In 2013, the World Health Organization (WHO) established an ambitious goal: to reduce global physical inactivity by 10% compared to 2010 levels by 2025. Now, the deadline has arrived, and despite initiatives aimed at leveraging the excitement of multiple Olympic Games, activity levels have not increased.
The latest data indicates that as of 2022, 31% of adults worldwide fail to meet physical activity guidelines, marking a rise from 26% in 2010. The situation is even graver among teens, with an alarming 81% not engaging in sufficient physical activity. We’re falling short of our targets.
What went wrong? Various factors, from public health policies to urban design, can be scrutinized regarding current strategies. Nevertheless, some experts are advocating for a more fundamental reassessment. Have we been misrepresenting the promotion of physical activity all along?
For years, public health campaigns have heavily relied on the narrative that “exercise is medicine” to encourage physical activity. This notion is familiar: engage in physical activity to combat illnesses like diabetes or cardiovascular diseases. This message is underpinned by strong scientific evidence, leading to the belief that health incentives are the most compelling motivation.
Yet, Benjamin Rigby, a public health researcher from Newcastle University, and his colleagues recently argued in an opinion piece that framing physical activity solely as a health preventive measure oversimplifies the myriad reasons individuals choose to be active. “The reality is people engage in movement for many reasons unrelated to avoiding illness,” Rigby states. “We play, laugh, explore, dance, and feel proud of ourselves. Ultimately, it’s about enjoyment and well-being.” Eliminating these positive motivators from health messaging may contribute to the lack of engagement.
Elsewhere, research continues to support the concept of shifting focus away from health-centric narratives. A study by University of Edinburgh researchers analyzed 123 public messages about physical activity, concluding that health concerns are not always effective motivators for prompting people to get active. The most impactful messages highlight the short-term rewards of proactive engagement rather than threats of future illness.
What if campaign messaging centered on the immediate benefits of physical activity? Some researchers recommend phrasing such as “small movements to enhance your mood,” focusing on mental health, or promoting “physical activity as an opportunity to connect with others.” Motivation matters.
Strong evidence shows individuals are more likely to maintain activity when it is enjoyable. Fun is associated with young people who regularly participate in sports. Remember Pokemon GO? That trend inspired avid users to walk an additional 1,473 steps daily on average, fueled by the excitement of “catching them all.” Given this evidence, why do public health messages overlook fun-focused motivations?
Sticking to health-oriented narratives appeals strongly to institutions. Their effects can be quantified, aligning neatly with the formal tone expected from such messages. However, with the 2030 target of reducing physical inactivity by 15% from 2010 levels approaching, now is the time for transformative change. It’s crucial to cease prescribing physical activity as a daunting chore and start presenting it as an opportunity for enjoyment, exploration, and connection.
Dawn Teh is a freelance health writer based in Australia.
Despite significant changes since the 1950s, women continue to shoulder more domestic responsibilities
ClassicStock/Alamy
Earn money Melissa Hogenboom (Canongate Books, August 14th, UK)
Why do individuals without jobs feel uplifted when their partners are unemployed? How do women develop empathy as they mature? Why does a disordered room appear untidy when it belongs to Jennifer, but not John? These pressing issues are explored by Melissa Hogenboom in her book Earn money: and other power imbalances that affect your life. The book uncovers the hidden power dynamics and subconscious cognitive biases that influence our behaviors and choices.
This narrative goes beyond individual actions; it serves as a well-researched examination of how stereotypes and unseen disparities shape everything from household chores to career advancement.
Fair warning: it may provoke anger—especially regarding household responsibilities. Studies indicate that in heterosexual relationships, domestic duties are typically assumed by women unless addressed directly. Women tend to take on more odd jobs, even when they log more hours at work. Hogenboom notes that some studies imply this might be an unconscious “compensation” strategy for unconventional family dynamics.
Gender biases begin early in life. Mothers engage more extensively during pregnancy, whereas fathers share more about their feelings with daughters and their achievements with sons. Studies have found that fathers react more deeply to their daughters’ emotions.
This reinforces the notion that women are inherently nurturing or empathetic—a stereotype that influences various realms, from parenting to leadership roles. In fact, while empathy can be partially genetic, there are no innate differences between genders.
When societal pressures are lifted, a new truth may surface. As highlighted in a case study of same-sex male couples, “The assumption that if parents remain at home without societal pressures, they will naturally share childcare responsibilities is quite misguided,” says one participant. “If my partner had suggested returning to work within a fortnight, I would have been furious.”
Hogenboom also points out that mothers in same-sex relationships may encounter fewer career obstacles after maternity leave compared to those in heterosexual partnerships, indicating that maternity alone does not dictate such penalties.
The myth of mutuality deludes couples that they have achieved a good balance of labor.
The book sheds light on the intangible forces predominantly managed by men: hidden inequalities often perceived as normal. At times, Hogenboom asserts, “Women, here’s the evidence you need to justify your exhaustion.”
