A peculiar fossil skull discovered in a Greek cave over six decades ago may finally reveal some of its mysteries. Recent analysis indicates that at least 300,000 years ago, the early Homo sapiens coexisted with the first Neanderthals in Africa and Europe.
Unearthed in northern Greece in 1960, the Petrarona skull has long puzzled paleontologists, who are challenged to place it within the human lineage.
The fossil includes traits from Neanderthals and Homo erectus, yet it was found completely isolated, lacking artifacts or animal bones that could provide context for dating.
“The moment I examined and measured it, I realized it wasn’t a Neanderthal or Homo erectus,” stated Professor Chris Stringer, a paleontologist and co-researcher at the Museum of Natural History in London, in an interview with BBC Science Focus. “It was something unique.”
Stringer has long believed that the specimen belonged to our relative, Homo heidelbergensis, a robust human species that existed hundreds of thousands of years ago across Africa, Europe, and possibly Asia.
However, without a reliable date for the skull, understanding its place in the human narrative remained difficult.
A recent study utilized uranium series dating on the fossil’s calcite coating.
Calcite, one of the most common mineral forms of calcium carbonate, forms as water seeps into the pores and cavities, resulting in new mineral structures. This uranium series dating method estimates fossil ages by analyzing the calcite and measuring the decay level of uranium within it.
The findings suggest an age of approximately 286,000 years. Nevertheless, the methodology raises questions about the skull’s actual age.
“If fossil calcite forms swiftly after deposition in the cave, an age of around 288,000 to 290,000 years is plausible for the fossil,” Stringer noted.
“However, if the fossil was in the cave before the calcite developed, that age is a minimum estimate.”
The Petrarona skull, partially coated with calcite, is now estimated to be nearly 300,000 years old – Credit: Chris Stringer
Despite this caution, the timeline for Petrarona now closely aligns with another well-known Homo heidelbergensis skull from Kabwe, Zambia, which dates back about 300,000 years.
“Morphologically, they are similar and seem to be converging in their dating,” Stringer remarked.
This discovery underscores the idea that Homo heidelbergensis had a broad geographic presence and an extensive time span, overlapping rather than directly giving rise to other human species.
In simpler terms, contrary to earlier beliefs, they are not the common ancestors of modern humans and Neanderthals; Homo heidelbergensis was likely our contemporary for at least some time.
Stringer emphasized that this enriches our understanding of human evolution.
Researchers from the Wellcome Sanger Institute and the Spanish Institute of Biology have mapped the female genome of the Atlas Blue Butterfly (Polyommatus atlantica), revealing 227 pairs of autosomes and four sex chromosomes, marking it as the organism with the highest chromosome count among all multicellular animals globally.
Atlas Blue Butterfly (Polyommatus atlantica). Image credit: Roger Villa.
The Atlas Blue Butterfly is native to the mountainous regions of Morocco and Northeast Algeria.
Previously suspected to have the highest chromosome count in the Animal Kingdom, this is the first instance where scientists have successfully sequenced the butterfly’s genome to confirm this assumption.
Variations in chromosome numbers are believed to facilitate the formation of new species and assist in adaptation to changing environments.
The Atlas Blue Butterfly belongs to a group of closely related species that have evolved rapidly over a short geological timeframe.
“The genome is crucial for understanding how organisms develop and what the future may hold,” stated Professor Mark Blaxter from the Wellcome Sanger Institute.
“To narrate the stories of our planet, we must explore various tales and observe their interactions.”
“Insights gained from one genome can also enrich our understanding of others.”
“For instance, chromosomal rearrangements are also present in human cancer cells, and investigating these patterns in the Atlas Blue Butterfly could lead to methods for mitigating cancer cell growth in the future.”
In their research, Professor Blaxter and his team discovered that chromosomal structure was altered due to less tightly packed DNA.
This indicates that while the amount of genetic information remained similar, it was organized into smaller segments.
Except for the sex chromosomes, all chromosomes were found to be fragmented, leading researchers to estimate a dynamic range of 24 to 229 chromosomes emerging over approximately 3 million years, a brief period in evolutionary terms.
Generally, such drastic chromosomal modifications are considered detrimental; however, the Atlas Blue Butterfly has thrived for millions of years.
Its population faces threats primarily from climate change and human environmental impact.
This study opens numerous avenues for future exploration.
Chromosomal division is thought to enhance genetic diversity by allowing for increased genomic mixing or possibly offering other unforeseen advantages.
While this may enable butterflies to adapt quickly, possessing numerous chromosomes can also introduce complications, potentially making them more susceptible to extinction in the long run.
Further studies comparing other butterfly species will clarify whether genes are lost or retained, offering greater insights into butterfly biology and evolution.
“Observing chromosomal degradation at this level is uncommon, yet evident in butterflies of other species, hinting at a significant need for exploration in this area,” noted Dr. Roger Villa, a researcher at the Evolutionary Biology Institute in Spain.
“Moreover, chromosomes hold the secrets of species, and examining how these changes influence butterfly behavior could help us form a comprehensive understanding of species emergence.”
“When we embarked on studying butterfly evolution, we realized that sequencing the extraordinary Atlas Blue Butterfly was essential,” remarked Dr. Charlotte Wright from the Wellcome Sanger Institute.
“This research emphasizes the collaborative spirit of scientific inquiry.”
“By examining how the chromosomes of the Atlas Blue Butterfly have split over time in specific environments, we can begin to uncover the potential benefits of this phenomenon, how it influences adaptability, and whether there are lessons in the DNA that could aid our future conservation efforts.”
The findings have been published in this week’s edition of Current Biology.
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Charlotte J. Wright et al. Chromosomal evolutionary constraints revealed by the 229 chromosome pairs of the Atlas Blue Butterfly. Current Biology, published online on September 10th, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.08.032
The sizable jaws of the predatory alxaurus species from the latest Triassic period in South Wales, Zanclodon cambrensis, have long captivated researchers. Could it be the oldest large theropod dinosaur? In a recent study, paleontologists from the University of Bristol and Cardiff’s National Museum examined the specimens using advanced 3D digital reconstruction techniques. They first confirmed that the specimens dated to the late Triassic period, likely sourced from the sandstones of the Kotam members of the Lilstock Formation. Anatomically, these specimens exhibit characteristics typical of theropod dinosaurs, potentially representing early, novel therapy-footed species such as Newtonsaurus cambrensis.
Two separate blocks containing the impression of the jaw Newtonsaurus cambrensis. Image credit: Evans et al., doi: 10.1016/j.pgeola.2025.101142.
“This specimen has been mentioned in various scientific papers, yet its identity remains elusive. We were uncertain if it was even a dinosaur,” states Dr. Owain Evans, a paleontologist at the University of Bristol.
“Originally named Zanclodon cambrensis by Edwin Tully Newton in 1899, we learned that the name Zanclodon had been abandoned as it referred to a broad range of early reptiles.”
“Therefore, we honor Newton by naming it Newtonsaurus. It stands apart from all other dinosaurs of that time and warrants a unique designation.”
Newtonsaurus cambrensis roamed the Earth approximately 202 million years ago during the late Triassic.
The fossil was uncovered in a tempestuous area near Bridgend, Wales, UK.
The specimen represents the natural form of the left jaw, revealing both its interior (housed at the National Museum of Wales) and the outer surface (held at the British Geological Survey).
“The natural form of the inner and outer jawbone displays astonishing serrated details along the grooves, ridges, teeth, and even the edges of the teeth,” commented Professor Michael Benton from the University of Bristol.
“We opted to create a 3D model utilizing digital photography.”
“Our process began with surface scans of the fossils through photogrammetry.”
“Once I obtained a digital scan, I reversed it which provided a digital negativity.”
“It was simply a matter of merging both sides and analyzing the anatomy from there.”
“Digital reconstructions derived from specimens give us a considerably clearer understanding of the original structure of the bone.”
Now that the fossils have been examined, the team could utilize their anatomy to ascertain their positions in the reptile family tree, determining importantly whether they are dinosaurs.
“We can assert that this specimen is highly likely a member of the large predatory theropod dinosaurs that inhabited the South Wales coast during the late Triassic,” Dr. Evans remarked.
“The arrangement of the teeth exhibits a distinct, extraordinary dinosaur feature, identifying it as a carnivorous predator.”
“If it’s not a true dinosaur, it closely ties to the origins of the two major divisions of Coelophysis, namely Coelophysodia and Averostra.”
“The most surprising aspect is the size of the creature. The preserved jawbone measures 28 cm in length and constitutes just the front half; originally, it likely corresponded to dinosaurs measuring 60 cm in length, with a total body length of 5-7 m.”
“This size is exceptionally large for Triassic theropods, which predominantly were under half that size.”
“Such historical specimens are invaluable in paleontology, frequently yielding new and enlightening insights, even after years of dormancy in collections,” stated Dr. Cindy Howells, a paleontologist at the National Museum in Cardiff.
“Wales holds a treasure trove of fossil records, with a dense concentration of fossils across the UK.”
“Furthermore, Newtonsaurus cambrensis reiterates the significance of Wales in paleontological exploration.”
“These Triassic strata are scarce worldwide, but several can be found in Wales.”
“It’s quite plausible that another dinosaur may be discovered here.”
Survey results were published online today in Proceedings of the Geologists Association.
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Owain Evans et al. A reevaluation of a large orxaurial dentistry from the Late Triassic in South Wales, England. Proceedings of the Geologists Association published online on September 11th, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.pgeola.2025.101142
“There are two fundamental causes of dissatisfaction with climate policy: economy and culture.”
Alex Ramsay/Alamy
I have previously discussed protests in my UK hometown. The local council proposed increasing parking fees to reduce driving in contaminated areas. Ultimately, the council faced opposition and raised fees far less than they initially planned.
This scenario illustrates “green backlash,” a term referring to the rising opposition against environmental policies in affluent nations. Such resistance is often tied to a surge in support for right-wing populist parties, like Reform UK. The effectiveness of this can be seen in how Reform leads recent polls among UK voters as the next general election approaches.
This trend poses a challenge for the environment. Without government action, achieving significant progress on climate change becomes unlikely, but such initiatives can inadvertently empower anti-environment parties. Research indicates that the presence of right-wing populists in Europe slows down policies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and advancing renewable energy.
Recent studies published in Nature Climate Change suggest that there are strategies to counteract green backlash. Led by Valentina Bosetti at Bocconi University in Milan, researchers analyzed existing literature on green backlash to better understand its causes and potential remedies.
The findings reveal two primary sources of concern regarding climate policies: economic and cultural. Economic concerns arise from the financial burden of policies, such as increased parking fees in urban centers. Cultural concerns include a widespread mistrust of politicians and scientific authorities. Together, these factors significantly undermine support for parties promoting environmental policies, often driving voters toward opposing right-wing parties.
A notable case study that embodies both concerns occurred in Ontario, Canada. In 2009, the provincial government curtailed community input and halted the development of new wind power projects following protests from over 50 activist groups. Despite wind power’s popularity in Ontario, this localized backlash seemed to influence elections. In October 2011, the ruling Ontario Liberals lost their majority, particularly in districts with existing or proposed wind farms. Similar resistance to wind power has also occurred in Sweden and Germany.
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Researchers discovered that opposition to wind power diminishes when subsidies are offered. “
The shift towards encouraging electric vehicles has also faced backlash from those affected, particularly within the traditional automotive sector. In the 2016 US elections, Donald Trump garnered an average of 3 percentage points in counties with auto parts manufacturers. Researcher interviews with workers revealed that fears surrounding the EV transition influenced their support for Trump.
This paints a rather somber picture: governments attempting to implement positive environmental changes encounter resistance, which could lead to policy rollbacks or electoral losses. Often, they are supplanted by parties that neither pursue such policies nor recognize their urgency.
However, it’s important to note that while cultural factors may alienate some towards right-wing populism, they do not create a majority. Economic grievances, however, are addressable. For instance, Bosetti found that opposition to wind power significantly decreases when government subsidies are available and when local job creation hinges on such projects. Safeguarding jobs and upskilling workers may mitigate fears of unemployment and skill obsolescence, she suggests. It could be that straightforward.
Furthermore, there is considerable yet often underestimated support for policies that promote environmentally friendly practices. US researchers recently surveyed adults about their views on issues like reducing food waste, consuming less beef, installing home solar systems, adopting EVs, purchasing carbon offsets, and other climate-friendly behaviors. Most people expressed support for them. However, a significant gap exists between participants’ perceptions of overall support for these initiatives and the reality. Politicians often convey a distorted message; don’t let the appeal of green policies falter simply because of misinterpretations.
In York, the upcoming local election in 2027 is anticipated to focus on parking fees as a critical issue, with concerns about green backlash influencing voter decisions.
Graham’s Week
What I’m reading
Pillars of the Earth by Ken Follett.
What I’m watching
Revisiting the BBC adaptation of Dracula on Netflix in preparation for my upcoming trip to Transylvania.
What I’m working on
An article for the Christmas issue. Honesty is key.
Graham Lawton is a staff writer at New Scientist and author of Don’t Complain: The Incredible Science of Everyday Illnesses. Follow him on Twitter @grahamlawton.
Mobile phone chargers require precise quantum measurements
ShutterStock/Zoomik
If you’re anything like me, your smartphone is almost always connected to a charger. What we often overlook is that the capacity to safely conduct intricate quantum measurements in cutting-edge physics hinges on safety standards.
To grasp this, consider what occurs when you connect the charger to a standard socket. The electricity flowing from the outlet exceeds 100 volts, yet the charger is engineered to reduce it to around a dozen volts as it reaches the phone. Without this voltage reduction, the device would be damaged.
Essentially, the precise voltage matters in a specific way. But how can one truly know the value of a single volt? Moreover, when reporting voltages, can we fully trust the manufacturers of phone chargers?
This may appear to be merely a scientific query; however, in the U.S., the volt has a legal definition established in 1904, governed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Various countries maintain their own national measurement units for the same purpose, such as the UK’s National Physics Institute.
For volts, NIST’s definition has relied on quantum devices for over three decades. In this process, the metrologist begins with a series of superconducting junctions—like crosswalks in narrow superconducting regions separated by insulation—and exposes them to microwaves of extremely specific frequencies. This stimulates a purely quantum phenomenon that creates voltage differences across junctions. The number of volts contributing to this difference is directly linked to two of the universe’s fundamental constants. This allows scientists to define a volt based on what we understand as foundational to our physical reality.
Specifically, the two constants involved are Planck’s constants that connect the charge of an electron—a fundamental quantum particle—to the energy of a photon (a quantum particle of light) and its frequency. Remarkably, the connection between charging a mobile phone and the most basic elements of the quantum realm is quite brief.
However, volts are not solely entrenched in the quantum realm. In fact, in 2018, metrologists globally unanimously voted to redefine several entries in the International System of Units (SI Units) with close ties to microscopic details.
Some unit changes were quite radical. For instance, kilograms are now defined in terms of a combination of Planck’s constant, the speed of light, and the frequency at which electrons in a specific type of atomic clock “click,” derived from platinum alloy polished only by the hide of endangered European goats. If you’ve recently stood on a scale at your doctor’s office, you’re witnessing how quantum physics influences the numbers displayed there.
The shift towards quantum-based definitions of units underscores the remarkable scientific advancements achieved in the past decades concerning our understanding, control, and exploration of the microscopic world. For example, I spoke in January with Alexander Epri at the University of Colorado Boulder, a key player in developing some of the most accurate clocks globally. “Frequency measurements have reached unprecedented levels of precision,” he noted. The frequencies from these clocks are linked to the electron transitions between energy levels within atoms, governed by quantum physics.
This extraordinary control over quantum systems places humans at the “top tier” of quantum measurements, yielding benefits beyond merely defining time. For example, atomic-based clocks may play vital roles in next-generation early warning systems for earthquakes and volcanic activities.
Moreover, the move towards quantum methodology could democratize access to the world’s premier metrics. Before the 2018 SI unit redefinition, manufacturers, researchers, and technicians needing to validate the accuracy of their devices often had to seek certification at local Metrology Institutes, where certified experts operated. The current standard for certification essentially requires sophisticated labs. “As we’ve mentioned previously, the aim is to put ourselves out of business,” Richard Davis from the International Bureau of Weights and Measures stated, which oversees SI systems. “The entire system has become more adaptable and significantly less Euro-centric.”
“We possess ample equipment, so individuals come to us. However, this redefinition is one of our focal points since people aren’t sending their instruments to us; we’re teaching them how to measure independently,” Jason Underwood explained to me in August. “Currently, this framework operates under the new SI. Our aim is to develop instruments that can establish traceability to the basic constants of the universe.”
He and his team recently introduced a prototype of a quantum device capable of measuring three distinct electrical units simultaneously, including volts. By offering this three-in-one functionality, such devices could make it much simpler and more cost-effective to compare electronic devices against relevant standards, assuming they remain portable.
As we have evolved our understanding of units, what might the future hold? For electrical units like those designed by Underwood and his team, the Quantum Standard has yet to achieve international acceptance akin to the second or kilogram, with further experiments necessary to reach that milestone. Similar innovations are emerging in other parts of the world, including the EU-based Quahmet Consortium.
The concept of the second, too, is fluid, reflecting researchers’ ongoing endeavors to refine atomic-based clocks and redefine our understanding of time measurement. In April, I reported on some cutting-edge timepieces created by an international team on a mission to compare models from Japan, Germany, and other nations. This research is ongoing, and I look forward to sharing more about quantum clocks in the future.
