Image of Sagittarius A*, the black hole at the center of the Milky Way galaxy
EHT
At the core of our Galaxy lies an extraordinary rotating entity: a black hole that appears to be spinning near its maximum velocity.
Michael Jansen from Radboud University in the Netherlands and his team investigated black holes in the center of the Milky Way, specifically Sagittarius A*, utilizing data gathered by a collective network known as the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT). To tackle the intricacies of the data, they opted for artificial intelligence methods.
Initially, they simulated approximately one million black holes using established mathematical models, a computational endeavor that necessitated millions of hours on supercomputers. These simulations served as training data for a type of AI known as neural networks, enabling them to assess the properties of black holes based on empirical observations. Subsequently, they fed the AI with data on Sagittarius A* collected by the EHT throughout 2017.
The AI determined that Sagittarius A* is rotating at 80-90% of its theoretical maximum speed. It also indicated to the researchers that none of the currently available magnetic field models adequately describe the characteristics of this black hole, highlighting the need for additional mathematical modeling. Janssen notes that earlier studies had merely narrowed down the potential characteristics of Sagittarius A*, such as its rotation speed and surrounding magnetic fields, while this new methodology has refined those estimates.
Dimitrios Psaltis from Georgia Tech in Atlanta remarked that some of the findings were unexpectedly counterintuitive. Previous analyses had not clarified whether black hole spins could be accurately discerned from EHT data.
While earlier research suggested that Sagittarius A* might be spinning at significant speeds, Mizuno Yuishi from Zhejiang University in Shanghai, China, noted that there is still room for enhancement in the computational models applied in this new analysis. “Our theoretical model is still not perfect,” he acknowledged.
However, both Mizuno and Psaltis agree that integrating AI into the study of exotic cosmic entities like black holes is increasingly essential. “We possess a wealth of data and numerous models, and we require a contemporary approach to merge the two,” Psaltis states. “This is precisely where machine learning proves to be transformative.”
Yet, this integration presents unique challenges, as AI work necessitates verification to mitigate potential inaccuracies and errors in subsequent analysis.
Janssen and his team have conducted numerous verification checks, including testing the AI with specially designed simulation data. They are also evaluating data from subsequent EHT operations and will be analyzing new findings from observatory results, he explains.
Excavation rigs often stir curiosity in fields dotted with grazing cattle. Although we are in Kansas, these rigs proudly display both American and Australian flags, indicating the origins of their owner. Hyterra, an Australian company, has been exploring for natural hydrogen fuels lurking in deep fractures of North America.
“I believe behind us is the kitchen where hydrogen is produced,” said Avon McIntyre, the company’s executive director. The surge in activity has drawn numerous businesses to the Midwest, positioning eastern Kansas as a pivotal area in the global quest for “geological hydrogen.”
This tale began about 1.3 billion years ago when the continent that is now North America began to fragment into two parts. While the continent eventually stopped separating, the fracture left a 2,000-kilometer-long mark of iron-rich mantle rock. Presently, this cleft lies buried beneath farms and ranches in the Midwest.
In eastern Kansas, older oil and gas wells have recorded high concentrations of hydrogen as solid rocks surrounding these fractures are pushed near the surface. To explore potential harvesting, several companies have secured hydrogen drilling rights over more than 100,000 hectares in the region, according to McIntyre’s analysis of public court documents. Hyterra and its competitor Koloma are advancing their efforts by drilling deeper into the earth.
“It’s like a gold rush, with everyone eager to find it,” stated Kristen Delano from the Colorado-based company Coloma. While she refrained from disclosing their drilling locations in Kansas, she noted that public opinion has indicated their recent excavations. Additional companies, such as the Australian firm Top End Energy, are acquiring mineral rights based solely on where Koloma is active.
“There has been considerable discussion within the community,” remarked Shawn McIntyre, who has no relation to Hyterra’s executive director. As a rancher from Waterville, Kansas, he has leased thousands of acres for hydrogen drilling. “This could revitalize the industry in small towns that have suffered economically in this region.”
The global pursuit of underground hydrogen escalated following updated assessments of global reserves several years ago. Companies investigating gas deposits are hopeful that it could become an alternative to the fossil fuels currently dominating heavy industry, fertilizer production, and electricity generation. “Natural hydrogen fits seamlessly into that narrative,” stated Jay Calbus from the Kansas Geological Survey. “If we are sitting atop a substantial supply of hydrogen that can be harnessed… it could transform not only the state but also the wider region, and the nation.”
As Avon McIntyre and I traverse the muddy terrain to the drilling platform southwest of Manhattan, Kansas, he shouts above the din of the rig, “It’s crucial to understand what’s happening down there.”
The company hypothesizes that water from the underground aquifer interacts with iron-rich mantle rocks within the Middle Continent fractures, resulting in the production of hydrogen through a process known as meandering. This reaction generates hydrogen molecules in the water, which subsequently migrate to the surrounding rocks.
This year, plans include drilling five exploratory wells aimed at identifying hydrogen concentrations along subsurface rises in bedrock known as Nemahalridge. Earlier reports revealed that the first well, drilled at a prominent location on this ridge, recorded hydrogen concentrations of 96%.
Currently, the second well is deepening, surpassing 1600 meters and operating continuously. At the rig, workers sift through the mud, which contains granite scraps from the excavated hole, extracting gas from the liquid for analysis.
In the Mud Shack, a makeshift office at the site’s periphery, a team of contractors monitors and reports in real-time the gas composition from varying depths of the well. While gas levels remained low in solid rock, hydrogen concentrations began measuring over 800 parts per million.
“[The first well] had an impressive peak, but this one is continuously producing hydrogen,” noted Hyterra’s Josh Whitcom.
While these measurements alone carry limited meaning, more precise evaluations require gas samples sent from the site. Moreover, high hydrogen concentrations do not indicate how much gas can actually be extracted or the duration of flow.
Even if hydrogen ultimately flows from any of these wells, numerous questions remain, such as how it will be isolated from other gases, transported, stored, and who will be its consumers.
However, McIntyre is thrilled by the detection of hydrogen and encourages the crew to work through the night. “Our goal is to gather information,” he stated. “And now we have some.”
On Monday, a federal judge in Boston ruled that the termination of grants from the National Institutes of Health signals the end of efforts aimed at diversity-related research topics. Trump’s administration has claimed this decision was “invalid and illegal,” citing discrimination against racial minorities and the LGBTQ community.
US District Judge William Young stated in a non-judicial trial that the NIH breached federal law by capriciously canceling over $1 billion in research grants linked to diversity, equity, and inclusion initiatives.
Judge Young indicated he is reinstating grants awarded to organizations that advocated for such initiatives in democratically led states. He also mentioned that as the case unfolds, more significant decisions might follow.
“This amounts to racism and discrimination against the American LGBTQ community,” remarked Young, a Republican appointee of President Ronald Reagan. “Government discrimination is profoundly wrong; I urge the court to prohibit it, and I will take action in due course.”
Discussing the end of grants for research addressing racial minority issues, Young expressed from the bench that he has “never witnessed such blatant racism” in his 40 years on the bench.
“You judge people of color based on their skin,” he stated concerning the Trump administration. “The Constitution does not permit that.”
The Department of Health and Human Services, representing the NIH and its parent organization, has not responded promptly to requests for statements.
Rachel Meelopol from the American Civil Liberties Union, who represents the grant recipients in the lawsuit, mentioned that Young’s ruling impacts hundreds of grants. The plaintiffs include the American Public Health Association and 16 states led by Massachusetts.
The NIH, the world’s premier funder of biomedical and behavioral research, has terminated approximately 2,100 research grants worth about $9.5 billion and an additional $2.6 billion in contracts since President Donald Trump took office in January. I signed on to protest the cuts last week.
These funding cuts reflect Trump’s broader agenda to reshape the government, reduce federal expenditures, and eliminate support for DEI programs and transgender healthcare. Another federal judge has temporarily blocked the administration’s plan to reduce 10,000 jobs across the NIH and other health agencies.
Trump has also enacted a series of executive orders mandating that institutions ensure grant funding does not support “gender ideology” and puts an end to what the administration deems “discriminatory” DEI programs. Conservative critics argue that these DEI initiatives unfairly target white individuals and others.
Aligned with Trump’s policy objectives, the NIH has directed staff to cease grant funding for research on DEI programs, issues facing transgender individuals, COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy, and funding beneficial to universities in China.
The trial presided over by Young on Monday focused on just a portion of the claims in the consolidated litigation regarding the funding cuts. He intends to consider additional claims later.
Young indicated he would allow political parties to present further evidence before making decisions regarding these claims and determine whether to restore grants beyond those allocated to the plaintiffs.
The cessation of NIH grants, coupled with delays in grant approvals and renewals, has reverberated across universities nationwide, many of which now face the loss of significant portions of their research budgets.
As a result, universities have initiated employment freezes, travel restrictions, reduced class sizes, furloughs, and layoffs.
Numerous universities depend on NIH grants for the majority of their research funding. For instance, Washington University, recognized as the top public institution for biomedical research, reported receiving roughly 1,220 grants from the NIH, totaling about $648 million last year, as per court documents.
Students and faculty at universities have expressed concerns that the funding confusion could lead to brain drain from the United States, as researchers increasingly seek positions abroad. This slowdown also threatens long-term research initiatives, including projects focused on banking and studying the brains of Alzheimer’s patients.
The Trump administration has aimed to reduce other critical research funding sources.
In February, US District Judge Angel Kelly halted regulations that severely restricted government payments for indirect research costs, including equipment, maintenance, utilities, and support staffing. The administration projected that this action would eliminate $4 billion in funding for research institutions.
Reading various novels for work can sometimes be challenging, especially when you want to find something captivating. However, Time Saving by Kaliane Bradley instantly drew me in with its engaging prologue. It was a brief glimpse into the life of a man sprinting through the snow, hearing his ship signal him. This offered plenty of intrigue for what was to come.
This month’s selection for the New Scientist Book Club has been a resounding success since its release last year. The narrative follows a young civil servant who unexpectedly applies for a mysterious position involving time travel, a concept kept under wraps, allowing individuals from the past to journey to the present.
These “visitors” require support, which is where our unnamed heroine comes in as a caretaker, dubbed a “bridge.” She is assigned to Commander Graham Gore, living with him and assisting him in adjusting to modern life.
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This is not solely a narrative about time travel; it meticulously explores whether the government would permit time travelers to integrate into society alongside civil servants. The novel confidently posits that, for this reader, it could have crafted Sally without delving into excessive particulars.
One of the intriguing aspects of the story is that Gore is rooted in reality, having been a genuine figure that many remain unaware of. He was the first officer of John Franklin’s ill-fated expedition to the Arctic and met his demise around 1847 or 1848. While the specifics of his final hours remain uncertain, the novel takes a creative approach by transporting him to contemporary London just before his death.
Modern London is full of men from the lost world. But Gore is a resilient and capable officer.
Bradley’s depiction of Gore exemplifies the art of storytelling. She brings him to life with such precision that he appears as a tangible, charismatic individual—rarely do we encounter characters so vividly portrayed in literature.
The vibrant interaction between our young bureaucrat and this spirited officer of the Colonial Royal Navy unfolds within the context of a future version of London, where many individuals from the past now inhabit. Once again, Gore’s resilience shines, highlighting that he is adaptable, making for the most enjoyable segments of the narrative where they learn from one another.
The plot transitions from romance to thriller, composing about 40% sci-fi, 40% romantic comedy, and 20% thriller. I found the initial segment significantly more engaging, though I questioned whether the thriller conclusion would hold up. However, this does not overshadow the fact that the book offers a delightful reading experience, perfect for those looking for fun.
At the conclusion of the novel, Bradley includes a photograph of Gore. Having grown fond of his fictional counterpart, it was a poignant moment to connect with the real historical figure. According to Bradley’s PostScript, he was regarded as “a remarkably fine officer with a kind temperament.”
This beloved, memorable officer represents a captivating twist in history that deserves a place in a bestselling novel nearly two centuries later. Bradley has undoubtedly fashioned a most endearing hero.
New Scientist Book Club Time Saving is our latest selection. Sign up here: NewsCientist.com/bookclub
While this is not science fiction, it resurrects another historical character—Alexander the Great—through the perspective of Bagoa, a young Persian boy in bondage. For me, this book, along with its precursor, provides all I need to know about Alexander.
Emily H. Wilson is the former editor of New Scientist and the author of the Sumerian trilogy set in ancient Mesopotamia. The series’ final installment, Ninshuval, will be released in August. Connect with her at emilyhwilson.com or follow her on X @emilyhwilson and Instagram @emilyhwilson1
The Arts and Science of Writing Science Fiction
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Are these vacationers experiencing “seasonal body image dissatisfaction”?
Shutterstock/Puyalroyo
While winter still lingers in the Northern Hemisphere, we’re nearing the summer solstice. The sun overhead signifies one thing: a surge of lifestyle articles and social media posts encouraging you to “get your beach body ready.”
A friend of mine recently shared his anxiety about summer for this exact reason. “I’ve even stopped trying to get a six-pack,” he confessed. “But I feel really self-conscious without my shirt on.”
This conversation piqued my curiosity about whether this sentiment is widespread. I soon discovered several recent studies addressing “Seasonal Body Image Dissatisfaction,” along with strategies to combat it.
Scott Griffith and his team at the University of Melbourne conducted a groundbreaking study involving 823 gay and bisexual men globally. They found that over 70% reported significant physical dissatisfaction during summer, more so than in any other season, attributing it to societal pressures from the media and the increased exposure of their bodies.
These findings align with a recent analysis of 12 million social media posts from 2020 to 2023, revealing that expressions of self-loathing peaked in July, with similar trends noted for December in both hemispheres.
If any of this resonates with you, it may be beneficial to explore research on mindful self-compassion. This concept emphasizes three core aspects: recognizing that one’s struggles are universal, developing a mindful awareness of our experiences, and refraining from getting lost in negative thoughts and emotions.
Personally, I would love to see a rise in “body-neutral movements” on social media. Unlike “body-positive exercise,” which aims to celebrate our flaws, body neutrality prioritizes bodily function over appearance.
Forthcoming research by Raeanna Kilby and Kristin Mickelson of Arizona State University suggests that body neutrality may more effectively decrease self-objectification compared to body positivity. Jameela Jamil advocates for this perspective, stating, “My body is not an advertising board for others. It’s not something for them to judge, nor for me to judge… I focus on enjoying life to the fullest.”
This summer, my goals are centered on health, happiness, and friendships—the true #gains.
David Robson is an award-winning science writer and author of “The Law of Connection: 13 Social Strategies that Change Your Life.”
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The sun’s corona appears as it would to the human eye during a solar eclipse, but through a green filter.
ESA/proba-3/aspiics
The synchronized movement of the twin satellites has produced the first artificial solar eclipse in space, revealing the burnt corona of the sun in remarkable detail.
The ProBA-3 mission, launched last December, is operated by the European Space Agency (ESA) and consists of two satellites positioned 150 meters apart.
One of the satellites, known as Occulter, features 1.4-meter wide discs made from carbon fiber and plastic, effectively blocking sunlight coming from the second satellite, Coronagraph. The alignment accuracy of the satellites is within one millimeter for capturing images.
In March, the satellites autonomously synchronized for extended periods, providing lengthy exposures of the solar eclipse. ESA scientists can stitch these exposures together to generate a comprehensive image of the solar corona, the outermost layer of the sun’s atmosphere.
“When I first viewed these images, it was unbelievable,” says Damien Galano from ESA. “But shortly after, it transformed into an incredible sense of achievement and pride for all our hard work.”
The image above captures the visible light of the corona, resembling how it would appear to the human eye but through a green filter.
This image illustrates the light emitted from electron-depleted iron in the most heated sections of the corona.
ESA/proba-3/aspiics
The Proba-3 satellite camera also captures light frequencies linked to specific elements within the solar corona, exemplified by the dark green image above.
“We can clearly see the substantial achievements made during COVID,” remarks Galano.