Notably, the persistent challenges faced by men who seek to address these power disparities are highlighted. A study referenced by Hogenboom found that men requesting part-time roles often face skepticism more than women and encounter taunts like “Where’s your mom?” They often struggle to be taken seriously and may be viewed as less committed, complicating their social dynamics within parenting communities.
Couples who believe they have achieved equality might be surprised by how Hogenboom reveals these unseen dynamics of authority. She argues that systematic inequalities represent a dominant form of power in relationships, often overlooked—even by the couples who experience them.
The perception of mutuality can lead couples to falsely believe they maintain an even distribution of responsibilities. However, they may be deceiving themselves if they don’t consider whose needs are genuinely met and who does the work. For instance, your partner might “cook all the meals,” but have you handled the meal planning, grocery shopping, cleaning, and budgeting?
Fortunately, Hogenboom offers actionable advice. If you find yourself overwhelmed, she suggests handling tasks comprehensively: “It eliminates hidden burdens when ownership of the entire task is taken.”
Her recommendations provide a much-needed relief amidst the wealth of data presented. While authoritative and insightful, Hogenboom’s writing style leaves little room for reflection.
However, moments of reflection are necessary. Earn money constructs a convincing argument to recognize the influence of concealed power dynamics and informs how to address them. This leads to fairer relationships and more successful careers, potentially saving marriages.
Helen Thomson is an author based in London.
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Scientists have discovered an extraordinarily massive black hole billions of light years away
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A colossal black hole, located in a galaxy five billion light years away, boasts a mass over 10,000 times greater than the ultra-massive black hole found at the center of the Milky Way, and about 360 times greater than that of our Sun.
“This is likely the largest black hole in the universe,” states Thomas Collett from the University of Portsmouth, UK. “It’s equivalent to the mass of an entire small galaxy condensed into one singularity.”
This supermassive black hole is situated approximately five billion light years away, residing in one of the most well-known galaxies, referred to as the Space Horseshoe. Space Horseshoes serve as the largest known galaxy lenses, capable of bending light from objects situated behind them due to their immense gravitational forces. Previous research indicated that such enormous black holes might exist in the center of this galaxy, though pinpointing their exact mass has proven challenging for scientists.
To accurately determine the mass of the black hole, Collett and his team analyzed the orbital velocity of a nearby star, which directly correlates to the black hole’s mass. Additionally, they assessed how much light is distorted by the gravitational influence of the black hole, a phenomenon known as gravitational lensing. “Combining these two measurements allowed us to yield a highly confident estimation,” says Collett.
The mass of this black hole is remarkably large, aligning with Collett’s team’s prior investigations. Their research focuses on mapping the distribution of dark matter in the Galaxy, utilizing data gathered from observed light. They found that a successful model was only achievable with the inclusion of a supermassive black hole at the center of the universe’s horseshoe.
“The only time I started to get a good model was when I began considering black holes with incredibly high masses,” remarks Collett.
The horseshoe galaxy is theorized to be a ‘fossil group’ galaxy. This type of stellar system has absorbed all of its neighboring galaxies, a behavior that helps clarify the phenomenon of its black hole’s formidable size.
Yet, one enigmatic aspect persists. The black hole appears to have ceased growing and is currently dormant. “For it to expand, it must have been connected to the entire universe at some stage. It’s curious that it’s inactive at this moment,” Collett adds. “A process must have contributed to the black hole’s growth before it eventually plateaued.”
Stephanie Eisenbarth and Adam Williams prepare peanuts for allergy research in their lab
Northwestern University
Research indicates that common asthma treatments may offer protection against anaphylaxis, a severe allergic reaction. The drug Zileuton, traditionally used for asthma, is now being considered for individuals facing serious food allergies.
Despite the prevalence of food allergies, it can be challenging to foresee the risk of anaphylaxis for an individual. Scientists are investigating why some individuals with positive food allergen tests do not show symptoms, while others have severe, potentially deadly reactions.
“Our aim is to discover methods to help individuals with symptomatic food allergies manage their reactions to allergens,” states Stephanie Eisenbarth from Northwestern University, Illinois.
Eisenbarth and her research team anticipated that mice exposed to peanuts would experience anaphylaxis. They administered a single oral dose of Zileuton to a group of 5-10 mice sensitized to peanut allergens approximately one hour prior to feeding them peanut extract. The control group did not receive any medication. Observations revealed that almost all Zileuton-treated mice showed no symptoms of anaphylaxis, whereas the control group exhibited clear signs of it.
Most dietary proteins are usually broken down, but some can be actively absorbed through the intestines and enter the bloodstream directly. In individuals with severe allergies, these proteins can trigger immune responses, leading to anaphylaxis.
During allergic reactions, the body releases chemicals known as leukotrienes. The researchers found that leukotrienes play a role in the number of intact proteins that penetrate the intestine. They also identified a gene called DPEP1 that is crucial in regulating leukotriene levels.
