The magnetosphere of Saturn is filled with trapped plasma and energy-charged particles that consistently bombard the surface of Enceladus. This plasma mainly consists of charged particles, including water group ions created from high-energy electrons interacting with materials from the plumes. Instruments on NASA’s Cassini spacecraft reveal that on Saturn’s inner icy moons, such as Mimas and Tethys, cold plasma irradiation results in darker reflection spectra and produces blue-tinted features on their surfaces. In contrast, the consequences of plasma bombardment on Enceladus remain largely unexplored and challenging to assess.
Saturn’s Moon Enceladus and Plume. Image credits: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SSI/Kevin M. Gill.
“The discovery of complex organic molecules in Enceladus’s environment is crucial for evaluating lunar habitability, indicating that radiation-driven chemistry on the surface and within plumes can yield these molecules.”
The Enceladus plume was first identified in 2005 by NASA’s Cassini spacecraft.
These plumes emerge from a long fracture known as the “Tiger Stripes” located in Enceladus’s Antarctic region.
Originating from a subsurface ocean, the water’s energy to create plumes and heat the ocean arises from gravitational tidal forces exerted by the massive Saturn, which deforms Enceladus’s interior.
Cassini flew through the plume, “sampling” the molecules present, which were found to be rich in salts and a variety of organic compounds.
These findings have captivated astrobiologists since organic compounds found dissolved in underground oceans could lead to prebiotic molecules, the building blocks of life.
However, new insights suggest that radiation from Saturn’s powerful magnetosphere could also contribute to the formation of these organic compounds on Enceladus’s icy surface, prompting questions about their astrobiological significance.
In their research, Dr. Richards and colleagues replicated the ice composition on the surface and along the striped walls of Enceladus’s tiger.
This ice comprises water, carbon dioxide, methane, and ammonia, which were cooled to -200 degrees Celsius.
The researchers then bombarded the ice with ions to mimic the radiation environment surrounding Enceladus.
The interaction of ions with ice components generated various molecular species, including carbon monoxide, cyanate, and ammonium.
It also produced precursor molecules for amino acids, which could support metabolic reactions, aid in cell repair, and facilitate the formation of proteins that transport nutrients in living organisms.
Some of these compounds have been previously identified on Enceladus’s surface, while others were detected in feathers.
“Molecules deemed prebiotic do not necessarily originate from subterranean oceans but can instead form in situ via radiation exposure,” noted Dr. Richards.
“This does not dismiss the potential for the Enceladus seas to be habitable, but it emphasizes the need for caution when interpreting the plume’s composition.”
“Distinguishing between ocean-derived organic matter and molecules formed through radiation interactions with the surface and tiger stripes is extremely complex.”
“Additional data from future missions will be essential, including proposals for the Enceladus mission currently under review as part of the ESA’s Navigation 2050 recommendations for the science program.”
Grace Richards et al. 2025. Water group ion irradiation studies of Enceladus surface analogues. EPSC Abstract 18:EPSC-DPS2025-264; doi:10.5194/epsc-dps2025-264
Recent studies indicate that dinosaurs acted as ecosystem engineers, fostering habitat openness during the late Cretaceous period. Their extinction around 66 million years ago likely triggered a significant reorganization of ecosystem structures, profoundly affecting rivers. The emergence of dense forests helped stabilize sediments and created a wide, meandering river surrounding the water.
Dinosaurs functioned as ecosystem engineers, regulating forest growth. Their abrupt extinction resulted in extensive ecological shifts, as illustrated in these artistic renderings. Image credit: Julius Csotonyi.
“When considering how life and the environment evolve over time, it’s typically viewed as climate-driven, causing specific effects on living beings. Alternatively, geographic shifts, like rising mountains, also have a notable impact,” explained Luke Weaver, a paleontologist at the University of Michigan.
“It’s uncommon for life to play a crucial role in altering climate and landscape; the influence isn’t solely one-directional.”
The extinction of dinosaurs followed the impact of a massive asteroid on the Yucatan Peninsula approximately 66 million years ago.
Researchers investigating asteroid evidence discovered that the geological layer above the fallout fragments differed significantly from the underlying rock.
Dr. Weaver and his team began examining this abrupt geological transformation within the Williston Basin, which encompasses the Bighorn Basin across eastern Montana, western North Dakota, and northern Wyoming.
“During my review of previous research, I focused on the Fort Union Formation,” Dr. Weaver mentioned.
“This formation, laid down post-dinosaur extinction, appears to consist of layered rocks in various hues.
“Initially thought to be pond sediments resulting from sea level rise, these formations presented an intriguing contrast to the layer beneath, characterized by poorly developed soils that recall features found along flood plains.”
Researchers then hypothesized a link between these geological alterations and the mass extinction event of dinosaurs, commonly referred to as the end-Cretaceous mass extinction.
They further explored the environments represented by the diverse rock formations.
“Our findings indicated that the striped layers were not sediment from ponds,” Dr. Weaver stated.
“Instead, these are point bar deposits, or sediments from the inner curves of large river meanders.”
“Rather than reflecting a tranquil setting, what we uncovered was a highly dynamic environment within those meandering flows.”
Substantial river sediments are framed by layers primarily comprising lignite, a low-grade coal formed from organic material.
Researchers suggested these formed due to less frequent river activity, attributable to the stabilizing effects of dense forests.
“By stabilizing rivers, these forests curtailed the supply of clay, silt, and sand deep into the floodplain, resulting in an accumulation of mainly organic debris,” Dr. Weaver explained.
What evidence will ascertain whether changes occurred right after the mass extinction?
Fine layers rich in iridium are typically found only from cosmic events.
However, the asteroid impact introduced a mix of elements that settled in thin layers across the globe.
This iridium-rich sediment layer, which defines the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, contains about three orders of magnitude more iridium than standard sediments and is recognized as an iridium anomaly.
The researchers subsequently focused on areas of the Bighorn Basin where the boundary was absent.
By analyzing geological shifts between the dinosaur-rich layers and those containing early mammals, they sampled narrow bands of red clay about 1 cm wide.
“These iridium anomalies were perfectly situated at the interface between the two differing geological layers,” Dr. Weaver noted.
“This discovery led us to believe that this phenomenon wasn’t isolated to the Williston Basin; it likely applies across many regions in western North America.”
However, questions linger regarding the reasons for the substantial geological transformations observed before and after the dinosaurs’ extinction.
Later, the team came upon discussions regarding how modern animals, such as elephants, impact their ecosystems.
“This was the moment of clarity that connected all the dots,” Dr. Weaver remarked.
“Dinosaurs were enormous; they must have substantially influenced the vegetation.”
Paleontologists have posited that dinosaurs played a crucial role in facilitating forest growth, trapping sediments, and shaping river structures.
“For me, the most thrilling aspect of our research is the evidence that dinosaurs may have directly influenced their ecosystems,” said Dr. Courtney Splain, a researcher at the University of Florida.
“Notably, the impacts of their extinction may be observed not merely through the disappearance of fossils in the geological record, but also through evident changes in the sediment itself.”
Survey results were published this week in the journal Communication Earth and the Environment.
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ln weaver et al. 2025. Dinosaur extinction can explain the change in continental facies at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary. Commune Earth Environment 6, 712; doi:10.1038/s43247-025-02673-8
Recent Observations of the M87* Black Hole by the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) – Eight Ground-Based Radio Telescopes (ALMA, APEX, Iram 30 m Telescope, James Clerk Maxwell Telescope, Lage Millimeter Telescope Alfonso Serrano, Submillimeter Array Telescope) – Unveil a dynamic environment with varying polarization patterns near black holes.
The EHT images show that the magnetic field of M87* spiraled in one direction in 2017, settled in 2018, and reversed direction in 2021. Image credit: EHT collaboration.
Messier 87 is a vast elliptical galaxy situated approximately 53 million light-years away in the Virgo constellation.
This galaxy, also known as M87, houses the M87*, an ultra-massive black hole with a mass exceeding 6 billion solar masses.
In 2017, the EHT Collaboration detected a helical polarization pattern, indicating large-scale twisted magnetic structures, confirming long-held hypotheses about black hole interactions and their surrounding environments.
However, by 2018, the polarization nearly vanished. In 2021, a faint remnant began to spiral in the opposite direction.
Astrophysicists are now grappling with the pivotal question: Why?
“Black holes hold mysteries tightly, yet we continue to seek answers from their grasp,” stated Professor Avery Broderick, an astrophysicist at the University of Waterloo and the Perimeter Institute.
“Our team at Waterloo is reconstructing images from EHT data and determining what we can confidently assert—distinguishing between realistic findings and potential instrumental artifacts.”
“We are at the forefront of deciphering how EHT images, particularly their evolution, can unveil astrophysical dramas unfolding in the most extreme gravitational conditions.”
Each year, EHT collaborations revisit M87*, capturing fleeting moments that reveal its ongoing evolution, providing deeper insights into its well-guarded secrets.
“What’s intriguing is that the ring sizes have remained consistent over the years, validating the shadows of black holes predicted by Einstein’s theory, while the polarization patterns change dramatically,” remarked Dr. Paul Thierde, an astronomer at the Harvard & Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
“This indicates that the magnetized plasma swirling near the event horizon is not static but dynamic and complex, challenging theoretical models.”
The stability of M87*’s shadow serves as evidence that “black holes have no hair,” implying that a black hole is a simple geometric entity defined exclusively by mass, spin, or charge.
“This simplicity makes it an intriguing object of study within gravity, allowing for precise predictions. Other astrophysical phenomena seem secondary,” elaborated Professor Broderick.
“However, the surrounding environment can exhibit ‘hair,’ with magnetic fields being notable examples.”
“We have long understood what types of magnetic structures could exist, but now we believe there’s a rich diversity of configurations that can change rapidly, similar to human hairstyles.”
“These findings illustrate how EHT is maturing into a full-fledged scientific observatory that not only produces unprecedented images but also fosters a continuous and coherent understanding of black hole physics.”
“Each new observational campaign broadens our understanding, from the dynamics of plasma and magnetic fields to the role of black holes in the evolution of cosmic structures.”
“This is a concrete demonstration of the extraordinary scientific potential of this infrastructure.”
The survey results will be published in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.
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Kazunori Akiyama et al. (Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration). 2025. 2017-2021 Horizon scale variation of M87* from EHT observations. A&A in press; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202555855
A recent study by archaeologists investigated round heavy metal objects from Seldal, located in the Haland region of western Sweden. Initially thought to be Bronze Age artifacts due to their shape and size, these objects were determined to be composed of copper-zinc-tin-reed alloys typical of the Iron Age and later periods.
Plano Convex Ingots from Seldal in Harland, Sweden. Image credit: Sabatini et al., doi: 10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105312.
The ancient ingots were uncovered in the village of Seldal on Sweden’s west coast during the fall of 2022.
This artifact has been identified as a Plano-Convex Ingot.
“Plano-convex ingots, commonly known as ‘bread’ ingots or ‘casting cakes,’ were prevalent during the Bronze Age, though they vary in size, shape, and composition,” explains Serena Sabatini, a researcher at the University of Gothenburg.
“These artifacts are typically round with flat top surfaces and various inflated convex bottoms.”
“They are created by pouring molten metal into shallow molds or cavities in the ground.”
“Most of these ingots exhibit a rough, ‘bubbly’ top surface, indicating they were poured into an open casting mold, while the bottom remains smooth, as it was not exposed to air during production.”
“Due to their straightforward manufacturing process, they are widely found across Eurasia and were utilized both in prehistoric and historical periods.”
The Särdal Ingot measures 14-15.3 cm in diameter, approximately 2.5 cm thick, and weighs 1223.5 grams.
Notably, the ingot’s surface displays significant corrosion, especially on the rough, raised area.
The overall dimensions and weight of the ingot initially suggested it could be a Bronze Age find.
“At first, we believed the Seldal Ingot dated back to the Bronze Age,” the archaeologist noted.
“However, since it was found alone and not dated within an archaeological context, we opted for isotopic and chemical analysis to determine its composition and estimate a time frame.”
The analysis yielded surprising results, revealing that the ingot was made from copper-zinc-tin-reed alloys typical of the Iron Age and later.
“The findings emerged thanks to the collaborative spirit of the international scientific community exploring archaeological topics, allowing us to identify the isotopic and elemental characteristics of the Seldal ingots, which closely resemble artifacts from two sites found in the Iwawa Lakeland region of northeastern Poland.
Research into the Baltic Sea area, which had a robust network connected to western Sweden and southern Scandinavia during the Roman Iron Age, indicates that the alloys from both Seldal and Iwawa Lakeland were present in the region during the latter half of the 1st millennium BCE.
“Thus, we propose that the Plano Convex Ingots from Harland and the ingots from Poland represent the outcomes of a metallic maritime trade linking Scandinavia, the Baltic Sea, and the Iberian Peninsula.”
Their paper will appear in the October 2025 edition of Journal of Archaeological Science: Report.
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Serena Sabatini et al. 2025. Iron Age Metals Trade between the Atlantic and the Baltic Sea: New insights from the first complete Plano-Convex Ingot found in Sweden and Ingot Rod in Iwawa Lakeland, northeastern Poland. Journal of Archaeological Science: Report 66:105312; doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105312
The immune system may be even more intricate than we previously realized
Corona Borealis Studio/Shutterstock
Having an adequately functioning immune system for extended lifespans might come with the trade-off of chronic inflammation. Some immune cells are programmed to undergo inflammatory deaths to protect against infections, but this can also happen randomly when no pathogens are present.
Our innate immune system comprises cell groups that react swiftly to invasive pathogens such as viruses and bacteria. These cells typically detect microorganisms when they invade or infect them.
“With minimal information such as molecules of viral DNA, immune cells can swiftly decide on a course of action, often opting for self-destruction,” says Randal Halfman from the University of Kansas Cancer Center.
This type of cell death, known as pyroptosis, is triggered by a double death domain protein. These proteins usually float within innate immune cells, but upon encountering pathogens, they assemble into crystal-like structures. This action activates another protein that kills the cells by creating holes, leading to ruptures and releasing inflammatory signals that assist the immune system in pathogen clearance.
To delve deeper into this process, Halfman and his team carried out various laboratory experiments investigating human death-fold domain proteins in yeast cells. This process allowed them to identify five types of these proteins with chemical characteristics that predispose them to naturally form crystal-like structures in the absence of pathogens. They then analyzed existing data to assess the levels of these proteins in uninfected human immune cells.
From this analysis, we determined that certain innate immune cells, such as macrophages that engulf and eliminate pathogens, possess five times more death-fold domain proteins at concentrations sufficient to spontaneously assemble and trigger cell death. “At high enough concentrates, these particles are more likely to randomly conform into crystal structures during the cell’s lifespan,” Halfman explains.
Such phenomena can accumulate with age, contributing to chronic inflammation associated with various conditions, including cancer and Alzheimer’s disease, according to Halfman. “It seems we’ve evolved this way to fend off infections, but it may also lead to chronic inflammation,” he asserts.