The sun’s corona shown in polarized white light, artificially tinted to look violet.
ESA/proba-3/aspiics
The image above illustrates the sun’s corona, artificially colored purple in polarized white light. This technique allows scientists to distinguish the polarized light from the hot corona from that scattered by interplanetary dust.
These images were primarily captured to verify the ProBA-3 mission’s functionality. When fully operational, they will take pictures of the artificial food every 19.6 hours.
This will enhance our comprehension of solar corona physics, and according to Galano, it will also improve understanding of solar winds and coronal mass ejections that influence space weather.
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A recent study conducted by researchers at the University of Chicago School of Medicine and Columbia University revealed that increasing fruit and vegetable intake to five cups daily, as recommended by dietary guidelines, is linked to a 16% enhancement in sleep quality.
Borge et al. Increasing fruit and vegetable intake during the day was found to be associated with improved sleep that same night. Image credit: Guillermo Gavilla.
Observational studies have shown that diets of high quality correlate with better sleep quality.
Despite this, a deeper comprehension of this relationship is essential, as dietary changes could represent novel and natural methods for enhancing sleep.
“We have been striving to maximize our lives,” stated Dr. Esla Tasari, director of the Sleep Center at the University of Chicago.
“The temporal associations and objectively measured outcomes from this study are significant in addressing gaps in crucial public health knowledge.”
Earlier observational research indicated that higher consumption of fruits and vegetables was connected to improved self-reported overall sleep quality, but this latest study is the first to establish a temporal link between specific daily food choices and objectively measured sleep quality.
Healthy young adults in this study recorded their daily food intake through an app and wore wrist monitors to allow researchers to obtain objective measurements of their sleep patterns.
The researchers focused on sleep fragmentation, which indicates the frequency of awakenings during sleep or transitions into deep sleep throughout the night.
They discovered that meal choices had significant correlations with differences in sleep quality the following night.
Participants consuming more fruits and vegetables during the day experienced deeper, more uninterrupted sleep that night, similar to those who included healthy carbohydrates like whole grains.
Based on their findings and statistical modeling, scientists estimate that those who adhere to the CDC’s recommendation of five cups of fruits and vegetables per day could see a 16% improvement in sleep quality compared to those who do not consume these foods.
“A 16% difference is substantial,” said Dr. Tasari.
“It’s remarkable that such significant changes can be detected within just 24 hours.”
Future studies will aim to establish causal relationships, expand the findings to diverse populations, and explore the underlying mechanisms of digestion, neurology, and metabolism that may clarify the positive effects of fruits and vegetables on sleep quality.
Nevertheless, based on current evidence, the authors strongly recommend maintaining a diet rich in complex carbohydrates, fruits, and vegetables for optimal long-term sleep health.
“They are making a difference,” remarked Dr. Marie Pierre St. Onge, director of the Center for Sleep and Circadian Research at Columbia University Irving Medical Center.
“Minor adjustments can impact your sleep. It’s empowering to know better rest is within your control.”
The study was published in the journal Sleep Health this month.
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Header L. Boge et al. We anticipate that increased daytime intake of fruits and vegetables will lead to less disrupted nighttime sleep in younger adults. Sleep Health Published online on June 11th, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.sleh.2025.05.003
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope have captured remarkable new images of the Dwarf Starburst Galaxy NGC 4449.
This Hubble image illustrates NGC 4449, a galaxy of dwarf stars located roughly 12.5 million light years away within the Canes constellation. Image credits: NASA/ESA/Hubble/E. Sabbi/D. Calzetti/A. Aloisi.
NGC 4449 is situated about 12.5 million light years away in the constellation of Canes.
Also known as Caldwell 21, Leda 40973, or UGC 7592, this galaxy is approximately 20,000 light-years in age.
NGC 4449 was first identified by German-born British astronomer William Herschel on April 27, 1788.
This galaxy is part of the M94 Galaxy group and is in close proximity to the local group that contains our Milky Way.
“NGC 4449 is a dwarf galaxy, meaning it is significantly smaller than our Milky Way and contains fewer stars,” a Hubble astronomer remarked.
“However, its small size is deceptive; NGC 4449 is prolific in star formation.”
“This galaxy is referred to as a Starburst galaxy because it produces new stars at a rate much higher than would be expected for its size.”
“While most Starburst Galaxies primarily produce stars in their centers, NGC 4449 is scattered with bright young stars throughout its structure.”
Astronomers believe this global surge in star formation has resulted from interactions between NGC 4449 and its neighboring galaxies.
“Due to its proximity, NGC 4449 offers a valuable opportunity for Hubble to investigate how intergalactic interactions influence new star formation,” they noted.
The new color image of NGC 4449 is derived from Hubble observations utilizing the Advanced Cameras for Surveys (ACS) and the Widefield Camera 3 (WFC3) across the UV, near-infrared, and optical segments of the spectrum.
Seven filters were employed to capture various wavelengths, assigning different hues to each monochrome image linked to the specific filters.
“The Hubble images of NGC 4449 were previously released in 2007,” the researchers stated.
“This updated version includes several additional wavelengths of light gathered by Hubble through multiple observational programs.”
“These programs encompass groundbreaking science, ranging from exploring the history of star formation in NGC 4449 to mapping galaxies with the brightest, hottest, and most extensive stellar structures.”
Methane penetration refers to a submersible area around the globe where the natural gas you rely on for cooking and heating is known as methane that leaks from the seabed. These penetrations are commonly found in transitional regions where land meets the ocean, known as the continental margin. Methane originates from and is produced by organic matter, including dead plants and animals, that have been buried under layers of sediment for millions of years. Through pressure and heat from within the Earth, this organic matter can decompose into methane, which escapes from the seabed into the ocean.
This methane also serves as an energy source for various microscopic organisms, allowing it to fuel your stove. The microorganisms known as methanogenic bacteria or methanotrophs utilize methane as food through a process referred to as aerobic methane oxidation. These bacteria employ oxygen to extract energy from methane gas, akin to how humans extract energy from food, producing carbon dioxide and water as by-products.
When carbon dioxide interacts with water, it creates a weak acid known as carbonic acid. Carboxylic acids can dissolve calcium carbonate minerals that make up shells in organisms like corals, mussels, and clams. While methanotrophs produce carbon dioxide as waste, scientists remain uncertain about its role in corroding calcium carbonate in marine environments. Research has been conducted in laboratories, but not in natural marine settings until now.
A team of researchers from Germany investigated the corrosion of calcium carbonate associated with active methane along the continental margin off the west coast of Gabon, Congo, and Angola in Africa. They deployed limestone cubes measuring 10 cm (around 4 inches) high and 4 cm (approximately 4 inches) wide above the seabed near active methane sites, as well as on a mussel bed. The cubes were left on the seabed for 2.5 years before being retrieved.
Upon recovery, the researchers noted that cubes situated near the methane leak exhibited rough surfaces. Microscopic examination revealed small holes, termed microborings, likely created by microorganisms. In contrast, cubes placed farther from the methane leak showed no signs of such features. This led researchers to interpret these differences as evidence that microorganisms are responsible for the dissolution of limestone in areas of methane penetration.
To further analyze the role of methanotrophs in limestone dissolution, the team extracted DNA from microbial communities inhabiting the limestone cubes. They identified DNA from members of aerobic methane-oxidizing bacteria, particularly from the uncultured HYD24-01 clade. Previous studies have detected these microorganisms in other methane-rich locations, suggesting their potential for corroding limestone.
To corroborate their findings, the researchers also examined lipid molecules known as lipid biomarkers from microorganisms at the site. Scientists utilize lipid biomarkers to identify bacterial species and their energy sources. They discovered that the lipid biomarkers collected from the seabed sites matched the DNA results. Notably, they found an abundance of lipids from methanotrophs called NC16:1Ω7 among the limestone cubes. This led them to conclude that methanotrophs prominently represented the microbial communities linked to the microborings in the limestone.
The research team proposed that their findings provide concrete evidence that methane-consuming bacteria dissolve calcium carbonate rocks in areas of marine methane. They suggested that these bacteria acidify their environment by releasing carbon dioxide during methane oxidation. The released carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid, which decreases pH levels, dissolves limestone, and contributes to ocean acidification. They advocated for future research to delve into the specific mechanisms that these microorganisms utilize and to quantify the extent of microbial erosion’s contribution to marine acidification.
In recent years, the desire to establish human colonies beyond Earth, whether to escape environmental issues or explore uncharted territories, has gained significant traction.
While much attention is given to proposed bases on the Moon and Mars, there’s a more challenging and lesser-known frontier much closer to home: the ocean’s depths.
This concept isn’t new. Since the 1960s, with pioneers like French oceanographer Jacques Cousteau, individuals have created and spent extended periods in aquatic habitats.
NASA has been sending teams to the Aquarius Reef Base since 2001. This research facility, located 20 meters (around 65 feet) underwater off the Florida coast, has allowed scientists, engineers, and future astronauts to live in the module for 7 to 14 days.
With advancements in technology, prolonged underwater stays may become feasible. The UK company, Deep, is leveraging this technology to design habitats for extended underwater living. But, is the technology the only challenge we face?
Above the Atmosphere, Under the Sea
Humans are quite vulnerable. We struggle without oxygen or sunlight and are not fond of extreme pressure changes. Thus, we might not be the best candidates for life at the ocean floor.
This doesn’t imply that we can’t thrive in inhospitable environments.
Since 2000, astronauts have spent significant periods aboard the International Space Station (ISS).
Several astronauts have been documented living in the ISS for over 300 consecutive days, but Valeri Polyakov holds the record, having spent 437 days aboard the Mir Space Station in Russia between 1994 and 1995.
Moreover, astronauts returning from lengthy missions often face health issues, such as reduced bone density and muscle atrophy. What does this mean for those who aim to live underwater?
The most extensive study is that of Rudiger Koch, a German aerospace engineer who lived in a capsule submerged 11 meters (36 feet) under the Caribbean Sea for 120 days between 2024 and 2025.
Rudiger Koch on the balcony of the capsule where he lived between 2024 and 2025.
Koch reported no health issues upon celebrating with champagne and cigars.
In second place is Professor Joseph Dituri, who spent 100 days studying the physical and psychological effects of living underwater in a lodge situated at the bottom of a 9-meter deep (30-foot) lagoon in Florida.
Dituri conducted daily tests during his time submerged and following his return to the surface. Notably, aside from minor setbacks, he felt quite well.
He noted improvements in sleep quality, cholesterol levels, and inflammation. His stem cell count, testosterone levels, and cognitive performance also improved.
Interestingly, Dituri appeared to have lowered his biological age (an indicator of the aging process of the body), although he was recorded as having shrunk by over 1 cm (approximately 0.5 inches) due to the pressurized environment inside the lodge.
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A Step Towards Living Underwater
With limited data, we still have a tenuous understanding of life in aquatic environments. This is where Deep comes in.
The ocean technology and exploration company aims to develop two habitats by 2027, with the goal of establishing a permanent underwater presence. They are using a submerged quarry in Gloucestershire as a testing ground for their underwater habitats.
Deep is developing two habitat models: Vanguard, designed for three-person short stays, and Sentinel, a 16-meter (52-foot) capsule intended as a long-term habitat complete with living quarters, bedrooms, and research facilities, capable of accommodating researchers at depths of up to 200 meters (656 feet) for 28 days.
The aim is to enable researchers to remain submerged for extended periods, allowing for comprehensive studies of underwater living impacts and marine life. However, achieving these depths poses significant challenges.
“The most hazardous aspects of diving occur during descent,” explains Dr. Dawn Kernagis, Deep’s scientific research director. “Divers breathe compressed gas, with fluctuating pressure increasing the risk of decompression sickness (DCS), where gas bubbles form in the bloodstream.”
While most DCS cases are mild, severe instances can impact the brain, spinal cord, respiratory system, and circulatory systems.
To mitigate these risks, Deep aims to keep researchers “saturated” in the Sentinel habitats. This means achieving a new equilibrium with the underwater environment.
“Saturated tanks, like ours, facilitate diving into greater depths and adjusting to the pressure, enabling much longer stays, ranging from hours to about a month,” states Kernagis.
Deep plans for close monitoring of researchers during their stays to better understand the long-term physical and psychological effects of deep-sea living.
The foundation laid now may support future inhabitants underwater for weeks, months, or even years. In the not-so-distant future, some of us may find ourselves living in a modern-day Atlantis.
About Our Experts
Dr. Dawn Kernagis is the director of scientific research at Deep, a UK-based ocean technology and exploration firm. She has published in numerous scientific journals, including Journal of Clinical Oncology, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, and Circulation.
Charming animal images are a fast way to uplift anyone’s spirits, and sharing these moments fosters a sense of community.
When someone shares a photo of a playful kitten with their parents or a video of an otter clasping paws, they participate in a phenomenon known as “pebling.”
“Pebling refers to a behavior exhibited by Gentoo Penguins, who offer pebbles as symbols of affection to potential partners,” explained Professor Ghalia Shamayleh, who led the study as noted in BBC Science Focus. “Our findings indicate similar behaviors among humans on social media.”
A male gentleman penguin presenting stones to his mate while perched on the rocks of Mikkelsen Harbor, Trinity Island, Antarctica.
According to Shamayleh, the images, videos, and posts we share online serve as “the pebble equivalent for humans.” We send them to our loved ones as tokens of affection to reinforce our connections.
Animal-themed posts particularly enhance these “pebbles.”
The research, centered around social media accounts dedicated to pets, revealed that creators “infuse joy, love, and entertainment into their social media content.”
This often manifests through visual storytelling, such as taking pets on adventures or introducing them to family members. It also employs “Petspeak,” a blend of baby talk like “dogo,” “teefe,” and “sploot,” alongside playful language and slang.
Animals hold a universal charm. Who doesn’t enjoy seeing pictures of cute puppies or kittens?
In everyday settings, animals act as “social lubricants,” bringing people together to express “AWW” and lift their spirits. This effect becomes even more pronounced in the online world.
Initially, sharing an animal photo may suggest a level of unfamiliarity that prevents sending something more personal.
However, the research indicated that people thoughtfully consider the social media content they choose to share.
Shamayleh and her co-authors, including Professor Zeynep Arsel from Concordia University, analyzed several pet-focused media accounts to understand user interactions and conducted interviews with various content creators and fans.
They found that individuals utilize images and videos to evoke shared experiences among loved ones, reminiscing and reaffirming common histories.
For instance, one might send a friend a brief clip of two baby pandas attempting to stand, accompanied by the comment, “Just like in your first yoga class and mine.”
The study found that incorporating “context clues,” such as the music in this video, influenced how people reacted and what content was shared.
By selecting posts that resonate with the recipient’s interests, senders are able to convey a deeper understanding of their loved ones, by sharing videos of their favorite animals.
“By referencing the sender’s relationship alongside animal content, individuals digitally emphasize their bond, saying, ‘This reminded me of you and our connection,'” remarked Shamayleh.
So, the next time you come across a delightful animal photo or video, don’t hesitate to share it and show your loved ones how much you care.
About the Experts
Ghalia Shamayleh is an Assistant Professor in the Marketing Department at Essec Business School, specializing in sociocultural consumer phenomena through detailed interviews and observations. She investigates the implications of digital interactions on interpersonal and interspecies relationships.
Recent studies indicate that the fats found in olive oil may contribute to weight gain more significantly than fats from other sources.
A recent report revealed that oleic acid, the primary fatty component in olive oil, can stimulate the formation of new fat cells.
Oleic acid is a type of monosaturated fat, often referred to as omega-9. While olive oil is the main source of oleic acid, this fatty acid is also present in other oils, such as canola and sunflower oil.
“You can think of fat cells as the army,” stated the study’s co-author, Dr. Michael Rudolph, Assistant Professor of Biochemistry and Physiology at the University of Oklahoma. “Dried oleic acid initially boosts the number of ‘fat cell soldiers’ in the army, enhancing the capacity to store surplus dietary nutrients.”