One significant action of Zileuton is inhibiting the enzyme five lipoxygenase, essential for leukotriene production. Administering this drug to mice lowered leukotriene levels, while DPEP1 also suppressed remaining leukotrienes, preventing allergen absorption and halting anaphylaxis in susceptible mice. A single dose of Zileuton cut the anaphylaxis rate by 95%.
“We can differentiate between mice that respond to food allergens and those that do not. We are now evaluating whether the same asthma medications can limit allergen absorption in the intestines of people with food allergies.”
Jorge Emiliano Gomez Medellin from the University of Chicago suggests that these straightforward tablets might significantly alleviate the consequences of accidental allergen exposure. He added that while Zileuton could potentially inhibit the absorption of food allergens, it won’t alter an individual’s underlying sensitivity over time.
“Nonetheless, Zileuton could be a valuable tool in combating food allergies,” he concludes.
Accelerator tunnels at the European XFEL, where atomic motion is meticulously studied.
Xfel/Heiner Mueller-Elsner
In a groundbreaking achievement, a highly advanced X-ray laser has successfully unveiled the slight atomic movements of molecules that are typically expected to remain stationary.
Quantum physics thrives on uncertainty. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle prevents scientists from simultaneously and accurately determining a particle’s position and momentum, indicating that quantum particles can never be fully at rest. Instead, atoms are perpetually in motion, albeit minuscule.
Nonetheless, measuring this subtle Heisenberg wiggle is challenging in complex molecules where atoms exhibit various motion patterns. Recently, Till Janke from the XFEL facility, along with his team, successfully captured this phenomenon using molecules composed of 11 atoms, including carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and iodine.
“This was my first experiment utilizing an extraordinary tool,” Janke remarked. The pivotal device was the “laser beast,” which bombarded molecules with intense bursts of X-rays. Although the pulse duration was only a quarter of a second, it was a million times brighter than conventional medical X-rays.
Each X-ray pulse stripped electrons from the molecule, causing the atoms to become positively charged and repel explosively from each other. By analyzing the aftermath of these explosions, scientists were able to reconstruct quantum variations of atoms in detail at their lowest energy states.
The team discovered that Heisenberg’s wiggle appears to follow a synchronized pattern in the movements of specific atoms. While this wasn’t unexpected based on the molecular structure, the researchers were astonished by the precision of their measurements, as noted by team member Ludger Inhester at German electronic synchrotrons.
Next, the researchers aim to explore how quantum fluctuations influence molecular behavior during chemical reactions. They also intend to adapt their methodology to study electron movements.
“We are exploring ways to expand our findings to larger systems. There are numerous avenues for future research,” shared team member Rebecca Bol from European XFEL.
“It can be hard to comprehend the vastness involved…”
Science Photo Library/Alamy
Many of us can relate to concerns about inflation. The rising cost of living weighs heavily on our minds, and we often scrutinize what political leaders are doing in response. Yet it’s essential to recognize the terminology issues present in physics, especially since inflation carries a vastly different meaning in this context.
In cosmology, space inflation refers to a model that elucidates why our universe appears so expansive. This theory posits that space-time underwent rapid expansion for a brief duration—around one second—leading to regions of the universe that are now uncommunicative but once were connected.
Understanding such immense scales can be a challenge. How do we truly grasp these vast distances that exceed our everyday experiences? Last month’s column tackled this concept by addressing distance measurement techniques. Yet, this inquiry itself unfolds layers of complexity.
In that discussion, I highlighted how Redshift serves as a crucial tool for gauging distances in space. Imagine a series of balloons being inflated; as they expand, their peaks and troughs elongate. This phenomenon mirrors how light behaves as it travels across the fabric of space-time. The light stretches, increasing its wavelength.
This shift in light wavelengths enables distance calculation. By measuring the wavelength of light from a distant object and comparing it to our observations, we can discern how much space-time has expanded between our position and the observable objects. Such Redshift measurements are consistently corroborated by both astronomical observations and lab experiments.
However, deeper questions linger. From a quantum standpoint, light’s wavelength is tied to its energy content. The stretching of light reduces its energy, resulting in a redshift effect. This phenomenon isn’t merely a nuisance; rather, it presents intriguing insights about quantum mechanics within cosmological discussions.
Energy conservation is a fundamental concept in everyday physics, but even cosmic principles can be bent or broken
What’s the dilemma? We prefer consistent principles across physics domains. A core tenet of everyday physics suggests that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed. Thus, if we apply energy conservation to redshifted light, we face the question: where does the lost energy of light go? A curious reader posed this very question.
The response may be surprising. While energy conservation remains a guiding principle, it seems the cosmic realm can, at times, operate differently. Albert Einstein’s theory of general relativity plays a pivotal role here. Though widely recognized for its insights into the fabric of cosmic time and curvature, it also reveals how space-time itself may expand.
A unique aspect of general relativity is that energy conservation isn’t universally applicable. In essence, as light loses energy through redshift, this loss is not considered significant in the grand scheme. Energy doesn’t necessarily have to ‘go’ anywhere; it can merely dissipate.