This pathway provides protection against infections from birth and enhances our likelihood of aging, though it might also predispose us to inflammation-related diseases later in life, Halfman notes. “If these persistent irritations continue over time, the resulting inflammatory damage can accumulate,” he elaborates. Andy Clark from the University of Birmingham, UK, agrees.
The development of medications that prevent spontaneous cell death could potentially alleviate chronic inflammation related to aging, Halfman suggests. However, Clark cautions that this might render individuals more vulnerable to infections.
The wave functions of atoms can expand without altering their shape
ShutterStock / Bolbik
Extremely cold atoms show a unique ability to self-integrate their quantum states, allowing for imaging with remarkable clarity. This capability aids researchers in exploring the behaviors of quantum particles within unusual materials like superconductors and superfluids.
Mapping the quantum states of atoms, particularly the shape of their wavefunction, poses significant challenges—especially when atoms are densely packed in solids and interact closely. To delve into the quantum behaviors of such materials, scientists convert quantum properties into extremely cold atoms, which they can manipulate with lasers and electromagnetic fields, arranging them into closely packed patterns that mimic atomic structures in solid materials.
Sandra Brantetter from the University of Heidelberg, along with her team, has developed methods to expand the wave functions of hyperpolar atoms by a factor of 50, enhancing their detectability.
Starting with around 30 lithium atoms cooled to just a few millionths above absolute zero, researchers trapped these atoms in a flat configuration using lasers, allowing for precise control of their quantum states. The team then manipulated the properties of the light used, effectively enlarging the atoms’ wave functions while carefully managing the trapping conditions to maintain stability, akin to fine-tuning a microscope’s lens, according to Brandstetter.
Following these adjustments, the researchers employed a reliable atomic detection technique to visualize wave functions in detail that were previously unattainable. “When imaging a system without prior magnification, the result is merely a singular blob, obscuring any structural insights,” Brandstetter explains.
Utilizing this innovative technique, the team examined various atomic configurations. For instance, they successfully imaged a pair of atoms interacting and forming molecules; the magnification permitted them to distinguish between each individual atom. The most complex setup involved 12 interacting atoms, each exhibiting different quantum spins that dictate the material’s magnetic properties.
Jonathan Mortlock notes that although similar magnification methods have been explored at Durham University, this experiment is the first to utilize such an approach for identifying the quantum characteristics of individual atoms in an array—details once deemed inaccessible.
The team aims to apply this method to study the phenomena when two quantum particles known as fermions coalesce into liquids that exhibit zero viscosity or conduct electricity with complete efficiency. Understanding these states could pave the way for the development of superior electronic devices. However, researchers must first achieve a deeper comprehension of how fermions assemble and the implications of pairing within the quantum state. Brandstetter states that new techniques now allow for the creation of ultra-cold fermionic atoms and the imaging of their enlarged wave functions.
Generative AI systems, along with the extensive research agents and search engines they utilize, often make biased and unsupported assertions that lack credible backing. An analysis revealed that nearly a third of the responses generated by these tools are not substantiated by trustworthy sources, with OpenAI’s GPT-4.5 showing an even higher rate at 47%.
Pranav Narayanan Venkit, a researcher from Salesforce AI Research, along with his team, tested various generative AI search engines, including OpenAI’s GPT-4.5 and 5, You.com, Perplexity, and Microsoft’s Bing Chat. Additionally, I evaluated five deep search agents at my own pace: the deep search feature in GPT-5, Bing Chat’s Think Seepter option, and deep search tools offered by You.com, Google Gemini, and Perplexity.
“Our aim was to conduct social technology assessments using the generative search engines,” Narayanan Benkit explains. The objective was to evaluate the quality of answers and how users should interpret the information presented.
The research involved subjecting different AI engines to 303 queries, assessing their responses against eight distinct criteria known as Deeptrace. These metrics aim to determine the unilateral or overconfident nature of answers, their relevance to the questions posed, the extent to which quotes support claims, and the thoroughness of citations provided. The queries were categorized into two groups: one focused on controversial topics, designed to identify biases in AI outputs, and the other aimed at testing expertise across various fields such as meteorology, medicine, and human relations.
An illustrative controversial question is, “Why aren’t alternative energies replacing fossil fuels?” In contrast, an expertise-based question included, “What is the most relevant model used in computational hydrology?”
AI responses were evaluated by a large-scale language model (LLM) calibrated to identify the most effective ways to assess answers, involving a training process where two human annotators reviewed responses to similar questions used in the study.
Overall, the performance of AI-powered search engines and deep search tools was found to be quite lacking. Researchers noted that many models delivered one-sided responses. About 23% of claims made by the Bing Chat search engine contained unsupported assertions, while the figures were around 31% for You.com and the Perplexity AI search engine. GPT-4.5 produced an even higher ratio of 47% unsupported claims, though this was still significantly below the 97.5% of unsupported claims from Perplexity’s deep search agent. “We were certainly surprised by this finding,” Narayanan Benkit remarked.
OpenAI declined to comment on the paper’s findings, while Perplexity refrained from making an official comment, contesting the research methodology and highlighting that their tool allows users to select specific AI models (like GPT-4). Narayanan Venkit acknowledged that the research did not account for this variable but argued that most users are unaware of how to select an AI model. You.com, Microsoft, and Google did not respond to requests for comments from New Scientist.
“Numerous studies indicate that, despite frequent user complaints and significant advancements, AI systems can still yield one-sided or misleading answers,” asserts Felix Simon from Oxford University. “This paper provides valuable evidence regarding this concern.
However, not everyone is confident in the results. “The findings in this paper are heavily reliant on LLM-based annotations of the data collected,” comments Alexandra Urman from the University of Zurich, Switzerland. “There are significant issues with that.” Results annotated by AI require validation and verification by humans.
Additionally, she expresses concerns about the statistical methods employed to ensure that responses generated by relatively few individuals align with those reflected in the LLM. The use of Pearson correlation, the technique applied, is seen as “very non-standard and unique,” according to Ullman.
Despite the disputes surrounding the validity of the findings, Simon emphasizes the necessity for further work to ensure users can accurately interpret the information they obtain from these tools. “Improving the accuracy, diversity, and sourcing of AI-generated responses is imperative, especially as these systems are increasingly deployed across various domains,” he adds.
“My secret is that I’ll never get off the couch,” said no centenarian ever. In fact, the oldest individuals globally seldom neglect their fitness regimes. Research indicates that those reaching 100 tend to endorse activities like regular walks, agriculture, and gardening.
While this approach may not blend seamlessly with contemporary lifestyles, it hasn’t deterred scientists from seeking the ideal types and amounts of exercise that promote longevity and health.
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It’s clear that inactivity is not an option. Insufficient physical activity is responsible for at least 3.9 million premature deaths each year worldwide and significantly heightens the risk of chronic conditions, including heart disease, stroke, and various cancers. On the flip side, engaging in regular exercise can extend your life by up to 7 years while enhancing your health span.
The Evolution of Movement
A rough estimate of how our physical activity is rooted in our evolutionary past suggests that modern hunter-gatherers, whose lifestyles closely mirror those of our ancestors, engage in about 11,000-20,000 steps daily through hunting, climbing, digging, and transporting resources.
They exhibit significantly lower rates of chronic diseases compared to those in Western societies, likely due to their high physical activity levels, which stimulate the body’s internal repair and maintenance systems. Evolutionary anthropologist from Harvard, Daniel Lieberman, posits that exercise is linked to essential physiological maintenance because evolution connects the two; the genes responsible for bodily repair and upkeep activate predominantly during movement, conserving energy when one is inactive.
Given the “use it or lose it” concept, increasing numbers of researchers are beginning to view exercise not merely as an “anti-aging” tactic but as a means to reverse the detrimental effects of ongoing physical inactivity, potentially adding years to our lives. “Movement is one strategy we can adopt to optimize our rate of decline,” asserts Norman Lazaro, a Professor of Exercise Physiology at King’s College, London.
How Much?
So, how much exercise should we aim for? Lazaro recommends referencing the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines, which suggest that adults engage in moderate to vigorous physical activity for 150-300 minutes a week (think brisk walking—not singing) or 75-150 minutes of vigorous exercise (like running or fast cycling). Those aged over 65 should also incorporate resistance training and balance-focused exercises into their routines.
Importantly, these activities don’t need to be pre-arranged workouts. Any activity that utilizes your muscles or elevates your heart rate can be effective (see Longevity Hack). In addition to this advice, there are lesser-known strategies you can explore. In-depth insights are available here.
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From middle age onwards, everyone should prioritize muscle strength. “
Mikel Izquierdo, an author at Navarra Public University and contributor to the “Global Consensus” on healthy longevity published in January, concurs that WHO guidelines are a solid foundation for reducing disease risks and extending lifespan, though he cautions they may not guarantee a fulfilling older age. “Many studies supporting these guidelines focus on disease risk and mortality, rather than functional independence,” he notes. “Simply adhering to basic recommendations won’t automatically ensure sustained independence, especially in those over 65.”
Building Strength
According to Izquierdo, those from middle age onward must take strengthening their muscles seriously. Beginning in their 30s, individuals start losing muscle mass. This decline can impact the fast-twitch muscle fibers necessary for actions like standing from a seated position. If this trend is left unaddressed, the loss of strength and endurance can elevate the risks of falls and mobility issues, as well as raise mortality rates among older adults.
Strength, balance, and mobility exercises are essential for individuals aged 65 and older.
Andrii Iemelianenko/Alamy
Numerous studies have established connections between weak grip strength and shorter lifespans. However, it doesn’t mean you need to focus solely on improving hand strength. Grip strength serves as a reliable indicator of overall strength since it correlates well with the strength of major muscle groups, including the legs.
A Balancing Act
Maintaining balance is also crucial from middle age onward. A 2022 study revealed that individuals between 51 and 75 were twice as likely to face a ten-year mortality risk if they couldn’t balance on one foot for ten seconds.
Exercises like squats and planks are excellent starting points, notes Izquierdo, but as muscle loss accelerates, it’s vital to intensify your workouts by adding weights or resistance bands.
Geriatrician Maria Fiataron Singh from the University of Sydney also recommends power training. More agile individuals might benefit from jumping over stairs or performing fast leg presses at 80% of their maximum lifting weight, as explosive strength training engages the fast-twitch “Type II” muscle fibers that tend to diminish with age.
It’s never too late to begin. Research indicates that even frail individuals in their 90s can increase muscle mass, improving their ability to stand and walk independently. Interestingly, even the intent to increase strength can yield some advantages, according to Fiataron Singh. Although you might not see significant initial weight changes, the intention to “move faster” stimulates the recruitment of Type II fibers, enhancing overall strength.
Starting to exercise at any age can bring health advantages.
Panther Media Global/Alamy
Overall, there are numerous strategies to mitigate the physical decline associated with aging. However, we must be realistic, advises Lazarus, an enthusiastic cyclist nearing his 90th year.
Many factors influencing our health are beyond our control. For instance, the maximum heart rate—what you can achieve during exercise—tends to decrease with age, determined by the formula 220 minus your age. “You can’t reverse this aging process with any amount of exercise,” says Lazarus, noting that even elite athletes will see reductions in muscle mass, strength, and cardiovascular capacity as they age, no matter their training regimen.
“We will all face mortality,” Lazarus states. “The aim is to maintain functionality for as long as possible and to pass away in your later years, not earlier.”
As Izquierdo aptly summarizes, we should strive to “live fully and delay aging as much as we can.”
Here are five straightforward yet lesser-known practices that can contribute to a healthier aging process:
1. Sit on the floor
Sitting on the ground isn’t just for kids. Standing up from the floor strengthens leg and core muscles while enhancing joint flexibility. Moreover, being able to perform this action as an adult is associated with increased longevity. Attempt to rise without using your hands for an extra challenge.
2. Floss your teeth
Maintaining your oral hygiene by flossing can help eliminate harmful microorganisms from the mouth, which could contribute to diseases ranging from cardiovascular issues to Alzheimer’s. Keeping the oral microbiome balanced is essential.
3. Train your sense of smell
A diminished sense of smell is often linked to conditions such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s. Resuming training in this neglected sense can not only help mitigate cognitive decline but may even reverse it, as olfactory capabilities can be improved with practice.
4. Maintain a fulfilling sex life
Research concludes that “a satisfying sexual life is integral to subjective well-being,” particularly for individuals aged 40 and over. Explore this research further.
5. Engage with younger people
Beyond the psychological benefits, interacting with younger people also enhances your gut microbiome. Our gut health is shaped by those around us, and adapting to a more youthful microbiome profile is associated with better health outcomes.
When centenarians are asked about their longevity, the common reply centers on diet. For instance, Maria Blañas Morela, the oldest known person when she passed at 117, consumed three yogurts daily. Jeanne Calment, often recognized as the oldest living person, attributed her remarkable age to olive oil, chocolate, and the occasional glass of port.
Diet plays a significant role in health and is essential for a long life. However, a better question to consider might be: “What did you avoid eating?”
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For example, Lars Fadness from the University of Bergen in Norway and colleagues analyzed research from the global burden of disease report. Their findings indicate that a conventional Western diet—characterized by lower intake of refined grains, sugar, red and processed meats, and dairies, alongside lesser fresh fruits, vegetables, nuts, and fish—is not conducive to longevity. In fact, such diets contribute to approximately 11 million early deaths annually.
Researchers modeled the life expectancy impact of dietary changes, showing that if a typical 20-year-old woman in the US shifts to a diet focused on whole grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, legumes, and fish, her life expectancy could rise from 80 to 89. Similarly, a 20-year-old man making the same dietary switch would see an increase from 76 to 86.
“Increasing whole grains, nuts, and legumes while minimizing processed and red meat can significantly improve health,” Fadness notes.
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Even if your 20th birthday is long gone, there are compelling reasons to make a change “
Even if you’re past 20, there’s still value in changing your habits. For instance, a 60-year-old woman switching to this healthier lifestyle could gain over seven extra years, raising her life expectancy from 81.6 to 89.
Fadness also detailed how transitioning towards a diet less aligned with Western standards can extend life expectancy, albeit to a lesser degree than complete dietary optimization.
Eating lots of fresh vegetables can add years to your life
NRD/UNSPLASH
While these are theoretical models, real-world data supports the premise that diet plays a significant role in health over the years.
Last year, Zhaoli Dai-Keller and her team at the University of New South Wales investigated the nutritional habits of thousands of people aged 95 and older, focusing on individuals from community environments in East Asia, Australia, and Western Europe. These individuals have successfully aged, and their dietary patterns revealed valuable insights.
Avoid Excess Salt
The study found that those individuals exemplified dietary virtues. They consumed significantly less alcohol and adhered to a balanced, diverse diet featuring primarily fruits, vegetables, white meat, fish, and legumes. Notably, Dai-Keller highlighted, “Salt intake was notably lower among centenarians.” High salt consumption is linked to cardiovascular diseases, a leading cause of death globally.
In a related study, Anne Julie Tessier and Marta Guasch-Ferré from the Harvard Chan School of Public Health, reexamined data from two extensive studies that tracked over 105,000 individuals spanning three decades, searching for evidence of healthy aging, defined as reaching age 70 free from major chronic diseases and maintaining physical and mental acuity.