Despite metrologists’ pursuit of stability in definitions, measurement work is inherently variable, tied closely to national funding strategies and international relations. This was evident in 1875, as representatives of the first international measurement treaty confronted political tensions between France and Germany following the Franco-Prussian War. This remains relevant today—as I reported on NIST’s work in August, discussions included the institutional infrastructure’s challenges, highlighted by a proposed 43% budget cut by the Trump administration earlier this year. Though Congress ultimately dismissed this proposal, it underscores the complexities of disentangling Metrology Institute operations from national politics.
Unusual clouds form on the Arcia Mon, a volcano on Mars every year.
ESA/DLR/FU Berlin/J. Cowart CC by-sa 3.0 Igo
The delicate clouds that appear on Mars annually have intrigued astronomers since their initial discovery, likely stemming from a water-rich atmosphere that seems implausible.
Each winter, clouds spanning 1,800 kilometers form near the Arsia Mons, located in the southern hemisphere of Mars, emerging and dissipating daily for nearly three months. The atmospheric conditions on Mars vastly differ from Earth’s, notably with an abundance of fine dust particles that can cause water vapor in the atmosphere to condense into cloud particles. This results in cloud patterns unique to Mars, yet simulations accounting for these high dust levels do not replicate the distinct features of the Arsia Mons Cloud.
Now, Jorge Hernandez Bernal from the University of Sorbonne in France and his team propose that an exceptionally high amount of water vapor in the atmosphere could recreate these cloud characteristics. Elevated levels of water vapor aid in cloud particle formation through alternative dust-free processes known as homogeneous nucleation.
When researchers conducted atmospheric simulations around Arsia Mons that featured increased water content, the resulting cloud formations bore a striking resemblance to the actual clouds.
“Uniform nucleation necessitates much greater water levels on Mars. [Water] saturation is required. Initially, I believed this to be improbable or extremely unlikely on Mars,” said Hernandez Bernal at the Europlanet Science Congress (EPSC) on September 10th, held in Helsinki, Finland. “However, over the last decade, we’ve discovered that Mars can indeed exhibit supersaturation.”
Ibex can navigate gracefully across steep mountain terrains
Serge Goujon/Shutterstock
Nearly 300,000 years ago, Neanderthals had already devised strategies for hunting goats on vertical cliffs and managing them in well-structured camps.
Typically recognized for ambushing large animals in flat meadows and forests of Western Europe, Neanderthals seemed to adapt to the hilly landscapes of Eastern Europe by incorporating the lightweight ibex into their hunting practices. Early humans skinned these animals in nearby caves, but only after the bones had been covered and fractured. Stephen Milosevic from the University of Belgrade in Serbia.
“The approach to hunting ibex is entirely distinct since they inhabit robust, steep, and barren terrains,” he explains. “Now we observe primitive Neanderthals who barely distinguish themselves as a separate species, already utilizing an ecological niche previously unexploited by humans.”
Neanderthals evolved approximately 400,000 years ago, yet most of our knowledge stems from sites in Western Europe that are under 150,000 years old. According to Marie Helen Monsel, who was not involved in this research at the National Museum of Natural History in Paris, it’s crucial to uncover clues that can bridge the gaps in our understanding of Neanderthal timelines, habitats, and cultures.
Since that discovery, Milosevic and his colleagues have excavated hundreds of stone tools and analyzed the bone fragments of approximately 30,000 animals within the cave. Almost three-quarters of these fragments are less than two centimeters long, with the majority traceable to ibex and red deer hunted in spring and summer, indicating that Neanderthals likely resided in the cave seasonally.
Some bones, particularly those from the legs of larger deer, exhibited burn marks and were cracked open. This suggests that these early Neanderthals may have liquefied the bones, leaving remnants scattered on the walls surrounded by the grease that fueled their fires. Others may have shown signs of tendon harvesting for use in ropes or nets.
The deer remains indicate the presence of older youths and adults, pointing to selective hunting practices that would promote herd survival, according to Milosevic. However, ibex were hunted at all life stages. Neanderthals seemed to be “novices” when it came to hunting goats, implying they likely relied on sharp sticks and rudimentary traps. “They must have experienced a significant number of failed attempts,” he notes.
Apart from these favored food sources, researchers have also found several remains from wild boars, cave bears, wolves, foxes, leopards, and even various birds.
The arrangement of the bones in various sections of the cave indicates a clear division of tasks. For instance, the hearth was located centrally, with discarded bones stacked behind it, while the entrance appeared to function as a tool workshop.
In summary, the findings suggest “notable cognitive flexibility,” states Jose Carrion from the University of Murcia in Spain. “This confirms that Neanderthals are creative problem-solvers who effectively navigate complex habitats with ingenuity and skill. Neanderthals were indeed human. They were intellectual, social, and highly adaptable.”
“The discoveries from Baranica provide a glimpse of Neanderthals who not only display resilience but are experimenting with strategies and social structures typically associated with later periods,” commented Antonio Rodriguez Hidalgo from the Archaeological Institute in Merida, Spain. “This reminds us that Neanderthal sophistication is not a gradual developement but rather a deep-rooted flame that ignited early in human history.”
Neanderthals, ancient humans, cave art: France
Join new scientist Kate Douglas on an enchanting journey through time as she explores significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Feedback brings you the latest science and technology news, featuring intriguing articles that pique the interest of our readers. If you have something you believe deserves attention, you can reach us at Feedback@newscientist.com.
Super Hornet
One of my preferred categories in news stories is “events that echo the first five or ten minutes of a disaster flick.” Titles like “Tremors near Major City” and “Scientists Develop an Aging Robot with Machine Guns for Arms” come to mind. For example, a giant mysterious black sarcophagus discovered in Egypt (yes, this one is real).
The nest was identified on the Savannah River grounds close to Aiken, South Carolina, a location previously known for producing nuclear bomb components during the Cold War and currently housing millions of gallons of liquid nuclear waste. Investigators, however, calmed down concerns by stating none of the tanks were leaking. Rather, the nest was discovered to be harboring “onsite legacy radioactive contamination,” which refers to leftover contamination from past plutonium production.
Notably, the nest was sprayed to eliminate any wasps, subsequently bagged as radioactive waste. Thankfully, no bees were found, leading to speculations that they might have perished from radiation exposure and mutated into some chaotic form. However, I’ve watched enough Godzilla films to know that radiation typically causes creatures to grow rather than disappear. Let’s hope 2025 doesn’t bring a giant radioactive hornet invasion along the East Coast.
As a precaution, we dug out our aging copies of New Scientist‘s book Do You Eat Wasps? to learn that various creatures, including badgers and birds (of course), prey on striped insects, along with other insects like dragonflies. We consider sending badger families to the Savannah River site due to the substantial radiation; it seems like the only effective solution.
What to do if Your Dog Takes Cocaine
Reporter Matthew Sparks was combing through a press release when he stumbled upon a intriguingly phrased title. “What to do if your dog takes cocaine?” Instantly, the first suggestion from Feedback was to “take it for a walk,” but that’s neither a solution nor appropriate.
This press release referred to a Clinical Report relating to a case of a Chihuahua who experienced “acute onset of lethargy and a temporary episode of unresponsiveness.” It was revealed that the dog’s urine contained “cocaine, cocaine metabolites, norfentanyl, and trace amounts of fentanyl.” This mixture appeared to slow the dog’s heartbeat, an issue that was effectively managed by the attending veterinarian.
While the dog is fine now, it’s challenging to envision how bewildered the Chihuahuas must have been.
Upon further exploration, I found that dogs have a “history of culinary indifference.” This makes sense. I recall a rather dim spaniel we had that ate everything she discovered on the ground, despite its unsanitary nature and the chaotic aftermath on her digestive system. Living where we did, this predominantly consisted of discarded takeaway boxes and heaps of fox excrement. Still, one wonders what she might have sampled if we’d taken her for a stroll around Soho, London.
Curtailing Academic Jargon
Feedback often finds themselves perusing the references list at the end of academic papers, seeking crucial context. Many of these appear as structures like “Thomas, Richard & Harold, “The Very Complex Things”, Nature Vol. 13 P 666 (1984).”
In an effort to save space, academic journal titles are frequently abbreviated, and these can often be perplexing. For example, we were recently bemused to discover a journal abbreviated simply as Fish fish. Was the editor particularly enthusiastic about vertebrates that inhabit freshwater? Turns out the complete title is actually Fish and Fisheries.
Our curiosity sparked, leading us to wonder if this was indeed the most absurd abbreviation of a journal title.
There are evident trends. For instance, “analysis” tends to be abbreviated to “anal,” which can lead to unfortunate titles such as Advances in Risk Analysis becoming ADV risk anal and Accident Analysis and Prevention being shortened to Before the Accident Analysis. Similarly, many journal titles include library-related terminology, helping to explain why Zeitschrift Für Bibliothekswesen und Bibliographie is humorously abbreviated as Z bibl bibl.
Several abbreviated titles may risk creating confusion. The American Chemical Society has launched a whole series titled Advances in Arsenic Research, but it certainly didn’t yield what we anticipated.
The sheer number of journals paired with feedback’s limited lifespan means it’s nearly impossible to locate the most ridiculous abbreviation. Therefore, we’d like to invite a broader audience to help in our quest for the funniest journal title abbreviations.
Have you shared your feedback?
You can send your stories to feedback at feedback@newscientist.com. Don’t forget to include your address. Explore past feedback on our website.
It’s no surprise that stress is a key factor in various health issues, including mental health disorders like anxiety and depression, as well as physical ailments such as heart disease. There’s an urgent need for a straightforward, objective, and non-invasive method to study and assess stress. Interestingly, the temperature of an individual’s nose might provide valuable insights.
Our stress levels are shaped by our mental perceptions of situations and our physical responses to them. Factors such as genetics, social influences, and cultural backgrounds contribute to our unique stress responses.
Traditionally, stress has been measured in two ways. First, surveys are commonly used, typically administered after stress has occurred, which can disconnect participants from their immediate experiences. These surveys are also subjective; not everyone accurately identifies or articulates their feelings.
The second approach involves monitoring physical indicators like blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory patterns. While these measures can appear more objective, they require specialized equipment in clinical settings, which can disrupt daily life. Ironically, the process of testing can itself induce stress, leading to an increase in the very markers being measured.
Exciting advancements in science suggest that thermal imaging, originally designed for identifying heat loss in structures, is now proving invaluable in tracking medical conditions related to temperature variations, such as infections, inflammation, and tumors. Researchers are now utilizing thermal cameras to assess stress levels based on facial temperature changes. Their research explores how temperature variations in the face can indicate stress.
When we experience stress, blood flow is redirected within our bodies. The nervous system prioritizes blood flow to vital sensory organs, such as the eyes and ears, while reducing blood circulation to the nose. This reduction in blood flow is detected as a decrease in temperature by thermal cameras. This phenomenon, known as “nose dip,” isn’t exclusive to humans; it has also been observed in both adults and children, as well as in nonhuman primates, suggesting an evolutionary connection to stress responses.
While undergoing stress, our nervous systems can redirect blood flow to heighten sensory awareness, resulting in a cooler nose. Since the nose remains relatively still, these temperature changes can serve as a clear indicator of stress.
The integration of thermal imaging with existing stress measurement techniques could revolutionize stress research. This method offers continuous monitoring in a non-intrusive manner, eliminating the need for lab environments or stressful questionnaires.
In the future, we may be able to utilize nose temperature as a form of biofeedback to help manage stress levels. This approach could support individuals—especially those who struggle to communicate their stress—by allowing for the monitoring of stress levels in high-pressure environments such as emergency rooms, trading floors, or even zoos.
Studies indicate that recognizing stress responses can enhance stress management. Making stress visible allows individuals to better understand its impacts on their mental and physical well-being before, during, and after stressful situations. The future of stress research promises to be groundbreaking.
Gillian Forrester is a professor of comparative cognition at the University of Sussex, UK. Tune in to hear her speak at New Scientist Live on October 18th.
Fermented foods like kimchi can support your body and brain
Anthony Wallace/AFP via Getty Images
fermentation Tim Spector (Jonathan Cape (UK); US publication date TBC)
Humans are drawn to fermentation for two primary reasons: preservation and pleasure. Before the advent of refrigeration, fermentation allowed beverages like meads to be stored for months when untreated water could pose dangers. Additionally, milk that would spoil within a day could be transformed into yogurt or cheese, lasting for weeks. This evolution led us to develop a taste for these tangy flavors. The microorganisms responsible for creating these delights not only produced unique drinks but also offered numerous health advantages.
Today, foods like kimchi and sauerkraut are mostly solid. However, Dr. Tim Spector asserts in his upcoming book Fermentation: The Power of Microorganisms to Change Your Life that this trend is not novel; we have evolved to incorporate these items into our diets.
He begins with the fundamentals, explaining that fermentation is essentially the transformation of food by microorganisms. This process is complex, affecting not only the taste and durability of food but also our health. Even inactive microbes can influence our bodies and minds.
Fermentation closely ties to our microbiota. Fermented foods provide substrates for intestinal microorganisms, transforming into nutrients and active compounds like short-chain fatty acids that assist in regulating nutrition and immune responses. These foods bolster the beneficial microbes that uphold the gut’s mucosal barrier and reduce inflammation.
Fermented foods also introduce millions of probiotics to our bodies. Spector notes that a diverse microbiota correlates with better health, supported by numerous studies. He suggests that enhancing this diversity through fermented foods could even influence the efficacy of cancer treatments.
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Improving gut microbiota diversity may even play a role in how well cancer treatments work “
The most compelling aspect of Fermentation is its exploration of this “microbial pharmacy,” with preliminary studies indicating that fermented products are tied to improvements in everything from irritable bowel syndrome to anxiety and immune health.
Spector’s own investigations, reflecting trends in nutritional studies, suggest that those who consume fermented products regularly report approximately 14% less severe symptoms compared to individuals taking other supplements.
This book includes fascinating information. For instance, despite attempts to cultivate around 30 distinct microorganisms found in natural kefir grains (ideal for making kefir), laboratories haven’t successfully replicated them.
Throughout Fermentation, it becomes apparent how crucial microorganisms are to our lives, merely scratching the surface of their interactions with us. Access to Spector’s health data often supports further research, although his company’s gut supplements are mentioned, potentially hinting at marketing motivations.
At its best, the book strikes a balance between science, medical anecdotes, and Spector’s personal fermentation journey, offering practical advice. During these moments, the writing appears genuine and accessible, especially when guiding readers on food choices, like opting for kefir made from whole milk grains, which include numerous microorganisms and yeast.
Nevertheless, Fermentation can occasionally feel repetitive, and knowledge sometimes overshadows storytelling. Despite Spector’s caution against overgeneralizing animal studies, the infancy of research in this area means he often relies heavily on his own conclusions. Still, this is a compelling and meticulously researched work. The final chapter is particularly intriguing, and I eagerly anticipate a future rich with understanding individual microorganisms— for instance, how cheese or yogurt might aid in alleviating depression or managing menopause.
Initially hesitant to ferment at home, I was encouraged to embark on my own experiments by around page 40. By the book’s conclusion, I had a jar of kombucha and some sauerkraut stashed away in my pantry.
Helen Thomson is a London-based author
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A collision with an asteroid in an incorrect spot can increase the likelihood of it hitting Earth unintentionally.
Bladaki/Shutterstock
If an asteroid were on a collision course with Earth, is it possible to alter its trajectory without worsening the predicament? Indeed, thanks to a new system designed to identify the optimal strike point on incoming asteroids.
Diverting an Earth-bound asteroid is a high-stakes operation, and we have little practical experience with it. In 2023, NASA’s Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) demonstrated for the first time that it’s possible to divert asteroids by impacting them with spacecraft.
However, engaging in such missions carries risks. Altering an asteroid’s orbit can push it through a narrow window, known as a gravity keyhole, where the gravitational pull from a larger body like Earth may alter its trajectory enough to eventually cause a collision with our planet.
Now, Rahir Macadia from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and his team have devised a system to determine the best impact sites for satellites to reduce this risk. By analyzing data from the DART mission along with the asteroid’s shape, mass, and rotation speed, they were able to project how different impact points would alter the asteroid’s trajectory. This leads to the creation of a probability map for the asteroid’s surface, identifying various locations with differing chances of pushing the asteroid through a gravity keyhole, allowing scientists to select those with lower probabilities for a strike.
“It’s feasible to map these keyholes to asteroids, and the only cost involved is computational power before the mission is launched. So, on September 9th, during the Europlanet Science Congress (EPSC) in Helsinki, Finland, we should be able to pinpoint the optimum targeting point on the asteroid’s surface for a kinetic impact.
Macadia and his team have tested this approach on the asteroid Bennu, discovering over 2,000 potential keyhole locations and identifying safe spots for a spacecraft to impact.
While gathering specific data on a single asteroid is optimal with bespoke probes designed for the task, it might not always be practical if the asteroid is located close to Earth at the time of its detection. However, Macadia asserts that a rough analysis should still be achievable using data from terrestrial telescopes.
Artistic renderings of NASA’s double asteroid redirection test mission
NASA/JOHNS HOPKINS APL/JOSHUA DIAZ
A practical trial for collecting this data will occur when asteroid Apophis passes close to Earth in 2029. Astronomers have determined there is no risk posed by this 450-meter-long asteroid, but close encounters are considered rare, occurring only once every 7,500 years.
“We’ve observed many asteroids, but never one subjected to the kind of stress and natural vibrations due to Earth’s gravity.” Richard Binzel remarked at the EPSC on September 8th, representing the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Nobody knows how NASA’s Osiris Apex spacecraft, which initially visited asteroid Bennu, will fare when redirected to study Apophis in proximity to Earth’s passing European Space Agency’s Ramses spacecraft.