That’s one way to frame it. Alternatively, we could also address the energy associated with gravitational fields. Historically, conflating these two perspectives has sparked considerable debate. Some argue they represent two facets of the same reality.
Personally, I contend that the essence of energy remains ambiguous. It’s challenging to delineate, yet it’s palpable in connection to physical entities like particles and stars. However, when discussing the energy entwined with space-time curvature, clarity dissolves. Where exactly is this energy located within the continuum of space and time? How concentrated is it at specific junctures? These inquiries reflect the complexities of inflation!
Thus, I find myself aligning with those who suggest that strict energy conservation may not be the most useful concept. What stands clear is the interdependence of space-time curvature and energy related to matter. Space-time’s dynamics guide matter’s trajectory, while matter’s mass (akin to energy) influences how space-time will behave.
Chanda’s Week
What I’m reading
Riley Black When the Earth was Green: The Epic of Plants, Animals, and Evolution beautiful.
What I’m watching
I’m re-watching Star Trek: A Strange New World from the start.
What I’m working on
We are pondering the Newathena X-Ray Observatory to deepen our understanding of neutron star interiors.
Chanda Prescod-Weinstein is an associate professor of physics and astronomy at the University of New Hampshire. She is the author of Cosmos with Disabilities and the forthcoming book, “Edges of Space-Time: Particles, Poetry, and the Universe’s Dreamscape.”
Laughter therapy is no laughing matter. Structured activities designed to elicit joy, such as laughter yoga and hospital clowns, appear to significantly lower anxiety levels and enhance life satisfaction.
Laughing, a behavior observed in various animal species, is believed to boost social bonds and may assist infants in developing their self-identity. Research indicates that interventions involving clowns lead to shorter hospital stays for children.
Yelsynyn-Mauricio Porras-Jiménez from Jaen University in Spain aims to enhance people’s holistic well-being. “It’s not solely about physical health; mental and emotional aspects are crucial,” he notes. “I discovered laughter therapy while exploring ways to implement holistic care effectively.”
Porras-Jiménez and his team performed a meta-analysis of 33 studies from the United States, Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. The participants included nursing students as well as individuals receiving terminal care, undergoing surgeries, in vitro fertilization, or those grappling with depression or burnout.
Each study divided participants into two groups. One group engaged in various laughter therapy activities, such as laughter yoga, clown visits, watching entertaining films, or joining guided laughter sessions. The second group served as a control, maintaining standard care or receiving no interventions.
Results demonstrated a consistent link between laughter therapy and decreased anxiety, alongside heightened life satisfaction. In one measurement of anxiety on a scale of 0-100, the control group’s average score was around 60, while the laughter therapy group scored 8-10 points lower. Regarding life satisfaction, the control group’s score averaged 50, with the laughter therapy group scoring 10-12 points higher.
However, participants were aware they were partaking in laughter therapy, which raises questions about potential placebo effects, according to Sophie Scott from University College London.
Nonetheless, laughter triggers physiological changes correlated with reduced anxiety, she adds. Research shows lowered cortisol levels, a stress hormone, and increased endorphins, neurotransmitters that foster feelings of happiness.
“It’s challenging to determine if the benefits arise from laughter itself or from the social environment that encourages comfortable laughter,” Scott remarks. “It seems to be a combination of both.”
Conceptual image of a spacecraft navigating near a black hole
Liuzishan/Getty Images
An interstellar spacecraft designed to explore a black hole could transmit data back to Earth in roughly 100 years.
Cosimo Bambi from the University of Hudang in Shanghai has devised a framework for such missions utilizing technologies projected to be available within the next 20 to 30 years.
By approaching a black hole, we can validate Albert Einstein’s theory of general relativity and uncover the behavior of fundamental physical constants in extreme gravitational fields.
The nearest well-known black hole is approximately 1500 light years away. However, within our Milky Way galaxy, there is estimated to be one black hole for every 100 ordinary stars. This suggests a significant likelihood of locating a black hole within 20 to 25 light years, says Bambi.
Identifying a black hole poses challenges, as these entities do not emit light; astronomers must infer their existence by observing their gravitational influence on surrounding stars.
Reaching a black hole within 25 light years of our solar system will require advanced technological developments, but according to Bambi, “it’s achievable.” Within a century, spacecraft could be minuscule, featuring sails that cover 10 square meters and propelled by light. Such crafts could theoretically accelerate to about one-third the speed of light through pulses from high-powered lasers.
“Currently, light sails and nanocrafts appear to be the most viable options for interstellar travel since they can achieve speeds approaching that of light,” Bambi states. However, he estimates that the power required for an effective laser system could reach approximately 1 trillion euros today.
To validate predictions concerning general relativity, it may be necessary to dispatch two miniature spacecraft or release a secondary probe as the primary nanocraft nears a black hole. The secondary craft would venture closer to the black hole, while the primary craft remains at a safe distance, gathering data and relaying it back to Earth.
Gerlan Lewis from the University of Sydney acknowledges that while the challenges are significant, the proposal is far from impossible.