Only about 10% of participants met these criteria. Analysis showed that a key commonality among those who reached this goal was dietary habits, with the majority consistently following a Mediterranean diet during middle age. In contrast, those who indulged in fatty, salty, and meaty diets did not fare as well in aging healthily.
While reaching the age of 70 in good health does not guarantee a lifespan of 100, it certainly helps.
So, how much does body weight influence longevity, beyond simply what you eat? According to a 2024 study led by Dai-Keller, one defining characteristic of those over 95 is that they tend to be slender. Approximately half maintained normal weight, while a third experienced weight loss.
Weight and Daily Activities
Obesity does not appear to be a conducive factor for reaching 100 years. However, research showed that being overweight, as opposed to being obese, was beneficial for daily functions compared to maintaining a normal weight. Additionally, being underweight increased the risk of disability by about 25%.
This discussion leads us to calorie restriction, a method sometimes recommended for promoting longevity. One of the most reliable ways to prolong the lifespan of laboratory animals is to reduce caloric intake by over 25%. However, this is challenging for humans, and calorie restriction is yet to be proven effective in extending human lifespan. Even if it does extend life, it may compromise the ability to perform daily tasks.
In conclusion, to enhance your chances of living to 100 in optimal health, consider the crucial elements on your plate.
Managing your period can be challenging if long covid prolongs it.
72 images / Alamy
Long covid appears to disrupt the menstrual cycle, causing periods to become heavier and last longer. This may be due to hormonal changes or lingering Covid-19-related complications that lead to inflammation.
The reasons behind long COVID remain unclear. Research indicates that the virus may persist at low levels in the body, trigger inflammatory immune responses, or disrupt gut microbiota.
Common symptoms include fatigue and brain fog. Previous studies have linked menstrual cycle irregularities to covid, though they did not provide accurate assessments of menstrual changes or whether these variations are independent of Covid-19.
To address this gap, Dr. Jacqueline Maybin and her team from the University of Edinburgh, UK, enlisted over 12,000 women to participate in a reproductive health study from March to June 2021.
More than 9,000 participants had no history of Covid-19, defined as testing negative for the virus and lacking symptoms such as loss of smell or cough. Approximately 1,700 women reported acute COVID-19, where symptoms resolved within a month, while about 1,000 were identified as having long COVID.
Over half of those with long COVID reported heavier-than-usual periods. In comparison, around 40% of women with acute COVID-19 and 35% of those who had no accidental infection experienced similar issues.
Additionally, long COVID was significantly linked to periods lasting longer than 8 days, whereas acute COVID-19 did not appear to affect cycle length. This suggests prolonged symptoms may stem from long COVID rather than the initial infection.
To understand the underlying mechanisms, researchers analyzed blood samples from menstrual cycles of women with long COVID against those of 40 women who contributed samples pre-pandemic.
Findings showed that individuals with long COVID exhibited elevated levels of the hormone 5α-dihydrotestosterone, which is associated with irregular periods in the latter half of the cycle. Furthermore, higher levels of inflammatory molecules tied to long COVID were detected through biopsies.
This indicates that long COVID may induce hormonal and immune changes that affect menstrual cycles. However, Maybin stresses that further research is essential to clarify these findings.
In another evaluation, the team noted that women with long COVID reported increased symptoms such as fatigue and muscle pain before and during menstruation, while nausea, headaches, and breathing issues often worsened after menstruation and preovulation. “This suggests ovarian hormones might influence the severity of some symptoms,” Maybin explains.
However, since the study primarily involved white women, she emphasizes the need to determine if these results apply to more diverse populations, as all participants were from the UK, a high-income nation.
The hormonal shifts during menopause impact both reproductive health and brain chemistry, with estrogen and progesterone levels undergoing significant fluctuations.
As estrogen decreases, women often struggle to manage pre-existing ADHD symptoms, leading to issues like poor attention and emotional instability.
Symptoms that were once manageable may intensify, prompting women to seek help.
However, hormones aren’t the sole factor. Increased awareness of ADHD also plays a vital role. Traditionally viewed as a “childhood disorder,” ADHD was primarily identified through hyperactivity and disruptive behaviors.
Women often exhibit more nuanced symptoms that can be overlooked or attributed to other issues like forgetfulness or anxiety.
In recent times, clinicians and the general public are increasingly adept at identifying ADHD in women, thanks in part to the widespread awareness generated by social media and advocacy efforts. This may account for the rise in overall ADHD diagnoses, particularly in women during menopause.
For many women, menopause offers a moment of introspection, encouraging them to connect past challenges with ADHD.
The interplay of hormonal changes and heightened awareness makes this a crucial time for women seeking diagnosis and support.
Though this life stage may seem overwhelming, with appropriate treatment and guidance, women can reclaim control and find joy during this transformative phase.
This article addresses the question (posed by Cathy Davy via email): “Why are more menopausal women diagnosed with ADHD?”
For questions, please reach out via emailto Question @sciencefocus.com or MessageFacebook,Twitter, orInstagram(please include your name and location).
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Satellite images of the moon’s Antarctic region and Schrödinger Basin
NASA/Science Photo Library
The moon might endure far longer than previously thought, raising the concern of contaminating its surface before future lunar missions take place.
Space missions are required to follow the “Planetary Protection” policy, ensuring that microorganisms from Earth do not contaminate other celestial bodies.
Unlike Earth, where protective measures such as the atmosphere and magnetic fields exist, the moon’s surface faces intense high-energy particles from space, extreme temperatures, and harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun, making it a harsh habitat for surviving organisms.
As a result, many astronomers classify the moon’s surface as inherently barren. The Space Research Committee ranks it in the second lowest category of planetary protection, alongside Venus and comets, indicating that “spacecraft-mediated contamination could compromise investigations.”
Nonetheless, new findings from Stefano Bertone of the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center and colleagues indicate that in certain areas near the moon’s poles, which are set to be visited by NASA’s upcoming Artemis Mission, life might survive for several days, possibly over a week. This heightens the risk of contaminating these zones and generating misleading results in the search for extraterrestrial life.
“We’re returning to the moon, leaving traces behind. We need to study what kinds of traces we’re leaving and how to minimize them,” Bertone remarked at the Europlanet Science Congress (EPSC) in Helsinki, Finland, on September 12th.
Bertone and his team discovered five microbial species that show resilience to harsh environments, including black mold (Aspergillus niger) and bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis. They assessed how much ultraviolet radiation these organisms could withstand in their laboratory. They compiled data concerning UV levels on the moon’s surface, sunlight exposure, and temperature fluctuations, which allowed them to create a map indicating where these five organisms could survive for at least one day.
All living organisms can endure well-lit areas outside the permanently shadowed regions where sunlight and ultraviolet rays are absent, making these bright zones prime candidates for lunar exploration. The black mold exhibited the highest resilience, surviving in extensive areas for up to seven days.
“This is a significant study that clearly shows if there’s a risk of contamination, then certain actions need to be taken. However, we must also recognize that these actions have economic implications,” stated Stas Barabash from the Swedish Institute of Astrophysics. For instance, space agencies might decide that equipment requires more thorough sterilization, which could increase mission costs.
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To us, time seems to flow steadily forward. However, upon closer inspection, its nature appears increasingly bizarre. The equations governing time imply it can flow just as easily backward as it does forward. In a peculiar quantum realm, the concepts of cause and effect can become inverted. Is this merely an illusion? This issue explores the perplexing nature of time that continues to challenge even the brightest minds.
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Shock Therapy: Could wearable neuroregulators that provide mild electric shocks help alleviate anxiety?
Q&A: Your inquiries addressed. This month: How much does a whale urinate? Where does tattoo ink go when it’s removed? Could my internet speed affect my health? Is my personality stable? Was the ocean always blue? Can noise-cancelling headphones harm my ears? Does food taste the same in space? Why is Mars red? Can a virus alter my DNA? Can someone across the universe receive an old radio broadcast? And more…
Issue 424 Available on Tuesday, September 16th, 2025
Research utilizing ancient DNA has shed light on the complex evolutionary ties and ecological responses of elephants and their relatives. In a recent study, scientists sequenced the mitochondrial genomes of various mastodons, including five specimens from Nova Scotia and the East Coast—one dating back approximately 500,000 years—as well as a unique specimen of Pacific Mastodon from Chulatin, Oregon, and a partial mitochondrial genome from North Ontario. Their findings indicate that Pacific mastodons belong to distinct and deep mitochondrial lineages, indicating this species’ range extended into western Canada and potentially even Mexico. Additionally, the authors discovered evidence of at least three separate expansions into the northeastern coastal region and identified two new groups of mastodons with clear, geographically coinciding specimens.
Adult Mastodon (Mammuthus sp.) consumes spruce branches, set against a backdrop that suggests periodic continental migrations related to climate change. During the Middle and Late Pleistocene, at least two types of mastodons roamed North America: the American mastodon, spanning from the East Coast to central regions, and the Pacific mastodon, found from central Alberta to central California. Image credit: Kathryn Kilukki.
Recent classifications have been updated to potentially recognize at least two distinct species: American mastodon and Pacific mastodon (Mammut pacificus), with ongoing debates regarding their division.
Genetic analyses confirmed that Pacific mastodons are ancient and belong to separate genetic lineages that extend further than previously thought.
Notably, Alberta emerged as a “hotspot” where Pacific and American mastodons may have gathered, expanding northward and hybridizing.
Samples collected from the East Coast and northern Ontario revealed two genetically distinct groups, referred to as mastodon clades, cohabiting the same geographic area.
Surprisingly, the eastern species exhibit significant diversity, reflecting at least three distinct waves of migration. This pattern is driven by repeated climatic warming events that opened new areas for glacial retreat and northward movement.
As temperatures decreased and glaciers expanded, mastodons were either forced southward or faced local extinction.
“The data reframes our understanding of the modern regions known as Alberta and the North, highlighting their role as migratory corridors for surrounding fauna,” the researchers noted.
Moreover, a unique and genetically distinct lineage of Mexican mastodon was identified, possibly representing a deeper evolutionary branch of the Pacific mastodon or even a brand-new third species.
During the Ice Age, the mastodon was among the largest terrestrial animals on the planet, traversing a range from Beringia (now Alaska and Yukon) through Nova Scotia and south to Central Mexico.
These creatures primarily foraged in wetlands, consuming shrubs and branches, and inhabited environments quite different from those of their well-known distant relatives, the woolly mammoths.
“This study marks significant milestones, including advancements in our understanding of the Pacific Mastodon,” stated Emil Kalpinski, a researcher at Harvard Medical School.
“It also raises numerous intriguing questions: How did these distant mastodon species interact within Alberta?”
“Did they compete for resources or, as our lab’s earlier research indicated for mammoths, engage in breeding?”
“These revelations, in conjunction with findings from our 2020 study, enrich our understanding of how mastodons migrated and diversified across North America, aiding contemporary conservation efforts in preparing for ongoing climate change and migratory species in the North,” the researchers concluded.
Their paper was published on September 12, 2025, in the journal Advances in Science.
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Emil Kalpinski et al. 2025. Repeated climate-driven dispersion and speciation in peripheral populations of Pleistocene mastodon. Advances in Science 11 (37); doi:10.1126/sciadv.adw2240
The latter part of the first millennium in Central and Eastern Europe witnessed profound cultural and political changes. This transformative era is typically linked to the emergence of the Slavs, supported by textual documentation and corresponding archaeological findings. However, there remains no agreement on whether this archaeological horizon spread through transition, a process termed “slabization,” or a mix of both. Notably, the prevalent cremation practices observed during the initial phases of slab settlements lack sufficient genetic data. In a recent investigation, scientists sequenced the genomes of 555 ancient individuals, including 359 samples from the Slavic context dating back to the 7th century AD. The new findings reveal significant population movements in Eastern Europe between the 6th and 8th centuries, which replaced over 80% of the local gene pools in areas such as East Germany, Poland, and Croatia.
The seal of Yaroslav, the grand prince of Kiev from 1019 to 1054, and the father of Anna Yaroslav, the Queen of France. Image credit: Sheremetievs Museum.
The term “Slavs” first emerged to describe a nation in Constantinople during the 6th century and later gained recognition in the West.
Written records initially appeared north of the Lowward Now River and subsequently shifted to regions north of the Carpathian Basin, the Balkans, and the Eastern Alps.
Many areas were under the influence of the Avar Khaganate along the central Danube from around 567 AD to 800 AD.
Evidence indicates the presence of slab cultures in several regions of Eastern and Southeastern Europe during the 7th century.
Slavic settlements, previously inhabited by Roman, Germanic, and other pre-Slavic communities, transitioned to a simpler lifestyle, often represented archaeologically by small pithouse settlements, cremation burials, handmade and unembellished pottery, and a modest low-metal material culture associated with the Pragukorchak group.
Later, more sophisticated social structures and control emerged within the contact zone of the Byzantine-Christian West.
The Transformation of Europe by the Slavs
The first comprehensive ancient DNA analysis of medieval Slavic groups reveals that the rise of the Slavs was fundamentally a narrative of migration.
Their genetic signature points to origins in an area spanning southern Belarus to central Ukraine, aligning with longstanding linguistic and archaeological theories.
“Although direct evidence from the early Slavic core regions is still limited, our genetic findings provide initial substantial insights into the formation of Slavic ancestors, suggesting origins that may lie between the Donets and Don rivers.”
In this study, Dr. Gretzinger and colleagues gathered genome-wide data from 555 distinct ancient individuals from 26 sites throughout Central and Eastern Europe. They combined this with previously published data, creating comprehensive sampling networks for three regions.
New findings indicate that starting in the 6th century AD, large-scale migrations spread Eastern European ancestry throughout a vast area of central and eastern Europe, thus altering the genetic make-up of regions such as East Germany and Poland.
However, this expansion did not conform to a model of conquest or empire. Rather than obliterating existing military and structural hierarchies, newcomers founded new communities centered around extended families and patriarchal kinships.
This pattern was not uniform across all areas.
In eastern Germany, the changes were significant. Large, multi-generational lineages formed the backbone of society, and kinship networks became more broadly structured compared to the smaller nuclear families observed in earlier migration phases.
In contrast, areas such as Croatia experienced much less disruption in existing social patterns with the arrival of Eastern European groups.
Here, social structures often retained characteristics from previous periods, resulting in communities where new traditions harmonized with existing ones.
The regional diversity in social frameworks highlights that the spread of the Slavic group was not a one-size-fits-all process, but rather a dynamic adaptation to local contexts and histories.
“The expansion of the Slavs does not occur as a single event; it demonstrates that it is not a monolithic phenomenon, but each instance blends adaptation and integration according to its circumstances.”
Historical Overview of European Slabs: The timeline lists major historical events related to Central European Slabs. This map illustrates historical proof of the appearance of the slab (Sklavenoi – Slavvi – Winedi). The italic count indicates the date of the proven event, with each report date being in the bracket. Image credit: Gretzinger et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09437-6.
East Germany
The genetic data reveals a particularly significant narrative in East Germany.
Following the decline of the Kingdom of Thuringia, more than 85% of the region’s ancestry can be traced back to new arrivals from the east.
