among astronomers. However, subsequent imaging of three exoplanets—two of which are in the Goldilocks zone—did not identify any atmospheres, which was a letdown. Yet, McDonald and his team have maintained a focus on TRAPPIST-1e, situated at the center of this zone, and now hold a positive outlook.
In 2023, McDonald and colleagues utilized the James Webb Space Telescope to examine TRAPPIST-1e and have continued to enhance their images of this world. Through the analysis of starlight alterations as distant planets cross in front of stars, scientists can deduce the composition of atmospheres and identify beneficial life-sustaining chemicals.
Nonetheless, TRAPPIST-1’s classification as a red dwarf complicates these measurements due to its cooler nature compared to our sun. This cooling effect can lead to prevalent atmospheric chemicals like water also existing within the star itself. Consequently, it’s crucial to differentiate TRAPPIST-1e’s atmospheric signals from those of the star’s light. This challenging task requires innovative models and extensive effort. Initial findings suggest that TRAPPIST-1e may possess a life-friendly atmosphere, potentially representing a pivotal moment in the search for habitable conditions in the universe.
“The data exhibits fluctuations in accordance with atmospheric modeling, aligning well with nitrogen-rich atmospheres and possibly including methane,” remarks McDonald. “Among all the spectra collected from the TRAPPIST-1 system, this is the most promising, indicating potential atmospheric components.”
Should the nitrogen-rich atmosphere hypothesis be confirmed in subsequent analyses, McDonald states the next step will be to search for gases such as methane or carbon dioxide and utilize climate models to assess surface temperatures and the potential for liquid water.
However, the researchers caution that current data cannot entirely dismiss the possibility that TRAPPIST-1e is merely a barren rock. Additional observations are imperative. They have data from four JWST observations but aim for an additional 15 in the near future. “We need to minimize the error margins,” comments McDonald.
Matthew Jenge from Imperial College London notes that while many exoplanets are being discovered, astronomers are eager to pinpoint those with conditions conducive to life.
“Complexities arise because a planet can be in the right orbital zone but, with the wrong atmosphere, may become inhospitable like Venus. Astronomers are investigating numerous exoplanets, and eventually, one will likely be found with a nitrogen/oxygen-rich atmosphere. Photosynthesis may be key to achieving oxygen richness,” he says.
“If [TRAPPIST-1e] is habitable, consider what transpired on that planet over the past 7.6 billion years. The older the planet, the higher the likelihood of developing intelligent life,” he adds.
McDonald believes that by 2060, data may reveal multiple planets whose existence is hard to explain without including life forms, though he stresses that proving the existence of extraterrestrial life is still a distant goal. “We remain skeptical,” he concludes.
Archaeologists from the Israeli Ancient Bureau (IAA) have discovered historical agricultural archaeological sites at the KH site, located in Kahru Chatta of central Israel.
Mosaic floors in the building of KH’s archaeological site. Israeli Kahufrata. Image credit: Israeli Ancient Bureau.
“The grandeur of the discovered structures, the exquisite quality of the mosaic floors, and the remarkable agricultural facilities indicate the significant wealth and prosperity of the local Samaritan community over time.”
“The Kh. KafrHatta site is noted as the birthplace of Menander, the Samaritan magician, a precursor to the Gnostics and a successor to Simon Magus, regarded as one of the first converts to Christianity.”
In one of the structures, archaeologists uncovered a stunning mosaic floor adorned with intricate geometric patterns and representations of plants.
“Alongside the central medallion, the acanthus leaves are interwoven with distinctive motifs of fruits and vegetables, including grapes, dates, watermelons, artichokes, and asparagus,” they noted.
“At the doorway of this room, a partially preserved Greek inscription wishes good fortune to the building’s owner!”
“The name of the owner was prevalent in the Samaritan community.”
In the northern area of the estate, researchers discovered olive presses, large storage buildings, and Mikube (public bathing facilities).
“The close proximity of the oil press to Mikube likely facilitated the production of high-quality olive oil,” they mentioned.
“The olive press was meticulously designed, comprising two wings.”
“The Northern Wing featured a major production area, while the Southern Wing included auxiliary facilities.”
“Within the production area, two screw presses and a large basin for crushed olives were found.”
“This type of olive press is more characteristic of the Jerusalem region and the Jewish Shephela, making it less common in Samaria,” explained Dr. Nagorsky.
“Over the years, the estate has experienced significant transformations.”
“The opulence and grandeur of the structures have been supplanted by oil production and agricultural infrastructure.”
“New walls damaged the mosaic floors, incorporating grand capitals and pillars into the updated structures.”
The team suggests these changes are connected to the Samaritan uprisings during Byzantine rule, which occurred in the 5th and 6th centuries, against Byzantine emperors who enforced restrictive laws on non-Christian communities.
“What makes this site particularly fascinating is that, unlike other Samaritan locations that were destroyed during these rebellions, the Kahru Kasim estate has continued to be used, preserving the Samaritan identity.
“It is a captivating site that illustrates the historical contrast between the era of prosperity and the decline of the Samaritan community,” remarked Dr. Nagorsky.
“Its longevity and remarkable findings enable us to reconstruct its history across centuries, enhancing our understanding of this ancient population.”
A collaborative team of paleontologists from New Zealand and Australia has identified a new, extinct species of Shelduck from Holocene fossil bone deposits located in the Likov Chatham Islands.
The artistic reconstruction of rēkohu Shelduck (Tadnarekov) highlights the dark feathers typical of island-dwelling birds. Image credit: Sasha Votyakova/Te Papa.