However, the extensive time frame for the proposed mission introduces a possibility that nanocrafts could become outdated by the time they reach their destination. Lewis remarks, “Considering 100 years of technological advancement, can we truly predict what kind of propulsion system might exist then?”
“A mission to black holes would likely resemble this proposal, akin to how we might imagine the advancements of the 20th century, 500 years in the past,” he adds.
Lewis points out that Bambi’s plans do not address how to decelerate the nanocrafts upon arrival at the black hole. Bambi suggests that the simplest approach is to not slow the vehicle at all, but rather deploy a probe to transmit data back to the main craft for Earth delivery.
“In such scenarios, the probes won’t stop around the black hole; they will merely pass by. Some may be drawn into the black hole, which should provide sufficient data to analyze the black hole’s gravitational field,” he explains.
Sam Baron at the University of Melbourne describes Bambi’s framework as one of the most “speculative” research papers he has encountered, but notes that a century ago, the construction of the Large Hadron Collider would have seemed like science fiction.
“I believe utilizing small-scale technologies is likely the way forward,” he observes. “The question remains whether we can indeed engineer something that meets all the criteria outlined in this paper.”
Bambi emphasizes that human beings cannot personally venture to black holes due to the extreme accelerative forces—around 10,000 g—that nanocraft would need to endure. “Unless we discover a wormhole in the fabric of space-time to provide a shortcut,” he notes.
“We really need a nearby wormhole like in the movie Interstellar” to facilitate human missions,” he concludes. “Unfortunately, my assessment is that wormholes are purely theoretical at this point.”
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Cut marks on the foot bone from El Mirador cave, Spain
iphes-cerca
The discovery of human remains in caves in northern Spain indicates that Neolithic people may have resorted to cannibalism after battles.
Francesc Marginedas from the Catalan Institute of Human Paleoecology and Social Evolution (IPHES) in Tarragona, along with his team, examined fragments from 650 human remains found in El Mirador cave on Mount Atapuerca. These remains date back approximately 5,700 years and belong to 11 individuals.
All examined bones displayed evidence that these individuals had been consumed by other humans. Some exhibited chop markings made by a stone tool, while others showed translucent portions with gently rounded edges. Some of the long bones were fractured open with stones to access the bone marrow, and smaller bones like metatarsals and ribs had clear human bite marks.
This research supports the notion that cannibalistic practices were more prevalent in human history than previously believed.
El Mirador marks at least the fifth significant site in Spain with notable evidence of cannibalism during the Neolithic era, a shift period from foraging to agriculture, according to Margida. “There’s a growing understanding that such behavior was more frequent than we anticipated.”
The motives behind these cannibalistic acts remain unclear. Some archaeological sites show skull cups indicating a ritualistic aspect to cannibalism, while others hint at survival strategies during dire circumstances.
However, Marsidas and his team propose that the findings at El Mirador suggest these acts were linked to warfare. There was a significant amount of animal remains, and no signs of nutritional stress among the humans involved, indicating this early agricultural community was not struggling with food scarcity. Their findings offer no indication of ritualistic behavior, as human bones were found alongside animal remains.
The ages of the individuals ranged from under seven to over fifty, implying that an entire family unit may have been lost to conflict. Radiocarbon dating indicated that all 11 individuals were killed and consumed within a few days.
This evidence reflects patterns of conflict and cannibalism, which have also been noted at two other Neolithic sites: the Von Bregore Caves in France and Helxheim in Germany. This period appears marked by instability and violence due to community clashes with neighboring groups and newcomers.
While Margida and his colleagues are uncertain about the reasons behind these cannibalistic practices, historical ethnographic studies suggest that such acts during warfare can serve as a method of “ultimate exclusion.” “We believe that one group attacking and consuming another serves as a humiliating statement,” states Merseydus.
“The thoroughness of the body’s treatment and consumption is remarkable.” Paul Pettitt from Durham University, UK, comments, “The aggressive nature shown in these artifacts, regardless of whether the consumed were relatives or adversaries, mirrors a dehumanization process during consumption.”
Sylvia Bello from the Museum of Natural History in London concurs that this evidence of death likely ties back to conflicts but remains skeptical about the notion of consumption as humiliation. She suggests that cannibalism may stem from aggression and animosity rather than ritualized farewell practices, implying a more complex interpretation. “It could carry ritual significance, even amid warfare,” she asserts.
Neanderthals, Ancient Humans, and Cave Art in France
Join new scientist Kate Douglas on an enthralling exploration of the key Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites in southern France, spanning from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Although they are about half the size of male gorillas, female gorillas can surpass their male counterparts in competitions for status and resources. A recent study highlights this intriguing finding.
This discovery upends the long-held belief that gorilla society is primarily patriarchal, emphasizing male dominance over females, and sheds light on the origins of human gender relations.
Researchers from the German Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology and the University of Torque in Finland examined 25 years of data gathered from observations of gorilla behaviors across four distinct groups.