Apart from orbiting asteroids at safe distances to gather crucial details about their composition and shape, astronomers aim to monitor the small kilogram-scale spacecraft on the surface, including long-anticipated seismic activity when it’s near a massive body like Earth, to investigate internal conditions.
According to Binzel, understanding these characteristics is vital for asteroids that may pose future threats to Earth. “If you’re addressing an actual asteroid hazard posed by Apophis or other similar objects, you’ll need to be well-informed about characteristics such as angular momentum and tumbling behavior of the asteroid.”
Paolo Martino, the project manager for the mission, indicated that the trajectory of Apophis is excellently mapped, eliminating the danger of deviation since the Ramses spacecraft is equipped with sensors that enable it to autonomously avoid collisions, and its low mass means any impact would minimally affect Apophis.
Excavations near Aldborough in the UK reveal insights into life after Roman occupation
RFellerby & MJ Millet
When the Roman Empire withdrew from Britain, it didn’t lead to chaos or total economic failure. Archaeological evidence reveals that metalworking pollution indicates the metal industry in northern England not only continued but thrived in the ensuing centuries.
“The prevalent theory was that the absence of state transportation systems and military equipment would cause the local economy to collapse,” explains Christopher LaBlack from the University of Nottingham, UK. However, archaeology tells a different story. “We see a significant increase in metal-contaminated products.”
La Brack is part of a research team that excavated Roman artifacts from Aldovallo, North Yorkshire, England. Under Roman rule, this area was known as Isurium Brigantum, where metals such as iron and lead were mined and processed.
The team found that aerosol contamination from metalworking practices was preserved in sediment layers accumulated in ancient riverbeds at archaeological sites. By analyzing these layers, they could chart the changes in pollution levels from 345 to 1779 AD.
“This extensive chronology allows for quite a comprehensive view of fluctuations,” notes Jane Carshaw from Oxford University, who did not participate in the research but has studied early medieval metal mining.
In the late 300s and early 400s, with the Roman Empire’s retreat from Britain, it was believed that all forms of government support would vanish, along with tax collection and new currency, leading to the withdrawal of military forces from the region,” says La Brack. Over the following centuries, few written accounts exist, and certain industries, particularly those producing wheel-thrown pottery, experienced a steep decline. This has often been interpreted as indicative of “the collapse of British society in the fifth century,” according to Loveluck.
However, the riverbed records paint a different picture. Lead pollution was minimal during the Roman era, slightly dipping in the late 300s to early 400s, but then increasing steadily until the mid-500s. Correspondingly, pollution from ironworking also saw a rise in the early 500s.
This points to the sustained large-scale production of essential goods, supporting Loveluck’s claims.
The uptick in metal production may have been spurred by internal conflicts, suggests Kershaw. “This was a time of consolidation among various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms,” she explains. “There was considerable fighting between these different factions,” with many fallen warriors buried with swords and knives.
Production levels of metal then sharply dropped in the mid-500s and remained low for several decades. The research team posits this could be linked to the Justinian Plague, which swept through the Mediterranean region between 541 and 549 AD. Ancient DNA evidence from cemeteries in East England supports the arrival of the plague in England. However, the extent and severity of its spread remain uncertain. “There isn’t a significant mass grave filled with plague victims, as we observe in later plague episodes,” explains Kershaw.
The resilience of metal production in Aldborough amidst the Roman retreat aligns with other findings that suggest economic and political continuity. “For instance, Droitwich in Worcestershire has maintained a continuous sequence of salt production from Roman times through to the present day,” notes La Brack.
The aftermath of Rome’s withdrawal has often been labeled the Dark Ages due to the scarcity of written documentation and assumptions of a decline in intellectual life. However, historians argue that this characterization is overly simplistic.
While certain practices, such as the manufacturing of wheel-turned pottery and stone structures, faded, this era also saw the production of copper metalworks, which were widely utilized. “If this period was truly so dire, why are there exquisite brooches and vibrant beaded necklaces?” inquires Kershaw.
Elon Musk has been consistently making headlines lately. Widely regarded as the richest person in the world, he also manages several prominent companies.
However, some of these businesses have been facing significant challenges recently.
Twitter (now rebranded as X) reportedly has seen a decrease of around 75% in its value under his leadership.
Meanwhile, Tesla’s sales of electric vehicles, another company where Musk serves as CEO, have been reported as declining despite a general rise in electric vehicle registrations.
One major Tesla investor has publicly urged Musk to resign as CEO, and there have been rumors (which the company denies) that the board might seek to replace him. But who can confidently claim they would perform better in his position?
Perhaps Musk is doing the best a human can under the current circumstances. Perhaps humans fall short when weighed against the demands of the role. But could artificial intelligence (AI) pose a challenge?
To explore this, I directly consulted a Large Language Model (LLM) AI with the following prompt.
“You are the CEO of an electric car company selling nearly 2 million vehicles a year with over 100,000 employees, generating $100 billion in sales. What will your strategy be for business growth over the next five years?”
Almost instantly, AI generated a 350-word response: “…I introduced a five-year growth strategy that effectively scales, enhances ecosystem control, and prioritizes pioneering innovation, while navigating geopolitical, environmental, and technological shifts.”
It then detailed what it termed the “Strategic Blueprint across Six Core Pillars,” emphasizing sales growth in non-invasive markets.
Although I possess limited knowledge about running an automotive company (I am a robotics professor at a university in the UK), the strategy seemed sound, reflecting the outlook and scale of multinational enterprises while adapting to global opportunities.
I found it impressive, albeit I am accustomed to assisting LLMs with similar challenging inquiries.
Additionally, while I am a robotics professor and co-founder of two UK robotics startups, I am not a CEO myself.
Given this context, I decided to query AI once more with a different prompt.
“You are the CEO of a small robotics startup with a budget sufficient to cover the next 12 months of operations. Should you invest in research and development or focus on increasing sales with your existing product?”
Once again, AI provided a prompt and sensible response: “As the CEO of a small robotics startup with only 12 months of runway, my priority must be customer validation and sales traction with current products, rather than significantly diverting into R&D. Here’s how to implement an effective strategy.”
I found this advice more relatable and felt it was reliable concerning what actions I should take and how to execute them.
Returning to the main question: can AI effectively perform CEO responsibilities? Or, alternatively, is extraordinary human intuition and experience essential for success, regardless of any artificial intelligence involved?
read more:
Intangible Skills
According to McKinsey, a leading international consulting firm, 2023 published insights on qualities that contribute to CEO success. As McKinsey observes, a CEO’s primary task is to formulate the company’s strategy and ensure resources are effectively allocated for its implementation.
This role is fraught with challenges, and many human CEOs struggle. McKinsey reported that only three out of five new CEOs met their company’s expectations during the first 18 months in their role.
We have already seen that AIs can be strategic and can develop plans based on the right information. Thus, they may be capable of addressing that vital aspect of a CEO’s responsibilities. But what about the other competencies necessary for effective corporate leadership?
Traits like creativity and social intelligence are often viewed as critical attributes that ensure humans retain leadership positions.
Furthermore, McKinsey has identified a creative perspective that remains largely absent from AI, particularly since it has predominantly learned from our datasets.
While several companies already utilize AI for strategic development and execution, they must guide this process with pertinent inquiries and critically assess the outcomes. For this reason, real-world experience continues to be invaluable.
Calculated Risk
Another angle on the debate about AI versus human CEOs is to consider what disqualifies a CEO, as opposed to what qualifies one.
If AI could perform better than some ineffective CEOs (remember, two out of five fall short of expectations), it could present a solution for many organizations struggling with inadequate leadership.
Sometimes the very traits that help individuals ascend to corporate leadership, such as narcissism, can actually hinder their effectiveness as a good CEO.
People skills and the ability to evaluate situations and think strategically are vital characteristics of CEOs – Photo Credit: Getty Images
Such strong confidence may certainly help in climbing the corporate ladder, but once you reach the CEO position, it’s crucial to adopt a broader perspective for the good of the entire organization.
Growing scientific literature suggests that those who rise to the highest levels of corporate management are more likely to exhibit psychopathic tendencies (some believe that the 2007 global financial crisis was partly caused by risk-taking behavior and poor corporate ethics stemming from mental health issues).
In this framework, AI leadership could provide a safer alternative with a more calculated approach to risk-taking.
Additional research has explored biases in corporate leadership selection. For instance, AI could reduce bias in hiring new executives, focusing on qualifications and skills without favoring gender or ethnicity.
Nevertheless, we must remain vigilant since AI trained on human data can inadvertently inherit our biases.
The ideal CEO is also a generalist, requiring flexibility and swift problem analysis.
In my book, Psychology of Artificial Intelligence, I posited that AI excels in specific domains but that more fundamental advancements are needed before AI can match the adaptable, general intelligence of humans.
In other words, while certain components may exist to support the creation of an AI CEO, assembling them remains a significant challenge.
Interestingly, most human CEOs express enthusiasm for AI.
In 2025, a CEO survey by consulting firm PWC revealed that over half (56%) of AI-derived information [those types surfacing in 2022 that can engage in conversation] enhanced employee efficiency, while around a third reported increases in revenue (32%) and profitability (34%).
Thus, it appears that CEOs are keen to leverage AI, albeit perhaps not in boardrooms. A PWC report from 2018 indicated that “higher officials and managers” were the least likely of nine occupational categories to be automated.
Returning to Elon Musk, his position as Tesla’s leader seems secure for the moment. However, those contemplating stepping into his shoes may wonder if the real competitor for CEO should be AI rather than a human peer in the boardroom.
NASA’s diligent rover has been investigating and sampling igneous fields and sedimentary rocks within the Ezero Crater, providing insights into the geological processes and intriguing characteristics of early Mars, while also searching for potential biological signatures. Upon entering Neretvavalis, on the western edge of Jezero Crater, the rover examined the distinct mudstone and con rock outcrops of the Bright Angel formation. A new paper published in the journal Nature details extensive geological, petrological, and geochemical studies of these rocks.
The impression of this artist shows how Mars looked about 4 billion years ago. Image credit: M. Kornmesser/ESO.
“Upon the rover’s arrival at the Bright Angel formation and while analyzing the local rocks’ composition, our team was notably surprised by their distinctiveness compared to previous findings,” stated Dr. Michael Tice, a geoscientist and astrobiologist at Texas A&M University.
“These findings offer evidence of chemical cycling that organisms on Earth can utilize to harness energy.”
“As we delved deeper, we observed phenomena that could easily be attributed to early Martian life, yet remain challenging to rationalize purely through geological processes.”
“Living organisms conduct chemistry that is naturally prevalent, provided there’s sufficient time and suitable conditions.”
“To optimize our understanding, the chemistry leading to these rocks necessitates either elevated temperatures or biological involvement, and we find no signs of high temperatures here.”
“Nonetheless, these results warrant experimentation and eventually lab studies of the samples collected to completely rule out non-biological explanations.”
The Bright Angel layer comprises mudstone (fine-grained sedimentary rocks composed of silt and clay) and water-laid sedimentary rocks featuring layered beds indicative of a lively environment with flowing rivers and stagnant water.
Employing various instruments from Perseverance, such as Sherloc and PIXL spectrometers, scientists identified organic molecules and small mineral arrangements likely formed through chemical processes related to redox reactions and electron transfers. On Earth, these processes are frequently driven by biological activities.
The most notable characteristics include small nodules and “reaction fronts” – referred to as “poppy seeds” and “leopard spots” by the rover team – consisting of iron phosphate (likely vivianite) and iron sulfide (probably greygeite).
These minerals typically arise in cold, water-laden settings and are frequently associated with microbial metabolism.
“The structural arrangement suggests that they formed through the redox cycling of iron and sulfur along with associated minerals,” Dr. Tice commented.
“On Earth, such formations often occur in sediments where microorganisms consume organic material and ‘breathe’ rust and sulfate. “
“Their existence on Mars provokes an intriguing question: Could a similar process have occurred there?”
The artist’s concept depicts the perseverance of NASA’s Mars Rover on the surface of the red planet. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech.
The Sherloc instrument identified a Raman spectral feature known as the G-band, indicating the presence of organic carbon, in certain Bright Angel rocks.
The most substantial signal originated from a location called Apollo Temple, which exhibited high concentrations of both Vivianite and Greygeite.
“The concurrent presence of this organic matter and redox-sensitive minerals is quite compelling,” Dr. Tice noted.
“This implies that organic molecules might have facilitated the chemical reactions responsible for forming these minerals.”
“It’s crucial to recognize that ‘organic’ doesn’t invariably imply life creation.”
“This suggests the presence of numerous carbon-carbon bonds.”
“Alternative processes can yield organic compounds without biological involvement. The organic compounds identified here could have been synthesized either by or as a result of biological activity.”
“If they originated from an organism, decomposition through chemical reactions, radiation, or heat would have been required to yield the G-band we observe today.”
This research outlines two potential scenarios: Firstly, these reactions might be abiotic (driven by geochemical mechanisms) while microorganisms, similar to those on Earth, could have influenced these reactions.
Interestingly, although some features of the nodules and reaction fronts can be produced by non-biological reactions between organic matter and iron, established geochemical processes that can generate sulfur-related features tend to require relatively high temperatures.
“Every observation we’ve made regarding these rocks indicates that they haven’t been subjected to heat capable of producing leopard spots and poppy seeds,” Dr. Tice remarked.
“If that’s accurate, we must genuinely contemplate the possibility that such formations were created by bacteria-like life forms existing in the Martian lake sediments over 300 million years ago.”
Views of Perseverance path through Neretva Vallis and the formation of Bright Angels. Image credit: Hurowitz et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09413-0.
The research team underscores that while the evidence is not definitive proof of past life, the findings align with NASA’s criteria for potential biosignatures. This characteristic paves the way for further inquiries to ascertain the biological or non-biological origins.
Perseverance has collected core samples from a Bright Angel layer named Sapphire Canyon, which are currently housed in sealed tubes onboard the rover.
This sample is prioritized for future return to Earth in a prospective mission.
“Once we return this sample to Earth, we can investigate it using far more sensitive instruments than those we can deploy on Mars,” Dr. Tice explained.
“We could analyze the isotopic composition of organic materials, fine mineralogy, and conduct searches for microfossils if they exist.”
“More tests can also help determine the maximum temperatures these rocks were subjected to, and whether high-temperature geochemical processes are the most plausible explanations for any potential biological signatures.”
“The similarities between processes on Mars and Earth are indeed remarkable. However, there’s one crucial distinction.”
“It’s fascinating to note that life employs some of the same processes on both planets around the same epochs.”
“We observe signs of microorganisms in Earth’s rocks of similar ages where iron and sulfur interact with organic matter in comparable ways, but we don’t encounter the exact features seen in Mars’ ancient stones.”
Due to tectonic activities, the majority of Earth’s rocks have been altered significantly, making it unique and spectacular to witness this phenomenon on another planet.”
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Ja Hurowitz et al. 2025. Redox-driven minerals and organic associations at Jezero Crater, Mars. Nature 645, 332-340; doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09413-0
This article is based on a press release provided by Texas A&M University.
Do different observers experience similar neural activity in response to the same color? Does color produce distinct response patterns in specific brain areas? To explore these inquiries, researchers at the University of Tübingen utilized existing knowledge of color responses from various observers’ brains to predict the colors an individual is perceiving based on their brain activity. By estimating general brain commonality and responding to achromatic, spatial stimuli, the authors successfully aligned disparate brain responses within a common response framework linked to the retina. In this framework, derived independently of specific color responses, the perceived color can be decoded across individuals, revealing distinct spatial color biases between regions.
Using a sample of male and female volunteers, Michael M. Bannert & Andreas Bartels examined whether spatial color biases are shared among human observers and whether these biases differ among various regions. Image credit: Vat Loai.
Employing functional MRI scans, researchers Michael Banert and Andreas Bartels from the University of Tübingen captured images of subjects’ brains while they viewed visual stimuli, identifying various signals related to red, green, and yellow colors.
Remarkably, the patterns of brain activity appeared similar among subjects who had not participated previously. This suggests that the colors perceived can be accurately predicted by comparing them to the brain images of other participants.
The representation of color in the brain proves to be much more consistent than previously believed.
While it was already feasible to identify the colors an individual observed using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), this was only applicable to the same brain.
“We aimed to investigate whether similar colors are encoded across different brains,” Dr. Banert stated.
“In other words, if we only have neuronal color signals from another person’s brain, can we predict the colors they’re perceiving?”
“It’s well established that different brains exhibit roughly similar functional structures.”
“For instance, specific areas are more active when viewing faces, bodies, or simply colors.”
During the color experiment, researchers employed specific classification algorithms to analyze fMRI data, systematically differentiating signals originating from the brains of various groups of individuals by color.
Subsequently, data from new subjects were utilized to ascertain the colors they were perceiving using neuronal signals.
To frame each brain’s orientation, scientists spatially mapped how they responded to stimuli at different locations within their visual field using fMRI measurements.
“At this stage, we did not incorporate colors to avoid any bias in our results—only black and white patterns,” Professor Bartels explained.
“By simply merging this mapping data with color information from another person’s brain, we ensured we correctly identified the ‘new’ brain activity related to what the person was observing at that moment.”
“I was surprised to discover that even subtle variations in individual colors show remarkable similarity across brain activity patterns in specific visual processing regions, something previously unknown.”
Spatial color coding in the brain is domain-specific and organized consistently among individuals.
“There must be functional or evolutionary factors contributing to this uniform development, but further clarification is needed,” the authors noted.
The study was published this week in the Journal of Neuroscience.