The rēkohushelduck (Tadnarekov) is a newly described species that inhabited the Chatham Islands, a remote archipelago situated 785 km east of the New Zealand mainland.
“The archipelago comprises Chatham Island, Rangihautepit, Mangere, Tapua, and various smaller islands,” explained the researchers.
“These islands were completely submerged during the late Miocene and early Pliocene epochs.”
“Subsequent geological activities resulted in their re-emergence roughly three million years ago.”
According to the research team, the ancestors of the Rēkohu Shelduck reached the Chatham Islands around 390,000 years ago, during the late Pleistocene.
“While this may seem like a brief period, it’s long enough to influence species development,” Dr. Lawrence noted.
“At that time, the Rēkohu Shelduck exhibited shorter, more robust wings and longer leg bones, adaptations that impacted flight capability.”
“These evolutionary changes resulted from various factors, such as ample food availability, a lack of ground predators, and windy conditions, making flight less necessary.”
“If you don’t use them, you lose them; wings start to diminish,” remarked Dr. Pascare Lube from University of Otago.
“Flying is energy-efficient, so if it’s not essential, why expend the effort?”
“More robust leg bones support increased muscle mass and strength for takeoff, which is crucial when wings are small.”
The researchers utilized ancient DNA analysis and bone morphology to characterize the rēkohushelduck, a cousin of the Paradise Shelduck (Tadorna variegata) native to New Zealand.
Rēkohu Shelduck spent a majority of its time on the ground and became extinct prior to the 19th century.
“The discovery of rēkohushelduck bones in early Moriori Midden deposits indicates that hunting likely contributed to its extinction prior to European contact and the subsequent Māori settlements in the 19th century,” the scientists reported.
Their study was published in the July 2025 issue of The Linnaean Society’s Journal of Zoology.
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Nicholas J. Lawrence et al. 2025. Ancient DNA and morphometrics reveal a new species of Shelduck, an extinct island inhabitant from the Rēkohu Chatham Islands. The Linnaean Society’s Journal of Zoology 204 (3): ZLAF069; doi: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaf069
A rare species of shark has been rediscovered in Papua New Guinea, nearly half a century after its last sighting.
The Sailback Hound Shark, known for its unusually large dorsal fin (Gogolia filewoodi), was first recorded by researchers in 1973. A pregnant female was captured in Astrolabe Bay, near the Gogol River, and this marked the only known instance of the species for many years.
Jack Sagumai and his team from the World Wildlife Fund Pacific gathered fisheries data from local communities, aimed at supporting the national action plan for sharks and rays. In March 2020, they were pleasantly surprised when they stumbled upon images of several small sharks close to the mouth of the Gogol River, all featuring the characteristic dorsal fin.
Initially, five of these sharks were identified as female. In 2022, another fisherman in the vicinity caught a male. Collaborating with William White from the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization in Australia, the team verified that these creatures were indeed the long-lost sailback houndsharks.
“When we heard that this species was so elusive, it was frustrating,” Sagmai said.
This marks the first scientific documentation of the species in over 50 years, though fishermen in Astrolabe Bay claim they regularly encounter these sharks. They report sightings near the mouth of the Gogol River while fishing primarily for drums, according to Sagmai.
“It appears to favor deeper waters and tends to associate with other fish when feeding near the river mouth,” he noted.
As these sharks are only located in a small area, they may represent a “micro-inhabiting” species with a very limited range in Astrolabe Bay.
“Alternatively, they may have once had a broader distribution across regions like Indonesia and Papua New Guinea,” suggested David Ebert from San Jose State University in California. This region also hosts similar micro-inhabiting species, such as bamboo and epaulette sharks.
Sagumai noted that information regarding the Sailback Hound Shark’s biology and population size remains sparse. Currently, two deceased specimens are housed at the University of Papua New Guinea, and the team plans to collaborate with researchers in Australia and Florida to conduct a DNA analysis of the sharks.
“These efforts will establish genetic baselines for future monitoring and inform conservation strategies,” he added.
Microorganisms found in Siberian permafrost seem to have existed for more than 100,000 years as indicated by DNA analysis. The genetic similarities with other species imply that such long life spans might be common among the closest living relatives of complex cell organisms.
Additionally, microorganisms gathered from ancient marine sediments, some over 100 million years old, raise questions about the survival of individual organisms over such spans. “You can’t conduct experiments over that duration,” states Karen Lloyd from the University of Southern California. “[Time] Coexistence is an unpredictable variable.”
Lloyd and her team aimed to find microorganisms in areas that had been stable for extensive periods. Their exploration led them to the Chukchi Peninsula, the easternmost point of Siberia, where they extracted a 22-meter core of permafrost.
This core allowed them to extract DNA from layers of marine sediment that dates back between 100,000 and 120,000 years. These sediments contained pores filled with liquid water that might have trapped microorganisms, preventing any exchange of nutrients or organisms. “Being frozen means that ice structures encapsulate them,” Lloyd explains.
The subsequent question was how to differentiate between living and non-living cells. Researchers sequenced millions of DNA fragments from the permafrost, utilizing them to reconstruct the genomes of various microbial species present. The degraded DNA was repaired, and enzymes that facilitated genome reconstitution were introduced into the mix.
After incorporating DNA repair enzymes, most reconstructed genomes showed significant completeness, indicating they originated from dead cells that do not actively preserve DNA integrity, according to Lloyd. Conversely, the genomes of six species showed minimal alteration, suggesting that these DNA samples came from living cells actively maintaining their genome since being frozen at least 100,000 years ago.
All six species with intact DNA were from the gate forest, also known as Asgard Archaea. These organisms are recognized as the closest modern relatives to all eukaryotes, encompassing animals, plants, fungi, and other native forms of life.