Wild mountain gorillas have often been viewed as a prime example of strict male dominance in primate societies, largely due to the size disparity between males and females.
It is true that gorilla society has a hierarchical structure, with one alpha male reigning at the top, while other gorillas vie for status beneath him.
However, this new research suggests that gorilla hierarchies may be much more gender-equitable than previously thought.
“Female gorillas frequently outperform males,” stated author Reed Dr. Nikos Smitt, a researcher at Max Planck and Turku, in an interview with BBC Science Focus. “This is crucial for understanding power dynamics; it’s not solely about size and strength.”
Indeed, 88% of female gorillas exhibited superior performance compared to at least one adult male in groups with multiple males, particularly against those who were young or old.
Additionally, when female gorillas faced off against males other than the alpha, they won more than a quarter of the time, even when significantly outmatched in size.
According to Dr. Martha Robbins, Director of the Bwindi Mountain Gorilla Research Project, this success is likely linked to the relationships between these high-ranking females and their alpha males. BBC Science Focus reported her insights: “Gorillas are aware of their group’s social status and dynamics. Though non-alpha males are typically larger and stronger, they often choose to hold back to avoid confrontations with alpha males. It’s advantageous for them to be compliant in a group setting.”
This image illustrates the size differences between women with toddlers in the non-invasive national park of Bwindi, Uganda, and male mountain gorillas – Credit: Marthalobins
Researchers have also found that the stakes in these conflicts often involve priority access to food, another finding that challenges previous assumptions.
Earlier studies suggested that female gorillas exclusively competed for food among themselves, with males primarily competing with females. However, this research reveals that both genders vie for food resources.
These observations could reshape our understanding of gender dynamics within human societies.
The researchers noted that male dominance over female counterparts is not a straightforward outcome of evolution, but rather reflects “human’s flexible social and mating frameworks.”
Furthermore, they argue that this is supported by observations among our close relatives, such as bonobos and chimpanzees, where males are larger than females, yet females hold more dominance.
As a result, scientists suggest that humans are unlikely to inherit patriarchal structures from their primate ancestors.
Read more:
About Our Experts
Dr. Nikos Smitt is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Torque in Finland and associated with the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany. His research delves into the evolution of social structures and mating systems, as well as the dynamics of conflict and cooperation.
Dr. Martha Robbins serves as the director of the Bwindi Mountain Gorilla Research Project and leads the Primate Behavior and Evolution group at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany. Her research is centered on the evolution of social behavior.
After 25 years of investigation, researchers at Northwestern University in the United States have found out why some adults have acclimatized to near-optimal cognitive functioning since the 1980s.
Referred to as “super agers,” these individuals are over 80 years old, yet their memory capabilities rival those of adults in their 50s and 60s.
Since the year 2000, scientists have examined 290 of these super agers, assessing 77 brains to better understand those who resist cognitive decline.
The study revealed shared personality traits among the ultra-elderly compared to the general population. These individuals often report being highly social and possessing strong interpersonal connections.
However, the differences in personality are merely the tip of the iceberg. Dr. Sandra Weintraub – a Professor of Psychiatry, Behavioral Science, and Neurology at Northwestern and co-author of a new paper summarizes the findings regarding these super agers – “What we observed in their brains was astonishing; it felt like earth-shattering news for us.”
In some super agers’ brains, scientists identified amyloid and tau proteins, commonly known as plaque and tangles, which are significant in the context of Alzheimer’s disease. In other super agers, these were absent.
Nonetheless, no brains exhibited the damage typically linked with these plaques or tangles.
“Our observation is that there are two distinct mechanisms enabling someone to become a super ager,” Weintraub stated. “The first is resistance, meaning they do not develop plaque or tangles. The second is resilience; they do form these but do not experience negative brain impacts.”
Super agers displayed not only varying personality traits but also distinct brain structures, particularly in the size and shape of the cortex.
In addition to that, these super agers exhibited youthful brain structures. While older brains generally have thinner cortices compared to younger ones, these individuals did not show such thinning.
In particular, they displayed remarkable thickness in the anterior cingulate cortex, a crucial area involved in processing information related to decision-making, emotions, and motivations.
Moreover, super agers had a greater number of Von Economo neurons, also known as spindle cells, compared to their normally aging peers. These neurons, located in the cortex, play a significant role in social behavior, emotional processing, and self-awareness.
“Our research indicates that exceptional memory in later years is achievable and correlates with a well-defined neurobiological profile,” Weintraub stated. “This paves the way for novel interventions aimed at preserving brain health in older age.”
Researchers expressed hope that their work would encourage cognitive health and unveil new approaches to slow or prevent future neurodegenerative diseases like dementia.