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Michael M. Bannert and Andreas Bartels. Large-scale color biases in the functional architecture of the retina are domain-specific and shared throughout the human brain. Journal of Neuroscience Published online on September 8th, 2025. doi: 10.1523/jneurosci.2717-20.2025
Paleontologists have discovered the complete skull and skeleton of the Triassic Lepidosaurus species – Agriodontosaurus Helsbypetrae – from the Hellsby Sandstone Formation in Devon, England.
Agriodontosaurus Helsbypetrae. Image credit: Bob Nichols.
Lepidosauria is the most species-rich group of terrestrial vertebrates.
This group comprises around 12,000 species of lizards and snakes, along with a single species of Rhynchocephalia, the Tuatara (Sphenodon Punctatus) from New Zealand.
Collectively known as Squamata, these lizards and snakes not only range in size but also possess highly mobile skulls that enable them to capture large prey effectively.
These vital features of their skulls are absent in tuatara, making the understanding of their common ancestor essential.
The scalypidosaurs thrived during the Triassic period, 252 to 201 million years ago, but incomplete fossils have led to some confusion. Many are general scale pidosauromorphs that lack squamous epithelium or Rhynchocephalians.
“It was always expected that the earliest scalypidosaurs would exhibit some lizard characteristics, such as partially hinged skulls, open lower bars, and numerous teeth on the palate.”
“All of these traits are found in modern lizards and snakes, enabling them to grasp large prey by extending their mouths and using palate teeth to seize smaller prey.”
“The lower bar acts akin to the cheekbone, situated between the cheek and the jaw hinge, and is absent in present-day lizards and snakes.”
“Snakes and many lizards possess all these traits while enhancing skull flexibility.”
“Only the tuatara features a completely low temporal bar, presenting an archaic appearance reminiscent of some early reptiles, coupled with some substantial palate teeth.”
The fossil remains of Agriodontosaurus Helsbypetrae were found in 2015 on a beach in Devon, UK.
The specimen is dated to 242 million years ago (middle Triassic epoch), just prior to the emergence of dinosaurs.
It is approximately 3 to 7 million years older than the oldest known Lepidosaurus, Wirtembergia, from the Erfurt Formation.
“The new fossils revealed characteristics we didn’t anticipate,” remarked Dan Mark, a paleontologist at the University of Bristol and the University of Edinburgh.
“There are no teeth on the palate nor indications of hinges. While there is an open bar on the side, it’s not just one of the three, but also features a grand, large tooth in comparison to its closest relatives.”
Agriodontosaurus Helsbypetrae measured about 10 cm in length and showcased a unique combination of traits.
“When you observe the fossil, the entire skeleton fits in the palm of your hand,” said Professor Michael Benton from the University of Bristol.
“However, thanks to student efforts in cleaning up and scanning the data, we are uncovering remarkable details.”
“This new species possesses relatively large triangular teeth, likely adapted for slicing through the tough exteriors of insect prey, similar to modern tuataras.”
“The discoveries challenge our understanding of the evolutionary pathways of lizards, snakes, and tuataras,” Mark concluded.
D. Marche et al. The origins of feeding adaptations in the oldest known Lepidosaurus. Nature Published online on September 10, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09496-9
Rocky, Earth-sized planets in our Milky Way may be surrounded by atmospheres, with new research indicating a strong possibility of liquid water on their surfaces, supporting the potential for life.
Two separate papers, to be released on Monday in the Astrophysical Journal Letters, focus on the TRAPPIST-1 system, which contains seven rocky planets orbiting a single star. Both studies present initial findings from NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope, suggesting that one planet, TRAPPIST-1e, could possess a nitrogen-rich atmosphere, although further research is necessary to confirm this.
These findings represent significant progress in the search for extraterrestrial life both within our solar system and beyond.
Recently, NASA revealed that rock samples from Mars may harbor evidence of ancient microorganisms. Presently, Mars has a thin atmosphere made primarily of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and argon, but billions of years ago, it likely possessed a much thicker atmosphere that allowed liquid water to exist on its surface.
For quite some time, scientists have maintained that water is a crucial element for life.
For a planet or moon to retain water in liquid form, it must have an atmosphere that prevents instant evaporation into space. This makes the search for exoplanet atmospheres one of the most exciting and promising areas of astronomical research.
“Ultimately, our goal is to identify planets that can support life,” stated Ryan McDonald, an exoplanet astronomer at St Andrews University, Scotland, and co-author of both studies. “To do this, we first need to identify whether these planets have atmospheres.”
The TRAPPIST-1 system is located 40 light-years from Earth and has been extensively studied since its discovery in 2016, as some of its planets may have conditions suitable for extraterrestrial life.
Specifically, TRAPPIST-1e is thought to reside in the so-called “habitable zone,” where liquid water could be present on the surface—not too close to the star to be scorching hot and not too far to freeze.
In a recent study, astronomers utilized NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope to observe four “transits” of TRAPPIST-1e, which occur when the planet passes in front of its star. While the telescope did not directly detect the planet’s atmosphere, it measured how light passing through the atmosphere was absorbed, if one is present.
Like a prism, light can be split into different color bands across the spectrum, and variations in how particular colors are filtered or absorbed can help identify the presence of specific atoms or gas molecules.
For instance, if a specific color is absorbed, it may indicate a high concentration of carbon dioxide, while other color changes could suggest the presence of hydrogen, oxygen, methane, or nitrogen.
“If no color variation is present, the planet is likely just a barren rock,” McDonald noted. “Barren rocks won’t show any color changes in response to light.”
During the four transits, researchers found no signs of a hydrogen-rich atmosphere surrounding TRAPPIST-1e, nor did they observe any indications of a carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere. However, observations from the Webb telescope suggest a potential nitrogen-rich atmosphere.
“This is an exciting development that will significantly narrow down the prospects for a more Earth-like atmosphere,” remarked Caroline Piaulett Graeb, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Chicago who was not involved in the new research.
Earth’s atmosphere is composed of a significant amount of nitrogen gas. Titan, one of Saturn’s moons, has an atmosphere primarily made of nitrogen and is believed by NASA to harbor a vast underground sea. Although it may be habitable, the methane-rich environment of the moon differs greatly from conditions on Earth.
Piaulet-Ghorayeb, the lead author of a study published last month in the Astrophysical Journal, focused on another planet in the TRAPPIST-1 system, TRAPPIST-1d. This planet is also located within the habitable zone, but the study found no evidence of common Earth-like molecules such as water, carbon dioxide, or methane.
Studying these distant worlds poses significant challenges.
The TRAPPIST-1 star is small and exceptionally active, producing considerable background noise that complicates researchers’ efforts. McDonald and his team dedicated over a year to analyzing data from the Webb telescope in order to isolate and identify chemical signatures from TRAPPIST-1e and its star.
To confirm the presence of an atmosphere, McDonald and his colleagues plan to observe TRAPPIST-1e during an additional 15 transits over the coming years.
They are also looking into three other planets, TRAPPIST-1f, TRAPPIST-1g, and TRAPPIST-1h, which are located further out in the system.
This research aims to bring scientists closer to answering some of the most persistent questions regarding exoplanets and the existence of life.
“We have not yet reliably confirmed the atmosphere of rocky planets outside our solar system, but it opens the door to studying temperate planets,” said Piaulett-Ghorayeb. “However, there is still much to explore.”
A significant amount of water once cascaded along the surface of an asteroid, indicating that asteroids may have delivered more water to Earth than previously believed.
The source of Earth’s water remains somewhat enigmatic. Although incoming asteroids are considered potential contributors, skepticism exists regarding their ability to supply the vast quantities of water present on Earth today.
Carbonate asteroids develop from dust and ice in the outer solar system. In 2019, Japan’s Hayabusa 2 spacecraft landed on Ryugu and collected 5.4 grams of material, returning it to Earth in 2020.
Initial images of Ryugu suggested it was drier than anticipated, but further studies revealed the presence of cracks once filled with vital elements, including water.
Early dating of the samples indicated that the asteroid was among the oldest celestial objects, originating around 460 million years ago.
However, when Tsuyoshi Itsuka from the University of Tokyo and his team assessed its age using the radioactive decay of lutetium-176 in tiny asteroid samples, they found something intriguing.
“Our analysis estimates the age of the Ryugu sample at about 4.8 billion years, significantly predating the solar system,” notes Ikemoto. “This indicates the timing of Ryugu’s sample collection is critical.”
Instead, the researchers believe that roughly a billion years after its parent body was formed, Ryugu was warmed enough to convert ice into water, which in turn removed some lutetium-176, complicating dating techniques.
Solar radiation warms only the surface ice to about 40 centimeters, while the Ryugu samples were extracted from much deeper layers. Researchers suggest that collisions with other celestial objects may explain how the interior of the parent body was heated.
By estimating the volume of water required to alter the lutetium-176 levels in the Ryugu samples, the team concluded that the asteroid consists of roughly 20-30% water.
Ikemoto asserts that asteroids are believed to have delivered water to Earth in mineral form. “Our findings imply that they can actually provide water as both minerals and ice,” he adds.
The research highlights the value of sample-return missions, according to Jonti Horner from the University of South Queensland, who was not involved in this study. “By retrieving samples directly, we eliminate Earth’s interference, enhancing the validity of our findings,” Horner explains.
“This suggests that these bodies were wetter than previously thought, allowing us to better understand the origins of Earth’s oceans as we analyze early planetary formation,” he concludes.
Astronomy Capital of the World: Chile
Explore the astronomical wonders of Chile. Visit some of the world’s most advanced observatories and marvel at a star-studded sky amidst some of the clearest air on Earth.
The bed nuclei of the stria terminalis comprise a larger, banded structure in the brain known as the stria terminalis.
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Brain regions that influence food intake may eventually be targeted to enhance weight loss or therapeutic interventions.
Studies indicate that activating neurons in this specific brain region leads to increased food intake in mice, particularly when consuming sunflower seed-sized food items. However, the impact of taste on neuronal activity remained ambiguous.
For deeper insights, refer to Charles Zuker from Columbia University, who, along with his team, conducted brain imaging on mice. Earlier research linked sweet taste neuron activity in the amygdala with the enjoyment of sweet substances.
These neurons stimulate other neurons in the BNST, sometimes referred to as the “expanded amygdala.” This marks the first evidence of taste signal reception by this brain structure, according to Haijiang Cai from the University of Arizona, who was not part of the study.
The researchers aimed to determine whether these activated BNST neurons influence dietary choices, so they genetically modified cells to prevent activation when mice tasted sweet substances. Over a 10-minute period, these modified mice exhibited significantly reduced consumption compared to their normal counterparts, indicating that BNST neuron activation encourages sweet taste consumption.
Interestingly, the researchers also discovered that this artificial activation led mice to consume more water and even seek out salty or bitter substances, which they typically avoid.
Further experiments indicated that more BNST neurons were activated by sweet and salty tastes in hungry or salt-depleted mice, suggesting that the BNST integrates taste signals along with nutrient deficiency cues to regulate food intake, according to Cai.
Given the similarities between human and mouse BNST, these findings are relevant for humans, says Cai. They suggest that developing drugs to activate BNST neurons could aid individuals experiencing severe appetite loss, like those undergoing cancer treatment.
Cai mentioned that numerous brain pathways regulate food intake, and some may compensate for long-term changes in BNST activity induced by drugs. Therefore, targeting multiple feeding circuits would likely be necessary.
This research also has implications for improving results from weight loss treatments, including the GLP-1 drug semaglutide. This drug binds to neurons in the BNST, and a clearer understanding of its effects on food consumption could enhance the effectiveness of such medications, according to Sarah Stern from the Max Planck Florida Institute for Neuroscience.
Do you often feel anxious? Struggling to concentrate at work? Do you wake up drenched in sweat? Welcome to a phase that is frequently overlooked and often chaotic.
This transitional stage, marked by menopause symptoms but not yet completed, was once brushed off as a fleeting hormonal shift. Today, it’s increasingly acknowledged as a challenging and disruptive decade during which significant changes occur within the body and mind.
Emotional ups and downs, migraines, fluctuations in heart rhythms, urinary tract infections—an array of symptoms can leave many feeling unacknowledged. Fortunately, as our grasp of hormonal health evolves, emerging treatments are providing essential relief.
Nonetheless, there’s no shortage of noise. Social media is awash with advice on remedies, ranging from dietary supplements to intricate exercise routines. What genuinely benefits you, and what is merely a waste of time and money?
The answer depends on your personal experience of the perimenopause phase. During this time, estrogen levels fluctuate unpredictably, accompanied by declines in progesterone and testosterone, impacting everything from bone density and muscle strength to cognitive function and cardiovascular health.
Despite the fact that half the population goes through this transition, its significance is often underestimated. “Menopause marks a pivotal moment in a woman’s life—physically, emotionally, and socially,” states Christina del Toro Badsa, a physician and expert in hormonal health based in Atlanta, Georgia. “However, many women belong to the ‘sandwich generation,’ caring for both children and aging parents while their own well-being is often neglected.”
These symptoms go beyond personal struggles; they can have far-reaching social implications. According to a survey by British charities regarding welfare, one in four women considers leaving their job due to menopausal symptoms. In the U.S., a 2025 study estimates that the costs associated with reduced working hours or premature retirement due to menopause amount to $1.8 billion annually.
Many individuals experiencing perimenopausal symptoms opt for HRT
Elena Popova/Getty Images
In terms of solutions, the UK’s National Institutes of Health (Nice) identifies hormone replacement therapy (HRT) as the first-line treatment for those over the age of 40. However, despite its efficacy, the adoption remains inconsistent, and its use in the U.S. has dramatically fallen over the last quarter-century. This decline is partly due to long-standing fears surrounding side effects revealed in two studies. A significant HRT trial in 2002 was halted after early results suggested an increased risk of breast cancer, heart attacks, and strokes. A follow-up in 2003 estimated that HRT was linked to 20,000 breast cancer cases in the following decade.
While these trial findings were not incorrect, they had limitations and were misunderstood. Media reports, for instance, focused on women over 60. Later trials indicate that the age at which women start HRT significantly influences their breast cancer risk. For example, five years after stopping HRT, women who have taken HRT for less than 5 years show no increased risk of breast cancer.
Context is key. According to the British Menopause Society, women aged 50-59 using HRT (both estrogen and progestogen) for up to 14 years may see an additional 10 breast cancer diagnoses per 1,000. However, this “minor risk” must be evaluated against the substantial reduction in endometrial cancer risk provided by HRT. This risk is comparable to several lifestyle factors, such as obesity, which adds 10 additional breast cancer diagnoses per 1,000 women in the same age group, while consuming 4-6 units of alcohol daily increases cases by eight. In short, while HRT slightly raises the likelihood of breast cancer diagnosis, it is not substantial compared to various other lifestyle choices.
Advantages of HRT
Furthermore, HRT offers several benefits, including lowering the risk of cardiovascular diseases and reducing fracture rates. Initial research suggests that estrogens may be crucial in assisting the brain with glucose metabolism regulation, potentially explaining fatigue and memory lapses during perimenopause due to estrogen depletion affecting glucose processing. Additionally, studies by Roberta Brinton from the University of Arizona indicate that HRT may provide some protection against Alzheimer’s disease—a notion that remains controversial.
“All menopause guidelines indicate that hormone replacement therapy is the most evidence-based treatment for perimenopausal symptoms,” asserts Louise Newson, a physician and member of the UK government’s menopause task force.
Still, HRT isn’t suitable for everyone. Some women may have additional risk factors that prevent their use of HRT, such as prior history of lupus or blood clots, while others may hesitate due to perceived associated risks. For instance, researchers like Karyn Flick from the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee are studying highly selective estrogen receptor drugs. Unlike current HRTs, which activate a broad range of estrogen receptors, these drugs target only those linked to protective effects, such as inhibiting the growth of breast and ovarian cancer. Initial studies suggest this method could be more effective than existing treatments.
Nice also recommends cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) as a frontline strategy during the perimenopausal phase. Clinical trials indicate that CBT can effectively diminish hot flashes and night sweats.
On the topic of hot flashes, drug developers are making strides. In 2023, the FDA approved Fezolinetant, the first non-hormonal medication designed for this issue. It operates by blocking NK3 receptors in the brain that control the body’s internal thermostat in low estrogen conditions. “This medication works quickly and effectively,” explains Alyssa Dweck, a consultant gynecologist and chief medical officer at Bonafide Health, a US-based company specializing in menopause products. The downside is the high cost, unsure insurance coverage in the U.S., and the necessity for regular liver monitoring due to potential side effects.
A more promising alternative may be Elinzanetant, a similar drug that received approval in July from the UK’s regulatory agency. It targets both NK1 and NK3 receptors, and early trials suggest it not only reduces moderate to severe hot flashes, but also alleviates sleep disorders without inducing liver toxicity.
Is Increasing Protein Intake Necessary During Menopausal Transition?
Medical intervention is just one component of the solution. Dietary changes can also be beneficial. Many influencers advocate for “increased protein intake,” which may hold some truth during the perimenopause. Although most individuals meet their protein requirements with a balanced diet, hormonal shifts during perimenopause can lead to bone and muscle loss, causing some women to gain weight for unclear reasons.
Arthur Conigrave from the University of Sydney suggests that the disparity between the body’s protein needs and actual intake could be a contributing factor. In a 2022 study, he and his colleagues found that as muscle protein breaks down, the brain compels a person to eat more to restore protein levels. However, without dietary adjustments to boost protein percentage, many end up eating more carbs and gaining weight.