“Discovering Asgard archaea thriving in ancient permafrost offers insight into their evolutionary path… and their role in the emergence of complex life,” remarks team member Rend Liang at the University of Earth Sciences in China, especially during an era when the Earth was fully frozen.
Even more remarkably, the long-lived species were similar to Asgard Archaea found in less extreme environments, sharing genes associated with protein and DNA repair. This may have facilitated gradual exchanges of cellular components in low-energy conditions without cell division. “They’re like the most uneventful Asgards ever,” Lloyd comments. “Their lack of excitement suggests they possess capabilities.”
Stephen de Hon from the University of Rhode Island considers the study a “significant advancement” in understanding exceptionally long life spans.
Nevertheless, he warns that these findings should not be generalized to environments beyond freezing conditions like permafrost. “Long periods of inactivity in frozen states are different from living extensively at minimal activity levels.”
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It’s unforgettable—the first time you play a Metal Gear game. Among them, Konami’s iconic stealth series is epitomized by the 2004 installment, Snake Eater. This initial chapter and its sequel acted as a reboot. Initially aimed for the PS3 due to its ambitious technology, it was eventually released on the PS2. The writer-director, Kojima, sought to take the gravelly-voiced protagonist, Solid Snake, out of the shadowy military bases and into the great outdoors. With elements like food hunting and broken bones that could be reset, Snake Eater felt far more grounded and immersive compared to PlayStation games of the 2000s.
Despite Snake Eater’s significant transformations, one classic aspect remains unchanged—stellar voice acting. In Konami’s upcoming remake, Metal Gear Solid Delta: Snake Eater, all the iconic, absurd lines from the original script are preserved. Enhanced with modern controls and stunning new graphics, Delta more closely resembles a 4K restoration of a beloved film than a standard remake akin to the latest Resident Evil titles.
“To their credit, Konami wanted to maintain the authentic experience,” says David Hater, the voice of Solid Snake. “They aimed to ensure it felt like the original, while still leveraging today’s technology.”
“Very cinematic”… Metal Gear Solid Delta: Snake Eater. Photo: Konami
Hater, who also penned the scripts for the 2000s X-Men films, takes immense pride in his portrayal of Solid Snake, a role achieved through the unique recording process of his eccentric performances. “For my first Metal Gear Solid, I recorded in an unusual house in Hollywood,” he reflects. “There were five microphones set up and it was just me and the other actors.”
This atypical setup was in stark contrast to the usual individual recording method, where voice actors would record separately, and their performances would be pieced together afterward. Hater found this collaborative approach to be incredibly effective. “I insisted my contract required me to record in this manner for all the Metal Gear games; I’d be in the booth alongside other top voice talents for months at a time.”
By the time the actors recorded their roles for Metal Gear Solid, the storyline was nearly finalized. However, for Snake Eater, they received only cues, leaving much of the visual imagination to the voice talent. “We had no visuals,” says Hater. “It was challenging to grasp the full impact of what we were creating at the time.”
“I know why you go back to it over and over again”… Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater. Photo: Konami
This shared experience resonates with Lori Alan, who voices The Boss, a key character in Snake Eater. “This is where the voice director showcased his remarkable skills,” Alan shares. “The recording sessions were intense. After a session, you’d exit saying, ‘What a ride!’ as the director would quietly remind you, ‘You love him. You trained him. You’ll betray your country!’ It was astonishing, and left you feeling completely drained.”
As Alan departed the booth while Hater was recording, she didn’t fully grasp the impact of the character she embodied. “I have a devoted fan who once sent me a clip, but I’ve never played it,” Alan admits. Over two decades later, she finally experienced the iconic role she helped create. “We were filming promotional videos for the remake,” Hater recalls. “Lori mentioned she wanted to know what we did back then, but it was hard to convey! So, I sent her the complete cutscene from the game… A couple of hours later, I received an emotional call from her. She was in tears, saying, ‘Oh my god! I didn’t understand before, but now I get it.'”
“It’s incredibly cinematic,” Alan adds. “The depth of the relationships stands out, giving me chills. I found myself completely engaged in the storytelling, as one would when reading a captivating novel or watching a compelling film.”
“We didn’t need to change anything great from the original”… Metal Gear Solid Delta: Snake Eater. Photo: Konami
Beyond some audio refinement and adjustments to fit the new control system, the cast confirms that no additional material was introduced in Delta. “I like to think I’ve become a better actor since then,” Hater muses. “Yet, these recordings had to align perfectly with the original, making it surreal to step back into the booth and reprise the same role after 20 years.”
Hater and Alan aren’t alone in revisiting the jungle—Cynthia Harrell, the original singer of Snake Eater’s theme, has re-recorded the iconic anthem for the remake. Harrell noted that she recorded her vocals with little direction. “That final scene, with the song playing as she dies, the red petals falling… I still cry 20 years later.”
Decades later, that moment remains powerful. Following an emotional climax, players are given the choice to pull the trigger. “I wished there was an option to shoot her in the leg instead,” Hater admits.
The ongoing separation between Kojima and Konami means that the original Snake Eater director isn’t involved in Delta, yet the publisher has engaged and retained members from the original development team. “For me, that thrill and surprise felt like the first time I played, 21 years ago, and that’s the experience we aimed to replicate,” shares Yuji Korekado, a producer on Delta and a former team member. Fellow producer Okamura Noriaki emphasized the intention to maintain creative integrity: “We concluded that adding twists or new plot elements was unnecessary; the original was already exceptional.”