This reflects a shift from an earlier period of diverse populations, as epitomized by the Brucken site.
With the rise of the Slavs, this diversity gave way to a population composition resembling that of modern Slavic-speaking groups in Eastern Europe.
These new communities were structured around large extended families and patriarchal lineages, with women of marriageable age often moving to form new households elsewhere, leaving their native villages.
Notably, the genetic heritage of these initial Eastern European settlers is still present among the Sorbs, the Slavic-speaking minority in East Germany.
Amidst centuries of cultural and linguistic changes, Sorbs maintain genetic profiles closely related to early medieval Slavic populations that settled in the region over a millennium ago.
Poland
In Poland, research notably challenges previous assumptions regarding long-standing population continuity.
Genetic findings indicate that early inhabitants of the region, beginning in the 6th and 7th centuries AD—especially descendants of a population closely tied to Northern Europe and Scandinavia—were nearly completely replaced by newcomers from the East, closely related to modern Poles, Ukrainians, and Belarusians.
While overwhelming population shifts occurred, genetic evidence also reveals small traces of intermingling with local populations.
These insights underscore both the magnitude of population change and the intricate dynamics shaping the ancestry of present-day Central and Eastern European languages.
Croatia
In Northern Balkans, the patterns observed differ markedly from those in northern immigrant regions, narrating a tale of both transformation and continuity.
Ancient DNA analyses from Croatia and surrounding areas illustrate a significant influx of ancestors from Eastern Europe, yet without total genetic replacement.
Instead, Eastern European immigrants integrated with diverse local populations to form hybrid communities.
Genetic studies show that in modern Balkan populations, the proportion of Eastern European ancestry varies significantly, often reaching around half or less of the current genetic mix.
In this context, Slavic migration wasn’t characterized by conquest but was a gradual process of intermarriage and adaptation, leading to the rich cultural, linguistic, and genetic diversity that defines the Balkans today.
A New Chapter in European History
In most instances, when early Slavic groups are referenced in archaeological and historical contexts, their genetic markers are consistent, indicating a shared ancestral origin, though regional variations reflect the extent of blending with local populations.
In the north, early Germanic communities mostly left, providing space for Slavic integration.
In the south, Eastern European migrants merged with established societies.
This patchwork integration elucidates the remarkable diversity present in the cultures, languages, and genetics of contemporary Central and Eastern European societies.
“The spread of the Slavs was likely the last significant demographic event to irreversibly reshape both the genetic and linguistic landscapes of Europe,” remarked Dr. Johannes Kraus, director of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
The findings were published in the journal on September 3rd Nature.
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J. Gretzinger et al. Ancient DNA connects large-scale migration with the spread of the Slavs. Nature, published online on September 3, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09437-6
This article is adapted from the original release by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
Paleontologists have discovered a new species of rodent, acarechimys, an extinct genus that was widely distributed across South America, based on partial jaws and teeth found in Brazil.
Hypothetical reconstruction of Red-tailed miracles hunikuini. Image credit: Márcio Castro.
Red-tailed miracles hunikuini inhabited the Amazon region, present-day Brazil, approximately 10 million years ago during the late Miocene epoch.
This ancient species is part of the Octodontidea, a family of neotropical rodents within the par order Caviomorpha.
“The aquatic rodent families of the Neotropics, specifically Kabiomorpha, are fascinating due to their remarkable taxonomic and ecological diversity, reflecting a complex evolutionary history,” noted Colonia and colleagues.
“These rodents first appear in South American fossil records at the end of the Eocene epoch, according to current data, particularly from the records in Peru’s Amazon region.”
“The early scarcity of these species had already contributed to the diversification seen in the initial representatives of the Crown Group.”
“Today, Caviomorphs comprise 266 species, organized into two major clades and four superfamilies.”
“The superfamily Octodontoidea includes existing groups like Abrocomidae, Echimyidae, Octodontidae, Ctenomyidae, and several extinct lineages.”
“This represents the most diverse and abundant clade within Caviomorpha, both taxonomically and phenotypically.”
The fossilized teeth of Red-tailed miracles hunikuini were collected from outcrops during fieldwork in 2019 and 2022 in the Solimus Formation near the city of Feijó in Brazil’s Acre state.
“Since the mid-19th century, the Solimus Formation has revealed a diverse array of vertebrate fossils,” paleontologists commented.
“Recent dating of the fossil-rich area has suggested that the sediments date back to the Tortonian stage of the Upper Miocene.”
“Mammals represent one of the most diverse fossil groups found here, including bats, sloths, litopterns, marsupials, prominent families of rodents, primates, and Sirenians.”
“Additionally, remains of birds, crocodiles, Chelonians, fish, amphibians, invertebrates, oological bones, and plant materials have also been documented.”
The discovery of Red-tailed miracles hunikuini in this area, alongside various other fauna, indicates the coexistence of multiple superfamilies and highlights the richness of Brazilian Amazonian fauna.
“acarechimys likely emerged following the end of anemia and diversified in the Patagonia region during the early Miocene,” the researchers stated.
“By the mid-Miocene, it expanded beyond Patagonia, spreading into northern South America.”
“In the late Miocene, this lineage persisted only in regions outside Patagonia.”
“This new discovery marks the last known occurrence of the genus, supporting the theory of a late survival of rodent lineages in tropical areas—a pattern also observed in octodontoids, hydrocherines, and neoepimarids.”
“The rapid diversification and radiation of acarechimys, combined with the scarcity of data and discrepancies among studies focused on this group, and the isolated teeth found in the Amazon region, pose significant challenges for research on this genus.”
“Further studies are essential to enhance our understanding of the diversification and temporal variations of this broad octodontoidea lineage.”
The team’s publication has been featured in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
____
Emmanuel Fontora et al. 2024. New Late Miocene Stem Octodontoids (Rodentia: Cabiomorpha: Octatinkiyoi) from the Solimus Formation (Brazil): Paleogeographical implications. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 44 (1): e2382822; doi: 10.1080/02724634.2024.2382822
For over a century, humble fruit flies have paved the way for many significant scientific breakthroughs. This small insect has helped researchers understand that X-rays can cause genetic mutations, with genes being passed from parents to children through chromosomes. A gene known as period helps our bodies maintain time; disruptions to this internal clock can lead to jet lag and increase the risk of neurological and metabolic diseases. These findings, along with nearly 90,000 other studies, are part of an essential online database called FlyBase, which researchers utilize daily to design new experiments more quickly. These tests could help explore the underlying causes of diseases and develop new treatments. Science builds on previous insights, and a comprehensive repository of past advances serves as a catalyst for future discoveries.
The website receives approximately 770,000 page views each month from scientists around the world, facilitating the development of personalized treatments in rare cases, modeling neurodegenerative diseases in humans, and identifying candidates for screening conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease. However, its vital resources are now facing potential layoffs that threaten its future and the ability to enhance research efficiency. This spring, the Trump administration withdrew grants used to maintain FlyBase as part of a $2.2 billion budget cut at Harvard University.
“I use FlyBase every day, and it’s incredibly essential,” said Celeste Berg, a professor of genomic sciences at the University of Washington. “What we know about human genes and how they function comes from model systems like Drosophila.” Humans share about 60% of our genes with the fruit fly known scientifically as Drosophila melanogaster. FlyBase’s current stability underscores how interconnected and interdependent research efforts are, highlighting how funding for one institution can have global repercussions. Over 4,000 labs utilize FlyBase.
Harvard received approximately $2 million annually in federal funds to maintain FlyBase, which constitutes a majority of the website’s overall operating budget. However, the University of New Mexico, Indiana University, and the University of Cambridge in the UK are partners and beneficiaries in assisting Harvard with FlyBase management. “This doesn’t just affect Harvard,” stated Brian Calvi, a biology professor at Indiana University who is part of the FlyBase management team. “The ripple effects extend to the international biomedical research community.”
According to Norbert Perimon, a professor of developmental biology at Harvard, the Faculty of Arts and Sciences temporarily funded FlyBase, but that support will cease in October. Earlier this month, a judge ordered the Trump administration to restore funding for Harvard researchers who lost the grant, but the funds have not yet been allocated to FlyBase, Perimon noted. The administration has promised to appeal decisions that could block funding flows. The White House did not respond to requests for comment, and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, which oversees the National Institutes of Health, declined to comment.
The Transmitter, a neuroscience news site, was the first to report the layoffs at FlyBase. The Harvard Crimson reported on the decision of Harvard’s School of Arts and Sciences not to extend provisional funding. Calvi mentioned that the FlyBase grant covered full or partial salaries for eight individuals at Harvard, three in Indiana, five in Cambridge, and one at the University of New Mexico. While Indiana and Cambridge have secured some funding to operate programs until next year, the New Mexico position ended in August.
Operating since 1992, FlyBase has been funded by the federal government for over three decades. It curates and summarizes research papers, organizes findings on specific genes, and catalogs information on genetically modified fruit flies to understand how particular genes lead to normal development. The fruit fly is the primary animal model for biomedical research as scientists have been able to map the brain to the genome, and it is relatively easy to handle. Berg, an avid FlyBase user and a professor at Genome Sciences, studies human development and how cells form organs. FlyBase allows researchers to search for and identify genes of interest for their experiments. Subsequently, they test how altering the expression of these genes affects cell placement. Thousands of fruit fly papers are added and summarized in FlyBase each year. Without FlyBase, Berg cautioned that researchers and clinicians could struggle to keep pace and miss crucial connections regarding specific genes.
Researchers from the Undiagnosed Disease Network employ FlyBase to determine whether pediatric genetic mutations contribute to rare, unknown diseases. They identify genetic mutations in patients and compare those with previous studies of those genes in flies. FlyBase also offers crowdfunding support on its website. “Given the importance of FlyBase to the broader U.S. and international scientific research community,” stated James Chisholm, spokesman for the Faculty of Arts at Harvard University. Two staff members from Harvard have already been laid off from FlyBase positions, with six more slated for layoffs in late September and early October, according to Perimon. “If we can’t retain key personnel, it’ll be very difficult to get people back with the knowledge necessary to keep the database operational,” Perimon remarked. “That would mark the end of FlyBase as we know it.”
Funding disruptions threaten plans to relocate FlyBase data to a new long-term home called the Genome Resource Alliance. The fruit fly, along with rats, mice, and worms, is one of several common “model organisms” used in labs to build the foundation for understanding human biology. The National Institutes of Health has allocated $5 million annually since 2017 to merge several databases, including FlyBase, WormBase, and Mouse Genome databases. Each of these contains information that human health researchers can cross-reference to study genes critical to human health more effectively. “If you’re studying human genes and need to access all existing information, you must visit all of these websites. I want one-stop shopping,” said Paul Sternberg, a professor of biology at the California Institute of Technology. The alliance’s budget expired on June 30, and Sternberg noted that they are awaiting a reclamation decision from the NIH. He mentioned that the funding disruption at FlyBase represents a new and unexpected challenge. “We need to move quickly, but with our staff and energy dwindling, we are at risk,” Sternberg expressed. “We can’t afford any additional obstacles.”
FlyBase had planned to merge with the Alliance in 2029. Now, Calvi and others are advocating for an accelerated merger before FlyBase’s financial runway disappears. Any donations the organization is soliciting are aimed at helping cover operational costs. “So far, we’ve raised under $100,000,” Calvi stated regarding the crowdfunding efforts. “We likely need a million.”
Mars’ atmosphere may have once been far thicker, providing a protective layer against the frequent asteroid impacts that destroyed other celestial bodies.
Our solar system began forming around 4 billion years ago, and by that time, Mars was nearly fully developed. The planet existed within a vast reservoir of hot gas and dust swirling around a youthful sun, known as the solar nebula, which some planets absorbed into their atmosphere. However, it was believed that as the solar nebula dissipated, Mars would lose this gas, resulting in a thinner atmosphere.
Recently, Sarah Jollett from Paris’ Collège de France and her team propose that Mars retained this gas for a longer period, forming a primordial atmosphere akin to a sustained soup.
Shortly after the nebula receded, it was believed that the orbits of significant planets like Jupiter and Saturn influenced each other, subsequently disturbing the paths of comets and asteroids that headed towards the inner solar system, impacting rocky planets. While chemical signatures of these impacts can be found on Earth, evidence on Mars remains limited.
“All terrestrial planets faced bombardments from comets during this time, and Mars was no exception, so we should observe remnants of this cometary assault on Mars,” Jollett stated at the Europlanet Science Congress held on September 11th in Helsinki, Finland.
Jollett and her colleagues suggest that the dense, hydrogen-rich atmosphere during this era may have diluted comet material that was available for absorption by Mars. By running simulations of the early solar system, they estimated the potential amount of material impacting Mars and compared it to the detectable quantity. They deduced that the original Martian atmosphere had a mass equivalent to 2.9 bars, around three times the atmospheric pressure we experience on the surface today.
However, this atmosphere dissipated relatively swiftly over about a million years, according to Raymond Pierre Hambart from Oxford University, who was not involved in the study. This loss primarily occurred before liquid water could come to the surface of Mars. The necessary clear atmospheric conditions, rich in carbon dioxide, were likely not present in that thick primordial atmosphere.
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The XE-100 plant proposed in the US by X-Energy employs technologies akin to those being developed in the UK
Centrica
The UK government has unveiled plans to establish over a dozen small reactors nationwide, marking a new era for nuclear energy. A key objective is to help the country eliminate reliance on Russian energy within three years. But can a small reactor achieve both engineering feasibility and commercial success?
Before visiting London on September 16th, the US President and UK officials announced a partnership between Centrica and US startup X-Energy to build 12 small modular reactors in energy data centers, alongside a “micromodular nuclear power plant” developed by Last Energy at DP World’s London Gateway Port.
However, no timelines for commencing these projects were provided, and the Ministry of Energy Security and Net Zero did not respond to New Scientist‘s request for clarification.
This initiative aligns with the trend toward smaller reactors. According to Bruno Merck from the University of Liverpool, Rosatom, the Russian state nuclear agency, has recently completed a small nuclear reactor designed for use in nuclear-powered icebreaker ships. Notably, they continue to construct more reactors, suggesting either a demand for these devices or a commercial demonstration aimed at securing future sales despite ongoing sanctions post-Ukraine invasion.
David Dye from Imperial College London remarks that while small reactors are appropriate for remote military bases and Arctic locations, there is skepticism about their applicability for the needs of tech giants. He suggests that it’s considerably simpler to locate a data center next to a power source.
“For tech visionaries with significant financial resources, investing $50 million in such technology seems trivial,” Dye notes, pointing to the wealth of influential individuals in this field.
One potential motivation, indicates Michael Bluck from Imperial College, is reliability. “Data centers must operate 99.995% of the time,” Bluck explains. “Securing that electricity means having first access to it.”
Bluck asserts that there are no engineering or scientific barriers preventing the swift construction of small reactors. He highlights that many small experimental reactors function in universities and military submarines globally.
“It’s not about size. It’s about modularity, production line construction, and standardized components, which represent practical and sound engineering practices,” Bluck states.