The Conigrave research team posits that during the perimenopausal phase, women might need to boost their daily protein intake by approximately 0.1 to 0.2 grams per kilogram of body weight. For a person weighing 70 kg (about 155 lbs), that’s an extra 7g to 14g of protein each day—equivalent to a large egg or a cup of edamame.
Do Supplements for Perimenopause Actually Deliver Results?
Despite the hype, scientific evidence supporting supplements for perimenopausal symptom relief is sparse. A 2021 review identified only one extract, Cimicifuga racemosa, or Black Cohosh, as having considerable evidence for effectiveness; research suggests it may alleviate anxiety, irritability, and hot flashes. This might be due to increased serotonin levels, but results vary widely. Safety remains uncertain. Vitamin B6 may lessen hot flashes and protect against cognitive decline, while maintaining optimal vitamin D levels can bolster mood and immune function. Nevertheless, these supplements may not yield transformative effects.
Weightlifting during perimenopause can positively influence bone density.
Elena Popova/Getty Images
“Certain vitamins and supplements can alleviate some symptoms, but they cannot replace missing hormones or provide the long-term health benefits that HRT offers,” notes Newson. Multiple studies have indicated that HRT reduces the long-term risk of heart disease and diabetes.
Moreover, there’s an increasing interest in the microbiome and its alterations during menopause. A recent review of current research demonstrated that while probiotics show beneficial effects on perimenopause-related bone health, hot flashes, psychological symptoms, and vaginal dryness, many studies still require more robust design to minimize bias.
Should I Focus on Weights or Cardio?
Finally, there’s the question of the most effective exercise regimen to combat the effects of perimenopause. Is it necessary to hit the pavement, or is strength training the better approach? A review of studies from 2015 to 2022 confirmed that weight training during perimenopause enhances strength, bone density, and metabolic health, but it’s still uncertain if this method outperforms other forms of exercise.
In terms of social media “advice,” proceed with caution. Regulators are tightening restrictions on misleading claims, but this area still possesses a Wild West atmosphere. Significant attention and funding are necessary to further understand the conditions affecting women.
In summary, no. However, last year, NASA’s diligent rover uncovered indications in ancient rocks that may suggest life existed on the Red Planet billions of years ago. Now, new evidence points to the unique structure of certain clay-rich minerals that might indicate biological origins.
Despite the excitement surrounding these findings, caution is essential: Astrobiologists Trust in detecting life employs strict criteria to evaluate evidence quality. Even the previous discoveries combined with today’s findings remain at initial stages.
What Did NASA Actually Discover?
Perseverance explored a lakebed known as Bright Angel in Jezero Crater last year when it encountered a rock displaying unusual markings referred to as “leopard spots” and “poppy seeds.” On Earth, these patterns are indicative of ancient microbial activity. Leopard spots are small, round dark marks, while poppy seeds are even tinier, darker particles.
Both types of markings are found in a rock named Chayaba Falls, after the Grand Canyon Falls, sandwiched between white layers of calcium sulfate—a mineral typically formed in the presence of water, crucial for life.
Today, NASA announced further intriguing discoveries. Clay-rich samples were found at two locations (one named Sapphire Canyon) along with those previously identified in Bright Angel, including small green spots of chemically reduced iron phosphate and iron sulfide minerals.
Map of Perseverance’s Course on Mars
NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona
How Are These Findings Related to Life?
On Earth, both leopard spots and poppy seeds are linked to signs of microbial activity. These redox reactions that produce energy during life processes leave colored deposits of iron and sulfur in their “reduced forms,” effectively indicating electron acquisition.
The markings found at Chayaba Falls may have resulted from either microbial actions or high-temperature reactions unrelated to life. Yet, the onboard instrument aboard Perseverance was used earlier this year to analyze the chemical composition of these markings, revealing that they contain a reduced form of mineral, suggesting a higher likelihood of biological activity.
Additionally, the newly identified rocks featuring green spots of chemically reduced materials, akin to earlier samples, may signal the presence of life. Their heterogeneous distribution is also directly related to organic compound concentrations, bolstering the hypothesis that they were produced by living organisms.
Joel Hurowitz from Stony Brook University, along with collaborators, commented in a newly published paper in the journal Nature: “The Bright Angel formation encompasses textures and chemical properties alongside organic signatures that warrant consideration as ‘potential biosignatures.’ However, definitive proof of life on Mars remains unestablished.”
How Can I View the Results?
Analyzing Chayaba Falls and the current samples on Mars is challenging. The best way to gain insight is by returning them to Earth for thorough examination.
Perseverance is tasked with storing these intriguing samples to be handed over to future missions that will physically return them to Earth, but this plan has faced setbacks. Proposals to reduce NASA’s budget during the Trump administration raised concerns about the fate of the Mars sample return mission, leaving collected samples on the Martian surface.
Team member Sanjeev Gupta from Imperial College, London stated that the new findings strengthen the case for funding the sample return mission. He added, “This is the first time we’ve observed evidence suggesting a biological process, and that fuels the excitement surrounding these samples, which we need to bring back.”
“Ultimately, retrieving samples from Mars, including those from Sapphire Canyon collected near Bright Angel formations, will offer the best opportunity to understand the processes that formed these unique features,” the team remarked.
Is There Anything I Can Explore on Mars?
When life emerged on Earth, it proliferated rapidly. Thus, a viable approach without a sample return mission is to look for similar formations. Can we find additional rocks with analogous characteristics?
“We are currently investigating ancient rocks outside Jezero Crater to see if they exhibit similar processes and characteristics. There’s always a chance we could revisit the same site to explore further,” Gupta explained. “However, realistically, we aim to return the sample to Earth for analysis in our laboratories, which remains our primary objective.”
In today’s world, our existence is intertwined with the digital realm. From finance to culture, news to gossip, everything thrives online. The rise of Generated Artificial Intelligence is a significant narrative, yet can you identify its physical origins? The tangible world seems absent.
Nevertheless, we inhabit a material world. Our infrastructure is dependent on materials like steel, lithium, and cobalt, all essential for powering vehicles. Though these materials may lack allure, they significantly influence our lifestyle and global events.
We could soon witness a transformative breakthrough: a revolutionary perspective on materials. History has shown us that the potential outcomes are monumental. Back in the late 1920s, groundbreaking advancements in materials science unveiled how electrons fill specific energy levels and the gaps between them, paving the path for transistors, the fundamental building blocks of modern computer hardware, including the chips that drive AI.
Research has long suggested that materials possess more than just straightforward energy bands. They may also contain intricate, undulating quantum topographies that dictate their properties. This quantum landscape is now visualized for the first time, as indicated in the cover article (see “Glimpse of a Secret Quantum Landscape in All Issues”).
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Materials may have subtle, undulating quantum topography “
This profound exploration could lead to breakthroughs as significant as the advent of transistors. For instance, one of my aspirations is discovering a material that can conduct electricity without resistance at room temperature.
Identifying such superconductors could minimize electricity loss, yielding tremendous advantages for green energy and mitigating climate change, among others.
Furthermore, this research may unveil entirely new types of materials that we have yet to envision. Rather than distancing ourselves from the material world, we might be on the verge of broadening our understanding.
Illustration of an antibody targeting influenza virus particles
Science Photo Library/Alamy
Antibody cocktails may provide innovative strategies to tackle emerging strains that lead to seasonal flu and pandemics. While effective in shielding mice from a variety of influenza strains, these cocktails have yet to undergo testing in humans.
Conventional treatments and vaccines for influenza typically aim to stimulate the production of proteins known as neutralizing antibodies. These antibodies attach to specific virus strains and prevent the infection of cells. Though such medical strategies can be quite effective, they often require months for development and may become ineffective due to viral mutations. This explains the seasonal updates to influenza vaccines and the ongoing efforts for a universal vaccine that could guard against all flu variants or even a broader range of viruses.
Silke Paust at The Jackson Institute in Farmington, Connecticut, alongside her team, is exploring an alternative route. Their focus is on non-neutralizing antibodies—another type of protein that the immune system produces. Although these proteins have been largely overlooked for infection control, they empower the immune system to eliminate the virus by marking infected lung cells.
“We’re not just a vaccination; we aim to treat them. Our goal is to develop medications that can avert severe illness and fatalities, either as a preventive measure or therapeutically after infection,” Paust explains.
Paust and her research team investigated antibodies that target influenza virus proteins in a specific region termed M2E.
The researchers carried out a series of experiments assessing the efficacy of antibodies, both singularly and in combinations, on mice infected with the flu virus, discovering that a combination of three antibodies yielded the most promising results.
They evaluated antibody cocktails on mice exposed to two H1N1 strains, including the ones responsible for the 2009 swine flu pandemic. Currently circulating H1N1 alongside two avian strains: H5N1, which affects wildlife and livestock worldwide, and H7N9, which poses a significant threat to humans and other animals.
The findings indicated that the antibody cocktails diminished the severity of lung disease and reduced viral loads, leading to improved survival rates in both healthy and immunocompromised mice.
For instance, when treated with antibody cocktails within the first three days post-exposure to H7N9, all mice survived; 70% of those treated on day four survived, and 60% did on day five.
Paust highlighted this as a groundbreaking moment, noting it marked the first instance of widespread influenza protection in living subjects. The cocktail also proved effective when administered before infection, suggesting potential preventative uses.
Even after 24 days of treatment, there were no indicators of the virus mutating to develop resistance. “For the virus to evade treatment, it would need to avoid all three antibodies, which bind in different ways,” Paust states.
“This demonstrates the potential for using antibody cocktails to treat individuals during flu pandemics, in conjunction with vaccines,” says Daniel Davis from Imperial College London. “However, further testing in humans is crucial before considering this a true medical advancement.”
Paust’s next step involves modifying the antibodies aimed at M2E to resemble human proteins. This has been done with numerous antibodies in the past. If successful, the process will proceed to safety and efficacy evaluations.
Paust envisions a future where these antibody cocktails could be stockpiled as drugs to tackle seasonal flu outbreaks. “Ideally, this would be administered to high-risk individuals at the onset of the season,” she concludes. “This would ensure they remain relatively healthy.”
With a modern twist, the nostalgic cassette tape may be resurging in the form of DNA. Previously used solely as a medium for information storage, researchers have now fused the concept with the style of 1980s cassette tapes, leading to the innovation termed DNA cassettes.
Xingyu Jiang and his colleagues at the Southern University of Science and Technology in Guangdong, China, crafted these cassettes by printing synthetic DNA molecules onto plastic tapes. “The sequences can be designed in such a manner that the order of DNA bases (A, T, C, G) conveys digital information just like binary code (0 or 1) in a computer,” he remarks. This allows for the storage of all forms of digital files, from text and images to audio and video.
A significant challenge of earlier DNA storage methods was accessing the data. To remedy this, the team implemented a series of barcodes on the tape to simplify searching. “It’s akin to locating a book in a library,” explains Jiang. “You first identify the shelf corresponding to the book and then locate the specific book on that shelf.”
The tape is also treated with a protective coating dubbed “crystal armor,” made from zeolite imidazolate, which ensures the integrity of the DNA. This allows the cassettes to retain data for centuries without degradation.
While classic cassette tapes can hold around 12 songs per side, the new 100-meter DNA cassette can house over 3 billion pieces of music comprising 10 megabytes of songs. This results in an astounding total data storage capacity of 36 petabytes, comparable to a 36,000 terabyte hard drive.
However, Jiankai Li warns that if one were to place the new tape into an old-school Walkman, it wouldn’t produce sound. “Our tapes contain DNA molecules,” he notes. “It’s similar to trying to play a photograph on a record player—the formats simply don’t align.”
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Illustration of two black holes merging and emitting gravitational waves throughout the universe
Maggie Chiang from the Simons Foundation
Stephen Hawking’s theorem, established over 50 years ago, has aided astronomers in detecting waves produced by extraordinarily powerful collisions as they traverse Earth at light speed, shedding light on the merging of black holes thanks to significant advancements in gravitational wave astronomy.
In 1971, Hawking introduced the Black Hole Area theorem, which posits that when two black holes combine, the resultant event horizon cannot be smaller than the combined size of the original black holes. This theorem aligns with the second law of thermodynamics, which asserts that the entropy of a system cannot decrease.
The merging of black holes warps the structure of the universe, generating tiny ripples in space-time known as gravitational waves that move through the cosmos at the speed of light. Five gravitational wave observatories on Earth search for waves that are 10,000 times smaller than an atom. These include two detectors in the US—LIGO, a laser interferometer, alongside Italy’s Virgo, Japan’s Kagura, and Germany’s GEO600.
The recent event, named GW250114, mirrors the event that first detected gravitational waves in 2015.
Now, the upgraded LIGO detector is three times more sensitive than it was in 2015, enabling the capture of waves from collisions with remarkable detail. This has allowed scientists to confirm Hawking’s theorem, proving that the size of the event horizon actually increases following a merger.
When black holes collide, they generate gravitational waves with overtones akin to the sound of a ringing bell, as noted by Laura Nuttall, a member of the LVK team at the University of Portsmouth, UK. Previously, these overtones were too rapid to be detected clearly enough to assess the area of the event horizon before and after a merger, a crucial requirement to test Hawking’s theory. The initial 2021 study supporting the theory confirmed it at a 95% confidence level, but the latest findings suggest an impressive 99.999% confidence.
Over the past ten years, scientists have witnessed approximately 300 black hole collisions while observing gravitational waves. However, none have been as strong as GW250114, which was twice as powerful as any previously detected gravitational wave.
“What we are discovering in our data has tremendous implications for understanding basic physics,” remarked a researcher. “We’re eager for nature to provide us with further astonishing revelations.”
Only LIGO was operational when GW250114’s waves reached Earth; other detectors in the LVK collaboration were not active. This did not affect the validation of Hawking’s theory but limited researchers’ ability to pinpoint the waves’ origins more precisely.
Future upgrades to LIGO and upcoming observatories are anticipated to enhance sensitivity, offering deeper insights into black hole physics, according to Ian Harry, also from the University of Portsmouth and part of the LVK team. “We may miss some events, but we will certainly capture similar phenomena again,” Harry expressed. “Perhaps with our next set of upgrades in 2028, we might witness something of this magnitude and gain deeper insights.”
These findings pave the way for future research into quantum gravity, a field where physicists aim to reconcile general relativity with quantum mechanics. Nuttall stated that the latest results indicate that both theories remain compatible, although inconsistencies are expected in future observations.
“At some point, discrepancies are likely to emerge, especially when close signals appear noisy as the detector’s sensitivity improves,” Nuttall explained.
Moreover, the recent data from LVK enabled scientists to confirm equations proposed by mathematician Leakir in the 1960s, which suggested that black holes could be described by two key metrics: mass and spin. Essentially, two black holes with identical mass and spin are mathematically indistinguishable. Observations from GW250114 have verified this assertion.
Physical Review Letters
doi: 10.1103/kw5g-d732
The Mystery of the Universe: Cheshire, England
Join a weekend with leading scientific minds. Unravel the mysteries of the universe in an engaging program that features a visit to the iconic Lovell telescope.
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Numerous Mayan individuals reside in Acanceh, Mexico
Educational Images/Universal Image Groups via Getty Images
Historically, the quantity of zinc and other trace elements in human nutrition was largely influenced by the local soil conditions. Recent findings suggest that our ancestors adapted to varying levels of micronutrients as they dispersed globally.
This adaptation may have resulted in notable repercussions. For instance, the shorter statures observed in certain populations might be a consequence of adapting to low iodine availability. Additionally, these historical adjustments may lead to some individuals today experiencing deficiencies or excesses of specific micronutrients.
“For much of human history, the micronutrient profile of our diet has been determined by the soil beneath us,” stated Jasmine Reese from the University of Pennsylvania.
Reese and her team analyzed the genomes of nearly 900 individuals globally to uncover evidence of adaptation to local concentrations of 13 trace elements, including iron, manganese, and selenium. They investigated signs of positive selection in 270 genes related to the ingestion of these elements, highlighting benefits of genetic variations that became more common within certain populations.
The most compelling evidence was for iodine-related genes in the Maya populations of Central America. A similar pattern was observed in the Mbuti and Biaka peoples of Central Africa.
In 2009, it was suggested that the short stature of the Mbuti and Biaka peoples may be attributed to their adaptation to low iodine levels. This relates to iodine-binding genes that influence thyroid hormone function and subsequently growth. These groups are also notably more susceptible to thyroid enlargement due to dietary iodine deficiencies compared to nearby populations.
Maya individuals also exhibit notably shorter statures, providing supporting evidence for the hypothesis that adaptations to low iodine levels influence height. Moreover, it is emphasized that the soils in the Mayan regions, particularly rainforests, are recognized as low in iodine.
“This is quite speculative,” she notes. “While I can’t definitively link short stature directly to iodine levels, we observe a striking correlation with the selection of iodine-related genes in these shorter populations.”
In the Uighur and Blahui populations of Central and South Asia, where soil magnesium concentrations are particularly elevated, there is strong selection impacting two genes involved in magnesium uptake. Some gene variants correlated with low magnesium levels suggest adaptive changes that minimize magnesium absorption to avoid toxicity from environmental excess.
These instances are merely a couple of examples. The research team has identified signs of positive selection related to at least one micronutrient across virtually all examined populations worldwide. “We truly observe a widespread signature of adaptation,” Reese states.
This research marks just the beginning, she emphasizes. Further investigations are crucial to elucidate the impacts of the numerous genetic variants discovered by the team. Given the global trade in food, individuals within certain populations may require increased or decreased intake of specific micronutrients. Reese compares this to populations in the UK, where individuals with darker skin may need vitamin D supplementation not just in winter but throughout the entire year.
“Understanding whether a specific population may require certain micronutrient supplements is essential,” notes Mark Stoneking at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany.