As a new generation grows up unaware of the significance of Revolver Ocelot, Hater views Snake Eater Delta as the ideal reintroduction to one of gaming’s most revered franchises. “Someone asked me last night why they started remastering with No. 3,” he mentions. “That’s because it’s the best, you know? The characters are incredible, and the storylines are profound. These are some of the most tragic and beautiful moments in gaming history. It’s akin to living through a cinematic masterpiece for 60 hours.” 1.
The icy dwarf planet Ceres might have been habitable in the past
NASA/Jet Propulsion Research Institute (JPL)
The dwarf planet Ceres seems desolate and frozen, yet, billions of years after its creation, it could have housed a warm, habitable interior.
Sam Course Building from Arizona State University notes that while we can’t definitively say life could arise on Ceres, its past conditions possibly allowed for the survival of life.
Previous research indicates that Ceres may contain water ice and organic compounds, suggesting potential for life. In this study, however, researchers explored what these potential alien life forms could have consumed. Instead of feeding on other organisms, they might have derived energy directly from chemical molecules, similar to microorganisms found in hydrothermal vents in Earth’s oceans. Could analogous microorganisms have lived in Ceres’ ancient oceans?
The team simulated Ceres’ history and found that over 500 million to 2 billion years ago, pores near its hot core could have released liquid which mingled with the cold ocean waters. This interaction might have provided essential chemical “food” for microorganisms.
To seek past or current life in the solar system, Amanda Hendrix from the Institute of Planetary Sciences emphasizes the importance of examining worlds like Ceres that either currently have or once possessed oceans.
Interestingly, the types of life-sustaining conditions described by the team might also have existed on other ice-like bodies the size of Ceres. This suggests that the number of potentially habitable planets in evolution could be greater than previously thought.
“If Ceres was habitable in the past, then it’s probable that a multitude of asteroids and moons were also habitable, and many may still be today,” states team member Joe O’Rourke from Arizona State University.
Thus, habitability may simply result from readily available ingredients that appear to be common in the solar system.
However, many aspects remain uncertain, especially concerning Ceres itself. Researchers believe that accurate chemical analyses of surface minerals will enhance their models, but no spacecraft capable of conducting such analyses has landed on Ceres yet.
IYou were a soccer enthusiast who owned a computer in the early 1980s, and there’s one game that stands out in your memory. The box art featured an illustration of an FA Cup, with a photo of a cheerful man sporting curly hair and a goat beard in the lower right corner. That same image appeared in gaming magazine advertisements. Despite its basic graphics and primitive sound, the game was a perennial bestseller, enjoying years of popularity. This was “Football Manager,” the world’s first football tactical simulation. The man gracing the cover was Kevin Toms, the game’s creator and programmer.
The game’s inception story narrates how a passionate coder was holed up in his bedroom, crafting bestsellers for the ZX Spectrum and Commodore 64, eventually driving a Ferrari with the revenue generated. Toms, an avid soccer fan and budding game designer since childhood in the early 1970s, initially expressed his ambitions through a board game during a time when personal computers were not commonplace. “When my parents discovered my career aspirations, I told them: ‘Please ask if I can get a job as a game designer,'” Toms recounts. “They responded: ‘It’s just a phase, he’ll grow out of it.'”
Toms didn’t sway from his path. Through the 1970s, he honed his programming skills on corporate mainframes and also coded for a time at Open University. “It didn’t take long to realize that I could write a game themed around these interests,” he explains. “In fact, my first program was for a programmable calculator.” In 1980, Toms acquired a Video Jeanie Computer, primarily viewed as a clone of one of the early home microcomputers, the TRS-80. “I recognized that I could finally transform the board game concept for a soccer manager I had long aspired to create into a computer game,” he states. “There were two significant advantages: we could calculate the league table and the algorithms for arranging fixtures.”
“In the first few months, we sold 300 games”… Football manager for ZX81. Photo: Kevin Toms/Moby Games
Although the Video Jeanie never gained traction, Toms purchased a ZX81 with a 16K RAM extension and ported the game over. “In January 1982, I ran a quarter-page ad in computer and video game magazines, and it began to gain traction,” he recalls. “I still remember the thrill of opening my first letter. We sold 300 games in those early months.”
At that time, the game was quite rudimentary. There were no graphics, only text. Players had the option to select from 16 teams and play the role of manager, where they could buy players, influence team selection, and make adjustments throughout the season. You would start at the bottom of the old 4th division and work your way up. Toms crafted an algorithm that generated fixtures and determined match outcomes based on team statistics.
“The challenging aspect was determining player attributes,” he explains. “I assigned each a skill rating out of five, and wanted to ensure that you couldn’t simply purchase the best players and keep them for the entire season—there had to be a reason to rotate them. The more players you utilized, the higher the chance of injury.”
Toms aimed to integrate long-term strategy into the game, but the highlight feature became the most engaging aspect: the transfer market. The original version allowed players to sign one new player a week, but the selection was randomized, so one never knew who would become available. “Three midfielders would come up, and you’d need to evaluate their ratings to see if they met your team’s needs. Do you spend your budget now, or wait for a five-rated player who could take weeks to appear? That created a thrilling pressure.”
Inspired by Match of the Day… Soccer Manager Match highlight is Commodore 64. Photo: Kevin Toms/Moby Games
One significant challenge was memory. The expanded ZX81 had only 16K, making certain aspects, like team names, particularly troublesome. “It was a while ago when all the licensing issues came into play,” he notes. “My challenge was whether I needed to license names like Manchester United. The memory constraints meant I had to choose teams with shorter names, hence going with Leeds.”