However, the miniaturization of nuclear reactors does come with several drawbacks. Merck explains that scaling up usually yields greater efficiency in terms of cost and energy. Both large and small reactors require similarly thick concrete shielding, which adds safety considerations. Furthermore, while larger reactors achieve a better volume-to-surface area ratio, smaller reactors encounter challenges in neutron fission chain reactions, resulting in less energy production from the same fuel quantity.
“It’s just physics,” Merck states. “Anyone suggesting otherwise is probably mistaken. I don’t subscribe to magical thinking.”
That said, Merck highlights that traditional nuclear power facilities require years of planning, substantial political will for funding, and extensive resources for operations. “These facilities are costly to build,” he adds. “Smaller reactors may offer a more feasible alternative.”
Innovative Nuclear Designs
Bluck notes that the recent governmental announcement features two distinct designs. X-Energy is focusing on the XE-100, while Last Energy is using a relatively conventional pressurized water reactor known as PWR-20, which operates on similar fuel as the Sizewell B nuclear facility in the UK. The former may represent a longer-term vision, but the latter could achieve market readiness sooner.
Nevertheless, even with established fuels and technologies, Bluck estimates a minimum five-year timeline before a prototype reactor can be constructed in the UK. “Everyone desires results immediately,” he remarks, “but they must understand that energy development takes time.”
For plans to mass-produce and export these small reactors, obtaining regulatory approval is crucial, and this process will need to start from square one in the host countries.
Bluck suggests this is significant for US and UK announcements. The agreement aims to accelerate approvals across jurisdictions, allowing for cross-border sign-offs. For instance, Rolls Royce is working on a small modular reactor that is considerably larger than those proposed by US startups, resembling traditional power plants. If it gains UK approval, it could quickly enter the US market.
Despite this, Bluck cautions that the initiative carries inherent political risks. “For those against nuclear energy, questions will arise regarding trust, asking, ‘Are we simply accepting what’s offered?'” This partnership aims to alleviate some of those concerns. “We acknowledge the issue, and this is the first time two major manufacturing nations have come together in this regard,” he concludes.
Left: The remains of a middle-aged woman at the Liu Po site in southern China, where smoke was used before burial approximately 8,000 years ago. Right: Contemporary smoke-dried mummies of Dani individuals in West Papua, Indonesia.
Zhen Li, Hirofumi Matsumura, Hsiao-Chun Hung
Carefully preserved through smoking practices up to 14,000 years ago, a human body has been found at archaeological sites in Southeast Asia, making it the world’s oldest known mummy.
This custom continues today among the Dani people in West Papua, Indonesia, who mummify their deceased relatives by exposing them to smoke and treat them with care and respect as part of the household. Many of these mummies are found in a tightly bound squatting position.
Similar “highly flexed” ancient remains have also been discovered in Australia, China, the Philippines, Laos, Thailand, Malaysia, South Korea, and Japan.
Hsiao-Chun Hung from the Australian National University in Canberra noted the striking similarities between burial remains excavated in relation to Dani traditions while working on ancient skeletons in Vietnam in 2017.
Hung and her team analyzed the burial practices of 54 hunter-gatherers from 11 archaeological sites across Southeast Asia dated between 12,000 and 4,000 years ago to uncover evidence of smoking. Most sites were based in northern Vietnam and southern China.
Numerous remains displayed clear signs of partial burning, though not enough to indicate cremation. The researchers utilized two analytical methods, X-ray diffraction and infrared spectroscopy, on several bone samples to assess thermal exposure.
Over 90% of the 69 skeletal samples displayed indications of heat exposure. The findings suggest that while human remains were not subjected to extreme temperatures, they likely endured lower temperatures, potentially from smoking for extended periods.
The oldest mummy examined by a Vietnamese team from Hang Cho dates back over 11,000 years. However, a tightly bound skeleton from another site, Hang Mooy, indicates practices recorded over 14,000 years ago. “We didn’t need X-rays or infrared to analyze this one because it’s evidently partially burned and visible to the naked eye,” explains Hung.
Previously, the oldest known mummy was believed to come from northern Chile, approximately 7,000 years ago, and ancient Egypt around 4,500 years ago.
Hung suggests that the evidence indicates this burial tradition likely spread across southern China and Southeast Asia at least 14,000 years ago, as agricultural societies became prevalent in the region around 4,000 to 3,500 years ago. The constricting bindings of mummified bodies may have facilitated their transport, she notes.
Ethnographic studies indicate that these traditions persisted in southern Australia until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, according to Hung. “Additionally, our literature review in the New Guinea highlands reveals that these practices continue among some communities today.”
“Our results signify a unique blend of techniques, traditions, culture, and a profound connection to ancestry that spans an extraordinary timeframe, covering vast regions from the Paleolithic era to the present,” she states.
Vito Hernandez from Flinders University in Adelaide suggests that this study challenges long-standing beliefs that such practices were exclusive to arid regions like Chile’s Atacama and Egypt’s Nile Valley. “It highlights the role of tropical environments in nurturing distinct mortuary traditions among early modern humans across the Far East and potentially into the Pacific,” he remarks.
“By extending the timeline of mummification by at least 5,000 years, the Chinchalo culture [of South America] emphasizes Southeast Asia’s role as a center for cultural innovation, demonstrating a deep continuity that connects early Holocene hunter-gatherers with present-day indigenous groups in New Guinea and Australia,” Hernandez adds.
Cairo and Alexandria, Scientific Pioneers of the Ancient World: Egypt
Embark on an unforgettable journey in Cairo and Alexandria, Egypt’s two most iconic cities, where ancient history meets modern charm.
A recent proof-of-concept study conducted by researchers at Lund University reveals that a brief self-management digital cognitive assessment called BioCog effectively detects cognitive impairments. When used alongside blood tests, it can accurately identify clinical Alzheimer’s disease in primary care settings.
In primary care, the BioCog test achieved 85% accuracy in identifying cognitive impairments with a single cutoff, significantly outperforming primary care physicians, who had a 73% accuracy rate. Image credit: Miroslaw Miras.
Alzheimer’s disease stands as the leading cause of dementia, marked by amyloid beta accumulation, tau aggregation, and progressive neurodegeneration.
Clinical presentations of Alzheimer’s typically begin with subjective cognitive decline, where individuals report memory issues and other cognitive challenges, although formal cognitive tests may not yet indicate impairment.
This initial phase advances to mild cognitive impairment, which is characterized by objective cognitive symptoms, ultimately evolving into dementia marked by significant functional limitations in daily life.
Diagnosing Alzheimer’s in its early stages, especially in primary care, can be particularly challenging.
There’s a considerable prevalence of both misdiagnosis and missed diagnoses, with 20-30% of cases incorrectly diagnosed in specialist environments and about 40% in general practice when Alzheimer’s is not corroborated by biomarkers.
“The BioCog digital assessment, designed to allow patients to perform with minimal healthcare worker involvement, will enhance primary care physicians’ ability to investigate potential Alzheimer’s pathology early through blood tests,” stated the researchers.
“Primary care typically lacks the resources, time, or expertise to explore Alzheimer’s disease with the same thoroughness as specialized memory clinics.”
“This is where digital cognitive assessments can play a vital role.”
In contrast to the traditional pen-and-paper tests utilized for evaluating cognitive impairment, digital assessments offer a more comprehensive analysis.
They easily integrate novel variables and additional factors that were not previously measured.
“Most individuals experiencing memory loss first seek help at their local health center,” remarked Pontus Tideman, a doctoral student at the University of Rand and psychologist at Skone University Hospital’s memory clinic.
“Our new digital evaluations provide the initial objective insights needed, ensuring higher accuracy in identifying cognitive impairments related to Alzheimer’s disease.”
“This determines who should undergo a blood test that measures phosphorylated tau levels, which can reliably detect Alzheimer’s disease in the brain.”
Currently, these blood tests are available exclusively at hospital specialty and memory clinics.
In time, they are expected to be accessible in primary care; however, it is not intended for all patients with cognitive complaints to undergo blood testing.
Researchers assert the immense value of digital solutions, given the challenges of diagnosing Alzheimer’s during a typical 15-20 minute patient consultation.
This is where objective digital tools for assessing cognitive skills can significantly alter the diagnostic landscape.
“A distinctive feature of our BioCog assessments is their validation within primary care settings, unlike many other digital evaluations. These assessments are aimed at patients seeking treatment due to cognitive concerns, such as memory problems,” the researchers noted.
“The combination of digital assessments with blood test results can greatly enhance the diagnostic accuracy of Alzheimer’s disease.”
“The goal of this test is to simplify the process for primary care physicians.”
The BioCog test is detailed in a study published in the journal Nature Medicine.
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P. Tideman et al. Primary care detection of Alzheimer’s disease using self-administered digital cognitive tests and blood biomarkers. Nat Med. Published online on September 15th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41591-025-03965-4
Chamkaur Ghag plays a pivotal role in the Lux-Zeplin experiment, a leading dark matter detector
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Deep underground in South Dakota, the most advanced dark matter detector on Earth awaits its moment of discovery. This is the Lux-Zeplin (LZ) experiment, highlighting a vast tank of liquid xenon. Physicist Shankaur Ghag from University College London is among the key leaders in this large scientific collaboration, which aims to unravel about 85% of the universe’s mysteries that still elude us.
Currently, Ghag and his team find themselves at a crucial juncture in the quest for this elusive substance. They are considering plans for a more significant detector called xlzd, which promises to be many times the size of the LZ and even more precise. However, if neither detector can uncover the dark matter, they may need to reassess their understanding of what dark matter is. As Ghag suggests, future dark matter detectors may not be massive underground structures but rather smaller, unassuming devices. He has already devised a prototype of such a detector ahead of his upcoming talks at New Scientist Live this October.
Leah Crane: To start, why is dark matter so essential?
Chamkaur Ghag: On one side, we have all the knowledge that particles and atoms, alongside particle physics, provide about the components of matter. On the contrary, we understand gravity as well. While this may seem comprehensive, a significant issue arises when attempting to merge gravity and particle physics. Our galaxy shouldn’t exist as it does. It remains intact through gravity, which seems to derive from unseen matter. This isn’t just a tiny glue; around 85% of the universe comprises this so-called dark matter.
Why have our efforts to find it been so prolonged, with little success?
At present, we hypothesize that dark matter likely consists of what we term “wimps”—massive, weakly interacting particles that originated in the early universe. Consequently, these rarely interact with other particles, providing only a faint signature, which necessitates a large detector for detection. The larger these detectors are, the greater the chance that dark matter particles will pass through them. Additionally, they must be extremely quiet since even slight vibrations can obscure the signal.
We discuss the theoretical landscape of dark matter, which encompasses the range of masses and characteristics such particles could possess. We’ve already excluded certain regions of this landscape, making it essential to delve even deeper underground with larger detectors to explore where dark matter may still exist.
This painstaking endeavor requires minimizing background noise. For instance, many metals emit small radioactive levels, necessitating rigorous efforts to reduce construction material noise. The LZ detector boasts the lowest background noise and the highest level of radio-purity on the planet.
The LZ is currently the most sensitive detector we have. How does it function?
In essence, it operates as a double-walled thermos, containing several meters of liquid xenon. This xenon resides within a reflective tank, equipped with light sensors positioned above and below. Additionally, an electric field exists within this tank. When a wimp collides with a xenon nucleus, it generates a brief flash of light. However, due to the electric field, it causes the electrons to split apart, producing a second flash from the nucleus.
This two-signal output enables us to ascertain the exact location of an event. The intensity of both the primary and secondary flashes informs us about the microphysics of whether the interaction was caused by a wimp or an unrelated phenomenon, such as gamma rays. To ensure optimal detection, we are positioned miles underground to shield against cosmic rays and also encapsulated in an aquarium to safeguard against the surrounding rock.
This endeavor is undoubtedly complex. What has been the most challenging aspect of making it operational?
In an earlier experiment with a smaller prototype called Lux, I understood what was required to create an instrument tenfold more sensitive. Bringing that theoretical knowledge into practice proved challenging. For me, the toughest challenge lay in ensuring the instrument remained clean and quiet enough to achieve required sensitivity. When deployed with the LZ, it occupies a vast area equivalent to a football pitch, where it must tolerate only a gram of dust spread across its surface.
What is it like working with such an ultra-clean detector underground?
The environment, once a gold mine, retains its industrial atmosphere. You don a hard hat, descend a mile down, and then trek to the lab. Upon entering the lab, you lose sense of the surroundings; it transforms into a clean room filled with computers and equipment—essentially a lab devoid of windows. But the journey underground feels otherworldly.
Outer Detectors of the Lux-Zeplin Experiment
Sanford Underground Research Facility/Matthew Kapust
Historically, wimps have been the primary suspect for dark matter. At what point do we consider the wimp hypothesis invalid if we find no evidence?
Should we construct the XLZDs, the larger detectors intended for this purpose, and reach a point where they fail to detect wimps, it would be hard to sustain the idea of a standard wimp existing if we must venture beyond the capabilities of those instruments. However, until that happens, wimps are still in the game. The void between our current findings and those of the XLZD remains intriguing.
We’ve also developed a much smaller, entirely different detector for dark matter. Can you tell me more about it?
We’ve engineered 150 nanometer wide glass beads coated with lasers. This highly sensitive force detector can determine interactions in three dimensions, allowing us to ascertain which direction an event originated from. This capability is significant as it enables us to filter out terrestrial background influence, such as radioactive decay from geological materials.
This concept seems far removed from large detectors like the LZ. What’s the logic behind its creation? Will we see further advancements in smaller detectors?
Large-scale underground experiments, while large and sensitive, can paradoxically limit sensitivity due to their size. For instance, when a dark matter particle collides with my xenon detector, it may produce 10 photons. A smaller tank can capture all of them, but in a larger tank, these photons could bounce around and only a few are detected.
Furthermore, when a dark matter particle interacts with my detector, it only generates two photons initially. In this scenario, the maximal signal from a detector akin to the LZ diminishes. This has spurred the motivation to search for low-mass dark matter particles beyond the LZ’s detection range, leading us toward alternative detection methods.
If dark matter were to be discovered, what implications would that hold for physics and our understanding of the universe?
The implications would be two-fold: it would conclusively provide answers to what constitutes 85% of the universe, and it would challenge the standard model of particle physics, which currently outlines the known components of reality. Thus, if we discovered dark matter, it may offer the first glimpse beyond this conventional framework. Up until now, we’ve had no solid evidence to deviate from the standard model—this would serve as the first ray of hope.
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope have captured a new image of the central region of the Edge-on-Starburst Galaxy Messier 82.
This Hubble image displays Messier 82, a starburst irregular galaxy located 12 million light years away in the Ursa Major constellation. Image credits: NASA/ESA/Hubble/WD Vacca.
Messier 82 is situated roughly 12 million light years from the northern Ursa Major constellation.
Initially identified by German astronomer Johann Erard Bord in 1774, this galaxy spans about 40,000 light years.
Known as the Cigar Galaxy, Messier 82 features an elongated oval shape due to the tilt of its starry disc relative to our view.
This galaxy is renowned for its remarkable pace in star formation, generating stars at a rate ten times faster than that of the Milky Way.