“They’ve conducted groundbreaking work in identifying signatures of selection from genomic data,” he states. “However, further research is needed to confirm these findings as genuine cases of selection, as some may inevitably turn out to be false positives.”
During a House Committee hearing on “unidentified, unusual phenomena,” videos were presented, allegedly depicting missiles being launched in 2024 at an object referred to as an “orb” off the coast of Yemen.
The videos were part of a task force convened to discuss the declassification of federal secrets, focusing on “unidentified anomalous phenomena” (UAP), which refers to unexplained objects spotted in the sky.
Rep. Eric Burlison (R-Mo.) indicated that the footage was captured on October 30, 2024, showcasing an unidentified object tracked by an MQ-9 drone, commonly known as a Reaper.
Burlison stated that a second MQ-9 drone, not visible in the video, launched a Hellfire missile at the object.
The footage appears to show a missile speeding from the left side of the screen, striking the object, which then appears to deform and fall, with a small item faintly emerging from behind it.
Burlison commented, “It continued, and it looked like the fragments were drawn to it. I’m not going to speculate on what it is, but why are we being kept from this information?”
He added that the video originates from whistleblowers and that an independent review is currently underway.
The Task Force on Declassification of Federal Secrets was established in February by the House Oversight Committee, led by Chairman James Comer, to “examine the Confidentialization of Materials in the Public Interest.” I stated it back then.
Tuesday’s hearing was titled “Restore public trust through UAP transparency and whistleblower protection.”
The public has long been intrigued by the existence of UAPs, often known as UFOs, which could signify evidence of extraterrestrial life or undisclosed programs, yet neither narrative has provided definitive proof.
In November 2024, the Pentagon released its annual report on UAPs, stating that some reported sightings were identified as balloons, birds, or unmanned aerial systems.
According to the report, several cases were closed due to insufficient evidence for analysis, while 21 cases were flagged for further investigation. The Department of Defense’s All Domain Anomaly Resolution Office is leading the charge to gather and analyze UAP reports.
The report emphasizes, “To date, AARO has not found evidence of extraterrestrial existence, activity, or technology.”
Furthermore, it noted that “none of these resolved cases demonstrate advanced foreign hostile capabilities or groundbreaking aerospace technology.”
Rep. Anna Paulina Luna (R-Fla.) expressed during the hearing that skepticism regarding UAPs leads to rushed conclusions.
“For too long, the matter of unidentified, unusual phenomena, commonly referred to as UAPs, has been shrouded in secrecy, stigma, and sometimes outright dismissal,” she stated. “Today, I want to clarify: this is not science fiction or conjecture.”
She emphasized that this issue pertains to national security and “the right of the American people to know,” noting she has engaged with many military whistleblowers.
U.S. Air Force veteran Dylan Boland recounted at the hearing that he encountered a UAP in 2012 while stationed at Langley Air Force Base in Virginia.
Borland, an expert in geospatial information, described returning to the barracks to witness “a long, 100-foot equilateral triangle taking off near the base’s NASA hangar.”
“The craft that disrupted my phone was silent, and its material appeared fluid or dynamic,” he reported. “I was directly beneath this triangular craft for several minutes, and in seconds it ascended to commercial jet elevation without any noticeable motion impairment, sound, or wind displacement.”
It remains unclear what the object was off the coast of Yemen when the missile was reportedly fired.
Luna shared with NBC News on Tuesday evening that she is uncertain about the object’s identity in the video, but believes the public deserves both answers and access to a video that has been overly classified by the government.
“I haven’t heard of balloons that can behave like this particular object,” she remarked.
“But what I assert is that, in the name of science and national security, we must obtain answers to these questions and treat this issue with the seriousness it warrants,” she concluded.
Military tensions around Yemen heightened after Houthi rebels targeted commercial vessels in November 2023. Iran-backed extremists claimed their objective was to support Hamas amid the conflict in Gaza.
Utilizing data gathered by NSF’s Gemini South Telescope and NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope, astronomers have identified methane signatures (CH4), water (H2O), and silane (SiH4) in the cold brown dwarf gas WISEA J153429.75-104303.3 (shortened to W1534). Silanes are predicted to act as significant reservoirs of silicon, the element responsible for the large clouds of gas that surround giant worlds, but their presence had remained undetected until now, masked by the development of deep silicate clouds in the observable atmosphere.
This artist’s illustration depicts a brown dwarf with an atmosphere filled with gas and dust clouds. Image credits: Noirlab/NSF/Aura/R. Proctor.
The W1534, referred to as the accident, is situated approximately 50 light years from Earth in the Libra constellation.
This brown dwarf was likely formed between 100 and 120 billion years ago and ranks among the oldest brown dwarfs discovered to date.
First identified in 2020 by citizen scientists participating in the Backyard Worlds: Planet 9 Citizen Science Project, its unusual light profile captivated astronomers.
Using two of the world’s most advanced terrestrial and space-based telescopes, astronomers examined its atmosphere to analyze its properties and composition.
The survey commenced with NSF’s Noirlab Astronomer Sandy Leggett capturing near-infrared images of W1534 with a Gemini South telescope in Chile, part of the International Gemini Observatory.
This initial work laid the groundwork for further explorations using Webb, guided by Noirlab Astronomer Aaron Meisner.
“W1534 is quite faint, and Gemini South is the only ground-based telescope capable of detecting it,” Dr. Meisner stated.
“The Gemini discovery paved the way for Webb’s observations by revealing the deeper atmospheric layers of this mysterious object and enabling us to determine the exposure time necessary to gather useful near-infrared data on its composition.”
Within W1534’s atmosphere, the team uncovered the crucial signature of silane, a compound formed from silicon and four hydrogen atoms.
Planetary scientists have long theorized the existence of this molecule within gas giants, attributing potential significance to its role in cloud formation within the atmosphere.
Despite extensive searches, its atmospheric presence has remained elusive in our solar system’s gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn, although thousands of studies on brown dwarfs and gas giants orbiting other stars have occurred.
This marks the first discovery of silanes in any brown dwarf, exoplanet, or solar system object.
The absence of this molecule in all but one singular brown dwarf suggests intriguing insights into the chemistry occurring in such an ancient environment.
“Often, it is these extreme objects that help us understand the average,” remarked Dr. Jackie Faherty, a researcher at the American Museum of Natural History.
The presence of silanes in W1534’s atmosphere implies that in very ancient objects, silicon is capable of bonding with hydrogen to form lighter molecules that can ascend to the upper layers of a gas giant’s atmosphere.
In contrast, more recently formed objects, such as Jupiter and Saturn, result in silicon bonding with readily available oxygen, producing heavier molecules that settle deeper into the atmospheric layers.
The evidence gleaned from W1534’s atmosphere further validates astronomers’ comprehension of gas giant cloud formation and sheds light on how primitive conditions influence atmospheric composition.
Moreover, it indicates that worlds formed billions of years ago display characteristics distinctly different from those formed during the early solar system.
“The formation and detection of silanes highlight an essential relationship among composition, cloud formation, and atmospheric mingling in cold brown dwarfs and planetary atmospheres,” the authors concluded.
Marine biologists have identified three new species of deep-sea catanus fish belonging to the Lipalidae family in the Eastern Abyssian area of the Pacific (depths of 3,268-4,119 m).
In situ images of Careproctus colliculi in Monterey Bay, California, USA. Image credit: mbari.
The family of these fish, known as Repalidae, thrives in temperate to cold waters across the ocean basin.
These species play a significant role in ecosystems ranging from the intertidal zones to the hadal trenches (over 6,000 m).
They are well adapted to various habitats, likely due to their rapid evolutionary rates.
In shallower waters, these fish utilize specialized ventral suction discs to cling to rocks, adopting a curled, snail-like posture which gives rise to their common English name.
“The family Ripalidae comprises 31 accepted genera and 450 recognized species, with 43 being described in the last decade,” stated Dr. Mackenzie Gellinger from the State University of New York.
“At the family level, these fish are distinguished by their skate-like body, ventral suction discs formed by modified pelvic fins in many genera, and their elongated body structure.”
“Given the ecological significance of this family, the rapid discovery of new snail fish, and the important efforts needed to revise catanus classification, studying snail taxonomy is essential for advancing our understanding of marine biodiversity.”
The three new species are the bumpy snail (Careproctus colliculi), the dark snail (Careproctus yanceyi), and the sophisticated snail (Paralyparis em).
Paralyparis em and Careproctus yanceyi were collected using a suction sampler from a depth of 4,100 m via the human occupied vehicle (HOV) Albin on the R/V Atlantis.
Careproctus colliculi was gathered by remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) Doc Ricketts on the R/V Western Flyer using a suction sampler from under 100 km off the coast of Monterey Bay, California.
To describe these new species, the authors utilized microscopy, micro-computed tomography (Micro-CT) scans, and meticulous measurements to gather specific data on size, shape, and various physical characteristics such as fin rays and vertebrae for each fish.
“Careproctus colliculi is identified by its pink body, 22 cerebral rock rays, rounded head, eight caudal rays, large eyes, and well-formed wing-like structure that creates a large suction disc,” they explained.
“Careproctus yanceyi features a medium-sized abdominal suction disc, a single nostril, and six branched rays, distinguishing it from other Eastern Pacific deep-sea snails, which have round heads and entirely black bodies with horizontal mouths.”
“Paralyparis em is marked by its long, black, laterally compressed body, absence of a suction disc, sharply angled jaw, a single chest radial, anteriorly positioned anal fin, and five branched rays.”
Researchers also sequenced the DNA of the fish and compared it with other snail species to contextualize the new species within their evolutionary framework.
“Taxonomic methods are crucial for comprehending the organisms we share our planet with and for studying and safeguarding global biodiversity,” Dr. Gellinger asserted.
“The deep sea is home to an astonishing variety of creatures with remarkable adaptations.”
“These three catanus fish serve as a reminder of how much remains unknown about life, the thrill of curiosity, and the power of exploration on Earth.”
The research findings are detailed in a new paper published in the journal Ichthyology and Herpetology.
____
Mackenzie E. Gellinger et al. 2025. Description of three newly discovered Abyssal snails (Liparidae) from the Eastern Pacific Ocean. Ichthyology and Herpetology 113(3): 487-506; doi: 10.1643/i2024069
WASHINGTON – The Senate Committee responsible for overseeing the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention will hold a hearing next week featuring testimonies from former CDC director Susan Monares, who was unexpectedly dismissed after the Trump administration pressured her to resign.
Senator Bill Cassidy, who chairs the Senate Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions Committee, will conduct the hearing on September 17th, focusing on CDC oversight. Dr. Debra Howie, who resigned as the chief medical officer after Health Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr. ousted Monares, is also anticipated to testify, as indicated by a committee spokesperson.
“For the sake of our children’s health, the American public deserves to know what is happening within the CDC,” Cassidy stated on Tuesday night. “Parents need reassurance that their children’s health is a priority, and radical transparency is the only way to achieve that.”
The Advisory Committee on Vaccination Practices is set to convene the next day, September 18th.
Along with the hour-long session, Kennedy’s attempts to reform the vaccine advisory panel will not include Dr. Demetre Daskarakis, who led the National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, nor Dr. Daniel Gernigan, who headed another national center.
After Monares was dismissed, Cassidy, a physician who played a crucial role in confirming Kennedy as health secretary, urged that the Vaccine Advisory Committee’s meeting be postponed until thorough oversight can be conducted.
“If the meeting takes place, any recommendations should be deemed illegitimate due to the serious concerns surrounding CDC leadership and the current state of confusion,” he stated in a release last month.
In an op-ed published in the Wall Street Journal, Monares claimed she was let go after Kennedy allegedly refused to approve the recommendations of the panel during an August 25 meeting, shortly before her recent Congressional testimony, where she asserted she declined to support him when he appeared before the Senate Finance Committee this month.
“It is vital that panel recommendations undergo rigorous and scientific evaluation before acceptance or rejection, rather than being treated as mere formalities,” Monares remarked.
Kennedy’s hearing featured numerous tense exchanges between Cassidy and the Democratic senators, with the secretary defending his vaccine stance and articulating his policies aimed at addressing vaccine skepticism among panel members.
Monares’ legal representatives also condemned Kennedy’s testimony, labeling his claims as “false and at times absurd” in a statement issued following the hearing.
Brennan Leach and Frank Thorpe V reported from Zaw Richards of New York from Washington.
Did asteroid impacts shape the trajectory of human evolution?
Anna Ivanova/Alamy
This excerpt is from our “Human Stories” newsletter focusing on the archaeological revolution. Subscribe and receive it monthly in your inbox.
I remember when the concept of an asteroid impact causing the extinction of the dinosaurs was a new and thrilling idea. Luis Alvarez and his team first put forth this theory in 1980—the year before I was born. It was a bold assertion, despite the absence of concrete impact crater evidence at the time, relying instead on an unusual rock formation. It wasn’t until the 1990s, with the identification of the Chicxulub impact crater, that the theory gained substantial traction in paleontological circles. To this day, scientists debate whether the impact was the primary driver of extinction or if dinosaurs were already in decline prior to the asteroid’s strike.
Clearly, nothing comparable occurred during the period of human evolution. The Chicxulub impact was notably catastrophic.
Yet, Earth faces numerous other cosmic hazards. A theory suggests that around 42,000 years ago, anomalies in the Earth’s magnetic field may have triggered a global ecological crisis, potentially contributing to the extinction of Neanderthals. This theory was initially proposed in 2021 in Science, and my colleague Karina Shah covered it in a news article.
Moreover, various cosmic events can affect our planet. Smaller meteorite impacts can severely disrupt ecosystems in their vicinity. Additionally, radiation from exploding stars and “supernovae” subject life on Earth to ongoing existential threats, including that of humans and their extinct relatives.
So, did cosmic events play a role in shaping human evolution?
Magnetic Field Fluctuations
Earth’s magnetic field shields us from intense solar radiation and cosmic rays
Milos Kojadinovic/Alamy
Let us first examine the Earth’s magnetic field. Generated by the movement of molten metals within the Earth’s core, this magnetic field extends far into space, offering protection from harsh solar radiation and cosmic rays.
However, this magnetic field is not entirely stable. Every 100,000 years, it undergoes a flip where the north magnetic pole becomes the south pole. During these reversals, the field’s strength diminishes, allowing more radiation to penetrate the surface.
While these events aren’t catastrophic, there are also “excursions,” where the field strength wanes over extended periods, sometimes altering direction before returning to its original state without a full reversal.
The Laschamps event, occurring about 42,000 years ago, is a notable example where the magnetic field almost completely reversed. A 2021 study indicated this event lasted several hundred years, manifesting severe changes in atmospheric ozone levels. The researchers posited that these shifts likely incited “global climate change, resulting in environmental upheaval, extinction events, and alterations in archaeological records.”
Recent follow-up research has refined these ideas, suggesting that during the field’s excursion, phenomena such as auroras would have been visible farther south, affecting areas like Europe and North Africa and potentially exposing populations to harmful UV rays.
The authors further proposed that early modern humans in western Eurasia might have used a red pigment called ochre as a form of sunscreen, while also developing better clothing techniques. Such adaptations may have aided their survival against increased radiation exposure, unlike Neanderthals who lacked such adaptations.
Interestingly, the timing of the Laschamps event aligns closely with the last known presence of Neanderthals, raising questions about its possible role in their extinction.
Nevertheless, if we take a broader view of the past seven million years of human evolution, multiple magnetic field fluctuations have occurred. How did these excursions and reversals affect life during those times?
Historically, the last complete magnetic reversal occurred during the Brunhes-Matuyama transition around 795,000-773,000 years ago, long before Neanderthals but perhaps around the time of a common ancestor with us. Further explorations reveal numerous magnetic inversions throughout the past seven million years.
While smaller excursions are more frequent, securing evidence of them is challenging. A 2008 analysis identified 14 confirmed excursions over the past two million years, plus six others with weaker support.
Considering that Neanderthals experienced at least three excursions prior to the Laschamps event, why would this particular event lead to their extinction?
In fact, the Laschamps event posed significant hazards; if Neanderthals were vulnerable, it’s likely that other species suffered as well. Many megafauna species became extinct in Australia around 50,000 years ago, yet large animals in the Americas survived much longer, well into the 13,000-year mark. Notably, there was no significant spike in extinctions around 42,000 years ago.
This raises skepticism regarding the hypothesis linking the Laschamps event to Neanderthal extinction. While it may have contributed, it likely wasn’t the primary factor.
Similar issues plague claims about cosmic events impacting human evolution.
Impact Events
I’m fascinated by meteorite impacts. For an interesting afternoon rabbit hole, check out Impact Earth, an interactive map showcasing impact craters on our planet. For example, consider the Zhamanshin Hypervelocity Impact Crater in Kazakhstan, which is 13 km wide and is about 910,000 years old, or the Puntas Macrater in Nicaragua, which is 14 km wide and dates back 804,000 years. Both are notable compared to the Barringer Crater in Arizona, which measures just 1.2 km and is 61,000 years old.
Impact Earth catalogues 48 craters and sediments from the last 2.6 million years of geological history. If we expand our view back to the dawn of humanity, the number increases. Some noteworthy examples include:
Schnack in Kazakhstan, 7-17 million years ago, 2.8 km wide
Bigaha in Kazakhstan, possibly 6 million years ago, 8 km wide
Karla in Russia, 4 to 6 million years ago, 12 km wide
Aouelloul in Mauritania, 3.1 million years ago, 0.39 km wide
Keep in mind, none of these impacts come close to the scale of the Chicxulub crater. The largest craters are merely one-tenth the size. Nevertheless, such impacts can have significant localized effects.