Football Manager debuted during the nascent era of the gaming industry. Games were often sold via mail order or computer fairs. By 1982, however, high-street stores began taking interest in the burgeoning video game market. “Smith reached out and said, ‘We love your game, we want to stock it,’ and invited me to London. They eventually ordered 2,000 units. However, when I returned home, I realized their math was off—it was actually 10,000.”
Toms left his position at Open University and established his own company, Addictive Games. Later versions of the Football Manager for ZX Spectrum and Commodore 64 included additional features like match highlights that represented crucial moments like goals and near misses.
“It was inspired by Match of the Day. They capture the most exciting parts of the game,” says Toms. “I deliberately omitted the match timer from the screen, so players wouldn’t know how much time was left or if there was still an opportunity for another goal. This was an essential aspect of the design. A slight pause between highlights added to the tension.”
The game became a phenomenon, featuring on bestseller lists for years. My friends and I spent countless hours tweaking team and player names. “I didn’t fully grasp the impact of it all for quite some time,” admits Toms. “There was no internet back then. I would receive letters from players saying, ‘I played for 22 hours straight’ or ‘I failed my mock O Level because of the game.’ I later learned that professional footballers were also fans, including Arsenal striker Charlie Nicholas and Spurs manager Bill Nicholson, with Harry Redknapp serving as a mentor to competitive Football Manager players in 2010.”
Toms subsequently developed several other management simulations, such as Software Star, centering on the gaming industry. However, as Football Manager titles multiplied and the pressure increased, he eventually sold the company, stepped back from gaming, and returned to coding in business while traveling the globe. In 2003, Sports Interactive, the creators of the Championship Manager series, acquired the Football Manager name and rebranded their game accordingly.
“I had someone who played an original purchase for my kids”… Football Star Manager. Photo: Kevin Toms
However, the game was far from finished. A decade ago, Toms engaged with fans of the original game online and assessed their interest in a smartphone adaptation. The Football Manager legacy was revived with familiar visuals. The response was overwhelmingly positive, leading to the release of Football Star* Manager in 2016. Recently, he upgraded it again and introduced a PC version. “People enjoy it, and it resonates with them,” he says. “It’s central to my design philosophy: it may appear simple, but there’s subtle depth that keeps the interest alive. I’ve played through 500 seasons and my bank account now reads £5 billion. The balance is clearly well-crafted.”
Toms has evidently rekindled the spark that initially propelled his Football Manager into the gaming world four decades ago. He has ambitious plans for Soccer Star* Manager, as well as Software Star. “I still have many ideas yet to explore,” he affirms. “There are far more goals and concepts than I have time to implement at the moment. I’m not late; I’m determined to realize them, but it’s a matter of timing.”
Small, toothed mammals represent the most unusual of all whales. If they were still around today, they would be as symbolically Australian as kangaroos. A new paper published this week in The Linnaean Society’s Journal of Zoology details a recently identified species named Janjucetus lullardi, derived from a 25 million-year-old specimen unearthed in Victoria, Australia.
Janjucetus lullardi — 25 million years ago, a calf and its mother swam in the shallow waters off the coast of Victoria. Image credit: Ruairidh Duncan.
“Currently, some of the most iconic species of whales, including blue and humpback whales, are whale veil.” I noted, said LeAilid Duncan, a paleontologist from Monash University.
“These marine giants utilize a hairy filter in their mouths called Baleen to sift through plankton.
“In contrast, these mammals had bodies measuring less than 3 meters, with large eyes and short jaws filled with teeth.”
“Despite this description, we know that mammalian whales lacked Baleen.”
“They appeared to be derived from the major evolutionary lines leading to today’s toothless giants.”
All known mammalian species thrived during the late Oligocene epoch, approximately 27 to 23 million years ago.
Interestingly, three of the four identified species were found along the Victoria Surf Coast, southeast of Melbourne.
“The first mammal was uncovered in 1932 and was named in 1939 Mammalian Coraliber,” the paleontologist remarked.
“It featured a blunt jaw bone with a rich supply of blood and nerves for its facial and lip muscles.”
“Notably, the teeth show signs of wear on the gums, indicating they foraged for abrasive prey (along with gritty substances) from the seafloor.”
“In 2006, a local naturalist discovered the first fossil of a species named after him, Janjucetus hunderi.
“This whale had a sturdy triangular snout with sharp teeth and strong muscles to close its powerful jaw.”
“However, the exact differences in the lifestyle of Mammalian Coraliber and Janjucetus hunderi compared to other whales remain largely unclear, hinting at a diverse range of behaviors.”
The fossilized remains of Janjucetus lullardi, dating back 25 million years, were found in 2019 by school principal Ross Dallard along the coast of Yang JUC in Victoria.
“Janjucetus lullardi measured about 2 meters in length. It’s compact enough to fit in a standard single bed,” the researcher noted.
“This may be the first fossilized whale discovered in Australia, and potentially the first fossils of a juvenile whale found in this region.”
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Ruairidh J. Duncan et al. 2025. Insights into the mystiology of immature teeth from the Australian Oligocene and mammals (Cetacea: Mysticeti) morphology, phylogenetics, and ontogeny. The Linnaean Society’s Journal of Zoology 204 (4): ZLAF090; doi: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaf090
One of the more challenging perspectives on aging is the prospect of enduring poor health later in life. A common narrative is that although life expectancy has increased, the health span has not kept pace.
This perspective is shifting towards a new measurement of our later years, emphasizing “essential ability”—how well individuals can engage in the activities they value rather than solely focusing on chronic disease diagnoses. Viewed this way, those born in affluent nations during the 1950s appear poised to experience the longest and healthiest lifespans compared to any previous generation.