“If excess nutrients surpass the number of fat cells over time, it can lead to obesity, and if left unaddressed, may result in cardiovascular disease or diabetes.”
Olive oil is a key component of the Mediterranean diet and is renowned for promoting longevity, healthy aging, as well as optimal brain, heart, and metabolic health – Credit: Elena Noviero via Getty
Researchers from the University of Oklahoma, Yale University, and New York conducted a study where mice were fed a variety of high-fat diets that included coconut oil, peanut oil, milk, lard, and soy oils.
They found that elevated levels of oleic acid influenced the activity of two proteins, AKT2 and LXR, leading to an accelerated growth of progenitor cells that develop into new adipocytes. This effect was not observed with other types of fats.
Nevertheless, Dr. Rudolph emphasized that completely eliminating olive oil is not the answer.
“The key takeaway is moderation and diversifying fat sources,” he advised. “While a balanced intake of oleic acid can be beneficial, excessive and prolonged consumption may pose risks. For individuals at risk for heart disease, high oleic acid levels could be unfavorable.”
In moderation, oleic acid is linked with numerous health benefits. Previous studies have shown that olive oil consumption is associated with longer lifespans, healthy aging, reduced inflammation, and a decreased risk of obesity and heart disease.
It’s important to note that since this study was conducted exclusively on mice, its findings may not directly apply to humans.
Though it might not be as well-known as the Hubble Space Telescope or the James Webb Space Telescope, NASA’s Landsat 7 has significantly enhanced our understanding of our planet. For over 25 years, it has been capturing the stunning landscapes of Earth from space, documenting remarkable details of the planet’s ever-changing environment.
Launched in 1999 with an expected mission duration of only five years, Landsat 7 has instead emerged as one of the longest-running Earth observation missions in history. While it doesn’t gaze into distant galaxies, its instruments are focused on the vibrant, living surfaces of Earth instead.
From an altitude of 700 km (about 435 miles), it has produced vital data for scientific research and conservation, showcasing stunning images of dynamic deserts, glaciers, forests, and coastlines.
“[Landsat 7 has] been essential in tracking environmental changes such as natural disasters, deforestation, and urban expansion,” said David Applegate, former director of the US Geological Survey.
“It documented significant events such as Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the Haiti earthquake in 2010, the Australian wildfires from 2019 to 2020, and rapid urban growth across the globe.”
The Landsat 7’s primary sensor, the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+), captured in the clean room at Lockheed Martin Space Systems. Photo Credit: NASA/Raytheon
Landsat 7 is scheduled to retire this month after covering 6.1 billion km (3.8 billion miles) in space and capturing over 3 million images. A carefully planned shutdown will involve depleting its batteries, turning off the fuel line heater, and rendering the communications system silent permanently. For another 55 years, the satellite will drift silently above Earth before eventually re-entering the atmosphere and burning up.
As we bid farewell, we reflect on its lens and celebrate the beauty and complexity of our planet, revealing both the impacts of deforestation and the intricate patterns of continents.
Coral Reef Conservation
In the first year of the Landsat 7 mission, detailed images of coral reefs were gathered from around 900 locations worldwide. These vibrantly colored swirls depict atolls, enclosed coral reefs that typically surround a lagoon, often formed from eroded volcanic islands. Photo Credit: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Science Visualization Studio
Guinea-Bissau, West Africa
Guinea-Bissau, a small country in West Africa, showcases intricate patterns evident in the shallow waters along its coast, where silt from the Geba and other rivers is carried away by the Atlantic Ocean. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
Siberia, Dragon Lake
Dragon Lake, formed by the Bratsk Reservoir along the Angara River in southern Siberia, Russia, is shown here frozen in winter. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
Lena Delta, Siberia
The Lena River, approximately 4,500 km long, is among the largest rivers globally. The Lena Delta Reserve is the most extensive protected wilderness area in Russia, serving as a sanctuary and breeding ground for many Siberian wildlife species. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
9/11, New York
This true-color image was captured on September 12, 2001, by the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) sensor on the Landsat 7 satellite shortly after the Twin Towers fell. Photo Credit: USGS/EROS
Comprehensive Continental Mosaic of Antarctica
A complete continental mosaic of Antarctica was constructed using images from Landsat 7. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
Bolivian Deforestation
Once a vast expanse of lush vegetation, the Amazon rainforest is rapidly changing. This image demonstrates the significant deforestation occurring in Bolivia’s portion of the Amazon Basin, where loggers have carved extensive paths while ranchers have cleared areas for grazing. The bright red areas indicate healthy vegetation. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
Icefall, Lambert Glacier, Antarctica
Lambert Glacier, the largest glacier in the world, features an ice waterfall that nourishes the glacier from the expansive ice sheets covering the plateau. The ice flows slowly, resembling water, descending about 1,300 feet (400 meters) to the underlying glacier. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
On April 20, 2010, a catastrophic oil spill followed an explosion at an oil well in the Gulf of Mexico. Efforts to contain the expanding oil slick began immediately. Landsat imagery provided by the US Geological Survey reveals the extent of the spill, with Landsat data being vital for monitoring its range and movement. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
Westfjords, Iceland
The Westfjords are a series of peninsulas located in northwestern Iceland. Though they comprise less than one-eighth of the country’s land area, their rugged coastlines account for over half of Iceland’s total coastline. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
“Spilled Paint”: Iran’s Dasht-e Kavir
Resembling spilled paint, this image showcases a vibrant tapestry of landscapes in Iran’s largest desert, Dasht-e Kavir, or Great Salt Desert. It spans approximately 77,000 square kilometers (29,730 square miles) and consists of dry stream beds, desert plateaus, and salt marshes. Extreme temperatures and dramatic daily fluctuations, alongside severe storms, are characteristic of this harsh environment. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans
Following Hurricane Katrina, which led to severe flooding of up to 80% of New Orleans, Landsat 7 captured this image on September 15, 2005. Two and a half weeks post-hurricane, efforts were ongoing to siphon water back into Pontchartrain Lake, with pumps extracting approximately 380 cubic meters of water every second. Photo Credit: USGS/CEROS
Namib Naukluft National Park, Namibia
Namib Naukluft National Park is an ecological reserve in the Namib Desert, where coastal winds give rise to the world’s tallest dunes, which can reach 980 feet (300 meters). Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
Vatnajökull Glacier Ice Cap, Iceland
This image features blue ice fingers breaking away from the Vatnajökull glacier in Iceland’s Skaftafell National Park, situated at the southern extremity of Europe’s largest ice cap. Photo Credit: NASA/USGS
Uppsala Glacier Retreat in Argentina
Landsat images captured in 1986, 2001, and 2014 illustrate the retreat of the Uppsala Glacier. Photo credit: NASA
As opponents of US water fluoridation voice their concerns, scientists warn that eliminating fluoride may lead to a significant rise in dental decay, potentially costing states billions and disproportionately impacting lower-income communities.
Statements from states like Nebraska, Kentucky, and Louisiana indicate their intentions to remove fluoride from water supplies, raising questions about how quickly these changes will affect Americans.
Fluoride Variation
Fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral found in freshwater, initially added to community drinking water in the United States in a controlled manner in 1945. Effective methods to prevent dental decay.
According to the CDC, community water fluoridation was reported in 1999, promoting the development of baby teeth and safeguarding them through adulthood. This initiative is recognized as one of the 20th century’s greatest public health achievements.
Recently, however, concerns have emerged that adding fluoride through foods, milk, toothpaste, and dental care products could lead to total fluoride intake surpassing safe levels.
Nevertheless, the NTP noted that there was insufficient data to establish whether the lower US fluoride level of 0.7 mg/L negatively impacts children’s IQ, admitting that out of 74 international studies evaluated, “52 were deemed low quality (high risk of bias).”
Vida Zohoori, a public health and nutrition professor at Teesside University in the UK, is known for her research on fluoride. She asserts that the studies available do not provide enough data to reach definitive conclusions.
“Most research occurs in regions with fluoride concentrations significantly exceeding US standards, limiting the relevance to community water fluoridation at 0.7 mg/L,” she explains. “Most studies are cross-sectional, not longitudinal or randomized, making it impossible to establish causal links. Furthermore, many did not control for key variables like iodine or lead exposure, malnutrition, and socioeconomic status.
Children’s teeth are particularly prone to decay
Conversely, there is substantial evidence supporting the addition of safe fluoride levels to drinking water. Based on a systematic Cochrane Review from 2015 (updated in 2024), Zohoori anticipates a notable rise in pediatric decay, known as early childhood tooth decay (ECC), if fluoride is removed from public water supplies. This primarily affects children aged 1-5 and the permanent teeth of those aged 6-12, who are extremely susceptible to damage.
This perspective is echoed by Dr. James Becker, an associate professor specializing in pediatric dentistry at the University of Utah. “No scientifically credible research has demonstrated harmful effects from fluoride when administered at safe doses,” he remarks.
Bekker explains that while toothpaste fluoride provides a topical effect during brushing, small amounts in drinking water and supplements deliver continuous systemic exposure, which reinforces tooth enamel and enhances its resistance to acid.
“Many children lack access to fluoride supplements,” Bekker noted, emphasizing that fluoridation was only present in half of Utah prior to the ban.
“We’ve observed a significant increase in tooth decay in communities without fluoridated water compared to those with it. If left untreated, cavities can enlarge and eventually reach the tooth’s nerves, leading to infections and the loss of teeth.”
If all 50 US states discontinue community water fluoridation programs, it is projected that children and adolescents aged 0 to 19 will incur 25.4 million cavities in the next five years, equating to one new cavity for every three children in America. A recent report indicated this would result in an estimated cost of $9.8 billion (£7.2 billion). Jama Health Forum in May.
“We specifically quantified the increase in dental cavities that could necessitate interventions ranging from fillings to root canals and even extractions,” stated Dr. Lisa Simon, a PhD fellow in Oral Health and Medicine Integration at Harvard Dental School and co-author of the study.
“We accounted for decay in both baby teeth and adult teeth, which began to escalate when the children were around six years old.”
Lessons Learned
With the fluoride ban in Utah now in effect, Bekker anticipates it could take five years to observe its full impact. However, the effects were evident even sooner in Calgary, Canada, which removed fluoride from its drinking water in 2011; three years later, children’s dental decay surged.
In one year, 32 out of Calgary’s 10,000 children underwent general anesthesia for dental treatments, whereas only 17 did so in Edmonton, another city within the same province. Subsequently, Calgary voted to reinstate fluoride.
The leading reason for children aged 5 to 9 being admitted to hospitals is treatment for tooth decay.
“Recent studies indicate the benefits of water fluoridation are less pronounced than in the past, particularly since fluoride has become a common ingredient in toothpaste since the 1970s.”
“However, rates of tooth decay are rising, and increased education on dental care is essential. The frequency of sugar intake is key to prevention, which supports water fluoridation initiatives in the UK.”
Dr. Scott Tomar, a professor and associate dean of Prevention and Public Health Sciences at the University of Illinois, Chicago, and spokesperson for the American Dental Association, commends the UK’s fluoridation expansion.
He expresses concern that misinformation about fluoride in the US could induce fear surrounding other sources of minerals, including toothpaste, leading to more bans across various states and communities.
Tomar highlights the overwhelming support for fluoride within the dental community as indicative of its safety and effectiveness, countering any narratives that oppose it driven by the economic interests of dentists.
“So, why do we advocate for this type of water fluoridation?” he inquires. “I’m genuinely worried because there are no alternatives to fluoride, and we can no longer rely on the federal government for guidance.”
In light of this, dentists and industry groups are joining forces to advocate for their cause.
“This appears to be primarily a political issue,” comments Lorna Kosi, chair of the coalition in Davis and program director for a dental clinic serving vulnerable communities. “We firmly believe that water fluoridation is safe. It remains the most effective and cost-efficient method to combat decay.”
An unusual radio pulse was identified by the Antarctic Impulsive Transient Antenna (ANITA) Experiment. Various instruments were deployed on NASA balloons over Antarctica, aiming to detect radio waves produced by cosmic rays impacting the atmosphere. This experiment seeks to illuminate events in the distant universe by scrutinizing signals that reach Earth. Rather than bouncing off the ice, this radio signal seemed to originate from beneath the horizon. Such a direction challenges our current understanding of particle physics and might indicate a previously unknown particle or interaction.
ANITA instruments were stationed in Antarctica to minimize interference with other signals. The setup involves balloon-mediated radio detectors flying through ice to capture what is known as an ice shower. Image credit: Stephanie Wissel/Penn State.
“The detected radio waves were highly angled, approximately 30 degrees below the ice surface,” said physicist Dr. Stephanie Wissel from Pennsylvania State University.
“Our calculations suggest the anomalous signal interacted with thousands of kilometers of rock before reaching the detector.
“This poses an intriguing question as we have yet to understand these anomalies fully. However, we do know they likely do not represent neutrinos.”
Neutrino signals typically emerge from high-energy sources such as the sun or significant cosmic events like supernovae and the Big Bang.
Yet, these particles present a challenge: they are notoriously difficult to detect.
“A billion neutrinos pass through any point instantly, but they rarely interact,” Dr. Wissel explained.
“This presents a paradox. If we detect them, it means they traversed this way without interacting with anything else.”
“We can even identify neutrinos originating from the edge of the observable universe.”
“When observed and traced back to their source, these particles travel at speeds comparable to light, offering insights into illuminative events that reveal more than the most powerful telescopes.”
“Researchers globally have been focused on creating specialized detectors to capture faint neutrino signals.”
“Even a minor signal from neutrinos can unveil valuable information, making all data crucial.”
“We’re aiming to utilize radio detectors to establish a significant neutrino telescope, anticipating low event rates.”
ANITA was one of these detectors, positioned in Antarctica to reduce interference from other signals.
To capture the ejection signal, it deploys a balloon-mediated radio detector to traverse ice stretches and identify what is known as an ice shower.
“We operate these radio antennas on balloons that soar 40 km above the Antarctic ice,” Dr. Wissel noted.
“We lower the antennas into the ice, searching for neutrinos that interact within the ice, resulting in radio emissions detectable by the instrument.”
These unique ice-interacting neutrinos, termed tau neutrinos, generate secondary particles called tau leptons that are released from the ice as they lose energy traveling through space, producing emissions identified as air showers.
“If visible to the naked eye, an air shower may resemble a sparkler dispersed in one direction.
“We can distinguish between two signal types (ice and air shower) and ascertain details about the particles that produced the signals.”
“These signals can be traced back to their sources, akin to how balls thrown at angles bounce back predictably.”
However, the recent peculiar findings cannot be traced because they display sharper characteristics than existing models anticipate.
By analyzing data gathered from multiple ANITA flights and contrasting it with thorough simulations of both mathematical models and common cosmic rays and upward air showers, researchers successfully eliminated background noise and ruled out possibilities of known particle-based signals.
Scientists then cross-referenced signals from other independent detectors, including the IceCube experiment and the Pierre Auger Observatory, to determine if any upward-facing air shower data had been captured by other experiments similar to those identified by ANITA.
The analysis disclosed that no other detectors documented anything capable of explaining what ANITA detected, leading researchers to characterize the signal as abnormal. This indicates that the particles responsible for the signal are not neutrinos.
The signal defies conventional paradigms in particle physics. Some theories propose it could hint at dark matter; however, the absence of follow-up observations from IceCube and Auger significantly diminishes this possibility.
“Our team is in the process of designing and constructing the next major detector,” Dr. Wissel shared.
“We aspire for a new detector called Pueo to be larger and more adept at identifying neutrino signals, which should clarify the nature of the abnormal signal.”
“My hypothesis is that some intriguing radio propagation phenomena occur near the ice, close to the horizon—effects I don’t fully comprehend, but we are certainly investigating them.
“So, this is one of those enduring mysteries, and we are eager to achieve enhanced sensitivity when we deploy Pueo.”
“In principle, we should detect more anomalies, and perhaps we’ll decipher their nature.”