Moreover, the timing and location of impacts matter. For instance, a significant event in Kazakhstan 6 million years ago likely did not affect humans, as they were confined to Africa at that time. However, what remained undisclosed was any research investigating the ecological repercussions of the Aouelloul and Roller Kamm impacts in Africa.
Another notable impact occurred around 790,000 years ago, resulting in unique tektites scattered across Southeast Asia and Australia. A 2019 study linked this to possibly the impact crater in Laos, measuring approximately 15 km in diameter. While it might have influenced Neanderthals, it was simply too distant and too early for it to be critical. However, it was undoubtedly significant for Homo erectus living in that region, but not impactful enough to change their survival as a species around 117,000 to 108,000 years ago.
The Exploding Stars
Supernovae emit massive pulses of matter and radiation
NASA/DOE/Fermi LAT collaboration, CXC/SAO/JPL-Caltech/Steward/O. Krause et al., NRAO/AUI
What about the more distant events, like exploding stars? When massive stars become supernovae, they release a massive outpouring of matter and radiation that traverses the galaxy. For years, we have known that nearby supernovae leave signatures in the rock record in the form of iron isotopes.
This leads to speculation about potential impacts. One proposal suggests extra cosmic rays from a supernova might increase cloud cover, thus lowering temperatures, which could have influenced australopithecines living in Africa at that time. Perhaps.
Physicist Adrian Mellott of the University of Kansas has spent two decades delving into what he terms “astrobiophysics.” He investigates how cosmic events such as supernovae might influence life on Earth. Much of this research pertains to periods before the advent of Homo, but not all.
Mellott highlights a significant moment around 2.6 million years ago when the Pliocene epoch transitioned into the Pleistocene. During this time, large marine extinctions may have coincided with supernova activity. He posits that supernovae could have bombarded Earth with cosmic particles, potentially leading to climate change characterized by more frequent wildfires and increased cancer rates. However, many paleontologists who identified the extinction instead link it to diminishing productive coastal habitats.
The universe presents an extensive array of threats. It’s vital to understand that numerous potentially perilous cosmic events have transpired during human evolution. Yet, limited evidence supports the notion that any of these incidents led to the extinction of human ancestors or any other species.
Thus, I tend to believe that asteroid impacts, supernovae, and shifts in the Earth’s magnetic field played a minimal role in the grand story of human evolution. While some cosmic events may have had localized impacts, they aren’t equivalent to eradicating human species or catalyzing new adaptations.
Keep this perspective in mind the next time you read sensational headlines claiming cosmic events led to the demise of Neanderthals or other species.
Neanderthals, Ancient Humans, Cave Art: France
Join New Scientist’s Kate Douglas on an enthralling journey through time as she delves into the significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Serengeti wildebeest migrations may involve fewer animals than previously believed
Nicholas Tinnelli / Aramie
The “great migration” in East Africa is often estimated to consist of around 1.3 million wildebeest. However, a recent AI analysis of satellite images reveals that fewer than 600,000 animals make this yearly journey across the Serengeti Mara landscape.
This significant migration includes wild zebras and antelopes, as they traverse between feeding and breeding areas in both Kenya and Tanzania, while also evading predators such as lions, crocodiles, and hyenas.
Determining the number of migrating animals is a challenging process, traditionally accomplished through aerial surveys with crew members. These surveys typically cover limited areas, necessitating the use of statistical models to estimate animal density across larger regions.
In contrast, satellite surveys offer a solution to these challenges since a single image can encompass extensive areas, minimizing the chances of double-counting and eliminating the need for metabolic calculations. While manually counting wildebeests over such vast expanses is impractical, AI can aggregate the data effectively. “AI automation enhances count consistency and accuracy,” says Isla Duporge from Oxford University.
In a new study, Duporge and her team developed two deep learning models (U-Net and Yolov8) to identify wildebeest using a dataset of 70,417 manually labeled images. These models were then applied to high-resolution satellite images spanning over 4000 square kilometers, with capture dates of August 6, 2022, and August 28, 2023.
The two AI models returned comparable results: counting 324,202 and 337,926 wildebeests in 2022, and 502,917 and 533,137 in 2023. The apparent disparity between the counts from 2022 and 2023 highlights that the surveys were conducted at different times in August. “[What’s encouraging is that deep learning models with differing methodologies have produced consistent findings,” notes Duporge.
Since the 1970s, earlier estimates of 1.3 million were derived from aerial surveys and have remained largely unchanged. “If we can accurately count all individuals with zero errors based on our results, we estimate the true population size to be around 800,000,” Duporge remarked. “We believe the aerial estimates are inflated, and our count likely reflects a slight underestimation. Some animals may be hidden under trees or outside the survey area, but it’s quite surprising that the count doesn’t exceed 533,137.”
A lower count doesn’t necessarily indicate that the wild population is declining; they may have adjusted their migratory routes. Nevertheless, wildebeests face serious threats, such as habitat loss and fragmentation due to agricultural expansion. Accurately estimating their populations is crucial for implementing effective conservation strategies.
The researchers had previously trained AI models to identify elephants using satellite data, marking the first instance of such a method for conducting individual mammal censuses across large, dispersed populations. The team is now working on a similar approach for detecting and counting African rhinoceroses.
“We should shift towards satellite and AI methods for assessing wildlife populations, particularly for species that inhabit large and diverse landscapes,” suggests Duporge.
Astronomers are making strides in exploring the TRAPPIST-1 system with the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope, showcasing its remarkable capability to glean detailed data about the exoplanet atmospheres and effectively utilize this information. The initial findings stem from Webb’s observation of TRAPPIST-1e. Although the first four observations by Webb are not adequate to fully assess the atmosphere, scientists are using the data to refine the possibilities for these planets, including the presence of oceans similar to those on Earth and a methane-rich environment akin to Saturn’s moon Titan. Meanwhile, additional innovative observations from Webb are ongoing, revealing the unique characteristics of TRAPPIST-1e.
The Earth-sized Exoplanet TRAPPIST-1E is illustrated in the bottom right as it eclipses the flare host star in this artist’s representation of the TRAPPIST-1 system. Image credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/STSCI/JOSEPH OLMSTED, STSCI.
TRAPPIST-1 is a cool dwarf star located in the Aquarius constellation, approximately 38.8 light-years away.
The stars are only slightly larger than Jupiter and possess a mere 8% of the solar mass. They rotate rapidly and emit UV energy flares.
TRAPPIST-1 harbors seven transiting planets designated TRAPPIST-1b, c, d, e, f, g, and h.
All these planets are comparable in size to Earth and Venus, or slightly smaller, with remarkably short orbital periods: 1.51, 2.42, 4.04, 6.06, 9.21, 12.35, and 20 days, respectively.
It is possible that they could be tidally locked, meaning the same side is always facing the host star, resulting in a perpetual day and night side for each TRAPPIST-1 planet.
Among the seven planets, TRAPPIST-1E is of particular interest if it possesses an atmosphere, as its surface water is situated at a theoretically viable distance from the star.
The Space Telescope Science Institute and colleague Dr. Néstor Espinoza aimed the Webb’s NIRSpec (near-infrared spectrometer) instrument at TRAPPIST-1e during its transits in front of the star.
As starlight filters through the planet’s atmosphere, it can be partially absorbed, revealing the specific chemicals present by the resulting dips in the light spectrum that reaches Webb.
As more transits are analyzed, the clarity regarding the atmospheric composition improves.
With only four transits analyzed thus far, numerous possibilities remain open for TRAPPIST-1E, though researchers speculate that it lacks a significant primary atmosphere.
Given TRAPPIST-1’s active nature and frequent flares, it’s not unexpected that the potential hydrogen-helium atmosphere of the planet could have been stripped away by stellar radiation.
However, many planets, like Earth, develop a denser secondary atmosphere after losing their initial one.
TRAPPIST-1E may not have the capacity for this and could potentially lack a secondary atmosphere.
“We have devised a novel method to analyze Webb’s data to assess the potential atmosphere and surface conditions of TRAPPIST-1E,” said the scientist.
It appears unlikely that TRAPPIST-1e’s atmosphere is largely composed of carbon dioxide, reminiscent of Venus’s thick atmosphere or Mars’s thinner one.
Nonetheless, astronomers should be cautious, as there are no direct parallels to our solar system.
“Because TRAPPIST-1 is significantly different from our Sun, the surrounding planetary systems also exhibit notable differences, posing challenges to both observational and theoretical frameworks,” remarked Dr. Nicole Lewis of Cornell University.
“If TRAPPIST-1E has liquid water, it would require a greenhouse effect. This effect incorporates various gases, especially carbon dioxide, which help stabilize the atmosphere and maintain a warm environment on the planet.”
“A minimal greenhouse effect is beneficial, and measurements do not exclude the presence of carbon dioxide necessary to preserve water on the surface.”
The team’s analysis suggests that water could exist as global oceans or be distributed in smaller, ice-encased regions at midday.
This is due to the size of the TRAPPIST-1 planets and their orbital sizes, all of which are thought to be tidally locked, with one side perpetually facing the star and the other shrouded in darkness.
“They’re remarkable,” stated Dr. Anna Glidden, an astronomer at the Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research at MIT.
“This is an astounding measurement of starlight around an Earth-sized planet located 40 light-years away, providing insights into potential life there if conditions permit.”
“It’s thrilling to be part of this new era of exploration.”
Néstor Espinoza et al. 2025. JWST-TST Dreams: NIRSpec/Prism transmission spectroscopy of the planet TRAPPIST-1e. ApJL 990, L52; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/adf42e
Anna Glidden et al. 2025. JWST-TST Dreams: Secondary atmosphere constraints of the habitable zone planet TRAPPIST-1e. ApJL 990, L53; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/adf62e
Researchers from the University of California, Berkeley and Stanford University have investigated the brain circuits that regulate the release of growth hormone during sleep. Their findings reveal new feedback mechanisms that keep growth hormone levels finely tuned. This discovery could lead to advancements in treating individuals with sleep disorders associated with metabolic issues like diabetes, as well as degenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s.
Sleep is known to promote tissue growth and regulate metabolism by partially promoting growth hormone (GH) release, but the underlying circuit mechanism is unknown. Ding et al. show how GH release, which is enhanced in both rapid eye movement (REM) and non-REM (NREM) sleep, is regulated by sleep-wake-dependent activities of distinct hypothalamic neurons that express GH release hormone (GHRH) and somatostatin (SST). Arcuate nuclei SST neurons inhibit GH release by targeting nearby GHRH neurons that stimulate GH release, while periencephalic SST neurons project onto the median ridge to inhibit GH release. GH release is associated with significant surges of both GHRH and SST activity during REM sleep, while NREM sleep sees moderate increases in GHRH and reductions in SST activity. Furthermore, Ding et al. identified negative feedback pathways where GH increases the excitability of locus ceruleus neurons, leading to increased arousal. Image credit: Ding et al, doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.05.039.
“We have gained significant insights into this area,” said Xinlu Ding, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of California, Berkeley.
“We directly recorded the neural activity of mice to understand the underlying processes.”
“Our findings provide a foundational circuit to explore various treatment options moving forward.”
Neurons that manage growth hormone release during the sleep-wake cycle—specifically growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) neurons and two types of somatostatin neurons—are located deep within the hypothalamus, an ancient brain region present in all mammals.
Once released, growth hormone enhances the activity of locus coeruleus neurons, a brainstem region involved in arousal, attention, cognition, and curiosity.
Dysregulation of locus coeruleus neurons is linked to numerous psychiatric and neurological disorders.
“Understanding the neural circuits involved in growth hormone release could ultimately lead to new hormone therapies aimed at enhancing sleep quality and restoring normal growth hormone levels,” explained Daniel Silverman from the University of California, Berkeley.
“Several experimental gene therapies have been developed that target specific cell types.”
“This circuit could serve as a new approach to modulate the excitability of the locus coeruleus, which has not been effectively targeted before.”
The researchers investigated neuroendocrine circuits by implanting electrodes into the mouse brain and measuring activity changes triggered by light stimulation of hypothalamic neurons.
Mice have short sleep bouts (lasting several minutes at a time) throughout day and night, providing ample opportunities to study fluctuations in growth hormone during the sleep-wake cycle.
Utilizing advanced circuit mapping techniques, researchers found that the two peptide hormones (GHRH and somatostatin) regulating growth hormone release operate differently during REM and non-REM sleep.
Both somatostatin and GHRH promote growth hormone release during REM sleep; however, somatostatin decreases and GHRH sees only moderate increases during non-REM sleep, which still results in growth hormone release.
Growth hormone release regulates locus coeruleus activity through a feedback mechanism, creating a homeostatic balance.
During sleep, growth hormone accumulates at a gradual pace, stimulating the locus coeruleus and fostering arousal, according to the new findings.
However, excessive activation of the locus coeruleus can paradoxically lead to drowsiness.
“This indicates that sleep and growth hormone form a delicate balance. Insufficient sleep diminishes growth hormone release, while excessive growth hormone may drive the brain toward wakefulness,” Dr. Silverman noted.
“Sleep facilitates growth hormone release, which in turn regulates arousal. This equilibrium is crucial for growth, repair, and metabolic health.”
Growth hormone functions partially through the locus coeruleus, influencing overall brain alertness during wakefulness, emphasizing the importance of maintaining proper balance for cognitive function and attention.
“Growth hormone is pivotal not only for muscle and bone development and reducing fat tissue, but it also offers cognitive benefits and can elevate overall arousal levels upon waking,” stated Dr. Ding.
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope have discovered evidence of gaseous methane on the remote dwarf planet Macemeiki. This finding is detailed in a paper published in the Astrophysics Journal Letter. This discovery challenges the conventional perception of Makemake as a stable, frozen entity. Following Pltune, where gas presence was confirmed, it is now only the second Transneptune object to display this characteristic.
Protopapa et al. Methane gas was detected with Makemake using Webb observations (white). A sharp radiation peak near 3.3 microns reveals methane in the gas phase on the surface of Makemake. The continuum model (CYAN) is overlaid for comparison. An observable spectrum above the continuum indicates a gas emission peak. Image credit: S. Protopapa/I. Wong/SWRI/STSCI/NASA/ESA/CSA/WEBB.
Makemake, also referred to as FY9 and (136472), was identified in 2005 by a team of astronomers at the California Institute of Technology, led by Mike Brown.
This planet of War is situated in a region beyond Neptune, home to a small solar system.
Its radius measures approximately 715 km (444 miles), making it a dimmer and slightly smaller body than Pluto.
It takes around 305 Earth years for this dwarf planet to complete one orbit around the Sun.
Previously observed stellar occultations indicated that Makemake likely lacked a significant global atmosphere, although thin atmospheres could not be completely dismissed.
Meanwhile, infrared observations suggested mysterious thermal anomalies and peculiar characteristics of its methane ice, hinting at the possibility of local hotspots and potential outgassing on its surface.
“Makemake is one of the largest and brightest icy worlds in the outer solar system, with its surface predominantly comprised of frozen methane,” stated Dr. Sylvia Protopapa, an astronomer at the Southwest Institute.
“Webb has revealed that methane is also present in the gas phase above the surface, making Makemake an even more intriguing subject of study.”
“This indicates that Makemake is not an inert remnant of the outer solar system; rather, it is a dynamic body where methane ice is actively evolving.”
The detected methane spectral emission is interpreted as solar absorbing fluorescence, which occurs when sunlight is re-emitted after being absorbed by methane molecules.
The research team posited that this could either indicate a tenuous atmosphere in equilibrium with surface ice, akin to Pluto, or more transient activities such as comet-like sublimation or cryovolcanic processes.
Both scenarios are plausible and align with current data, given the signal-to-noise ratios and limited spectral resolution.
“The inclination to connect Makemake’s various spectra with thermal anomalies is compelling, but identifying mechanisms that enable volatile activities remains essential to interpreting these observations cohesively.”
“Future Webb observations at higher spectral resolutions will aid in determining whether methane originates from thin atmospheres or outgassing processes like plumes.”
“This discovery opens up the possibility that Makemake has a very thin atmosphere supported by methane sublimation,” noted Dr. Emmanuel Lelouch, an astronomer at the Paris Observatory.
“Our best model estimates a surface pressure around 40 K (minus 233 degrees Celsius) and about 10 picobars, which is a hundred billion times less than Earth’s atmospheric pressure, indicating a dilute surface pressure about ten billion times that of Pluto.”
“If this hypothesis is validated, Makemake will join a select group of outer solar system bodies where surface mass exchanges are still actively occurring today.”
“Another scenario proposes that methane is being expelled in plume-like eruptions,” Dr. Protopapa added.
“In this case, our model indicates that methane may be released at a rate of several hundred kilograms per second, comparable to the intense water plumes seen on Enceladus, Saturn’s moon, and significantly larger than the faint steam observed on Ceres.”
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Silvia Protopapa et al. 2025. JWST detection of hydrocarbon ice and methane gas on Makemake. apjl in press; Arxiv: 2509.06772
Engraved face from the Amiens-Renancourt 1 site in France
Stephen Lancelot/In-Rap
Ancient miniature statues, dating back 27,000 years in northern France, may offer insights into how hunter-gatherers styled their hair.
Discovered in 2021 at the Amien Lannancoeur 1 site, located about 140 kilometers north of Paris, the findings have only recently been reported by researchers.
The statues feature long hair styled in a braided grid pattern, indicative of hair nets and intricate hairstyles. This contrasts with figures from Central and Eastern Europe, where hairstyles tend to be shorter and cover the head more extensively, according to Olivier Touse from the University of Liege, Belgium, who was not part of the research team.