Nonetheless, it remains uncertain whether future generations will benefit similarly, as rising rates of obesity, pollution, and increasingly sedentary lifestyles could negate past advantages.
As of 2023, over three-quarters of the US population is living with at least one chronic condition, with more than half of middle-aged adults experiencing two or more. However, when considering health in terms of intrinsic competence, a diagnosis does not necessarily herald the end of well-being, as effective management can allow individuals to maintain their health.
People born in the 1950s in a rich country are set to lead the longest and healthiest life ever
Unfortunately, the narrative of a chronic disease epidemic has been fueled by certain figures, such as Robert F. Kennedy Jr., who recently reduced funding for research into mRNA vaccine technologies. This funding could critically assist in prolonging lives and mitigating disease impacts.
Nevertheless, there is cause for hope. For instance, GLP-1 medications present a groundbreaking method for managing obesity, and preliminary findings from recent studies indicate promising new avenues for alleviating Alzheimer’s disease.
Such innovations should serve as a reminder to policymakers that if our aim is to extend healthy living, investing in biomedical research is an essential ally, not a detractor.
Recently discovered human fossils from the Ledi-Geraru Research Project in a remote region of Ethiopia indicate an early presence of Homo around 2.78 million years ago and a previously unidentified species, Australian, dating back 2.63 million years.
The timeline from approximately 3 to 2 million years ago represents crucial phases in human evolution.
This encompasses the genus Homo and Paran Solo Pass, which first appeared in fossil records alongside the ancestors of Australopithecus afarensis, a species that eventually vanished.
“We typically viewed human evolution as a linear trajectory from ape-like ancestors to modern humans. However, Homo sapiens researcher Brian Villmoare from the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, states that our understanding must adapt.”
“Humans have diversified into various niches multiple times throughout our history.”
“Our evolutionary tree reflects patterns not unique to us. Similar events occurred across different life forms.”
“This is something we should observe more frequently in the record of human fossils.”
“Nature has explored numerous paths toward humanity, particularly as climates became drier in East Africa, leading to the extinction of more ape-like species.”
Dr. Villmoare and his co-authors uncovered 13 human teeth at the Ledi-Geraru site in Ethiopia.
They determined that while some fossils belong to the genus Homo, others include upper and lower teeth sets from an unnamed species, Australian.
This new species differs from Australopithecus afarensis, which was first identified nearby at Khadar around 2.95 million years ago.
“The coexistence of both species in the same area suggests that human evolution resembles a branching tree rather than a linear progression,” said Dr. Villmoare.
The Ledi-Geraru site is also where paleontologists discovered the earliest jaw of Homo in 2013, dating back 2.8 million years.
“Recent findings of Homo teeth from sediments aged between 2 and 2.8 million years confirm the timeline of our lineage,” stated Dr. Villmoare.
“We know what the earliest teeth and jaws of Homo look like, but our findings extend beyond that.”
“This underscores the critical need for additional fossil discoveries to differentiate between Australian and Homo, and to explore potential overlaps in their fossil records.”
“There has been considerable geological activity in this region,” noted Dr. Christopher Campizzano, a geologist at Arizona State University.
“Numerous volcanic eruptions released ashes containing feldspar crystals, allowing scientists to date them.”
“We can date the eruptions that occurred in the landscape where these fossils were found.”
“These fossils are situated between volcanic deposits, facilitating age determination.”
“We are dating the volcanic ash from eruptions that coincided with the deposition of these fossils.”
“As this new research highlights, this was a pivotal era for human evolution,” said Professor Ramon Arrowsmith from Arizona State University.
“Geology provides critical insights into the age and characteristics of sedimentary layers, including those containing fossils.”
“Whenever an exciting new discovery occurs, paleontologists recognize that further information is essential,” commented Dr. Kay Reid, a paleontologist at Arizona State University.
“We need more fossils, which emphasizes the importance of training individuals to explore and identify new fossil sites.”
“The more fossils we uncover, the better we can understand our distant ancestors and the unique journey of survival that led to our existence.”
The findings are documented in a publication released today in the journal Nature.
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B. Billmoare et al. New discoveries of Australian and Homo from Ledi-Geraru, Ethiopia. Nature, published online August 13, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09390-4
Dennis “Tink” Bell (far right) during a Christmas celebration at Admiralty Bay Station in 1958
D. Bell; Archive REF: AD6/19/X/20/18
The remains of a meteorologist who perished on an Antarctic glacier 66 years ago have been unearthed and returned to England.
At just 25, Dennis “Tink” Bell embarked on a two-year mission to Antarctica in July 1959 to study the climate of the Falkland Islands, which was the predecessor of the British Antarctic Survey (BAS).
Bell encountered a crevasse but managed to call out for assistance. He secured a rope to his belt and was pulled to safety, although the belt broke, causing him to fall again. This time, he did not call out for help.
His colleague made it back to base, but worsening weather conditions jeopardized further rescue efforts.
Ieuan Hopkins noted that working in Antarctica during the 1950s and 1960s was perilous, and fatalities were tragically common. Many bodies of other BAS staff remain lost today.
“There was an average 1% chance that you wouldn’t return,” remarks Hopkins. “It’s an extremely hostile environment. We’re at risk of losing people.”
Earlier this year, a team from the Arkdowsky Poland Antarctic Station on King George Island discovered numerous bone fragments on the glacier’s surface, having been exposed as they shifted over time.
“It’s a large, dynamic glacier, so things are perpetually moving,” explains Hopkins. “The presence of bone fragments suggests significant forces at play.”