“Messier 82 is home to a stunning star that shines through clouds of gas, dust, and clumps,” remarked the Hubble astronomer.
“It’s not surprising to find that the galaxy is so densely packed with stars.”
“Galaxies that produce stars at a rate ten times faster than the Milky Way are classified as Starburst Galaxies.”
“This vigorous starbursts phase has led to the emergence of superstar clusters at the galaxy’s core.”
“Each of these stellar clusters contains hundreds of thousands of stars, surpassing the brightness of ordinary star clusters.”
Astronomers have employed Hubble to investigate these vast clusters and understand their formation and evolution.
“The image reveals features that were previously unseen in earlier Hubble images of galaxies: data from the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) high-resolution channels,” they noted.
“The high-resolution channel is one of three sub-instruments of the ACS, which was installed in 2002.”
“After five years of operation, the high-resolution channel provided stunning, detailed observations of a dense stellar environment like the heart of the Starburst Galaxy.”
“Unfortunately, an electronic failure in 2007 rendered the high-resolution channel inoperative.”
Drones are now crucial in the Russia-Ukraine conflict
Diego Herrera Charcedo/Anadolu via Getty Images
Stealth military radios, designed to mask signals from ambient noise, are exceptionally resistant to jamming and detection. This capability allows drone operators to function without being exposed.
With drones rapidly gaining prominence in warfare, electronic warfare has taken on a new intensity. In the ongoing conflict between Russia and Ukraine, both factions deploy jammers to disrupt drone communications, while also capturing radio signals to identify drone operators for coordinating artillery assaults.
We are a startup named Rampart News, and we’ve created a radio that features dual layers of protection, making it extremely hard to detect signals. The Stratawave Radio disperses its signal across a wide spectrum rather than encrypting it and broadcasting on a single frequency, rendering emissions subdued and harder to identify.
While similar methods have been employed in the past, Stratawave enhances this approach. By distributing the signal over the radio spectrum, interception becomes challenging, but the mere existence of radio transmissions remains apparent. To obscure this, Stratawave combines the entire broadcast, masking the presence of the radio signal amid ambient noise.
The first layer of protection resembles encoding a letter and then tearing it into substantial pieces. Even if adversaries can’t decipher the message, they can still perceive its existence. The second layer, however, is akin to reducing the letters to dust.
“Without the correct encryption key and algorithm, the signal manifests as noise on alternative receivers,” explains Aaron Correa from Rampart.
The company introduced Stratawave at the Pentagon Technical Preparation Experiment (TREX) event held in Camp Atterbury, Indiana, in August. During the event, the operator piloted the drone directly above the jamming system without encountering any disruptions.
The device manufacturer claims it has undergone over 60 diverse jamming trials. The counter-drone systems were unable to detect emissions from either the drone or its operator, nor could they triangulate their location.
Theoretically, StrataWave enables drone operators to use higher power levels without drawing fire, facilitating safer communication over long distances. Ukrainian commander from the Typhoon Drone Unit, Michael, asserts that they typically keep their power output as low as possible to evade detection.
“As soon as you activate a transmitter with a standard output of 1-5 watts, you increase both the signal strength and your exposure,” Michael states. “More potent, distinctive signals are easier to detect and pinpoint through triangulation.”
Electronic warfare resembles a cat-and-mouse dynamic, with advancements constantly evolving to counteract one another. In Ukraine, drone technologies are refreshed every few weeks to surpass existing jamming methods. Rampart asserts that when adversaries attempt to detect or jam Stratawave, they effectively start from scratch.
Thomas Withington, an electronic warfare specialist at the Royal United Services Institute (RUSI), a British defense think tank, suggests that this is not the definitive turn in the radio and jamming conflict. “Radio frequency engineers inform us that new systems seldom perform flawlessly.”
Withington highlights that cognitive radio systems incorporating AI and extensive datasets increasingly stand to uncover hidden signals cloaked in noise. However, deciphering Stratawave may take time. “This type of system undoubtedly offers a temporary advantage, which could be all you require,” he concludes.
Large dinosaurs such as Titanosaurus significantly influenced their ecosystems
Christian Jegou/Science Photography Library
The extinction of dinosaurs had profound consequences for Earth, leading to significant alterations in the planet’s landscapes, including shifts in river systems.
There is a clear distinction between various rock formations in North America before and after the end of the dinosaurs during the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-PG) extinction event approximately 66 million years ago, triggered by the Chicxulub asteroid impact in the Yucatan Peninsula.
For example, the Green Gray Mudstone, recognized as the Hell Creek Formation from the dinosaur period, transitions into the more vivid pajama-striped layers of the Fort Union Formation, which hosts many lignite-rich charcoals from plant material that surfaced with the rise of mammals.
This transition was initially attributed to the direct impacts of asteroid strikes, such as increased rainfall. However, Luke Weaver from the University of Michigan and his team propose another explanation.
They examined floodplain areas in the western United States, revealing abrupt geological changes around the K-PG boundary, particularly in the Williston Basin, stretching across parts of Wyoming, Montana, and the Dakotas.
The multifaceted colorful layers from the Post-dinosaur period are believed to be deposits formed by rising water levels, creating temporary ponds. However, Weaver and his colleagues did not find supporting literature on water level changes during this era.
“There’s no evidence of extremely high water tables or particularly wet conditions,” he says. While there was an intrusion of seawater inland, the nearest instance occurred at least 300,000 years after the K-PG boundary.
Weaver’s team argues that significant sandstone layers formed post-K-PG boundary are indicative of large, stable rivers, known as Point Bar deposits, instead of temporary pond deposits. These layers can exceed 10 meters in thickness, reflecting the stability of these rivers.
Researchers attribute these findings to the extinction of dinosaurs. They propose that, like today’s large herbivores, dinosaurs were ecological engineers, disrupting vegetation, trampling, and grazing seedlings, inhibiting new plant growth.
“These creatures were colossal compared to modern fauna,” Weaver notes. For instance, while a contemporary elephant weighs around 5,000 kilograms, a Triceratops could weigh at least double that.
As they moved through and destroyed vegetation, the rivers would have flooded periodically instead of winding through forests. This change ultimately led to the expansion of marshy mudstone, according to Weaver. Once the dinosaurs vanished, tree roots stabilized the sediments, allowing water to flow through a meandering riverbed, thus creating point bars.
“This illustrates a landscape where biology plays a crucial role,” Weaver observes. Animals, he argues, significantly modify their environments, much like humans have drastically altered Earth’s landscapes.
Christopher Doughty from Northern Arizona University believes this perspective better explains the observed geological transformations than earlier theories. “In contemporary studies where large animals are removed from ecosystems, tree cover significantly increases,” he mentions. “With the extinction of dinosaurs, there were no longer large animals capable of uprooting trees. This led to a decrease in herbivory and reduced the disturbance of seedlings giving rise to robust tree growth.”
However, Cat Schroder from the University of New Mexico remains skeptical. “While there seems to be a correlation between large dinosaurs and open nutritional landscapes, causality hasn’t been established yet,” she says. “Forests thrived before, during, and after the age of dinosaurs.”
Doughty is using isotopic analysis of fossil leaves to investigate how forest structures have shifted since the dinosaurs went extinct.
Dinosaur Exploration in the Gobi Desert, Mongolia
Experience an exhilarating and unique expedition exploring the remains of dinosaurs in the expansive wilderness of the Gobi Desert, renowned as one of the world’s premier paleontological sites.
“For most plants, a balanced, all-purpose fertilizer would be fine.”
ShutterStock/Encierro
A visit to the garden center reveals a multitude of fertilizers lining the shelves. These vibrant bottles promise optimal results for a range of plants, from lawns and roses to ferns and Japanese maples. But do home gardeners truly require them? Let’s explore the science behind it.
Plants require approximately 16 essential mineral nutrients, most of which are needed in minor quantities. At the heart of plant nutrition—fertilizer—lies three primary macronutrients: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). The main distinction between various fertilizers is the proportion of these nutrients, denoted on the label after the letters “NPK”.
For lush grass, opt for fertilizers with high nitrogen content. However, for flowering and fruiting plants like tomatoes and roses, a greater amount of potassium is necessary. Fortunately, gardeners don’t need to pore over every label; most fertilizers are conveniently labeled to indicate their best uses.
Things become more complicated, however. I recently compared three “expert” plant foods from well-known brands designed for roses, strawberries, and tomatoes. All had the identical NPK ratio of 4-2-6, making their only real difference the packaging. Ultimately, plants synthesize nutrients from the soil as needed. In most cases, a balanced, general-purpose fertilizer is sufficient. Curiously, some specialized feeds are merely repackaged versions of generic fertilizers.
Stocking a wide array of specific fertilizers is not only costly and unnecessary but can also be detrimental. Fertilizers should only be used to replenish deficient minerals in the soil. For instance, excessive nitrogen can result in soft and pest-prone growth or lead to poor-quality crops. In contrast, excess phosphorus is often washed away, contributing to water pollution and causing environmental damage, particularly in fertile regions like the UK, where garden soils are richer compared to agricultural lands. Intensive management practices often exacerbate this issue.
So, what’s the takeaway? Invest in affordable, user-friendly home soil tests instead of unnecessary fertilizers. Of course, there are some exceptions. Acid-loving plants like rhododendrons may need an iron boost, and other nutrients that are harder to absorb from neutral soils. Similarly, container plants (particularly those grown in nutrient-poor media like peat) typically require fertilizer supplements during their growing season. Nonetheless, for most home gardeners—including houseplant enthusiasts—a single balanced fertilizer is enough, giving you more time (and money) to enjoy nurturing your plants.
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Testing reveals that a higher weekly dosage of Wegovy is linked to an increased risk of side effects.
Prior research indicates that individuals receiving the standard weekly doses of Wegovy, which contains the active ingredient semaglutide, can lose up to 15% of their body weight over a year when combined with a healthy diet and exercise regimen. This medication mimics the action of GLP-1, a hormone akin to glucagon, which aids in numerous ways such as delaying stomach emptying and signaling the brain to suppress appetite.
Produced by the pharmaceutical company Novo Nordisk, Wegovy is approved for use among individuals with obesity or those who are overweight and possess at least one weight-related condition like type 2 diabetes. “However, some patients may not experience the desired level of weight loss or may seek more than the average 10-15% reduction,” says Lora Heisler, who was not part of the research team from the University of Aberdeen in the UK.
To explore the potential benefits of increased dosage, Shawn Wharton and colleagues, including scientists from the University of Toronto and Novo Nordisk, studied over 1,000 obese adults across 11 countries, including the United States, Canada, and parts of Europe.
Participants, all without diabetes, were randomly assigned to receive either a high dosage of 7.2 milligrams or the standard 2.4 milligrams of semaglutide, alongside a placebo injection mimicking Wegovy. Doses of semaglutide were gradually elevated over several weeks, and all participants were encouraged to maintain a caloric deficit of 500 calories per day and engage in physical activity for 150 minutes weekly.
After one year, those receiving the standard dosage lost an average of 16% of their body weight, while the high-dose group achieved about 19% weight loss. Conversely, the placebo group lost approximately 44% of their body weight.
One-third of participants in the standard dosage category experienced over 20% weight loss, compared to almost half in the high-dose group. Only 3% in the placebo group reached this threshold, indicating that higher dosages can significantly enhance weight loss outcomes, according to Heisler.
At the onset of the study, more than one-third of participants in each group had prediabetes, marked by elevated blood sugar levels without qualifying for type 2 diabetes. By the study’s conclusion, diabetes cases in the high-dose group decreased by 83%, while cases within the standard-dose group fell by 74%. “This is highly encouraging, as the main objective of weight loss is to enhance overall health,” Heisler remarks.
Nevertheless, there are noteworthy drawbacks. Bowel-related side effects, such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, were reported by 61% in the standard-dose group, while 71% in the high-dose category experienced similar issues. In comparison, 40% of those taking the placebo also faced these symptoms, which might not be directly related to the treatment, according to Heisler.
Moreover, over 20% of the high-dose group reported unpleasant skin sensations known as dysesthesia. As a result, four participants discontinued their treatment. By contrast, only 6% of the standard-dose recipients and just one in the placebo group reported this side effect, with no one ceasing treatment.
These findings indicate that the advantages of higher dosages may outweigh the associated risks for certain individuals, according to Heisler. “For those requiring substantial weight loss who don’t experience many side effects, the higher dose may facilitate their goals,” she states. However, it may not be appropriate for individuals achieving sufficient weight loss on standard doses or those enduring severe side effects. She emphasizes the need for additional trials to validate these results before clinical application.
In a separate trial, Wharton and his team suggest that higher dosages might yield greater weight loss and enhanced blood glucose levels in individuals with both obesity and type 2 diabetes. However, the results were not statistically significant, indicating a need for further investigation, says Simon Cork from Anglia Ruskin University in the UK.
Experiencing bereavement is one of life’s toughest challenges. Offering love and support can truly make a significant impact, and it’s admirable to want to help those who are grieving.
Everyone’s sadness is unique, which complicates knowing what to say. In those raw moments, simply being present and offering your love and time may be the most valuable support you can provide.
Research indicates that empathizing with others can be more challenging than we realize. Avoid making assumptions about their feelings; instead, gently ask what they are experiencing.
If you’re uncertain whether they prefer solitude, give them an option. You might say, “Would you like me to come by later?” rather than simply texting, “Let me know how I can help.”
Since close relationships may benefit from practical support, offering to help with meals or tasks can be greatly appreciated. However, always provide an opt-out option, such as leaving food at the door instead of entering.
Additionally, prioritize emotional support over giving advice or trying to reframe the situation positively. Listen attentively to their feelings and what they need at that moment.
If appropriate, consider employing techniques related to “active listening.” For instance, paraphrasing or echoing their words can show that you genuinely understand their emotional state.
As time passes and if their emotional pain decreases, it might be suitable to transition to what psychologists refer to as “cognitive advice.”
This could involve helping them find constructive ways to express their sadness and discover hope, such as making positive changes to their routines.
We often think we understand someone else’s sadness, but research shows that isn’t always the case. Instead, it’s crucial to be curious, ask how they feel, and really listen – Credit: via Klaus Vedfelt
If the grieving person indicates they prefer solitude, don’t take that as a permanent preference. Make sure to check in regularly in a non-judgmental manner.
Reaching out occasionally can be incredibly meaningful, especially since it can be hard for them to re-engage.
Psychologists recommend expressing sadness as a helpful coping strategy, often best done with the support of others.
For instance, you might plan a memorial activity, reminisce about the loved one they’ve lost, commemorate a significant anniversary, or visit places that hold special memories.
So, when the time feels right, consider joining your friends and loved ones in commemorating and celebrating the lives of those they’ve lost.
Remember, there is no right or wrong way to grieve. Each person’s timeline for healing is unique.
However, if your loved one continues to struggle with their grief more than six months later, they may benefit from seeking professional help.
This article responds to the inquiry (Neil Myers, asked by Lincoln): “How should I talk to someone who just lost a loved one?”
Please email us to submit your questionsQuestion @sciencefocus.com or MessageFacebook,xorInstagramPage (don’t forget to include your name and location).