The early human migration through mainland Southeast Asia (SUNDA) marks the oldest evidence of humans crossing marine barriers to access secluded land. Previously, the earliest indication of Wallacea, an area of oceanic islands east of Sunda, comprised flakestone tools found at Wallosea, Flores Island, dating back at least 152 million years. Excavations in Sulawesi, the largest island, have uncovered stone artifacts at Talep’s open site dating to at least 194,000 years ago. Presently, researchers from Griffith University have identified stone tools at locations close to the fossil-rich cario strata that date back at least 104 million years, possibly extending to 1.48 million years. This information hints that Sulawesi was occupied by humans around the same period as Flores.
Old-fashioned humanity. Image credit: Ninara / CC by 2.0.
Professor Adam Blum of Griffith University and his team discovered seven stone artifacts within the sedimentary layers at the Cariosite.
During the early Pleistocene, this area would have been near river channels, facilitating activities such as tool-making and hunting.
The artifacts from Cario are small sharp stones (flakes) created by larger pebbles, likely sourced from local riverbeds by early human inhabitants.
“This findings enhance our understanding of extinct human migrations across the Wallace Line, a transitional area where unique animal species have evolved independently,” said Professor Blum.
Reconstruction of Homo floresiensis. Image credit: Elizabeth Daines.
Utilizing paleomagnetic dating of the sandstone and direct dating of excavated pig fossils, researchers confirmed that the Cario artifacts are at least 1.04 million years old.
Previously, evidence of human habitation in Warasea had been found dating back at least 102 million years in Talep, Sulawesi, based on stone tools located in Warosea, Wolosage, Flores.
Luzon, located in the Philippines and north of Wallacea, has yielded human evidence dating back approximately 700,000 years.
“This is a critical piece of the puzzle, yet the Cario site has yet to reveal any human fossils,” commented Professor Blum.
“We now recognize that a toolmaker existed in Sulawesi a million years ago, but their identity remains unknown.”
Stone artifacts from the site of Cario in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Image credit: Hakim et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09348-6.
The initial discovery of Homo floresiensis and subsequent fossils from Flores, similar in size and dating back 700,000 years, implied that it may have been linked to Homo erectus, which managed to bypass substantial marine barriers between the mainland of Southeast Asia to inhabit this smaller island and underwent island dwarfism for eons.
“The revelation of Sulawesi prompts us to consider the fate of Homo erectus on an island more than 12 times larger than Flores,” Professor Blum noted.
“Sulawesi is an unpredictable variable. It’s almost like a mini continent.”
“If hominins were isolated on this expansive, ecologically diverse island for over a million years, would they have evolved in ways similar to the Hobbits of Flores?”
“Or could there have been an entirely different evolutionary path?”
The study was published yesterday in the journal Nature.
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B. Hakim et al. Human presence in Sulawesi during the early Pleistocene. Nature Published online on August 7th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09348-6
The sun serves as a fundamental source of heat and light in the solar system, with its energy generated in the core through the collision of hydrogen ions and helium.Nuclear Fusion. Consequently, while the surface temperature of the sun is extremely hot by Earth’s standards—approximately 10,000°F or 5,600°C—it is relatively cooler compared to the center, which reaches around 27,000,000°F or 15,000,000°C.
Heat and light travel from the sun’s center to its surface via two main processes: one is similar to how the sun heats the Earth, known as radiation. Here, energy moves outward through light particles, or photons. Conversely, heat transfer occurs on Earth through the process of convection, with cold gas descending while warm gas rises. This creates a swirling motion within the sun, where hot gases near the core move upward and cooler gases sink back down.
A diagram of the sun illustrating how convection and radiation influence heat movement at different depths. “Sun poster” by Kelvinsong is licensed under CC by-sa 3.0.
The interplay of radiation, convection, and the sun’s varying rotational speeds based on distance from the equator results in uneven heating of the solar surface, leading to both hot and cold areas. While scientists have a grasp of this general pattern, discrepancies exist between models predicting solar surface temperatures and observed data. The model estimates a temperature of around 2,000 Kelvin (k), translating to approximately 3,100°F or 1,700°C for the coldest sections, yet actual findings indicate these regions are around 4,000k, or about 6,700°F or 3,700°C.
This paradox highlights the challenges in understanding heat transfer within the sun. Several unknown factors may lead to the observed discrepancy of over 1,000k in the coldest spots. A team of researchers investigated one possible explanation for the missing heat by conducting both two-dimensional and three-dimensional simulations. They hypothesized that when convection separates neutral charged gases from the sun’s center, negatively charged electrons are driven by a magnetic field near the sun’s surface, generating additional heat. This phenomenon is referred to as Thermal Farley-Bnemann’s instability, or TFBI Turbulence.
The team employed two computer programs, ebysus and Epic, to simulate these cold bubbles in the outer layer of the sun, known as the Chrome area, over a span of 8-10 milliseconds. They incorporated variables such as material density, magnetic field strength, and collision frequency into their simulations. The TFBI turbulence was then integrated into the 2D ebysus model, which was compared with heating observed in the EPPIC simulations in both 2D and 3D.