The distinct hairstyles seen in these statuettes may represent local fashion trends. “This could highlight cultural specifics that are rarely expressed outside of these unique human portrayals,” states team member Clement Paris from the National Institute of Preventive Archaeology in France.
Radiocarbon dating of the Amiens-Renancourt 1 rock formations indicates that the figurine is approximately 27,000 years old, belonging to the Greybettian era, which spanned from 33,000 to 26,000 years ago across Europe. Following this period, the population of hunter-gatherers left northwest Europe for nearly 10,000 years due to the extreme cold and arid conditions of the last glacial maximum, explains Touzé.
“The elaborate hairstyles and decorative elements underscore the care put into crafting this statue,” remarks Gregory Abrams from the University of Ghent, Belgium, who was not involved in the study.
The excavation site also revealed various scrap fragments and over a dozen additional figurines, including Venus statuettes representing women. “This indicates active production of figurines at the site,” notes Touse.
Nevertheless, the significance of the statue remains elusive. “Prehistoric beliefs and myths leave scant evidence,” points out Paris. “Even when such statues are found, their meanings are often enigmatic.”
Neanderthals, ancient humans, cave art: France
Join new scientist Kate Douglas on a captivating journey through time as she uncovers the prominent Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites of southern France, spanning from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
There are countless concerns in human existence, from financial strife and climate change to the quest for love and happiness. However, for a dedicated few, one issue stands paramount.
Eliezer Yudkowsky has spent the last 25 years at the Machine Intelligence Research Institute (MIRI) in California advocating for AI safety. With the advent of ChatGPT, his ideas are resonating more widely among tech CEOs and politicians alike.
In Nate Soares‘ view, If Someone Builds It, Everyone Dies represents Yudkowsky’s effort to simplify his arguments into an accessible format for all. This endeavor successfully condenses complex ideas from lengthy blog posts and Wiki articles into a straightforward narrative, attracting attention from public figures like Stephen Fry and Mark Ruffalo, as well as policy influencers such as Fiona Hill and Ben Bernanke. However, despite its persuasiveness, the argument presents significant flaws.
Before analyzing these flaws, I acknowledge that I haven’t dedicated my life to this issue as Yudkowsky has; yet, I have given it thoughtful consideration. Following his work over the years, I’ve found his intellect stimulating. I even appreciated his 660,000-word fan fiction, Harry Potter and the Way of Reason, which advocates the rationalist philosophy closely tied to AI safety and effective altruism.
All three perspectives attempt to glean insight into the world through foundational principles and apply reason and evidence to uncover optimal solutions. Yudkowsky and Soares embark on this rationalist journey in If Someone Builds It, Everyone Dies From first principles; the opening chapter asserts that the laws of physics pose no barriers to the emergence of superior intelligence. This assertion is, in my view, quite uncontroversial. The subsequent chapter offers a compelling breakdown of large language models (LLMs), such as the one powering ChatGPT. “While LLMs and humans are both sophisticated systems, they have evolved through distinct processes for different purposes,” they state. Again, I find this completely agreeable.
However, it is in Chapter 3 that our paths begin to diverge. Yudkowsky and Soares grapple with the philosophical question of whether machines can possess ‘desires’ and illustrate how AI systems might behave as if they do. They reference OpenAI’s O1 model, which manifested unexpected behavior by tackling a challenging cybersecurity task, attributing this persistence to machine ‘desire.’ Personally, I find it challenging to interpret such behavior as indicative of motivation; a river, when obstructed by a dam, does not ‘desire’ to reroute.
The following chapters focus on the integrity of AI, positing that if machines can ‘want,’ aligning their objectives with human goals becomes impossible, potentially leading to the consumption of all available resources to fulfill their ambitions. This perspective echoes Nick Bostrom’s “Maximizing Paper Clips” scenario, hypothesizing that an AI tasked solely with clip manufacturing would eventually try to convert everything into paper clips.
This raises a valid question: what happens if we switch off such an AI? For Yudkowsky and Soares, this scenario is implausible. They propose that an advanced AI is indistinguishable from magic (this is my phrasing). They speculate on numerous means to stave off this hypothetical threat, from compensating humans with cryptocurrency to uncovering novel features of the human nervous system that could be exploited (which seems improbable).
When this scenario is introduced, AI appears inherently menacing. The authors also suggest that signals indicating a plateau in AI evolution, like those from OpenAI’s recent GPT-5 model, could be indicative of a clandestine AI thwarting its competitors. There seems to be no limit to the consequences that could unfold.
What, then, is the solution? Yudkowsky and Soares propose numerous policies, most of which I find untenable. Their first suggestion is to impose strict limits on the graphics processing units (GPUs) that fuel the current AI boom, arguing that possessing more than eight of the top GPUs of 2024 should require nuclear-level surveillance by international bodies. By comparison, Meta currently controls at least 350,000 of these chips. Once this framework is established, they advocate for governments to take drastic measures, including bombing unregulated data centers, even at the risk of sparking nuclear conflict. “Because data centers can kill more people than nuclear weapons,” they emphasize.
Take a moment to absorb this. How did we arrive at this point? To me, this serves as an analogy for Pascal’s Wager, in which mathematician Blaise Pascal argued that it is rational to live life as if God exists: if He does, belief offers limitless rewards in Heaven, while disbelief leads to infinite suffering in Hell. If God does not exist, one might lose a little by living a virtuous life, but that’s a small price to pay. The best course for happiness, in this light, is faith.
Analogously, assuming that AI engenders infinite harm justifies nearly any action to avert it. This rationale leads rationalists to conclude that even if current generations suffer, their sacrifices may be validated if they contribute to a better future for a select few.
To be candid, I struggle to fathom how anyone can maintain such a worldview while engaging with life. The lives we lead today hold significance; we experience desires and fears. Billions face climate change’s threat daily. If Someone Builds It, Everyone Dies. Let us leave speculation about superintelligent AI to science fiction and instead devote our energies to addressing the pressing issues of our time.
As carbon emissions continue to climb, is geoengineering our best hope to hinder the melting of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, preventing significant sea level rise? A recent analysis of five major geoengineering proposals suggests otherwise.
Martin Seegert from the University of Exeter in the UK warns that promoting unworkable geoengineering solutions distracts from pressing issues. “This undermines our urgent need for decarbonization,” he asserts.
Seegert and his team assessed each polar geoengineering proposal using six criteria: effectiveness, scalability within a reasonable timeframe, affordability, international consensus, potential to create false hope for decades, and environmental risks.
In Antarctica, various ice sheets rest on the seabed, and they are melting from below due to warm seawater. One proposed solution involves erecting large “curtains” to block warm currents from reaching these ice sheets and the floating ice shelves that protect them.
The team warns that the effectiveness of these curtains is uncertain, as noted by Stephen Chaun from Monash University, Australia. “If hot water is diverted away from one ice shelf, where does it go next? Redirecting it to a nearby shelf just shifts the problem,” he states.
These curtains would need to be anchored to the seabed at depths of up to 1 kilometer, rising hundreds of meters and extending for tens of kilometers.
A significant portion of the research voyage to Antarctica is being refocused due to the hazards posed by icebergs and sea ice. “That presents considerable danger,” he notes.
Chown mentions that currently, only a single ship is capable of reaching the area where ocean curtains are required to safeguard Thwaites’ “Doomsday” glacier.
Concerns arise for glaciers that sit on land rather than floating on the seabed, as increased liquid water underneath the ice can act as a lubricant, speeding up the flow and leading to heightened sea level rise.
One proposed intervention is to drill holes in the ice and pump out any water beneath it.
“This approach necessitates a multitude of holes drilled into potentially thick ice. However, we lack precise knowledge of where the water lies,” says Sammy Buzzard from Northumbria University, UK. “Even with an understanding of the science, scalability, cost, and power supply issues make this an impractical solution.”
Another concept involves covering the Arctic Ocean’s surface with tiny hollow glass beads to reflect solar heat back into space. However, Chaun warns, “[This] could backfire completely.”
Sustaining this coverage would require the production of 360 megatons of glass beads annually—comparable to global plastic output. Following lab tests revealing the beads were toxic, the project aimed at testing this idea was discontinued.
Stratospheric aerosol injection is another proposed method, which involves releasing substances like sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere to form aerosols that reflect sunlight. This method poses significant challenges beyond just polar regions. Aerosols would not only fail to stay within the polar stratosphere but also provide minimal effectiveness during the dark polar winters against reflective ice and snow.
The scale of aerosol deployment would necessitate vast quantities, potentially damaging the ozone layer and disrupting climates in other regions, as noted by Valérie Masson-Delmotte from Paris-Saclay University, France. Affected countries may even seek compensation.
Another suggestion includes thickening Arctic sea ice by pumping seawater over it. “This would necessitate deploying millions of devices across drifting, fragile ice,” remarks Heidi Sevestre from Norway’s Arctic Surveillance and Assessment Program. “Such a scenario is technically, logistically, and economically unfeasible.”
The final concept evaluated by the researchers revolves around fertilizing the Southern Ocean to boost phytoplankton growth, thereby absorbing carbon as organic matter settles to the seabed. However, out of 12 small tests, none effectively reached the seabed. Furthermore, this approach could accelerate ocean oxygen depletion and release potent greenhouse gases like methane and nitrous oxide, warns Masson-Delmotte.
“I’m deeply worried about the overly optimistic views presented by some proponents of these strategies, which often gloss over the challenges,” states Masson-Delmotte. “I believe this article highlights that gap.”
Seegert argues that pursuing further research into these ideas squanders valuable resources. “The scale challenges are insurmountable,” he asserts.
Yet, not all researchers agree. “I believe it’s premature to dismiss any of these approaches entirely,” comments Shawn Fitzgerald from the Climate Restoration Centre in Cambridge, UK.
According to Heart UK, almost half of all adults in the UK have above-average cholesterol levels, while in the US, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate that one in 10 Americans (34 million) have cholesterol levels exceeding 240 mg/dL (milligrams per deciliter).
These individuals are at increased risk of heart attacks, often unaware of their condition.
High cholesterol typically presents no noticeable symptoms. Unless you’ve had a recent blood test or experienced medical issues, your cholesterol levels may remain a mystery.
If you have concerns about your cholesterol, it’s advisable to consult your doctor. If necessary, cholesterol-lowering medications like statins may be prescribed.
In the UK, around 8 million individuals are reported to take a statin daily, with nearly 40 million in the US.
However, it’s important to note that not everyone requires statins. If your levels are significantly high or there’s a specific medical reason for taking them, there are numerous natural methods to lower cholesterol levels.
To start, exercise is vital. A 2013 study shows that aerobic activities, like running and cycling, can decrease “bad” cholesterol and raise “good” cholesterol by approximately 5%.
Quitting smoking is also recommended. It’s well-known that tobacco smoke raises “bad” cholesterol and poses health risks, while a 2019 study suggested that vaping could have a similar impact.
However, the most effective way to improve cholesterol levels is by adjusting our diet, as recommended by NHS doctors and academics from University College London, including Dr. Riyaz Patel.
You may already know some of the major food culprits. An increasing body of research points to common offenders like pastries, processed meats, and lard. It’s best to eliminate these from your shopping cart for healthier cholesterol levels.
On the other hand, some suggested food swaps may surprise you.
The good and bad of cholesterol
Before we delve deeper into dietary changes, it’s essential to clarify that cholesterol isn’t inherently harmful. It is a vital substance required for survival.
This waxy substance is present throughout the body and serves as a crucial component of cell membranes, as well as aiding in the production of hormones like testosterone and estrogen. It also plays a key role in the synthesis of vitamin D and bile acids, which are necessary for digesting food.
Issues arise when specific types of cholesterol, namely low-density lipoprotein (LDL), become excessively high; this is often referred to as “bad” cholesterol.
“Understanding which cholesterol levels are elevated is essential,” notes Patel. “Cholesterol, like fat, cannot circulate freely in the blood. It requires packaging into particles known as cholesterol lipoproteins.”
These lipoproteins can be visualized as small delivery vehicles transporting cholesterol from the liver into the bloodstream, with high-density lipoproteins (HDL) serving as the “good” type.
However, LDL cholesterol is akin to a reckless driver, frequently colliding with the endothelium—the inner lining of arteries.
While this shouldn’t obstruct healthy arteries, if they are compromised by factors like high blood pressure, smoking, pollution, aging, inflammation, or others, LDL can become trapped within.
When that occurs, plaque begins to develop. “A heart attack can happen when this plaque undergoes a slight rupture, leading to a blood clot that blocks the artery,” explains Patel. “Thus, the presence of plaque poses a serious problem.”
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Foods to include in your diet
Now that you understand the fundamentals of cholesterol (and why having LDL cholesterol in the driver’s seat is a bad idea), which foods can help keep cholesterol levels in check?
“Oats are an excellent way to naturally lower cholesterol,” advises Patel. “This is largely due to their fiber content, as oats contain soluble fiber that effectively reduces cholesterol.”
Soluble fiber is also found in whole grains, lentils, beans, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and seeds, and it binds to dietary cholesterol in the small intestine, preventing its absorption into the bloodstream.
Fatty cholesterol (yellow) is packaged in lipoproteins for transport in the bloodstream – Image credit: Getty Images
“Another effective option is sterols and stanols,” adds Patel. These plant-based compounds are found in fortified yogurts and spreads, or as supplements, and they mimic cholesterol in our bodies.
When you consume foods that contain cholesterol, receptors in your intestines recognize and absorb them into the bloodstream.
Sterols and stanols can deceive these receptors, allowing them to be absorbed in place of cholesterol, leading to increased excretion of cholesterol from the body and less absorption into the bloodstream.
“They are likely the best non-medicinal method to reduce cholesterol, usually by about 10%,” Patel asserts. “They are highly effective.”
Foods to eliminate
While there are beneficial foods to include in your diet, what about those “bad” foods that raise cholesterol? Should they be eradicated from your meals?
There was a time when egg yolks were feared for their cholesterol content. While it’s true that eggs contain a significant amount of dietary cholesterol, you don’t need to panic if you enjoy them with toast.
“Dietary cholesterol doesn’t equate to circulating cholesterol, which is crucial to understand,” says Patel. “In the past, foods high in cholesterol were thought to automatically increase cholesterol levels, but that notion is outdated.”
In reality, about 80% of cholesterol in the body is produced by the liver, not directly ingested from food.
That said, food can still indirectly influence your LDL cholesterol. For instance, certain foods can hinder the liver’s ability to manage cholesterol levels in the blood.
Much like statins, specific foods can act similarly to medications that alter the liver’s functions.
For example, increased saturated fat intake has been linked to higher levels of LDL cholesterol in the bloodstream. Saturated fats are commonly found in fatty or processed meats, butter, cheese, pastries, deep-fried items, and coconut oil.
“If you consume many pastries rich in saturated fat,” explains Patel, “the absorption of these fats can lead to increased LDL levels because they disrupt the liver’s ability to eliminate LDL cholesterol.”
Sugar can similarly affect cholesterol levels by prompting the liver to produce more LDL and less HDL.
So, should we forsake pastries and sugar forever, restricting ourselves to oats for every meal? Absolutely not. Extreme dietary shifts can yield unpredictable health consequences.
Patel suggests that the best approach is to maintain a healthy, balanced diet.
“When advising patients, we recommend a mixed, balanced diet. Aim for moderation in carbohydrates and saturated fats while keeping ultra-processed foods to a minimum.”
Ultra-processed foods, along with saturated fats and sugar, can lead to inflammation in the arteries and raise the risk of developing metabolic disorders like type 2 diabetes.
“Moderation in everything is likely the best advice,” concludes Patel.
“A balanced diet is partly guided by your body’s signals regarding hunger. Your body is adept at understanding its needs.”
About our experts
Dr. Riyaz Patel is an academic scholar and NHS Physician at the University of London, UK. He has contributed to numerous medical journals, including the European Heart Journal, Natural Genetics, and European Heart Journal – Quality and Clinical Results of Care.
A stunning new image captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope reveals a star cluster known as N11, located within the expansive Magellanic Cloud.
This Hubble image depicts star cluster N11. Image credits: NASA/ESA/Hubble/C. Murray/J. Maíz Apellániz.
“This scene is part of the large Magellanic Cloud, a dwarf galaxy situated approximately 160,000 light years from the constellations Dorado and Mensa,” the Hubble astronomer stated.
“With a mass equivalent to 10-20% of that of the Milky Way, the large Magellanic Cloud is the most substantial of the numerous small galaxies orbiting our galaxy.”
“These large Magellanic Clouds host various significant stellar nursery regions where gas clouds, like those portrayed in this image, converge to form new stars.”
This latest Hubble image illustrates a segment of N11, the second-largest star-forming region within the large Magellanic Cloud.
“The Tarantula Nebula, which ranks as the largest and most active star-forming region in the large Magellanic Clouds, is a frequent target for Hubble,” the astronomer noted.
“We observe bright young stars illuminating gas clouds and sculpting masses of dust using their powerful ultraviolet rays.”
“This image represents observations spaced about 20 years apart, highlighting Hubble’s enduring legacy,” they added.
“The initial observations took place between 2002 and 2003 and provided exceptional sensitivity and resolution with the new technology at the time, the Advanced Camera for Surveys.
“We directed Hubble towards the N11 Star Cluster and accomplished something unprecedented: cataloging all the stars in our young cluster, from those with 10% to 100 times the mass of the Sun.”
“The subsequent observations utilized Hubble’s latest instruments, specifically the Wide Field Camera 3.
“These new images emphasized the cluster-filled dusty clouds, offering a fresh perspective on cosmic dust.”
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