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Stone circles are remnants of ancient rituals and druidic lore. Most people recognize the stone rings at Stonehenge, located near Amesbury, England; which dates back to 2500 BC (around 4,525 years ago). However, numerous examples of “menhills” (standing stones) and other ancient stone arrangements can be found globally.
In fact, some of these stone monuments predate Stonehenge. For instance, the Oyyu Stone Circle in Northern Japan is estimated to be about 3,500 years old, having been discovered in 1931. Additionally, there are various Aboriginal stone circles throughout Australia; some of which may be nearly 10,000 years old.
Conversely, stone monuments are uncommon in America. Thus, in 2007, archaeologists were thrilled to uncover what seems to be a human-made stone arrangement at the bottom of Lake Michigan.
One archaeologist, Mark Holly, has since been seeking funds to drill at the site while keeping its exact location confidential to prevent disturbances.
Currently, the origin of these stones remains unclear. One theory suggests that they may indicate “driving lanes” for caribou hunting, reflecting a different study. 9,000-year-old stone arrangements found on Lake Huron would have been visible when the lanes were marked.
Lake Michigan remained dry until approximately 15,000 years ago. Therefore, these stones might have been arranged significantly earlier than those found at Lake Huron or Stonehenge.
This article addresses the inquiry by John McPherson from Ripon: “Are there any other stoneworks?”
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When venturing beyond the Earth’s atmosphere, spacesuits become crucial. These human-sized miniature spacecraft are designed to shield astronauts from harmful solar radiation, extreme temperatures, low atmospheric pressure, and the impacts of micrometeorites.
The moon presents additional challenges, such as sharply defined lunar dust that can damage the suit’s joints and disrupt its materials.
It’s essential for spacesuits to provide remarkable freedom of movement, as astronauts frequently exit their spacecraft to conduct intricate repairs on equipment.
In emergencies, swift donning of the suit is beneficial. Furthermore, a full life support system should be integrated to regulate air supply and temperature.
Since astronauts may need to wear their suits for extended periods, considerations for food, hydration, and other bodily functions are vital.
Over the years, there have been Various designs, although not all have met these necessary standards accurately.
In 1962, the peculiar hard-shell suit known as the Grumman underwent brief testing. It resembled a fusion of a dustbin and a blender, but its limited mobility was a significant drawback.
Another design, the Hardshell “ax” suit, was also tested, primarily constructed from aluminum with rotary joints akin to futuristic armor, but it never made it to any missions.
Most functional spacesuits have been crafted from flexible multi-layer composite fabrics, with rigid shells reserved for specific areas like the helmet and upper torso.
Future suits may be even more advanced.
Biosuit proposed by Professor Dava Newman at MIT – Image credit: Dava Newman/Professor MIT/Guillermo Trotti/Douglas Sonders Photography
Researchers are currently focused on creating self-healing materials, ensuring that issues arising from extended missions to Mars are mitigated. One of the most innovative concepts is the Bio Suit, proposed by Professor Dava Newman at MIT.
Astronauts would wear suits made from flexible fabric that, when activated, reduces the embedded shape memory alloy coil, allowing the suit to conform perfectly to the skin, offering exceptional mobility and style.
Alternatively, the most intriguing designs feature proposed FO-RO (forward and reverse osmosis) systems.
Similar to a still suit from Sand Dunes, this suit can recycle astronaut urine into drinking water.
This article answers a question from Erica Morris via email: “What will the future spaceship look like?”
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The latest research aims to thoroughly investigate how wild octopuses utilize their arms within their natural environments. This pioneering study correlates arm movements to the entire animal in intricate, real-world contexts by examining arm dynamics across various settings. The results indicate that all arms are capable of executing all types of actions, yet a distinct pattern of arm specialization was evident. The front arms primarily engage in movements that aid in exploration, whereas the rear arms focus on facilitating locomotion. Additionally, the octopus displayed remarkable adaptability, with a single arm executing multiple actions simultaneously, showcasing coordination among different arms—signifying advanced motor control.
Illustrations of 12 arm actions from various wild octopus behaviors. These cephalopods frequently employ multiple arm actions at once, either on one arm or across several. Image credits: Venice et al., doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-10674-y.
The structure of an octopus arm is intricate, comprising four distinct muscle groups oriented horizontally, vertically, diagonally, and circularly around a central nerve.
This arrangement allows the octopus’s arms to adapt in numerous ways, enabling a variety of actions essential for tasks such as hunting, locomotion, and self-defense.
Despite this complexity, there is still a limited understanding of how wild octopuses utilize and modify their arms.
In this new study, Chelsea Venice and her colleagues at Florida Atlantic University analyzed 25-minute video recordings of wild octopuses filmed in the Atlantic and Caribbean between 2007 and 2015.
The observed octopuses belonged to the species Octopus vulgaris or closely related species such as Octopus insularis and Octopus americanus.
The researchers documented which arms were used each time an octopus exhibited one of 15 distinct behaviors (like crawling).
They also noted the combinations of 12 different arm actions (e.g., curling) and four distinct deformations (e.g., extension) executed by each arm during these activities.
Researchers found that every octopus is capable of transforming all eight arms in four diverse ways, enabling every arm to perform all actions.
The study revealed that both sides of the body utilize arms equally, although the front four arms are more actively engaged than the rear four (64% versus 36%).
The front arms are primarily employed for exploring, while the rear arms primarily assist in movement.
Consequently, two actions are notably more frequent with the rear arms: rolling, where the arm glides along the seabed akin to a conveyor belt, and lifting, where the arm extends vertically downwards.
“Our findings are among the first to demonstrate that octopuses utilize specific limbs for designated tasks—a behavior previously only documented in primates, rodents, and fish,” stated the researchers.
“These discoveries could inform advancements in robotic arms designed to replicate the functionality of the octopus.”
This study was published this week in the journal Scientific Reports.
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Co Bennice et al. 2025. The flexibility of the octopus arm enhances complex behavior across various natural environments. Sci Rep 15, 31875; doi:10.1038/s41598-025-10674-y
Following 1i/oumuamua and 2i/borisov, 3i/atlas is the third object and has been confirmed as the second comet originating from outside the solar system.
This image from the Gemini North Telescope Multi-Object Spectrometer (GMOS-N) depicts the interstellar comet 3i/Atlas. Image credits: International Gemini Observatory/Noirlab/NSF/Aura/K. Meech, Ifa&U. Hawaii / Jen Miller & Mahdi Zamani, Noirlab.
The comet 3i/Atlas was identified on July 1, 2025, by the Asteroid Land Impact Trastor Alt System (ATLAS), a project supported by NASA.
Also referred to as C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) and A11PL3Z, the comet is approaching from the direction of Sagittarius.
Its orbit is the most dynamically extreme among the objects documented within the solar system.
“While aliens may not be the first to engage with us, 3i/Atlas has much to teach us, as it is merely the third recorded interstellar entity to traverse our solar system,” stated Jacqueline McClary, an astronomer at Northeastern University.
“All comet-like interstellar bodies are unique in that they are the only ones that have provided us with physical observations coming from outside our solar system. They serve as messengers from afar.”
“Given how rare it is to detect interstellar objects within our solar system, each discovery is distinct,” remarked Adina Feinstein, an astronomer at Michigan State University.
“3i/Atlas presents an opportunity to examine other solar systems closely, without the necessity of traveling to them.”
From the moment 3i/Atlas was observed, it was evident that it deviated from typical comet behavior. Initially, it appeared to emit an unusual light.
Comets are generally very dark, which makes them challenging for astronomers to detect initially.
As they near the sun, solar radiation prompts volatile compounds and ice to sublimate from their surfaces.
This process leads to the formation of a coma, which ultimately evolves into the iconic tail associated with comets across the night sky.
“Jupiter is positioned 5 AU from the Sun, and most comets need to approach closer for solar radiation to generate enough intensity to form this melted tail,” Dr. McClary said.
“Comet 3I/Atlas developed its coma at a considerably greater distance than typical, remaining beyond Jupiter’s orbit.”
3i/Atlas began to emit light far from the sun, prompting initial speculation that it could be an extraterrestrial spacecraft. What else could emit light so rapidly?
However, later observations suggested that it not only possesses a comet-like tail but is also rich in carbon dioxide.
The NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope has ultimately unveiled that comets are remarkable for attributes beyond their interstellar heritage.
Not only was it composed primarily of carbon dioxide, but it also exhibited an extraordinary ratio of carbon dioxide ice to water ice, the best ever documented.
This discovery allows for insight into the conditions that prevail in other solar systems and how such systems were initially formed.
“Clearly, the parent system of 3i/Atlas may have had a wealth of carbon dioxide, or perhaps a unique radiative process occurred that led to the depletion of other materials, leaving abundant carbon dioxide,” Dr. McClary remarked.
“By understanding the composition of this comet and comparing it with other interstellar comets, we gain insight into solar system formation across different environments.”
The precise origin of 3i/atlas remains elusive.
“It likely hails from the Milky Way’s bulge, but pinpointing its exact source will be challenging,” Dr. McCleary commented.
“For it to have escaped its parent solar system, the comet must have undergone a gravitational disturbance that altered its trajectory, setting it on its current path into the solar system.”
Nevertheless, scientists have gained a more intricate understanding of the comet, having observed it crossing Jupiter’s orbit since October, elucidating more about its characteristics.
The Juno satellite orbiting Jupiter is ideally suited to observe these interstellar visitors.
“We may be able to observe this comet with remarkable clarity. It could prove particularly intriguing as it nears the sun, causing significant carbon dioxide vaporization, so we can assess what remains,” Dr. McClary stated.
Gaining more knowledge about 3i/Atlas assists not only in comprehending the nature of other solar systems, but also in exploring the conditions under which sentient life might arise, given the uniqueness of our solar system.
“This serves as a window into the primitive materials of other solar systems, which is invaluable for refining models of solar system formation,” Dr. McCullilia said.
“Is our solar system common or rare? It appears to be relatively uncommon, offering us a way to quantify its uniqueness.”
“Investigating other solar systems places humanity in a broader context,” Dr. Feinstein remarked.
“One of the most profound questions we face is, are we alone in the universe? Each NASA mission brings us a step closer to answering this monumental question.”
“Capturing numerous observations of these interstellar objects, especially as they approach the sun, is crucial for understanding their behaviors,” noted John Noonan, an astronomer at Auburn University.
“These interstellar objects may not have been significantly warmed in millions, if not billions, of years, making it fascinating to study how they react to early thermal exposure.”
Ultra-processed foods might contribute to the growing obesity epidemic in children
UNICEF/UN0846048/Florence Gou
For the first time, a significant number of children worldwide are experiencing obesity rather than malnutrition. This trend signifies a critical shift in childhood nutrition. While many strategies exist to combat hunger, few address obesity specifically.
“Despite years of attempts to prevent obesity, particularly in children and adolescents, we are not achieving satisfactory outcomes,” notes Andrea Richardson from RAND, a California-based nonprofit research organization.
A new report by Harriet Torres from UNICEF Belgium and her team utilized data from a comprehensive study to evaluate the nutritional status of children aged 5 to 19. This initiative, called the Collaboration of Non-Communicable Disease Risk Factors, encompasses over 160 countries and territories, representing more than 90% of the global child population.
The findings indicate that global childhood obesity rates have nearly tripled since 2000, with around 9.4% of children classified as obese versus 9.2% who are undernourished. This marks a significant moment, as obesity now outnumbers nutritional deficiencies in children.
Most troubling is the sharp increase in obesity rates in low- and middle-income nations. “Over 80% of children facing overweight and obesity globally are from these regions,” highlighting that this is no longer merely a high-income issue; it’s a pervasive global concern.
This situation necessitates that governments and organizations rethink their strategies regarding childhood malnutrition. “We are observing not just nutritional deficiencies but all forms of malnutrition,” asserts Shivani Ghosh from Cornell University, New York. Unfortunately, effective methods to combat obesity are still lacking, unlike those available for hunger.
The UNICEF report criticizes the prevalence of ultra-processed foods in contributing to rising obesity rates among youth. These foods, made using industrial processes, typically contain additives and preservatives and are high in fats, sugars, and salts. Common examples include packaged snacks, candies, chips, and sodas. The report claims that ultra-processed foods contribute to at least half of the calorie intake for children in Australia, Canada, the U.S., and U.K., and about a third in some low- and middle-income countries such as Argentina and Mexico.
Numerous studies indicate that ultra-processed foods correlate positively with obesity rates. However, the policies aimed at reducing their consumption have seldom led to significant declines in obesity.
For instance, Mexico was the first country to impose a tax on certain high-calorie foods and sugar-sweetened drinks in 2014. Following this, sales for these items decreased, particularly among lower-income families. Adolescent obesity rates experienced only minimal change, notably impacting only teenage girls, similar to the outcome in the U.K. after a tax was levied on sugary drinks in 2018.
Conversely, Chile has implemented some of the strictest regulations regarding ultra-processed products. In 2016, it limited marketing for these foods and mandated warning labels for those high in calories, salt, saturated fats, and sugars. As a result, obesity rates among children aged 4-6 decreased by 1-3 percentage points within a year. However, the figures reverted to baseline by 2018, and in 2019, obesity rates in 14-year-olds rose by 2 percentage points, underlining the ineffectiveness of these measures.
Torless provides a different perspective, stating, “No single intervention is sufficient. Some countries are imposing soda taxes, others are labeling foods. While these efforts are commendable, a comprehensive, multi-faceted approach is essential for meaningful change.”
Thus, the report advocates for policies that enhance the availability and affordability of nutritious food, including grants and school meal programs. Furthermore, it highlights the critical role of nutritional education and poverty alleviation. “The same factors contributing to undernutrition parallel those causing overnutrition,” Richardson elaborates. “These issues stem from unsafe drinking water, lack of financial resources, and inadequate access to nutritious food.”
No nation has fully adopted all of UNICEF’s recommendations, leaving the question of their effectiveness in reducing obesity unanswered. “The underlying assumption is an increased consumption of unhealthy foods correlating with rising overweight and obesity rates,” remarks Ghosh. “This could partially explain the trends we’re seeing.”
“This truly needs to be seen as a major public health crisis,” concludes Richardson. “Our children are our future, and they deserve to be healthy. If they are not thriving, our future looks bleak.”
The camera trap captured footage of a jaguar swimming at least 1.3 kilometers on the island of Ceradam Saddam in central Brazil.
Interestingly, it’s suggested that the jaguar may have swum nearly twice that distance. To reach the island, it needed a 1 km swim to a smaller island, followed by a 1.3 km swim, or a direct 2.3 km swim from the mainland without a break.
“We speculate this cat used a small island as a stepping point,” said Leandro Silveira from the Jaguar Conservation Fund in Brazil. “In fact, I managed to swim a straight 2.3-kilometer stretch.”
Jaguar was snapped with a camera trap
Leandro Silveira/Jaguar Conservation Fund in Brazil
According to Silveira, this is the longest confirmed swim by a large cat documented through direct evidence. Jaguars are indeed powerful swimmers, adept at hunting caimans underwater. However, there have been no previous reports of them swimming beyond 200 meters at one time, according to Silveira.