“We could also encounter neutrinos, which would be tremendously exciting in their own right.”
The team’s paper was published in the journal Physical Review Letters.
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A. Abdul Halim et al. (Pierre Auger Collaboration). 2025. Exploring abnormal events detected by ANITA using the Pierre Auger Observatory. Phys. Rev. Lett. 134, 121003; doi:10.1103/physrevlett.134.121003
This article is based on a press release provided by the Pennsylvania State University.
Gigantic herbivores in the Americas vanished roughly 10,000 years ago, disrupting the long-range seed dispersal of sizable fleshy plant species. The Anachronistic hypothesis of the Neotropics, proposed in 1982, posits that large fruits evolved to attract these massive animals. While this idea accounts for several significant adaptations in “megafaunal fruit” plants, it lacks strong evidence. Recently, researchers from Chile, Spain, and Brazil uncovered fossil evidence of frugivory, pointing to the existence of the extinct South American species Notiomastodon platensis. Their findings indicate that the extinction of this species and its relatives heightens the risk of giant fruit plants becoming extinct in certain South American regions.
Diversity of extinct mammals inhabiting the environment of Lake Tagua, Chile. Image credit: Mauricio Alvarez.
“In 1982, biologist Daniel Jansen and paleontologist Paul Martin proposed groundbreaking ideas, suggesting that many tropical plants developed large, sweet, colorful fruits to attract large animals like mastodons, native horses, or giant herds,” said iphes-cerca and colleagues.
“The theory, known as the anachronism hypothesis of the Neotropics, has remained unverified for over four decades.”
“Our research provides direct fossil evidence to substantiate this concept.”
In this study, Dr. González-Gurda and co-authors examined 96 fossil teeth from the Pleistocene mastodon, Notiomastodon platensis.
These fossils were collected over a distance of more than 1,500 km, spanning from Los Bilo to Chiloe Island in southern Chile.
Nearly half of the specimens originated from well-known sites such as Lake Tagua, an ancient basin abundant with Pleistocene fauna located in the current O’Higgins region.
To understand the lifestyle of Notiomastodon platensis, various techniques were utilized including isotopic analysis, microscopic examination of dental wear, and fossil calculation analysis,” the authors stated.
“We discovered typical starch residues and plant tissues of fleshy fruits, including the Chilean palm (Jubaea chilensis),” added Professor Florent Rivals, a researcher at ICREA, Iphes-Cerca, and Rovira I Virgili University.
“This directly confirms that these animals regularly consumed fruit and contributed to reforestation.”
“Stable isotopic analysis enabled us to reconstruct the animal’s habitat and diet with high accuracy,” noted Dr. Ivan Ramirez Pedraza, a researcher at Ifes Serca and Rovira I-Vilgiri University.
“The data points to a forest ecosystem rich in fruit resources, where mastodons roamed across long distances, aiding in seed dispersal. Its ecological role remains pivotal.”
“Dental chemistry offers us a direct glimpse into the past,” commented Dr. Carlos Tornero, a researcher at Ifes Cerca and the Autonomous University of Barcelona.
“Combining various evidence allowed us to strongly affirm the critical role they played within these ecosystems.”
The researchers also employed machine learning models to assess the current conservation status of megafauna-dependent plants across different regions of South America.
Their findings are intriguing: in central Chile, 40% of these species currently face threats. This ratio is four times higher than that of tropical regions where animals like tapirs and monkeys continue to function as alternative seed dispersers.
“If the ecological connection between plants and animals is completely severed, the repercussions will be evident for thousands of years,” states ecosystem researcher Andrea Leuza.
The survey results were published today in the journal Nature’s Ecology and Evolution.
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E. González-Guarda et al. Fossil evidence of material frugivory and its lasting impact on pre-American ecosystems. Nat Ecol Evol Published online on June 13th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41559-025-02713-8
Recent observations suggest the existence of a volcanic formation at the edge of Mars’ Jezero Crater, currently under investigation by NASA’s rover. This rover might already be collecting samples from materials expelled during an ancient volcanic eruption.
Perseverance, which landed in Jezero Crater in 2021, is methodically moving toward the western edge, tracing an ancient river that is believed to have flowed between 300 million and 4 billion years ago.
The rover is gathering samples meant to be returned to Earth as part of the Mars Sample Return mission planned for the 2030s. However, this endeavor faces potential cuts proposed by the Trump administration affecting NASA’s funding.
Some of the materials in the samples were thought to be volcanic, showcasing characteristics of lava flow. Recently, James Ray from Georgia Tech in Atlanta and his team have identified a possible volcanic structure at Jezero Mons—a dormant volcano situated on the southeastern edge of Jezero.
High-resolution images from Martian orbiters have revealed fine-grained materials in the vicinity, possibly indicating ash from the volcano. The dimensions and shape of Jezero Mons—21 km wide and 2 km high—parallel those of similar volcanoes on Earth.
“The evidence for igneous volcanoes is most consistent with our observations,” states Ray, noting that magma may have originated from beneath the surface. “This is the strongest case we can make without physically visiting the site.”
By analyzing the craters near the volcano, Ray and his colleagues estimate that Jezero Mons may have last erupted around a billion years ago.
This finding suggests that the rover might have collected volcanic samples. If they can be returned to Earth, scientists would be able to accurately date volcanic activity on another planet for the first time.
“Knowing when that volcano was active is incredibly exciting,” exclaimed Briony Hogan from Purdue University in Indiana, a member of the rover’s science team. This information could significantly enhance our understanding of “how the interiors of planets evolve over time,” she adds.
Ideally, Ray mentions that he hopes to direct Perseverance to the volcano itself, but acknowledges this may not be feasible. “There are really fascinating ancient rocks to the west of the crater, so they’re likely driving in the opposite direction,” he explains. “I can’t blame them.”
Researchers have discovered the first known “ghost plume” beneath Oman, suggesting a column of hot rock rising from the lower mantle with no visible volcanic activity on the surface.
The mantle plume is a mysterious intrusion of molten rock believed to transfer heat from the core-mantle boundary to the Earth’s surface, sometimes occurring beneath the heart of continental plates, as seen in regions like Yellowstone and East Africa. Notably, “these scenarios typically feature surface volcanoes,” states Simone Pilia from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals in Saudi Arabia. Oman lacks such volcanic indicators.
Pilia first hypothesized the existence of this “accidental” plume while examining new seismic data from Oman. The analysis revealed that seismic waves from distant earthquakes travel more slowly through a cylindrical region beneath eastern Oman, indicating it is less dense than surrounding materials due to elevated temperatures.
Additional independent seismic assessments identified critical boundaries where Earth’s deep minerals undergo changes that align with the hot plume’s characteristics. This evidence suggests the plume extends over 660 km from the surface.
The presence of these plumes also explains why the region continues to elevate despite geological compression, a process where the crust is squeezed together. This discovery fits models that explain alterations in Indian tectonic plate movements.
“The more evidence we collected, the more convinced we became it was a plume,” remarks Pilia, who has named this geological feature the “Dinni plume” after her son.
“It’s plausible that this plume exists,” agrees Saskia Goes at Imperial College London, adding that this study is “thorough.” Nevertheless, she emphasizes that identifying narrow plumes is notoriously challenging.
If verified, the existence of a “ghost plume” trapped within Oman’s relatively thick rocky layers suggests there might be others. “We are confident that the Dinni plume is not alone,” says Pilia.
If multiple hidden plumes exist, it could indicate that heat from the core is transferring more readily through the mantle in these regions, influencing our understanding of Earth’s evolutionary history.
Manipulating Giant Atoms for Enhanced Quantum Computing
koto_feja/istockphoto/getty images
Recently, giant atoms have emerged as prime candidates for the development of advanced quantum simulators and computers, thanks to researchers demonstrating control over them for an extended period in room temperature environments.
Using electromagnetic pulses or laser light, scientists can modify the quantum properties of an atom—allowing for the adjustment of electron energy to encode information. Manipulating thousands of such atoms paves the way for constructing a quantum computer or simulating unusual quantum materials. However, spontaneous state changes in atoms can cause errors, with these atoms being controllable only within a limited “lifetime,” previously recorded at up to 1400 seconds. Despite advancements in trapping atoms longer, these methods typically required refrigeration systems, leading to logistical hurdles.
Zhenpu Zhang and Cindy Regal, along with their colleagues at the University of Colorado Boulder, have shattered previous room temperature records by employing Rydberg atoms. These atoms have outer electrons positioned far from the nucleus, resulting in a larger atomic diameter. The research team successfully loaded these atoms into a vacuum chamber, effectively blocking interfering air particles and employing laser-based “optical tweezers” for precise atom manipulation. This technique is standard for controlling Rydberg atoms, noted for their sensitivity to electromagnetic fields and light.
The team enhanced their setup by adding a copper layer inside the container, which they cooled to -269°C (-452°F). This cooling shields the atoms from thermal interference that could alter their states. Additionally, Zhang explains that air particles condense onto the copper walls, akin to how water droplets form on cold surfaces, further improving the vacuum within the chamber. Consequently, they managed to maintain control of approximately 3000 seconds (or 50 minutes), which is nearly double that achieved in previous experiments.
Zhang has been developing this innovative setup for five years from the ground up. Regal adds, “This represents a significant evolution in how we approach these experiments.”
Clement Sayrin of the Kastler Brossel Laboratory in France emphasized that this new methodology may facilitate manipulating even more atoms. “3000 seconds is quite impressive. Achieving such extended lifetimes for these atoms demands considerable effort,” he states. However, as the number of atoms in the chamber increases, so does the requirement for additional lasers to control them, potentially shortening the atomic lifespans and introducing further engineering challenges, according to Sayrin.
Prevalent strains of avian flu affecting US livestock
Mediamedium/Alamy
Since the beginning of Donald Trump’s administration in January, key US public health organizations have reduced their pandemic preparedness efforts regarding potential avian flu outbreaks. However, in contrast, another government agency has ramped up its activities.
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) previously conducted regular updates on measures to prevent a broader transmission of the deadly avian influenza virus known as H5N1 among humans, but these efforts were largely suspended after Trump took office. Funding for vaccines targeting the virus was also cancelled. Meanwhile, the USDA intensified its fight against the spread of H5N1 in poultry and dairy populations.
This particular strain of avian flu, named H5N1, poses a significant risk to human health, with about half of the nearly 1,000 individuals who tested positive globally since 2003. While the virus spreads quickly among birds, it remains poorly adapted to infect humans and is not known to transmit between individuals. However, mutations might enhance its ability to spread among mammals, presenting an escalating risk with increasing infections in mammals.
The likelihood of H5N1 evolving into a more human-threatening variant has significantly amplified since March 2024, when it transitioned from migratory birds in Texas to dairy cattle. More than 1,070 flocks across 17 states have since been affected.
H5N1 also impacts poultry, making it more human-compatible. Since 2022, nearly 175 million domestic birds in the US have been culled due to H5N1, with 71 people testing positive after direct contact with infected livestock.
“We must take [H5N1] seriously. Its spread continues, and it frequently spills over into humans,” says Sheema Calkdawara from Emory University in Georgia. The virus has already claimed lives in the US, including children in Mexico this year.
However, the number of incidents has minimized since Trump took office, with the last recorded human case in February and a significant reduction in affected poultry herds by 95% from then through June. Outbreaks within dairy cattle herds are also being managed effectively.
The cause of this decline remains unclear. Some speculate it may be due to a decrease in bird migration, limiting the opportunities for the virus to jump from wild birds to livestock. It may also reflect the USDA’s proactive containment strategies on farms. In February, USDA detailed a $1 billion investment plan to combat H5N1, which includes free biosecurity evaluations to help farmers enhance their defenses against the virus. Only one workplace among the 150 reviewed reported an outbreak.
Under Trump’s administration, the USDA also maintained its national milk testing initiative, requiring farms to submit raw milk samples for influenza testing. Should a farm test positive for H5N1, the USDA can monitor livestock and take preventative measures. The USDA initiated a comprehensive program in December, further enhancing their engagement in 45 states.
“The National Milk Test Strategy is a robust approach,” states Erin Sorrell from Johns Hopkins University in Maryland. Coupled with improvements in on-farm biosecurity, milk testing is crucial for containing outbreaks, Sorrell believes.
Despite the USDA’s heightened efforts concerning H5N1, HHS doesn’t seem to be keeping pace. According to Sorrell, the decrease in human cases may also be due to diminished surveillance resulting from staff cuts. In April, HHS announced 10,000 job cuts, impacting 90% of the workforce at the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, which monitors H5N1 incidence among farm workers.
“As the saying goes, you can’t detect something unless you test for it,” Sorrell comments. Nevertheless, a spokesperson from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) stated that their guidance and surveillance initiatives remain unchanged. “State and local health departments are still tracking illnesses in individuals exposed to sick animals,” they expressed to New Scientist. “The CDC is dedicated to promptly sharing information regarding H5N1 as necessary.”
Vaccination strategies are another area of contention between USDA and HHS. USDA has allocated $100 million towards the development of vaccines and additional strategies to mitigate H5N1’s spread among livestock, while HHS has halted $776 million in contracts aimed at developing influenza vaccines. This contract, which ended on May 28, was with Moderna for a vaccine targeting various influenza subtypes, including H5N1, potentially leading to future pandemics. This announcement coincided with Moderna revealing that nearly 98% of around 300 participants who received two H5 vaccines in clinical trials exhibited antibody levels considered protective against the virus.
The US currently possesses approximately 5 million doses of the H5N1 vaccine, produced via egg-based and cultured cell methods, which is more time-consuming compared to mRNA vaccines such as Moderna’s. Sorrell observes that Moderna’s mRNA vaccine platform enables rapid government response and production capabilities during a pandemic, providing a solid foundation should a general public vaccine be required.
HHS’s cancellation of its contract stemmed from concerns regarding the mRNA vaccine technology, an issue previously flagged by Robert F. Kennedy Jr., a leading public health figure in the nation. “The reality is that mRNA technology remains inadequately tested, and we will not waste taxpayer dollars repeating past errors,” stated HHS Communications Director Andrew Nixon, as reported by New Scientist.
However, mRNA technology is far from novel and has been in development for over 50 years, with various clinical trials confirming its safety. Like all treatments, there can be mild side effects, but these are typical of most medical interventions. In a recent announcement, Moderna indicated its intention to seek alternative funding avenues for the project.
“I firmly believe we shouldn’t dismiss any option, including various vaccine strategies,” asserts Calkdawara.
“Vaccinations are the most effective defense against infectious diseases,” emphasizes Sorrell. “Having them available as a contingency provides a wider range of options.”
This concept may surprise you, but certain tumors can indeed develop parts of your body, or at least fragments of them.
These peculiar layers, known as teratomas, originate from germ cells that possess the extraordinary capability to transform into any type of tissue.
Germ cells typically evolve into sperm or eggs; however, when their development is disrupted, they can create a disorganized mass of tissue.
The term “Teratoma” is derived from the Greek word Teras, which means “monster,” aptly reflecting its nature.
These tumors feature an astonishing array of components, ranging from hair and teeth to muscle tissues and even organ-like structures such as the thyroid and eyes.
While fully functional organs are exceedingly rare, the intricate nature of these tumors is undeniable.
Teratomas are most frequently observed in the ovaries and testes, but they can also appear in the midline of the body, such as the mediastinum (the chest area that houses the heart) and the base of the spine.
The majority of teratomas are benign and can be easily excised, though a small percentage—particularly those in men—can become malignant and necessitate urgent treatment. Surgery is generally the primary method for addressing these tumors, and the prognosis is typically favorable.
It can grow teeth, muscles, thyroid, eyes, and other tissues from the teratoma – Image credit: Science Photo Library
In addition to their medical implications, teratomas have offered significant insights into the science of cellular development.
They can include tissues derived from all three layers of germ cells, making them an intriguing model for studying how cells differentiate and organize.
So, can a tumor grow organs? In a way, yes. However, these structures are often nonfunctional and poorly organized.