The remains were transferred to the Falkland Islands and subsequently returned to Britain by the Royal Air Force aboard an Antarctic research vessel alongside Sir David Attenborough.
Denise Syndercombe Court at King’s College, London, identified the body through DNA comparisons with samples from his older brother David Bell and younger sister Valerie Kelly, as Bell commented in a statement.
The Polish team also uncovered many personal belongings believed to belong to Bell, including radio equipment, flashlights, ski poles, engraved wristwatches, knives, and pipe stems made of ebonite.
With the shutdown of AOL’s dial-up internet in late September, the iconic sounds, symbols, and experiences that ushered millions of Americans into the early digital age will come to an end.
AOL, or America Online, announced recently that it has evaluated its products and services and will discontinue dial-up connectivity options, ceasing support for its dial-up software as of September 30th.
These dates signal the end of an era for countless Americans from various generations: millennials, Gen X, Baby Boomers, and beyond. The familiar sounds of modems establishing connections and the excitement of getting online marked the dawn of a new era filled with wires, computer mice, emails, chat rooms, instant messaging, and the bright allure of digital screens.
Dial-up internet didn’t emerge in isolation; it was developed by Usenet in the late 1970s.
In 1979, Compuserve became the first to offer “Dial-Up Online Information Services to Consumers.”
By the mid-1980s, virtual communities started to emerge with platforms like The Well, which was founded in the Bay Area by Stewart Brand and Larry Brilliant, coinciding with the founding of America Online in 1985.
At its peak, in the late 1990s and early 2000s, AOL boasted over 23 million subscribers in the United States, solidifying its status as the leading internet service provider of that era. As noted by Jigso AI, new users were acquired approximately every six seconds.
AOL became a household name with its distinct “You’ve got mail!” notification, but it also became infamous in 1999 after a controversial merger, which is often viewed as one of the most disastrous deals in media history.
Gradually, the iconic sounds of dial-up began to fade as faster cable internet services emerged in 1995, leveraging existing cable television infrastructure.
Today, only a small fraction of U.S. households (around 175,000) still depend on dial-up internet access. This legacy technology stems from the intense rivalry between Microsoft and Netscape in the 1980s and 90s. As AI encroaches upon browsing, the days of dial-up seem ever more distant.
The rise of dial-up internet was partially fueled by demand for adult content, and its decline is now seen as part of the nostalgic farewell to other bygone pop culture artifacts, such as CDs, pagers, and landlines.
After 25 years of investigation, researchers at Northwestern University in the United States have found out why some adults have acclimatized to near-optimal cognitive functioning since the 1980s.
Referred to as “super agers,” these individuals are over 80 years old, yet their memory capabilities rival those of adults in their 50s and 60s.
Since the year 2000, scientists have examined 290 of these super agers, assessing 77 brains to better understand those who resist cognitive decline.
The study revealed shared personality traits among the ultra-elderly compared to the general population. These individuals often report being highly social and possessing strong interpersonal connections.
However, the differences in personality are merely the tip of the iceberg. Dr. Sandra Weintraub – a Professor of Psychiatry, Behavioral Science, and Neurology at Northwestern and co-author of a new paper summarizes the findings regarding these super agers – “What we observed in their brains was astonishing; it felt like earth-shattering news for us.”
In some super agers’ brains, scientists identified amyloid and tau proteins, commonly known as plaque and tangles, which are significant in the context of Alzheimer’s disease. In other super agers, these were absent.
Nonetheless, no brains exhibited the damage typically linked with these plaques or tangles.
“Our observation is that there are two distinct mechanisms enabling someone to become a super ager,” Weintraub stated. “The first is resistance, meaning they do not develop plaque or tangles. The second is resilience; they do form these but do not experience negative brain impacts.”
Super agers displayed not only varying personality traits but also distinct brain structures, particularly in the size and shape of the cortex.
In addition to that, these super agers exhibited youthful brain structures. While older brains generally have thinner cortices compared to younger ones, these individuals did not show such thinning.
In particular, they displayed remarkable thickness in the anterior cingulate cortex, a crucial area involved in processing information related to decision-making, emotions, and motivations.
Moreover, super agers had a greater number of Von Economo neurons, also known as spindle cells, compared to their normally aging peers. These neurons, located in the cortex, play a significant role in social behavior, emotional processing, and self-awareness.
“Our research indicates that exceptional memory in later years is achievable and correlates with a well-defined neurobiological profile,” Weintraub stated. “This paves the way for novel interventions aimed at preserving brain health in older age.”
Researchers expressed hope that their work would encourage cognitive health and unveil new approaches to slow or prevent future neurodegenerative diseases like dementia.
The early human migration through mainland Southeast Asia (SUNDA) marks the oldest evidence of humans crossing marine barriers to access secluded land. Previously, the earliest indication of Wallacea, an area of oceanic islands east of Sunda, comprised flakestone tools found at Wallosea, Flores Island, dating back at least 152 million years. Excavations in Sulawesi, the largest island, have uncovered stone artifacts at Talep’s open site dating to at least 194,000 years ago. Presently, researchers from Griffith University have identified stone tools at locations close to the fossil-rich cario strata that date back at least 104 million years, possibly extending to 1.48 million years. This information hints that Sulawesi was occupied by humans around the same period as Flores.
Old-fashioned humanity. Image credit: Ninara / CC by 2.0.
Professor Adam Blum of Griffith University and his team discovered seven stone artifacts within the sedimentary layers at the Cariosite.
During the early Pleistocene, this area would have been near river channels, facilitating activities such as tool-making and hunting.