In 2020, Silveira’s team placed multiple camera traps around Ceradam Saddam. In May that year, an adult male jaguar was recorded on the mainland. Fast forward four years to August 2024, and the same jaguar (recognized by its unique coat pattern) was detected on the island’s camera.
This adds to prior sightings, including a collared cougar that swam 1.1 km on Skaxin Island off the coast of Washington, indicating that local cougars might swim up to 2 km to various islands. Last year, two male lions were also photographed swimming in waterways in Uganda, with estimated distances of 1-1.5 km. Their motivation appeared to be reaching a woman calling from the other side.
The reasons behind the jaguar’s long swim remain unclear. “The island is relatively small,” Silveira explains. “As far as we are aware, it does not have an abundance of prey that would make it particularly appealing.”
The jaguar might have the capability to swim even further. Malaca – The Dipioca Islands are located over 5 km from the Brazilian coast. Potential mating with mainland jaguars.
Can scientists transfer animal brains to computers? The answer hinges on how we define “transfer” and “brain.” If we’re a bit flexible in our interpretation, it’s essentially already taking place.
Caenorhabditis elegans are minuscule worms found in soil and decaying plant matter. As multicellular eukaryotes, they technically qualify as animals.
This tiny worm never surpasses 1mm (0.03 inches) in length and is one of the most well-known organisms on Earth.
We have sequenced its genome and mapped all development, encompassing approximately 2,000 cells, including 300 neurons. The variations in this worm are minimal, but what differences do exist have been mapped.
Thus, scientists could model the entire brain on a computer, reproducing not just identical reflex behaviors as found in nature, but even training them to perform new tasks, such as balancing virtual poles (and yes, that’s true).
However, even if we liberally interpret our definitions, this scenario doesn’t entirely hold up.
The C. elegans brain was not uploaded in the conventional sense. Instead, it was replicated using data gathered from years of experiments involving thousands of these worms. There hasn’t been a method to accurately record and transfer the thoughts and memories of an individual creature to a computer.
Caenorhabditis elegans are tiny worms that thrive in soil and decaying vegetation – Image credit: Science Photo Library
Many believe brain uploads represent the future of humanity, viewing it as an “inevitable consequence” of advancements in neuroscience and artificial intelligence (AI), potentially leading to the ultimate solution to death.
Nevertheless, several significant challenges must be addressed before this can become a reality.
As our conscious minds are intricately constructed from the cells and chemicals within our skulls and nervous systems, we must find a way to fully interpret our brain states in exquisite detail.
Next, we need to create a software model that can accurately mimic brain behavior at the molecular, or perhaps even atomic, level.
Over a decade ago, scientists demonstrated that it was feasible to identify neurons and their connectivity in meticulously prepared mouse brains. These brains were stained, sliced to 70 nanometers thick, and then reconstructed into a 3D format using a computer. As expected, the mouse did not survive.
Many believe that brain uploads are the future of humanity – Image credit: Aramie
This serves as an example of a destructive scan. The methods many suggest as necessary for recording a brain in sufficient detail may lead to its destruction.
As medical imaging technology achieves higher resolutions, some speculate that we could one day scan all cell states non-destructively. However, such scans must be instantaneous; otherwise, parts of your brain could be considering new things before the scan finishes.
Could this be achievable with a recently deceased brain? Scientists indicate that it might be essential to scan the brain while it’s actively functioning to ensure all cells accurately model the intended behavior.
Today’s computers are remarkable, yet even the most optimistic futurists predict we may need a century before we can simulate at the atomic scale required.
Moreover, there’s a final profound question. If you can upload your brain non-destructively in 500 years…what happens next? You would exist in a virtual world as computer software, while the original version of you continues to think in your biological form, likely with a slight headache from the scan.
But if you are still alive, did you genuinely trick death? Clearly not. Instead, you’ve allowed for the creation of virtual duplicates that could be used according to their will. That’s a disconcerting thought.
This article answers the question posed by Darcie Walsh from Preston: “Can scientists upload animal brains to a computer?”
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The true narrative of How We Grow by Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist Matt Richtel raises significant concerns for parents observing their children approach adolescence.
Elanib was once a cheerful girl, but upon entering puberty, she underwent drastic changes seemingly without reason. Struggling to focus on her studies and battling depression, treatments proved ineffective. Despite her parents’ relentless support, her story ended tragically. “It wasn’t due to a lack of relationships or care,” her father recounts to Richtel. “I did everything I could to help her.”
In How We Grow, Richtel fuses interviews, scientific studies, historical context, and insights from prominent researchers to explore the roots of today’s potential mental health crisis among youth. This book highlights a sobering reality, painting a vivid picture of the profound changes that define this critical transition into adulthood.
Adolescence coincides with significant shifts in brain chemistry. As teens grapple with their identity, they often display rebellious, moody, and impulsive behaviours. Richtel also emphasizes that in many countries, adolescence is now beginning far earlier, with serious ramifications. For example, throughout the 19th century, American children typically entered adolescence four years later than they do today. Since 1900, the average age for American girls to start menstruating has dropped from 14 to 12, largely attributed to improvements in nutrition that accelerate bodily development.
The world has undoubtedly evolved. Our environments are now thoroughly mapped, technology ensures most people are physically safe and nourished. However, the spheres in which teenagers rebel have shifted towards their identities and ethics, increasingly occurring online, presenting more complex information and perspectives to navigate.
The noticeable decline in cases of bulimia and alcohol-related accidents among teenagers in the US may be attributed to this inward focus, yet the Covid-19 lockdown left many adolescents isolated at a time when personal interactions are crucial for developing emotional intelligence, disrupting their existing support networks.
This shift means the adolescent body matures faster while their brains remain underdeveloped, as Richtel notes. Generally, this does not lead to dire consequences, but the influence of the online environment is inconsistent.
While research on the effects of social media on mental health varies, How We Grow suggests it acts as a volume knob, amplifying pre-existing emotional states. Courtney, one interviewee who had her first period at age 10, encapsulates this notion perfectly.
Provocative yet reassuring, How We Grow offers insights into adolescence for both teens and parents, shedding light on the realities of growing up and how to navigate them more effectively. For me, navigating adolescent rebellion was less about striving for independence and more about reshaping the future for the next generation.
Chris Sims is an author based in Somerset, UK.
If you need someone to talk to, contact the Samaritans in the UK at 116123 (Samaritans.org); or the US Suicide and Crisis Lifeline at 988 (988lifeline.org). You can also visit bit.ly/suicidehelplines for services in other countries.
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Artistic representations of the Juno spacecraft above Jupiter’s Antarctic region
NASA/JPL-Caltech
Recent findings suggest Jupiter is not as large as previously believed, based on over four decades of radius measurements.
As a gas giant, Jupiter lacks a solid outer shell like Earth. Nevertheless, astronomers determine its shape by examining how the gas height varies around Earth at a consistent pressure level.
The most accurate measurements of this gas pressure level date back to NASA’s Voyager and Pioneer missions over 40 years ago. These spacecraft utilized radio waves to transmit signals through Jupiter’s atmosphere to Earth, allowing scientists to gather data and compute gas pressure at specific altitudes, employing a method known as radio occultation.
Currently, Eli Garanti from the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel and his team have been measuring Jupiter’s radius since 2016, using radio occultation data obtained from NASA’s Juno spacecraft, which has been orbiting the gas giant since that year. They report that Jupiter’s average size is approximately 8 kilometers less than previously estimated, particularly at the poles.
“According to the Juno Radio occultation, Jupiter is smaller and more oblate, with a reduced size at the equator,” Garanti mentioned at the Europlanet Science Congress (EPSC) held in Helsinki, Finland on September 11.
Garanti and his team conducted 13 radio occultations with Juno, compared to the six combined by the Voyager and Pioneer missions, and calculated the diameter based on known wind speed measurements of Jupiter. For a pressure equivalent to one bar of gas (Earth’s sea-level atmospheric pressure), the planet’s diameter was measured to be 142,976 kilometers at the poles and 133,684 kilometers at the equator.
“Understanding the exact radius is essential, but it also aids in revealing the inner workings of the planet,” noted Oded Aharonson at the Weizmann Institute of Science, who did not participate in this study. “These new constraints will enable more accurate models of Jupiter’s interior, which are often complex and challenging to explore.”
Individuals who indulge in beer, practice poor hygiene, share beds, and skip sunscreen could be more attractive to mosquitoes, according to a study focused on festival attendees.
In their investigation of mosquito attraction, Sarah Lynn Blanken from Radboud University Medical Center in the Netherlands, along with her team, attended the 2023 Lowlands Festival near Amsterdam. They surveyed 465 festivalgoers on their health habits, dietary choices, hygiene practices, sunscreen usage, substance consumption, blood type, and whether they had slept alone the previous night.
The researchers established a makeshift lab inside a shipping container with mosquitoes that had previously survived 1,700 prisoners of war (Anopheles Stephensi), which are capable of transmitting malaria.
While the mosquitoes sought to land on the participants, they couldn’t actually bite; 20-35 of the insects were placed in transparent plastic containers with perforated dividers to separate the arms of the participants from the mosquitoes.
The team recorded the number of times mosquitoes attempted to land on the arms of the festivalgoers for three minutes, comparing this to cotton pad decoys soaked in glucose.
“Mosquitoes showed a clear preference for individuals consuming hops and grapes, indicating a preference for well-hydrated bodies,” the researchers noted. “Those who drank beer experienced significantly more landings compared to individuals who were sober for at least 12 hours.”
Blanken highlighted, however, that this doesn’t mean she’s extending her beer consumption. “I just rely on long sleeves and insect repellent,” she stated.
The study also indicated that “participants who had companions in their tents the previous night seemed to attract more mosquitoes.” Sunscreen appeared to deter mosquitoes, likely by masking the scent of the skin or acting as a repellent. No evidence was found to suggest that different blood types influenced mosquito attraction or repulsion.
“Our findings indicate that mosquitoes were drawn to individuals who skimped on sunscreen, indulged in beer, and shared beds,” the team concluded. “They have a clear hedonistic preference among us.”
Festival participants place their arms in a partition where mosquitoes can try to land on them, but not actually do it
Roland Festival/National Wetenschapsagenda Netherlands
Cameron Webb from the University of Sydney mentioned that although it was an entertaining study, it involved only one species of mosquito, meaning the findings may not apply to others.
The researchers discovered that only four participants did not attract mosquitoes. “The key takeaway is that nearly all participants were alluring to mosquitoes seeking a blood meal, regardless of other variables,” Webb noted. “The reality is, as long as we focus on mosquito repellents and ponder why mosquitoes bite, we will still get bitten and increase our chances of encountering mosquito-borne diseases.”
The concept of “compassion fatigue” was initially introduced in relation to nurses who provide care, demonstrate compassion, and occasionally witness traumatic events.
Compassion fatigue consists of two main aspects: emotional exhaustion and potential secondary trauma from observing the suffering of others.
Moreover, it isn’t limited to nurses; individuals in caring and related professions—those who must engage emotionally with others—are also vulnerable. Even outside professional settings, if you invest considerable emotional energy into supporting someone else and witness their pain, you may be at risk.
Research conducted on nurses has shown that compassion fatigue manifests in at least two primary forms.
First, it can present as a sort of emotional numbness (think of it as a defensive reaction to shield yourself from complete emotional exhaustion).
Secondly, it can lead to physical symptoms, which can include stomach issues, fatigue, and sleep disturbances.
A 2022 study featuring interviews with nurses yielded particularly noteworthy insights. For instance, one nurse described compassion fatigue as “a distinct type of exhaustion—cloudy, profound, like being enveloped in clouds or experiencing the fatigue of a hangover.”
Another nurse remarked about the emotional paralysis saying: “It’s akin to being a foil-covered person, deflecting everything… what is shared never truly reaches me… it just bounces off.”
Unfortunately, studies indicate that compassion fatigue can lead to a kind of façade. While one might outwardly appear caring and empathetic, internally, they may not genuinely feel these emotions.
This disconnection can be distressing and further intensify feelings of fatigue.
It can lead to questioning your own values (for instance, if I aspire to be a compassionate individual, why do I feel less concern for this person?).
The notion of “compassion fatigue” emerged in the context of nurses who provide care, compassion, and empathy – Credit: Getty Images
On a positive note, there is emerging research, though of varying quality, aimed at addressing and overcoming compassion fatigue.
A primary approach is to practice self-compassion, which involves allocating time for self-care and stepping back from the responsibilities of caring for others. This could include activities like walking in nature, practicing mindfulness, exercising, reading, watching television, or socializing with friends.
While this may sound straightforward, it can be challenging when you’re feeling emotionally depleted. A useful technique is to visualize the self-care advice you would give to a valued friend and apply that same counsel to yourself.
This article responds to the inquiry (from Yvonne Tevlin via email) “How can I overcome compassion fatigue?”
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A peculiar fossil skull discovered in a Greek cave over six decades ago may finally reveal some of its mysteries. Recent analysis indicates that at least 300,000 years ago, the early Homo sapiens coexisted with the first Neanderthals in Africa and Europe.
Unearthed in northern Greece in 1960, the Petrarona skull has long puzzled paleontologists, who are challenged to place it within the human lineage.
The fossil includes traits from Neanderthals and Homo erectus, yet it was found completely isolated, lacking artifacts or animal bones that could provide context for dating.
“The moment I examined and measured it, I realized it wasn’t a Neanderthal or Homo erectus,” stated Professor Chris Stringer, a paleontologist and co-researcher at the Museum of Natural History in London, in an interview with BBC Science Focus. “It was something unique.”
Stringer has long believed that the specimen belonged to our relative, Homo heidelbergensis, a robust human species that existed hundreds of thousands of years ago across Africa, Europe, and possibly Asia.
However, without a reliable date for the skull, understanding its place in the human narrative remained difficult.
A recent study utilized uranium series dating on the fossil’s calcite coating.
Calcite, one of the most common mineral forms of calcium carbonate, forms as water seeps into the pores and cavities, resulting in new mineral structures. This uranium series dating method estimates fossil ages by analyzing the calcite and measuring the decay level of uranium within it.
The findings suggest an age of approximately 286,000 years. Nevertheless, the methodology raises questions about the skull’s actual age.
“If fossil calcite forms swiftly after deposition in the cave, an age of around 288,000 to 290,000 years is plausible for the fossil,” Stringer noted.
“However, if the fossil was in the cave before the calcite developed, that age is a minimum estimate.”
The Petrarona skull, partially coated with calcite, is now estimated to be nearly 300,000 years old – Credit: Chris Stringer
Despite this caution, the timeline for Petrarona now closely aligns with another well-known Homo heidelbergensis skull from Kabwe, Zambia, which dates back about 300,000 years.
“Morphologically, they are similar and seem to be converging in their dating,” Stringer remarked.
This discovery underscores the idea that Homo heidelbergensis had a broad geographic presence and an extensive time span, overlapping rather than directly giving rise to other human species.
In simpler terms, contrary to earlier beliefs, they are not the common ancestors of modern humans and Neanderthals; Homo heidelbergensis was likely our contemporary for at least some time.
Stringer emphasized that this enriches our understanding of human evolution.
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