Teratoma serves as a striking and unsettling example of the bizarre and unpredictable aspects of human biology.
This article addresses the question posed by Anisa Manning and Steve Nage: “Can tumors grow their own organs?”
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A new method using small, lab-grown vascular structures has effectively restored blood flow to injured tissue in mice, significantly reducing necrosis. This technique shows promise for mitigating damage caused by injuries or blood clots in the future.
Previously, researchers developed vascular organoids by immersing human stem cells in a mix of chemicals, a process that took weeks and often resulted in structures that did not accurately replicate natural blood vessels, according to Juan Melero-Martin from Harvard University.
In a new approach, Melero-Martin and his team genetically modified human stem cells derived from reprogrammed skin cells. By introducing a genetic sequence and the antibiotic doxycycline, they were able to create vascular organoids in just five days. “The resulting blood vessels exhibited protein and gene activity levels closely resembling those of natural human tissues,” notes Melero-Martin.
To evaluate the organoids’ ability to rehabilitate damaged tissue, the researchers surgically obstructed the blood supply to one leg of several mice, reducing blood flow to less than 10% of normal. After an hour, they introduced 1,000 organoids at the injury site.
Two weeks post-implantation, imaging revealed that the new blood vessels had integrated with the existing ones, restoring blood flow to approximately 50% of normal levels, as stated by Oscar Abiles at Stanford University. “In cases of heart attacks, restoring even this amount of blood flow can significantly minimize tissue damage.”
Post-treatment, about 75% of the mice exhibited minimal dead tissue, while in a control group without organoid treatment, nearly 90% experienced severe tissue death.
In additional trials, the team treated mice with type 1 diabetes with organoids, which had caused pancreatic damage and elevated blood glucose levels. They discovered that integrating organoids with pancreatic tissue transplantation greatly enhanced glycemic control compared to transplantation alone.
However, further studies involving larger animals such as pigs are essential before considering human trials, Abirez states. Melero-Martin anticipates that human research could begin within five years.
Besides facilitating tissue repair, these findings may lead to the development of lab-grown mini-organs that more accurately represent bodily functions or even mini-tumors for research and treatment testing.
“Until recently, organoids lacked blood vessels and could only grow to a limited size. Beyond a few millimeters, they began to perish,” explains Abirez. “This study offers a method to incorporate blood vessels into organoids, thus enhancing their fidelity to human physiology and aiding treatment development.”
These stunning and eerie visuals showcase creatures born in Europe’s largest jellyfish breeding facility.
Photographer Heidi and Hans Jurgen Koch utilized a macro lens and studio lighting to create these images, though I was particularly intrigued by the jellyfish’s location, which cannot be photographed as it sinks to the bottom of a typical aquarium. The animals require “jellyfish” Kraisel or gyroscopes to generate necessary water movements; without them, swimming and feeding is impossible.
Moon jellyfish (Aurelia aurita)
Heidi and Hans Jurgen Koch
As jellyfish populations grow, they are increasingly seen as both an environmental challenge and a source of sustainable solutions, Koch asserts. With ocean temperatures rising, and issues like pollution and overfishing becoming more pressing, jellyfish numbers are surging, posing serious risks to ecosystems and economies.
Mangrove Jellyfish (Cassiopea xamachana)
Heidi and Hans Jurgen Koch
Nevertheless, jellyfish also offer significant potential, including uses as animal feed, fertilizers, and even superfoods for humans, thanks to their anti-inflammatory and immunologically beneficial compounds. Their mucus can also serve as biofilters to keep plastics out of the oceans.
Pacific Compass Jellyfish (Chrysaora fuscescens) is featured in the main image. These jellyfish will be sent to zoos, aquariums, and research facilities. Below, the gyroscope simulates ocean currents for the Moon Jellyfish (Aurelia aurita). The pipette in the photograph shows Mangrove Jellyfish (Cassiopea xamachana).
Heidi and Hans Jurgen Koch
As they mature, jellyfish reside on the seafloor, orienting their tentacles toward sunlight, where they have a symbiotic relationship with single-celled algae that assist with photosynthesis. The image above depicts jellyfish specimens being evaluated prior to shipment.
Upon receiving a diagnosis of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma in 2023, particle physicist and Oxford University professor emeritus Frank Close underwent three weeks of radiation therapy, which provided him with a new understanding of radiation’s capabilities.
His 10-year-old grandson shared a detailed account of Emperor Bomba, a 50-megaton nuclear device tested by the Soviet Union in 1961, marking the most powerful human-made explosion. This prompted Close to elucidate the complexities of nuclear energy, highlighting its dual nature as both a power source and a peril.
A three-time winner of the British Science Writers Association Award, Close is well-versed in the intricacies of subatomic physics. His latest work, Destroyers of the World: Deep History of the Nuclear Age 1895-1965, starts with the Trinity Test Blast in July 1945, signifying the moment chemical explosions transitioned to nuclear ones. He takes readers on a historical journey beginning with 1896, when the first atomic traces sparked interest in the nuclear age.
The narrative features 19th-century scientist William Crookes, who delved into spiritualism after his brother’s death, observing “bright green clouds” in a gas-filled, charged vacuum tube. He believed he had synthesized external organisms and discovered phantoms. Theoretical physicist George Gamow is also mentioned, demonstrating that uranium can release charged alpha particles without contradicting energy conservation principles.
Close’s primary focus, however, revolves around the often-overlooked contributions of female physicists in the nuclear arena. He discusses Lise Meitner, who, despite holding a PhD, was banned from a male-only room at the University of Vienna. This didn’t thwart her efforts alongside Otto Hahn to provide X-rays for World War I injuries or her 1917 discovery of protactinium, element 91. In 1925, she was awarded the Lieven Prize, which marked a significant academic achievement.
He also highlights Elaine Joliot-Curie, the daughter of Marie Curie and Pierre Curie, who possessed her parents’ scientific prowess. In a notable scandal in 1910, Marie faced exclusion from the French Academy of Sciences due to her relationship with a married physicist. Elaine sought to defend her family’s legacy, underscoring work she conducted with her husband, Frédéric Joliot. The 1932 announcement of the neutron by James Chadwick shifted the course of nuclear physics.
Furthermore, Close examines the contributions of chemist Aida Noddack, who argued that uranium nuclei could be split into lighter isotopes but faced backlash from a male-dominated field. Noddack’s position as an industrial chemist challenged the established norms of elite nuclear physics.
In Destroyers of the World, Close also addresses the enigma surrounding Ettore Majorana, a theoretical physicist revered by Enrico Fermi, who mysteriously vanished in 1938. Speculation about Majorana’s fate has ranged from suicide to escaping fascism in Italy, but as with many similar cases, certainty eludes us.
As we navigate through the radioactive haze, one fact remains evident: many extraordinary individuals played pivotal roles in unleashing the Nuclear Demon from its confines.
George Bass is a writer based in Kent, UK.
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Listening to the leaders of AI companies suggests that the coming decade will transform human history profoundly. We’re entering an era described as “radical abundance,” which presents an optimistic view reminiscent of groundbreaking advancements in high-energy physics and aspirations for space colonization. Yet, the experience of researchers working with today’s leading AI systems reveals a contrasting narrative. In practice, even the top-performing models struggle with basic tasks that most individuals find simple. So, who should we trust?
According to Sam Altman of OpenAI and Demis Hassabis of Google DeepMind, a transformative AI system is on the horizon. In Altman’s blog post, he predicts that the 2030s will usher in significant changes compared to prior decades, suggesting that breakthroughs in materials science might enable high-bandwidth brain-computer interfaces within just a year.
Hassabis also projects a fruitful decade ahead in an interview with Wired, claiming that artificial general intelligence (AGI) will tackle major challenges like the treatment of severe diseases, potentially leading to improved health and longevity. He confidently states, “If all this transpires…”
This ambitious outlook heavily relies on the premise that larger language models (LLMs) such as ChatGPT can effectively utilize more data and computing power. While this “scaling approach” has proven successful in recent years, signs have begun to signal a slowdown. For instance, OpenAI’s latest GPT-4.5 model demonstrated only modest gains over its predecessor, GPT-4, despite likely costing hundreds of millions to train. Such expenditures pale compared to future investments; Meta is poised to announce a $15 billion investment aimed at realizing “superintelligence.”
Yet, the sole approach to resolving these challenges isn’t merely financial. AI companies are shifting towards “inference” models like OpenAI’s O1, which was introduced last year. These models require more computational resources, taking longer to generate responses while processing their output iteratively, mimicking a human-like “thinking” process. Noam Brown from OpenAI cautioned about AI’s limitations, noting last year that both the O1 model and its iterations indicate that “scaling methods” can indeed progress.
Nevertheless, recent studies reveal that these inference models can falter even on straightforward logic challenges. Research conducted by Apple scientists found that AI models, including Deepseek’s inference model and Anthropic’s Claude Thinking model, encountered obstacles during basic tasks. The study highlighted that while the models demonstrated limitations in accurate computations, they frequently failed to apply explicit algorithms and reasoning consistently.
The researchers tested AI performance on various puzzles, including scenarios where individuals must transport items using the least number of moves, as well as the Tower of Hanoi challenge requiring sequential movement without placing larger discs atop smaller ones. Although the models could tackle simpler instances, they struggled as complexity increased. This research suggests that while more intricate problems may require longer contemplation from AI, the reduced number of “tokens” (information bundles) indicates that the apparent “thinking” time of the models may be deceptive.
“It’s concerning that these can be easily resolved,” remarked Artur Garcez from the University of London. “We mastered symbolic AI inference techniques for these tasks half a century ago.” Although enhancements and fixes could eventually enable these new systems to tackle complex problems, Garcez suggests that merely increasing the model size or computational capabilities is unlikely to be a panacea.
These models also illustrate their persistent difficulties in addressing scenarios they haven’t encountered in their training data, remarked Nicos Aletras from the University of Sheffield. “In practical terms, while they excel at information retrieval, summarization, and related tasks due to their training, they can come off as impressive without being truly adaptive,” Aletras concluded. “Apple’s research has undoubtedly highlighted a significant blind spot.”
Additionally, other research indicates that extending “thinking” duration could detrimentally affect AI model performance. Soumya Suvra Ghosal and colleagues at the University of Maryland analyzed Deepseek’s model and uncovered that prolonged “thinking chains” reduced accuracy in mathematical inference tests. In a mathematical benchmark, they found that tripling the number of tokens enhanced performance by around 5%, but using 10-15 times the tokens led to a decline of roughly 17% in scores.
In certain instances, the “chain of thought” generated by AI bears little relation to the eventual answer it provides. When testing Deepseek’s navigation abilities in a simple maze, Subbarao Kambhampati from Arizona State University discovered that even when the AI solved the issue, its “chain of thought” contained mistakes not reflected in its final answer. Moreover, presenting AI with an irrelevant “chain of thought” sometimes improved the accuracy of its responses.
“Our findings challenge the common belief that intermediate tokens or ‘thought strands’ provide a meaningful trace of internal inference in AI models,” Kambhampati stated.
All recent studies assert that the terms “thinking” and “inference” in relation to these AI models are misleading, according to Anna Rogers at the University of Copenhagen. “Many leading techniques I’ve encountered in this field have historically been accompanied by vague, cognitively-inspired analogies that ultimately proved incorrect.”
Andreas Vlachos from Cambridge University observed that while LLMs have distinct applications in text generation and other tasks, recent insights imply that Altman and Hassabis may face difficulties confronting the complex challenges they anticipate solving in the near future.
“There is an inherent conflict between their model training—predictions based on the forthcoming words—and our objectives, which involve generating true inferences,” Vlachos remarked.
On the other hand, OpenAI maintains a different stance. A spokesperson remarked, “Our research indicates that chain-like inference methodologies can significantly enhance performance on complex problems, and we are actively pursuing advancements in training, evaluation, and model design.” Deepseek has yet to comment on requests for input.
For centuries, humanity has been intrigued by the possibility of encountering advanced civilizations beyond our planet. But what if such a society existed on Earth long before humans evolved?
In 2018, physicist Professor Adam Frank and climate modeler Dr. Gavin Schmidt published a paper exploring whether modern science might uncover traces of an extinct industrial civilization from millions of years ago. The paper is available here.
Dubbed “Silur’s Hypothesis,” after the advanced reptilian species from the long-running BBC science fiction series Doctor Who, the researchers concluded that, while unlikely, evidence of such a civilization may be elusive.
The study focuses on the timeframe between 400 million and 4 million years ago, investigating what remnants this hypothetical society might have left behind.
Over just a few centuries, our industries have significantly altered global climate and ecosystems. If humanity were to vanish over millions of years, however, any direct evidence of our society would likely fade away.
Our largest cities could vanish within a geological instant due to erosion and tectonic activity.
Consequently, scientists searching for an ancient civilization should look for geological signatures of their existence.
Advanced civilizations, much like modern humans, would demand substantial energy and food production. As a result, we might anticipate similar indicators in Earth’s geologic layers, such as evidence of extensive carbon emissions, climate change, and rising sea levels.
Should pyramids reminiscent of alien architecture have been constructed by lost ancient civilizations millions of years ago, Silur’s Hypothesis suggests that discovering them would be quite unlikely.
The challenge lies in distinguishing climate change caused by fossil fuel-dependent civilizations from that induced by natural processes in the geological record.
Interestingly, there is a striking resemblance between current climate change and historical events on Earth referred to as “hyperthermal” events. One such instance occurred around 55 million years ago, where global temperatures surged by up to 8°C (14.4°F) and were accompanied by intense geological upheavals.
Another consideration is that the longer a sophisticated civilization endures, the more evidence it generates. However, for a civilization to have longevity, it must be sustainable, leading to reduced geological traces.
For instance, a civilization relying on wind and solar energy would leave less physical evidence compared to one powered by fossil fuels. This paradox explains why the traces of such civilizations, if they indeed existed, would be infrequent.
Silur’s Hypothesis encourages us to reflect on the imprints humanity leaves behind. Addressing these inquiries may enhance our search for advanced civilizations on other planets.
This article answers the question posed by Exeter’s Joshua Stucky: “If advanced civilizations lived on Earth millions of years ago, could we recognize their existence?”
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Tracing the world’s oldest cheese is challenging, but direct evidence shows that humans have been consuming milk for millennia.
Archaeologists have discovered milk residues in ancient pottery from various locations worldwide.
Research on carbon isotopes of fatty acids from pot residues reveals that humans have been consuming milk in the UK since 4000 BC. However, in Anatolia, a region in Türkiye noted for its Neolithic agriculture, evidence suggests milk consumption dates back even earlier to around 7000 BC.
Farmers in Anatolia were widely mobile. Although milk fat residues often degrade over thousands of years underground, the sheer number of ceramic pieces found leads scientists to speculate that these early peoples were likely producing long-lasting dairy products like cheese.
When milk is transformed into cheese, lactose levels decrease, helping to mitigate lactose intolerance, which was common across Europe. It wasn’t until approximately 3,000 years ago that genetic mutations became prevalent, enabling adults to produce lactase.
A 2023 study from York University found protein structures in a Polish late Neolithic pot, suggesting it contained cheese made from the milk of cows, goats, and sheep.
The oldest surviving cheese sample dates back about 3,500 years – Illustration credits: Jessley
The oldest cheese sample still known today is approximately 3,500 years old and was found around the neck of a Bronze Age mummy in the Xiaohe Cemetery in northwestern China.
A team at the Chinese Academy of Sciences conducted an analysis of this specimen, identifying it as kefir cheese (fermented bacterial milk). The scientists found DNA from various bacteria and yeast species, including Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens and Pichia kudriavzevii, which are present in kefir today.
They hypothesize that the lump could represent a kefir starter grain, a concentrated bacterial colony used to initiate cheese fermentation. These grains were likely regarded as valuable offerings for the afterlife in ancient times.
This article addresses the question, “What is the oldest cheese in the world?” posed by Scott Mills of Watford.