The artifacts from Cario are small sharp stones (flakes) created by larger pebbles, likely sourced from local riverbeds by early human inhabitants.
“This findings enhance our understanding of extinct human migrations across the Wallace Line, a transitional area where unique animal species have evolved independently,” said Professor Blum.
Reconstruction of Homo floresiensis. Image credit: Elizabeth Daines.
Utilizing paleomagnetic dating of the sandstone and direct dating of excavated pig fossils, researchers confirmed that the Cario artifacts are at least 1.04 million years old.
Previously, evidence of human habitation in Warasea had been found dating back at least 102 million years in Talep, Sulawesi, based on stone tools located in Warosea, Wolosage, Flores.
Luzon, located in the Philippines and north of Wallacea, has yielded human evidence dating back approximately 700,000 years.
“This is a critical piece of the puzzle, yet the Cario site has yet to reveal any human fossils,” commented Professor Blum.
“We now recognize that a toolmaker existed in Sulawesi a million years ago, but their identity remains unknown.”
Stone artifacts from the site of Cario in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Image credit: Hakim et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09348-6.
The initial discovery of Homo floresiensis and subsequent fossils from Flores, similar in size and dating back 700,000 years, implied that it may have been linked to Homo erectus, which managed to bypass substantial marine barriers between the mainland of Southeast Asia to inhabit this smaller island and underwent island dwarfism for eons.
“The revelation of Sulawesi prompts us to consider the fate of Homo erectus on an island more than 12 times larger than Flores,” Professor Blum noted.
“Sulawesi is an unpredictable variable. It’s almost like a mini continent.”
“If hominins were isolated on this expansive, ecologically diverse island for over a million years, would they have evolved in ways similar to the Hobbits of Flores?”
“Or could there have been an entirely different evolutionary path?”
The study was published yesterday in the journal Nature.
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B. Hakim et al. Human presence in Sulawesi during the early Pleistocene. Nature Published online on August 7th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09348-6
The White Dwarf represents the compact core that forms when stars exhaust their fuel and collapse. These remnants are the ashes of Earth-sized stars, typically about half the mass of the Sun, composed of carbon-oxygen cores surrounded by layers of helium and hydrogen. Utilizing far-ultraviolet data from the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, astronomers have identified carbon in the atmosphere of the famously large white dwarf WD 0525+526. They also determined that the overall mass of hydrogen and helium in the star’s atmosphere was significantly lower than anticipated based on single-star evolution.
An illustration of a merger with a white dwarf sub-huge star (size without scale) that would have occurred in the past. Image credit: Snehalata Sahu/Warwick University.
WD 0525+526 is located approximately 130 light years away in the constellation Auriga.
With a mass exceeding that of our Sun by 20%, this white dwarf is classified as a super-genocide, and its formation process remains poorly understood.
Typically, such white dwarfs form from the collapse of massive stars. However, Hubble’s UV data indicates that WD 0525+526 has a hydrogen-rich atmosphere originating from its core.
“In optical light, WD 0525+526 appears to be a massive yet typical white dwarf,” remarked Sneharata Saff, an astronomer at the University of Warwick.
“However, the ultraviolet observations from Hubble allowed us to detect faint carbon signatures that optical telescopes could not observe.”
“The presence of a small amount of carbon in the atmosphere suggests that this massive white dwarf is likely the product of a merger between two stars.”
“We also believe that many similar merged remnants may pose as white dwarfs in a predominantly hydrogen atmosphere.”
“Only ultraviolet observations can reveal them to us.”
Typically, hydrogen and helium create dense, barrier-like layers around the white dwarf core, concealing carbon-rich elements.
In a stellar merger, the hydrogen and helium enveloping layers can burn away almost entirely as the stars combine.
The resulting single star possesses a very thin envelope that does not prevent carbon from surfacing, which is precisely what is observed in WD 0525+526.
“We found that the hydrogen and helium layers are around one billion times thinner than those typical of a white dwarf,” noted Antoine Bedard, an astronomer at Warwick University.
“We believe these layers were stripped away during the merger, allowing carbon to manifest on the surface.”
“However, this phenomenon is also unusual, as the carbon present is about 100,000 times less than that found on the surfaces of other merged remnants.”
“Coupled with the star’s elevated temperatures—nearly four times hotter than the Sun—the diminished carbon levels suggest that WD 0525+526 evolves at a much faster pace than previously observed.”
This discovery will aid in understanding the destiny of binary star systems, which are crucial for related phenomena such as supernova explosions.
Alongside the enigma, this significantly hotter star’s carbon migrates to the surface.
Other merged remnants later cool enough for convection to bring carbon to the surface; however, WD 0525+526 remains too hot for this process.
Instead, the author identified a subtle mixing process known as semiconvection, uniquely observed in this White Dwarf.
This mechanism permits small amounts of carbon to gradually ascend into the star’s hydrogen-rich atmosphere.
“Finding conclusive proof of individual white dwarf mergers is rare,” remarked Professor Boris Gensick from Warwick University.
“Yet, ultraviolet spectroscopy enables us to detect these signals early, while carbon remains invisible at optical wavelengths.”
“Because the Earth’s atmosphere filters out UV rays, such observations must be conducted from space—currently, only Hubble is capable of this.”
“As WD 0525+526 continues to evolve and cool, we anticipate more carbon will emerge at the surface over time.”
“For now, this ultraviolet illumination offers rare insights into the early aftermath of stellar mergers.
Survey results are published today in the journal Nature Astronomy.
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S. Saff et al. The remnants of Hot White Dwarfs revealed by ultraviolet detection of carbon. Nature Astronomy Published online on August 6th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41550-025-02590-y
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