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Mercury pollution resulting from early coal burning and gold mining continues to affect Arctic wildlife over a century later. New research published in Natural Communication reveals these enduring effects.
Despite worldwide efforts to limit emissions, mercury levels in apex predators like Arctic and toothed whales remain alarmingly high. Researchers attribute this persistence to legacy contamination that travels through ocean currents to the Arctic region.
A research team has analyzed more than 700 samples collected across Greenland over the last 40 years, ranging from animal tissues to ground peat. By evaluating the chemical “fingerprints” of mercury isotopes, they discovered that mercury concentrations have not declined and, in some cases, remain elevated in Arctic ecosystems.
“This provides insight into why we haven’t seen a decrease in Arctic mercury levels,” stated Professor Runeatz, a co-author of the study. “Mercury transport from significant sources like China to Greenland can take up to 150 years.”
Mercury released into the atmosphere through human activities can circulate the globe for approximately a year before settling. However, once it enters the ocean, it may persist for centuries, gradually moving northward through deep, cold currents.
For instance, Central West Greenland is influenced by Atlantic influx via the North Atlantic Arminger current, while other areas receive mercury-laden water from the Arctic current.
Beluga-like tooth whales today have mercury concentrations up to 30 times greater than before the Industrial Revolution – Getty
Currently, mercury concentrations in polar bears and toothed whales are 20-30 times higher than pre-industrial levels.
“We don’t have evidence of actual killings of top predators,” Dietz commented. According to an email from BBC Science Focus, “However, the loads in toothed whales and polar bears, along with Inuit populations in highly exposed areas, are significant enough to indicate neurological effects.”
As a potent neurotoxin, mercury can harm immune and reproductive health. Naturally occurring elements are extremely dangerous, as noted by the World Health Organization, which lists it as “one of the top 10 chemicals of major public health concern.”
The findings carry significant implications for the United Nations Mamata Treaty, a global initiative aimed at decreasing mercury pollution. While reduction of emissions is crucial, the study implies that the Arctic may require generations to see recovery.
The research team will continue to explore mercury’s impact on vulnerable Arctic ecosystems. Dietz emphasizes that modeling how long mercury takes to travel from major emitters like China to various Arctic regions could be essential for understanding long-term threats.
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About our experts
Rune Deets is a professor at the Faculty of Ecoscience at Aarhus University. His research has been published in peer-reviewed journals including Environmental Research, Molecular Ecology, and Ecology and Evolution.
The electric vehicle (EV) revolution is new research published in Cell Reports Sustainability.
The accelerating demand for lithium, an essential element of EV batteries, is expected to outstrip domestic supply in major markets by the decade’s end.
This analysis highlights China, the US, and Europe, which collectively represent 80% of current EV sales. Researchers caution that without significant changes, these regions may not fulfill their lithium requirements from local sources by 2030, leading to an increased reliance on imports and a heightened risk of global shortages.
“Many previous studies have examined the lithium necessary for low-carbon transitions,” said Dr. Andre Manberger, a co-author of the new study, in an interview with BBC Science Focus.
“The issue is that often we compare projected lithium demand with current mining rates and existing reserves. However, there’s a gap in the existing literature concerning mining feasibility.”
Globally, EV sales surpassed 17 million in 2024, marking a 25% increase from the previous year.
The International Energy Agency forecasts that electric vehicles could represent 40% of all car sales by 2030. However, this expansion hinges on a stable supply of lithium carbonate equivalents (LCE).
The study indicates that by 2030, annual LCE demand will reach 1.3 million tonnes in China, 792,000 metric tonnes in Europe, and 692,000 in the US. Yet, even if all current and planned mining projects are considered, domestic supply remains inadequate: China could produce up to 1.1 million tonnes, the US 610,000, and Europe only 325,000.
This shortfall could intensify global competition for lithium, primarily sourced from Australia, Chile, and Argentina. In 2023, these three countries accounted for nearly 80% of the world’s lithium.
Almost 50% of the world’s lithium was mined in Australia in 2023.
China currently dominates the global lithium market, and an increase in its imports could negatively impact other buyers. Researchers found that should China’s imports rise by 77%, the US and European imports could drop by 84% and 78%, respectively.
“Commodity trading tends to have a lot of continuity and path dependence,” Månberger explains.
“This is due to the established supply chain, contracts, and overall inertia in the market.”
Nonetheless, there are reasons for optimism. Increasing lithium prices may drive investments in new mining initiatives and motivate manufacturers to create more efficient battery technologies. Alternatives like sodium-ion batteries could also contribute to a more diverse market.
In the long term, recycling could assume a more substantial role. As first-generation EVs reach the end of their lifespans in the 2030s, materials extracted from older batteries could mitigate the need for new lithium extraction.
“I’m very optimistic,” says Månberger. “Historically, while it’s often straightforward to forecast potential bottlenecks and supply risks, innovations tend to emerge unpredictably when these challenges arise.”
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About our experts
Andre Manberger is a senior lecturer in Environmental and Energy Systems Studies at Lund University, Sweden. He leads the Misttra Mineral Governance Research Program, initiated in 2024, focusing on the rising demand for critical raw materials and addressing conflicts of interest in the low-carbon transition.
All previously observed images were captured from the Sun’s equatorial region. This is due to the fact that Earth, along with other planets and operational spacecraft, orbits the Sun in a flat disk known as the zodiac plane. By adjusting its orbit away from this plane, the ESA Solar Orbiter spacecraft unveils the Sun from an entirely new perspective.
A lower-half image of the Sun, highlighting a square area around its Antarctic. Captured in ultraviolet rays, it reveals hot gases in the Sun’s corona, glowing yellow as they extend outwards with threads and loops. Image credits: ESA/NASA/SOLAR ORBITER/EUI Team/D. Berghmans, Rob.
Professor Carol Mandel, ESA’s Director of Science, remarked:
“The Sun, being our closest star, is essential for life but can also disrupt modern power systems in space and on Earth. Therefore, understanding its mechanisms and predicting its behavior is crucial.”
“The new and unique perspectives provided by the Solar Orbiter mission signal the beginning of a new era in solar science.”
The images were captured by three different scientific instruments on the Solar Orbiter: Polarimetry and Helioseismology Imager (PHI), Extreme Ultraviolet Imager (EUI), and Spectral Imaging of the Coronal Environment (SPICE).
“Initially, I was uncertain of what to anticipate from these observations. The solar pole is truly a Terra Incognita,” said Professor Sami Solanki, leader of the PHI team at the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research.
This collage shows the Antarctic of the Sun captured on March 16-17, 2025, as the solar orbiter observed from a 15° angle relative to the solar equator. This marked the first high-angle observation campaign just days before achieving its current maximum viewing angle of 17°. Image credits: ESA/NASA/Solar Orbiter/PHI/EUI/SPICE Team.
Each instrument on the Solar Orbiter observes the Sun differently.
PHI captures images of the Sun in visible light (top left) and maps its surface magnetic field (top center).
EUI images the Sun in ultraviolet light (top right), unveiling the corona, a multi-million-degree gas layer in the Sun’s outer atmosphere.
SPICE captures light from various temperatures of charged gases at the Sun’s surface, thereby revealing different layers of its atmosphere.
By analyzing and comparing observations from these three imaging instruments, we can understand how materials in the Sun’s outer layer move.
This could uncover unexpected patterns like polar vortices (swirling gases), reminiscent of those found around the poles of Venus and Saturn.
These innovative observations are crucial for understanding the solar magnetic field, particularly why it inverts every 11 years, aligning with peaks in solar activity.
Current predictive models for the 11-year solar cycle struggle to accurately forecast when and how the Sun will reach its peak activity.
One of the primary scientific discoveries from Solar Orbiter’s polar observations is that the solar magnetic field is currently disordered in the Antarctic region.
While traditional magnets exhibit defined Arctic and Antarctic poles, magnetic measurements from the PHI instrument demonstrate that both polarities exist in the Antarctic region of the Sun.
This phenomenon occurs only briefly during each solar cycle when the magnetic field is reversed at the solar maximum.
Following this reversal, a single polarity gradually takes over the solar pole.
After 5-6 years, the Sun reaches the minimum phase of its cycle, during which its magnetic field is most organized, resulting in the lowest activity levels.
“How this accumulation occurs is not fully understood, so the timing of the solar orbiter’s high latitude observations is remarkably advantageous for tracking the entire process,” noted Professor Solanki.
PHI’s perspective on the solar magnetic field contextualizes these measurements.
The intensity of color (red or blue) signifies the strength of the magnetic field along the line of sight from the solar orbiter to the Sun.
The strongest magnetic fields manifest as two bands flanking the solar equator.
Dark red and blue regions highlight areas of concentrated magnetic fields associated with solar spots on the Sun’s surface (photosphere).
Additionally, both the Antarctic and Arctic regions exhibit red and blue spots, indicating a complex, constantly evolving solar magnetic structure on a smaller scale.
Another noteworthy discovery from the Solar Orbiter comes from the SPICE instrument.
This imaging spectrograph analyzes light (spectral lines) emitted by specific chemical elements such as hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, neon, and magnesium, at known temperatures.
Over the last five years, SPICE has employed this method to uncover processes occurring in various layers of the Sun’s surface.
For the first time, the SPICE team was able to utilize precise spectral line tracing to measure the velocity of moving solar material.
This technique, known as “Doppler measurement,” is named after the effect observed with an ambulance siren as it approaches and recedes, causing a change in pitch.
The resulting velocity map illustrates the movement of solar material within specific solar layers.
“Measurements from high latitudes, made possible with the Solar Orbiter, will revolutionize solar physics,” stated Dr. Frederic Aucele, leader of the SPICE team at Paris Sacree University.
In their recent study, planetary scientist Nina Lanza and her team at the Los Alamos National Laboratory explored the necessary steps to transform Mars’ surface into a more Earthlike environment, and what actions are required now if we aspire to make the Red Planet capable of sustaining human life in the future.
Impressions of terraformed Mars artists. Image credits: Daein Ballard/CC by-sa 3.0.
“Believe it or not, since 1991, there has been no comprehensive examination of Mars’ viability for terraforming,” stated Dr. Lanza.
“Since that time, we have made remarkable progress in Mars science, geoengineering, launch capabilities, and bioscience.”
Terraforming Mars involves warming its atmosphere and enabling engineered microorganisms to generate oxygen through photosynthesis.
“We need to confront the actual requirements, costs, and potential risks before determining whether the effort to warm Mars is worthwhile, as opposed to the alternative of preserving it as a pristine wilderness,” the researchers noted.
The research paper discusses current understanding of Mars’ water, carbon dioxide, soil composition, and potential strategies to raise Mars’ surface temperature, enhance atmospheric pressure, and increase oxygen levels.
Innovative methods have been developed that could elevate Mars’ average global temperature by several tens of degrees.
Research priorities should focus on understanding the fundamental physical, chemical, and biological limitations that will influence future decisions regarding Mars. This research could drive advancements in Mars exploration, biological sciences, and atmospheric engineering.
“This work could ultimately aid in maintaining the ‘Oasis Earth’,” the scientist mentioned.
“Technologies developed for Mars habitation, such as drought-resistant crops, efficient soil enhancements, and advanced ecosystem modeling, could also benefit our home planet.”
“Terraforming research on Mars serves as a crucial testbed for planetary science, probing theoretical frameworks and revealing knowledge gaps.”
“Ongoing research promises significant scientific breakthroughs, regardless of whether large-scale terraforming takes place.”
“Until that study is completed, we cannot ascertain what is physically or biologically feasible.”
“If humanity can learn to terraform a planet like Mars, it may pave the way for future exploration beyond our solar system.”
The team’s paper was published in the journal Natural Astronomy on May 13th.
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ea debenedictis et al. 2025. A case study of terraforming on Mars. Nut Athlon 9, 634-639; doi:10.1038/s41550-025-02548-0
Tamat puppies are believed to be littermates and early domesticated canines, as indicated by their physical connections to slain mammoth bones and two permafrost-preserved late Pleistocene canids. However, recent comprehensive analyses suggest that these puppies were likely wolves inhabiting a dry, relatively warm environment with variable vegetation, consuming a varied diet that included woolly rhinoceroses.
AI impression of a Tumat puppy. Image credit: Gemini AI.
The Tumat puppy remains consist of two exceptionally well-preserved specimens found in northern Siberia, approximately 40 km from the nearest village named Tumat.
One specimen was unearthed in 2011, while the other was located in 2015 at the Syalakh site.
This puppy was discovered within a layer of ice-preserved soil, alongside woolly mammoth remains.
This discovery prompted scientists to speculate whether the site was once a location for mammoth slaughter carried out by humans, and whether puppies had any relationships with humans similar to those of early dogs and domesticated wolves that scavenged for food.
With neither puppy displaying visible signs of injury or attack, it is conceivable that they were resting after meals inside a burrow until a landslide trapped them.
The new research utilizes animal intestinal content and genetic data as well as various chemical “fingerprints” found in the bones, teeth, and tissues to decipher their life, diet, and the surrounding environment.
Both puppies had consumed solid foods, including woolly rhinoceros meat and small birds known as wagtails.
However, their remains also indicated signs of nursing, suggesting they were still receiving milk from their mother.
Notably, despite being found near human-associated mammoth bones, there was no evidence that the puppies had eaten mammoths. Fragments of woolly rhinoceros skin in their stomachs were partially undigested, indicating they died shortly after their last meal.
It is believed that the woolly rhinoceros was a young calf rather than an adult, likely hunted by an adult pack to nourish the puppies. Nonetheless, even a young woolly rhinoceros would have been significantly larger than the typical prey of modern wolves.
This leads researchers to propose that these Pleistocene wolves were possibly larger than present-day wolves.
Prior DNA testing indicates that the puppies are likely from a wolf lineage that ultimately became extinct and did not contribute to the ancestry of modern pet dogs.
“It is remarkable that the two sisters from this era were so well-preserved, and even more impressive, we can narrate many facets of their existence up to their final meal,” stated Anne Catlin Range, a researcher from York University.
“The initial assumption that Tumat’s puppies were dogs was also grounded on the fact that their black fur was presumed to be a mutation exclusive to dogs. Yet, the Tumat puppies challenge this theory as they lack any relation to contemporary dogs.”
“While many may be disappointed that these creatures are overwhelmingly wolves and not early domesticated dogs, they enhance our understanding of the past environment, their way of life, and how strikingly similar they are to modern wolves.”
“Additionally, it implies that the clue of black fur—once thought significant—was misleading since it appears in wolf cubs from a population unrelated to household dogs, leaving the evolution of pet dogs a curious mystery.”
Fossilized plant remnants found in the puppies’ stomachs indicate they thrived in a diverse environment with various plants and animals, including grasslands and leaves from shrub genera like dryas and willow twigs.
This suggests that their habitat comprised a range of environments capable of supporting a rich and diverse ecosystem.
“Grey wolves have existed for hundreds of thousands of years based on skeletal remains discovered at paleontological sites, and researchers have performed DNA tests to assess population changes over time.”
“The soft tissue preserved in Tumat puppies provides new access to examine wolves and their evolutionary pathways.”
“Their diet encompassed both animal flesh and plant matter, which bears resemblance to contemporary wolves, offering insights into their reproductive behaviors.”
“The duo are sisters, presumably raised in dens and nurtured by their packs—a behavior commonly observed in modern wolf pup rearing.”
“Though they are frequently larger today, it remains possible that Tumat’s puppies had a brother who survived their fate.”
“There may be additional cubs hidden in permafrost or lost to erosion.”
Hunting large prey like woolly rhinoceroses suggests that these wolves, even as pups, were larger than today’s wolves, yet they may have also targeted easier prey.
Survey results will be published in the journal Quaternary Studies.
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Anne Katlin Wiborg Lange et al. Multifaceted analysis revealed diet and relatives of late Pleistocene “Tamat puppies.” Quaternary Studies Published online on June 12th, 2025. doi: 10.1017/qua.2025.10
Smoke from Canadian wildfires is prompting air quality warnings across the Midwest and Northeastern US this Thursday as forests in North Korea continue to burn at a historic rate reminiscent of the extreme fire season of 2023.
Air pollution levels have surged in cities including Minneapolis, Green Bay, Indianapolis, Cincinnati, Columbus, Pittsburgh, Washington, Philadelphia, and New York due to smoke and ozone from the heat.
According to Canada’s Interagency Forest Fire Centre, the ongoing fire season in Canada has already resulted in the burning of around 8.6 million acres. With three months left in the season, this figure has exceeded the seasonal average since 1983, which stands at approximately 6.5 million acres.
The current burning rates in Canada are mirroring those from 2023, known as the year with the highest smoke exposure in modern American history, raising concerns that the current season may reflect that intensity.
“We’re facing significant challenges with our response,” stated Robert Gray, a wildfire ecologist in Chilliwack, British Columbia. “Most forecasts for Canada indicate above-average temperatures, while precipitation levels remain below normal.”
In past years, nearly 43 million acres burned in Canada by the end of the fire season.
Gray noted that much of the smoke this year originates from the densely packed boreal forests found in northern British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan. Wildfires typically occur in these regions during May and June, coinciding with longer days and rising temperatures. The subsequent developments depend heavily on weather conditions.
“It could be a brief two-week event. The huy starts burning, aspen gets involved, and then weather changes,” Gray explained, alluding to the common aspen trees in these forests. “If aspen and rain don’t clear out, the fires may persist.”
Gray mentioned that drought, low snowfall during winter, and heightened “overwinter” fires are factors contributing to increasingly busy fire seasons.
These overwintering fires continue smoldering beneath forest debris and peat, reigniting in spring.
“There was a fire that started in 2023, lingering through winter into 2024,” Gray remarked. “Some of the same fires have reemerged this year.”
As northern British Columbia faces these wildfires, smoke is often transported to the US by the jetstream, a high-altitude air current that influences pressure and weather changes in the Northern Hemisphere.
“It’s a consistent pattern that remains stable. As long as central and northern BC are burning, this pattern channels smoke into the central and northeastern US,” Gray stated.
Sometimes the smoke stays aloft, creating hazy skies without significant ground-level air quality deterioration. However, it can pose a risk to health.
Wildfire smoke is increasingly hazardous across the US, reversing decades of improvements in air quality achieved under the Clean Air Act.
Inhaling wildfire smoke can cause inflammation, particularly as particles enter the lungs and bloodstream, compromising the immune system. This exposure can elevate the risks of asthma, lung cancer, and other chronic respiratory diseases, especially in vulnerable populations such as the elderly, pregnant individuals, infants, and children. Additionally, wildfire smoke is linked to respiratory illnesses, premature births, and miscarriages.
In my view, the Stern-Gerlach experiment was a pivotal moment that introduced the findings of quantum mechanics to the scientific community. Proposed by Otto Stern and carried out by Walther Gerlach in 1922, this experiment demonstrated that atoms possess quantum properties. It revealed that electrons must adhere to quantum principles. The Stern-Gerlach experiments underscore the unusual aspects of the quantum realm, suggesting that observers seem to influence the properties that particles exhibit. Measuring the quantum characteristic known as spin appears to alter the possible spin values particles can possess subsequently. Essentially, the act of observation influences the future states of a particle.
In physics, we are conditioned to perceive ourselves as separate from the physical systems we study. This experiment challenges that separation. My experience shows that students often accept this premise as an undeniable truth. However, after contemplating it multiple times, they find it at odds with their intuitive understanding of reality. Coming to terms with these outcomes is a surreal journey—wonderful and extraordinary.
When I reflect on how to articulate witnessing the decline of American science in real-time, “surreal” is the best descriptor. It does not resemble the surrealism of the Stern-Gerlach experiment; instead, it feels like a reawakening to a tangible reality. I recognize that I once harbored an illusion about the world, but the emerging reality is intriguing and exhilarating.
Our current political climate resembles a reckoning with a previously held false sense of security. It seems that although the US government might support science today, there won’t be a transformative reality waiting for us tomorrow. Instead, the government continues to squander taxpayer-funded culture, casting it into oblivion. This metaphor carries weight: when an object crosses a black hole’s event horizon, it reaches a point of no return. The object is lost forever.
We find ourselves in a similar predicament. The universe remains to be explored, but the impairments to our research capabilities are enduring, altering the trajectory permanently. The number of master’s and doctoral programs has already diminished the availability of opportunities. Aspiring professors are not receiving the same level of training, which will affect not only future scientists but also science communicators.
The US government discards publicly funded culture, casting it into voids of neglect.
The entirety of our future appears discarded. While Donald Trump has suggested cuts to NASA’s astrophysics budget and the National Science Foundation’s physics funding, these reductions in mathematics and astronomy will not prevent global hindrances to science, and will lead to far-reaching repercussions. The US plays a crucial role as a global investor in particle physics, cosmology, and investigations into fundamental truths.
While attending the 2025 Natural Philosophy Symposium at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, we were alerted to devastating budget cuts to NASA’s funding. The event started with an engaging talk by philosopher and cognitive scientist David Chalmers, followed by insights from philosopher Sandra Mitchell on human reasoning, and a discussion with theoretical physicist Nima Arkani-Hamed.
We discussed questions that have captivated humanity for millennia. What is reality, and how can one engage in researching that reality? Such events emphasize the potential outcomes when provided with the necessary time, space, and resources to explore ideas.
During this gathering, NASA’s Astrophysics department appeared to be on the brink of obliteration. The repercussions of this shift will echo for decades. In 1922, Germany stood at the forefront of scientific understanding. However, after the Nazis subverted German science for their propaganda, the field never fully recovered.
This narrative may seem like a dramatic tale about a specific group of individuals. Yet, it’s essential to remember that these discussions lead to real publications. I benefited from Government Pell Grants for economically disadvantaged undergraduates and the National Science Foundation’s Graduate Research Fellowship. The research discussed in this article has been financed through several federal agencies.
This disconcerting moment affects not only scientists in the US but resonates worldwide. Much of the science we engage with originates from American institutions, making this issue pertinent to all of us.
Chanda’s Week
What I’m reading
I’m currently delving into Ricky Fein’s intriguing debut novel. The devil has three times.
What I’m watching
I’ve enjoyed Mission: Impossible, and I’ve seen all of the films at least once in the past two weeks.
What I’m working on
I’ve drafted my third book, The Universe is a Black Aesthetic (Coming soon from Duke University Press).
Chanda Prescod-Weinstein serves as an associate professor of physics and astronomy, as well as a core faculty member of women’s studies at the University of New Hampshire. Her latest book is The Disturbed Cosmos: A Journey to Dark Matter, Space, and Dreams.
Researchers can construct structures that mimic lab black holes
Science Photo Library/Alamy
By shaping light into a liquid-like form, researchers aim to deepen their grasp of black holes and other intriguing phenomena.
Though observing supermassive objects like black holes directly is a challenge, scientists have employed quantum effects to create valuable analogs in laboratory settings. For instance, they have previously simulated space-time with ultra-cold atoms to mimic a black hole’s material.
Now, Kevin Falk from the Kastler-Brossel Laboratory (LKB) in Paris and his team have utilized light to generate highly controlled analogs of space-time.
They achieved this by trapping light within small cavities made of reflective semiconductor materials, allowing it to bounce between layers and interact with the material’s charge. This quantum interaction ultimately converts light into a liquid-like state.
Researchers can manipulate this fluid with lasers to replicate the geometry of space-time, creating structures that correspond to a black hole’s event horizon. The object can fall but will not return.
Their light-based “space” is meticulously controlled, enabling Falk and his colleagues to visualize events and create sudden space-time structures.
They plan to use this unique simulation to investigate how Hawking radiation emitted from black holes varies with abrupt changes in the event horizon. However, achieving this requires cooling and isolating the experiment to amplify the quantum effects involved.
“This work represents a remarkable experimental achievement,” says Juan Ramon Muñoz de Nova from Complutense University in Madrid, who has contributed to initial measurements of Hawking radiation in black hole simulations involving ultracold atoms. He believes these new experiments present opportunities to observe various phenomena, such as how black holes vibrate and produce “ring” effects.
Friedrich Koenig from St Andrews University in the UK notes that this research offers “the most valuable platform” to explore new concepts related to gravity and the complex interplays between gravity and quantum effects.
One striking outcome of this study is the potential to reveal that the observed black holes might not be what they seem. Maxime Jacquet from LKB explains that the first image captured of a black hole by the Event Horizon Telescope may appear authentic, but the visual representation of a black hole may not equate to its true nature.
There could be sizable objects that distort light like black holes, creating a false appearance without an observable event horizon. Theoretical investigations suggest this is feasible, and light-based experiments may allow for further exploration of this possibility, according to Jacquet.
“We must exercise caution. While we have these analogs, fluids and black holes are fundamentally different entities,” warns Falk. “However, this experiment enables us to experiment with testing theories related to black holes.”
Computational models enabling the swift design of vascular networks for 3D-printed organs could advance the prospect of artificial liver, kidney, or heart transplants, eliminating the dependency on donors.
Individuals suffering from organ failure often require transplants. Merely 10% of the global transplant demand is currently met. In response, researchers are innovating techniques to produce lab-grown organs via 3D printing. However, these efforts hinge on experimental methodologies for sustaining the vascular networks long enough to remain viable for days or weeks.
To tackle this issue, Allison Marsden from Stanford University and her team have developed a computational model that facilitates the design of these networks for any organ using mathematical principles explaining how blood vessels branch within the body.
They evaluated their method by creating a network of 25 vessels with 1 cm wide ring-shaped structures that were 3D printed from kidney cells according to their design.
The team then fabricated the vascular network into rings using cold gelatin particles, subsequently heated to 37°C (98.6°F) to dissolve the gelatin, resulting in a network of hollow channels measuring 1 mm in width that mirrored blood vessels. The researchers continued to circulate oxygen and nutrient solutions through the channels to replicate normal blood flow.
After one week, the ring contained approximately 400 times more viable cells compared to a similar ring made from bloodless kidney cells that had been exposed to blood-like fluids.
“We succeeded in keeping the cells near the network alive,” remarks Marsden. “However, the more distant cells perished because we were unable to print the smaller, more intricately branched networks necessary to deliver nutrients to those regions. Our team is actively seeking solutions to this challenge.”
“They are definitely pushing the limits of feasibility,” states Hugues Talbot from University Paris-Clay, France. This novel approach might someday enable scientists to design vascular networks for full-sized organs in mere hours, rather than days or weeks. “Networks designed in this manner could potentially substitute or at least complement lab-grown organs in the future.”
First, researchers must devise methods for 3D printing these vascular networks onto larger organs. If progress continues on this path, Marsden expresses a desire to experiment with 3D-printed organs in pigs within the next five years.
John Stewart Bell developed a method to measure the unique correlations permitted in the quantum world
CERN
While some perceive a Poltergeist in the attic and others spot a ghost on dark nights, there’s also the enigmatic figure of John Stewart Bell. His groundbreaking work and enduring legacy have intrigued me for years.
Consider this: how much of our reality can we claim to experience objectively? I ponder this frequently, especially when discussing the intricate nature of space, time, and quantum mechanics. Bell was deeply reflective about such matters, and his contributions have forever altered our comprehension of these concepts.
Born in Belfast in 1928, Bell was, by all accounts, a curious and cheerful child. He gravitated towards physics early and undertook his first role as a lab engineer at just 16. With training in both theoretical and experimental physics, he built a significant part of his career around particle accelerators. Yet, it was the inconsistencies he perceived within quantum theory that occupied his thoughts during late nights.
Today, this area has become a well-established branch of physics, featured prominently in New Scientist. Modern physics does not typically welcome those who question the edges of physics, mathematics, and philosophy. In Bell’s time, scientists were still grappling with the legacies of quantum theory’s pioneers, including heated debates between Niels Bohr and Albert Einstein.
My interest in Bell’s work began as a casual pursuit, though I devoted several hours to it. In 1963, he took a sabbatical with his physicist wife, using the time to craft a pair of original papers. Initially published without much attention, their significance could not be understated.
Bell transformed philosophical inquiries into testable experiments, particularly concentrating on the notion of “hidden variables” in quantum mechanics.
Quantum mechanics inherently resists certainty and determinism, as elucidated by Bohr and his contemporaries in the early 20th century. Notably, definitive statements about quantum entities remain elusive until we engage with them. Predictive ability exists only in probabilistic terms—an electron, for instance, might have a 98% likelihood of exhibiting one energy level while being 2% likely to reveal another, but the actual outcome is intrinsically random.
How does nature make these seemingly random decisions? One theory proposes that certain properties remain hidden from observers. If physicists could identify these hidden variables, they could inject absolute predictability into quantum theory.
Bell crafted a test aimed at marginalizing the myriad hidden variable theories, either altering or challenging quantum theory. This test typically involves two experimenters—Alice and Bob. A pair of entangled particles is produced repeatedly, with one particle sent to Alice and the corresponding one dispatched to Bob in a separate laboratory. Upon receipt, Alice and Bob each independently measure specific properties, for instance, Alice might analyze a particle’s spin.
Simultaneously, Bob conducts his measurements without any communication between the two experimenters. Once all data is collected, it is filtered into equations derived by Bell in 1964. This “inequality” framework evaluates the correlations between Alice and Bob’s observations. Even in scenarios devoid of quantum interactions, some correlations may occur by mere chance. However, Bell established a threshold of correlation indicating that something beyond randomness is happening. The particles demonstrate correlations unique to quantum physics, negating the presence of local hidden variables.
Thus, Bell’s test does more than affirm quantum theory as a superior explanation of our reality; it also underscores the peculiar nature of “non-locality,” revealing strange traits of our existence. This implies that quantum objects can maintain connections, with their behaviors remaining profoundly intertwined despite vast separations. Einstein critiqued this notion vigorously, as it contradicts the principles of his special theory of relativity by insinuating a form of instantaneous communication between entities.
Bell, initially a disciple of Einstein’s theories, found himself ultimately proving his idol wrong. His tests compellingly indicated that our reality is indeed quantum. This debate continues to engage researchers, particularly regarding the persistent discrepancies between quantum theory and our best understanding of gravity, framed by Einstein himself.
There was little acknowledgment of Bell’s experimental designs during his lifetime, despite the technical challenges they presented. The first experiment of this kind was conducted in 1972, and it wasn’t until 2015 that a test with minimal loopholes ultimately refuted the local hidden variable theories conclusively. In 2022, physicists Alain Aspect, John F. Krauss, and Anton Zeilinger received the Nobel Prize in Physics for their extensive work on these experiments.
So why does John Stewart Bell’s legacy resonate so strongly with me? Am I ensnared in some quantum malaise?
The answer lies in the fact that his work and the myriad experiments testing it have spawned as many questions about quantum physics and physical reality as they aim to resolve. For instance, numerous physicists concur that our universe is fundamentally non-local, yet they strive to uncover the underlying physical mechanisms at play. Others are busy formulating new hidden variable theories that evade the constraints set by Bell’s tests. Additionally, researchers are scrupulously reevaluating the mathematical assumptions Bell made in his original work, believing that fresh perspectives on Bell’s findings may be critical for advancing interpretations of quantum theory and developing cohesive theories.
The repercussions of Bell’s findings permeate the realm of quantum physics. We have engaged in Bell tests for nearly five decades, continuously enhancing entangled particles. But this is just the beginning. Recently, I collaborated with physicists to design a method to leverage Bell’s work in exploring whether free will might be partially constrained by cosmic factors. Afterwards, I received a call from another cohort of researchers keen to discuss Bell again, this time in relation to gravity and the foundational nature of space and time. They drew inspiration from his methodologies and sought to create a test that would examine genuine gravitational properties rather than quantum ones.
It’s no wonder I feel inextricably linked to Bell. His capacity to convert philosophical inquiries into tangible tests encapsulates the essence of physics. The essence of physics is to unravel the world’s most baffling mysteries through experimental means. Bell’s test vividly embodies that promise.
If I must ponder a haunting presence, I couldn’t ask for a more remarkable specter.
One key aspect of engaging conversation is levity. You don’t have to be a comedian, just have fun.
Tetra Images, LLC/Alamy
Conversations form the foundation of our relationships, yet many people find initiating dialogue challenging. Feelings of anxiety often surface when trying to engage in small talk with strangers, or even when connecting with those closest to us. If this resonates, Alison Wood Brooks is here to assist. She is a professor at Harvard Business School and teaches a highly sought-after course titled “Talk: How to Talk Gooder in Business and Life.” Additionally, her works, Talk: The Science of Conversation and the Art of Being Yourself, present four essential principles for fostering deeper conversations. Wood Brooks explains that while conversations can be unpredictable, they adhere to certain guidelines that, once understood, can ease our discomfort about the unpredictable aspects of interaction. New Scientist took the opportunity to ask her how to implement these insights into our daily conversations.
David Robson: Discussing conversation feels quite meta. Have you ever found yourself critiquing your own conversational skills?
Alison Wood Brooks: The layers of “metaness” are numerous. Even as I participated in discussions, I often felt as if I was observing from above. At Harvard, I teach courses, and many of my students experience this phenomenon too. There may be a challenging phase of over-excitement, but I hope that this subsides as they develop more effective conversational habits. There’s a well-known quote from Charlie Parker, the jazz saxophonist, which goes, “Practice, practice, practice, and when you hit the stage, let it all go and just play.” That’s how I approach conversation—it’s crucial to embrace the joy of being with another human, never losing the magic of that connection. While it’s beneficial to prepare, once you’re engaged in conversation, let go and allow the dialogue to flow.
From reading your book, I gathered that to bring energy into a conversation, one should ask about another person’s passion—so, what inspired your passion for conversation?
I have two responses to this question. The first is professional; early in my tenure at Harvard, I delved into emotions by examining how people articulate their feelings and the balance between emotions that one feels and expresses. Through this exploration, I developed a profound interest in understanding not just my emotions but how others communicate their experiences as well. We have advanced scientific tools today that allow us to analyze conversations on a large scale, thanks to the advent of natural language processing, machine learning, and AI, enabling us to process vast amounts of conversational data effectively.
On a personal note, I am a twin, which means I’ve always coexisted with someone who mirrors me closely. From the moment I opened my eyes as a newborn, I was beside an exact copy of myself. This relationship has allowed me to observe my interactions with the world and how she engages with others. When she succeeded in communicating or making jokes, I learned from her success, and I was able to avoid similar pitfalls when I witnessed her failures. This unique dynamic provided feedback most people don’t have. As twins, we were able to converse constantly, sharing spaces, clothes, friends, and even sports, cultivating a shared reality.
Your book outlines a framework for better conversation: topics, asking, lightness, kindness. Let’s start with the first element—how do you decide what topic to discuss?
My initial advice is preparation. Some individuals do this instinctively, thinking about potential conversation topics before meeting someone. For those who naturally lean into this habit, I encourage you to embrace it. However, some students perceive preparation as too rigid and scripted. Remember, just because you’ve prepared for a conversation doesn’t mean you need to stick exclusively to your planned topics. When unsure what to say next, having backup topics can ease those awkward silences. Maintaining fluidity in conversation is essential for connection. The choice of topic is less crucial at the outset; we are constantly making decisions on whether to stay on one subject, pivot to another, or change completely.
Sometimes the topic of conversation is clear. Still, it can be difficult to know when to switch to a new one.
Martin Parr/Magnum Photos
What guidance can you offer when making these topic decisions?
There are three clear indicators that suggest it’s time to change the topic. The first is a prolonged mutual pause. The second indicator is an awkward laugh, often used to fill spaces with excitement. The third sign is redundancy—if the discussion starts to repeat itself, it’s a signal to switch gears.
After a decent conversation, most people report feeling that they’ve covered an adequate range of topics. However, if you ask individuals about a conversation that didn’t flow well, they often feel they either discussed too little or went too deep into a single subject. This indicates that a common mistake is lingering too long on a single topic.
Your second element of conversation is asking questions. Many of us have heard the advice to ask more questions, yet why do you think many struggle with this?
Research indicates that human nature is inherently egocentric. We often become so absorbed in our own thoughts that we forget to invite others to share theirs. Fear also plays a role; while you might genuinely want to ask others about themselves, you may hesitate, worried about coming off as intrusive or revealing your own ignorance.
What types of questions should we be asking?
In my book, I discuss the significance of follow-up questions, building upon what your conversational partner just expressed. This demonstrates that you’ve listened, care, and wish to delve deeper. Even one thoughtful follow-up question can elevate a shallow conversation to something meaningful.
However, certain questioning patterns, like “Boomerasking,” should be avoided. Michael Yeoman and I recently researched this and it was fascinating. This conversational game boomerangs back to the initial questioner; for instance, if I ask about your breakfast and you reply, sharing details, I might then pivot to my own breakfast without giving due attention to your thoughts. Such a transition can come across as self-centric. Our findings reveal that this can leave your conversational partner feeling unheard. Sharing your perspective is essential, but do so at a moment that allows for mutual engagement rather than overshadowing.
Research by Alison Wood Brooks includes a recent study on “Boomerasking.”
Janelle Bruno
What benefits does levity bring to conversation?
When we examine conversations that falter, we often cite hostility and disagreement as culprits, yet the subtle killer of engaging dialogue is boredom. Levity serves as a preventative measure. Small moments of humor and lightness can rekindle engagement and enhance our connections.
Research shows that those who elicit positive feelings in others often receive respect and recognition, even with a simple joke, as confidence and the capacity to read a room are essential qualities of effective leaders. The joke doesn’t need to be profound or elaborate; it’s the willingness to share that showcases adaptability.
If someone isn’t a natural comedian, what practical steps can they take to introduce levity?
Levity transcends humor—it isn’t solely about being funny. Aspiring to become a comedian isn’t the ultimate goal. Watching stand-up performances showcases how comedians have meticulously refined their craft over time—a stark contrast to the spontaneity of live conversation. In real interactions, individuals seek connection, which doesn’t rely on elaborate jokes but on shared moments of joy. Seize opportunities to introduce lightness by switching to fresh topics or referring back to earlier points in the conversation or relationship. These callbacks, which may highlight something memorable, effectively demonstrate that you’ve been attentive and engaged. Levity can also emerge in the form of genuine compliments; if you appreciate something about someone, articulate it.
This brings us to the final conversation element: kindness. What holds us back from being as kind as we aspire?
Kindness frequently contends with our own egotism. Studies suggest we often underestimate how different others’ perspectives are from our own, leading us to overlook the value of simply asking to hear those perspectives. Being a kind conversationalist means focusing on your partner’s viewpoint—considering their needs and helping fulfill them.
Lastly, what are your top recommendations for enhancing conversations the next time your readers engage with someone?
Conversations can be surprisingly complex and challenging. When things go awry, grant yourself and others some grace. Everyone makes mistakes; sometimes a little kindness can make a significant difference.
Analyzing breath patterns can be crucial for diagnosing and treating numerous health issues
Milan Jovic/Getty Images
Forget about facial recognition—innovative methods for identification may be on the horizon. Researchers have unveiled the concept of “respiratory fingerprints,” a distinctive breathing pattern that could transform the approach to diagnosing and managing various health conditions, including obesity and depression.
The breakthrough is credited to Timna Soroka at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel. Together with her team, they designed wearable devices capable of capturing the minute details of our breathing patterns.
“This research is exciting,” says Torben Noto from OSMO in New York, an AI company focused on enhancing computer sensory perception, who was not part of the study. “It tackles many persistent inquiries regarding the relationship between respiratory signals and health, as well as mental well-being.”
The notion that breath patterns can reveal health information isn’t new; clues to this relationship date back to the 1950s. Yet, previous studies were limited to data from hospital patients because no wearable devices existed that could record nasal breathing while allowing people to move freely.
To overcome this limitation, Soroka and her colleagues developed a wearable device, which was tested by 97 participants who wore it around the clock. The team trained an algorithm to detect a unique set of 24 breathing metrics, ranging from the volume of air inhaled to the speed of breathing. Remarkably, the algorithm achieved nearly 97% accuracy in identifying participants, and their unique breathing signature remained consistent over a two-year follow-up period.
However, don’t expect to use this device for banking transactions just yet, warns Norm Sobel from the Weizmann Institute. The primary aim is not biometric authentication, but to extract invaluable health insights.
For instance, a person’s body mass index (BMI) can be estimated using specific nasal cycle parameters, which involve a rhythmic pattern of airflow between nostrils. This cycle is controlled by the balance between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems—the former prepares the body for “fight or flight,” while the latter calms the body. “By assessing nostril airflow, we effectively gauge sympathetic arousal, which seems to correlate with BMI,” explains Sobel.
This leads to intriguing inquiries, Sobel notes: Could breathing patterns influence weight rather than weight changes altering breath? “If that’s the case, we might discover a breathing pattern that promotes weight loss, at which point we’ll all retire to an island,” he quips.
The respiratory data also indicated a link between breathing characteristics and levels of anxiety and depression. For example, individuals experiencing higher depressive symptoms exhibited faster inhalation rates.
The research team is currently exploring whether these breathing patterns actively contribute to these symptoms and if they can be used to diagnose widespread mental health disorders.
“Imagine a future where each patient owns a nasal airflow monitoring device that not only tracks treatment progress but also offers feedback and predicts outcomes for various disorders,” says Noto. The device measures 24 distinct breathing metrics. It also enables users to notice deviations from their normal breathing patterns. “This could have a profound effect on public health,” adds Noto.
The Vera C. Rubin Observatory is set to provide a new perspective on the universe
Olivier Bonin/SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
The elevation is high above Celopachen, a Chilean mountain towering over 2600 meters. As I ascend the stairs within the dome of the Vera C. Rubin Observatory, I find myself breathing deeply. The atmosphere is cool, serene, and expansive, resembling a cathedral. Then, the entire dome begins to rotate, revealing the vast sky.
Night falls, unveiling an abundance of stars like I’ve never witnessed. The Milky Way shines exceptionally bright, and I can spot two of its satellite galaxies, the Small Magellanic Cloud. Yet, the Rubin telescope steals the show with its massive presence. It boasts the largest digital cameras and lenses in the world, tipping the scales at a staggering 350 tons. As a reflective telescope, it gathers light via a mirror, with its largest mirror measuring 8.4 meters across. The tunnel leading to the summit matches its width at about 8.5 meters.
Despite its immense weight, this telescope can maneuver swiftly, poised to transform our understanding of the solar system, galaxies, and the universe at large. Every three nights, it completes a Southern Sky survey, a feat that previously required weeks or months. Over a decade, Rubin will create a kind of cosmic time-lapse.
“By capturing the sky every three days, we can layer those images to delve deeper,” explains researcher Kevin Rail. “Ten years down the line, we will have explored much more deeply, revealing the universe’s structure,” he states.
A core mission of the observatory involves comprehensively understanding how dark matter influences the cosmos. Bella Rubin, the namesake astronomer, initiated this journey in the 1970s when observations of galaxy rotation disclosed that visible matter represented only a fraction of the universe. She discovered that stars on the galactic outskirts were moving faster than expected; according to Kepler’s Law, they should be traveling more slowly compared to stars nearer the galaxy’s center.
After extensive observations and calculations, it became evident that additional unseen mass must exist. This invisible entity is referred to as dark matter, and astronomers now estimate that it is nearly five times more abundant than visible matter, exerting gravitational effects that shape our observable universe.
“Visible entities are actually following the contours set by dark matter, not vice versa,” observes Stephanie Deppe at the observatory. Galaxies are believed to be arranged in what astronomers term the cosmic web, woven by filaments of dark matter that hold the visible stars through gravity. The images captured by Rubin provide an unprecedented view of this web.
Mapping this web also aids in uncovering the properties of dark matter. Is it composed of fast-moving, lightweight particles or is it cold and denser? “You can identify small anomalies, such as kinks in a stellar stream,” Deppe adds. These anomalies indicate where dark matter has accumulated along the filaments. Determining the mass will help to refine hypotheses regarding the type of dark matter present. Additionally, the structure of the cosmic web offers insights into dark energy, the force propelling the universe’s expansion.
Staff at the summit installing the Vera C. Rubin Observatory’s Commissioning Camera in August 2024.
Rubin Observatory/NSF/AURA/H. Stockebrand
The excitement surrounding precision astronomy is palpable at the observatory. During the evening’s observations, chatter fills the kitchen near the telescope control room. One of the telescope operators bounces with eagerness: “We hope the skies cooperate tonight,” a term used for opening the telescope’s shutter to capture images. “Indeed, we do,” his colleague responds, smiling over a cup of tea. As the sun sets, we collectively wish for a clear evening.
When the clouds part, the control room buzzes with activity. The operator skillfully adjusts the telescope to ensure proper focus. Every 30 seconds, a new image is captured, and an audio cue signals when the shutter opens and closes, followed by a satisfying whoosh as it resets. The telescope snaps a segment of the sky before dashing to the next location, creating a grid that will be stitched together.
All systems run smoothly until suddenly, a glitch arises. To optimize viewing opportunities, the observatory employs an automated system that determines where the telescope should aim, based on weather conditions and moon phases. However, this system has momentarily malfunctioned. Operators traverse the mountains for hours with scientists at base camp, diving into the code to locate the problem. Twenty minutes later, adjustments are made, and the regular shutter cadence resumes, with images flowing in once more.
“This is one of the best nights we’ve experienced. The data is exceptional,” notes Eli Rikov, Calibration Scientist. “I hope the processors can deliver high-quality scientific images.”
Once captured, the images embark on a swift journey around the globe. They traverse the 103,000 km stretch of fiber cables leading either across the Atlantic or Pacific, ultimately reaching the U.S. The images pass through a hub in Florida before arriving at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory in California.
Each image is approximately 32 gigapixels, comparable to a 4K movie, and arrives within about 10 seconds. William Omlan manages data on the observation deck. From there, the data is distributed to facilities in the UK and France, making the images accessible to scientists worldwide.
One of the most urgent analyses will focus on swiftly moving objects. The night sky constantly shifts and changes in unpredictable ways, and the Rubin Observatory is poised to catch these movements. It will track asteroids and comets moving across the sky, including those in the main asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, as well as Trans-Neptunian objects.
“Currently, we only know a few thousand objects,” explains an expert in the Kuiper Belt and other distant clouds. “Rubin could potentially increase our catalog tenfold.”
Moreover, it will help monitor potential threats from near-Earth objects, amplifying our known inventory from around 30,000 to approximately 100,000. The telescope has also successfully observed fast-moving interstellar visitors like Oumuamua, which zipped through our solar system in 2017, and Borisov, which arrived in 2019.
This census of solar system objects could also shed light on the elusive Planet 9, a hypothetical world—5 to 10 times Earth’s size—believed to exist in the outer solar system, inferred from the unusual orbits of Kuiper Belt objects. Simulations suggest it could be responsible, though conclusive evidence is still missing.
That may soon change. “Rubin might directly discover Planet 9, providing definitive proof or debunking its existence,” Deppe mentions.
One mystery the telescope won’t unravel is the uncertain future of American scientific funding. Jointly funded by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Science Foundation (NSF), the latter has faced proposed budget cuts exceeding 50%. When I inquired about its implications, staff at the observatory were uncertain. “I won’t speculate about the potential impact of the President’s fiscal year 2026 budget request,” an NSF spokesperson responded.
But inside the control room, funding debates can wait. Though midnight approaches, shifts are far from over. Scientists work diligently until 3 or 4 a.m., but weariness seems absent. Every so often, someone exclaims, “Look at these stunning images!”
The first publicly released image appeared on June 23rd, capturing a full view of the southern sky every three nights. “The entire idea is to construct an observatory capable of collecting all the data demanded by the scientific community worldwide.”
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