The primary distinction between the programs lies in how they treat gas: ebysus models it as a swirling liquid, facilitating easier movement calculations, while Epic views it as a collection of bouncing particles that generate electromagnetic fields, complicating calculations. They conducted five simulations: one in 2D with EBYSUS, which was the fastest yet potentially the least accurate, one in 2D with Epic, which was slower but arguably more realistic, and two in 3D with EPPIC, which, while the slowest, yielded the most accurate outcomes.
The results from their 2D simulations indicated that turbulent heating could increase temperatures in cold regions by over 700,000. Similar findings were observed in the 3D simulations as well. The team contended that their simulations demonstrated how turbulence from the TFBI could augment heat in the sun’s cooler areas beyond what convection and radiation contribute. Nonetheless, they recommended that future research extend over longer time frames to fully grasp the implications of these processes. Additionally, comparisons between 2D and 3D simulations suggest that scientists can effectively investigate this phenomenon using quicker 2D fluid models, achieving results comparable to more complex and resource-intensive 3D particle models.
The White Dwarf represents the compact core that forms when stars exhaust their fuel and collapse. These remnants are the ashes of Earth-sized stars, typically about half the mass of the Sun, composed of carbon-oxygen cores surrounded by layers of helium and hydrogen. Utilizing far-ultraviolet data from the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, astronomers have identified carbon in the atmosphere of the famously large white dwarf WD 0525+526. They also determined that the overall mass of hydrogen and helium in the star’s atmosphere was significantly lower than anticipated based on single-star evolution.
An illustration of a merger with a white dwarf sub-huge star (size without scale) that would have occurred in the past. Image credit: Snehalata Sahu/Warwick University.
WD 0525+526 is located approximately 130 light years away in the constellation Auriga.
With a mass exceeding that of our Sun by 20%, this white dwarf is classified as a super-genocide, and its formation process remains poorly understood.
Typically, such white dwarfs form from the collapse of massive stars. However, Hubble’s UV data indicates that WD 0525+526 has a hydrogen-rich atmosphere originating from its core.
“In optical light, WD 0525+526 appears to be a massive yet typical white dwarf,” remarked Sneharata Saff, an astronomer at the University of Warwick.
“However, the ultraviolet observations from Hubble allowed us to detect faint carbon signatures that optical telescopes could not observe.”
“The presence of a small amount of carbon in the atmosphere suggests that this massive white dwarf is likely the product of a merger between two stars.”
“We also believe that many similar merged remnants may pose as white dwarfs in a predominantly hydrogen atmosphere.”
“Only ultraviolet observations can reveal them to us.”
Typically, hydrogen and helium create dense, barrier-like layers around the white dwarf core, concealing carbon-rich elements.
In a stellar merger, the hydrogen and helium enveloping layers can burn away almost entirely as the stars combine.
The resulting single star possesses a very thin envelope that does not prevent carbon from surfacing, which is precisely what is observed in WD 0525+526.
“We found that the hydrogen and helium layers are around one billion times thinner than those typical of a white dwarf,” noted Antoine Bedard, an astronomer at Warwick University.
“We believe these layers were stripped away during the merger, allowing carbon to manifest on the surface.”
“However, this phenomenon is also unusual, as the carbon present is about 100,000 times less than that found on the surfaces of other merged remnants.”
“Coupled with the star’s elevated temperatures—nearly four times hotter than the Sun—the diminished carbon levels suggest that WD 0525+526 evolves at a much faster pace than previously observed.”
This discovery will aid in understanding the destiny of binary star systems, which are crucial for related phenomena such as supernova explosions.
Alongside the enigma, this significantly hotter star’s carbon migrates to the surface.
Other merged remnants later cool enough for convection to bring carbon to the surface; however, WD 0525+526 remains too hot for this process.
Instead, the author identified a subtle mixing process known as semiconvection, uniquely observed in this White Dwarf.
This mechanism permits small amounts of carbon to gradually ascend into the star’s hydrogen-rich atmosphere.
“Finding conclusive proof of individual white dwarf mergers is rare,” remarked Professor Boris Gensick from Warwick University.
“Yet, ultraviolet spectroscopy enables us to detect these signals early, while carbon remains invisible at optical wavelengths.”
“Because the Earth’s atmosphere filters out UV rays, such observations must be conducted from space—currently, only Hubble is capable of this.”
“As WD 0525+526 continues to evolve and cool, we anticipate more carbon will emerge at the surface over time.”
“For now, this ultraviolet illumination offers rare insights into the early aftermath of stellar mergers.
Survey results are published today in the journal Nature Astronomy.
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S. Saff et al. The remnants of Hot White Dwarfs revealed by ultraviolet detection of carbon. Nature Astronomy Published online on August 6th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41550-025-02590-y
Craving some fries? Indulging in deep-fried delights might raise your chances of developing type 2 diabetes.
As per research released on Wednesday in the Journal BMJ, swapping out weekly servings of fries for boiled, baked, or mashed potatoes could diminish the risk of this chronic illness.
The study analyzed the eating habits of over 205,000 adults in the U.S. who completed a dietary survey spanning nearly 40 years. They investigated the correlation between potato consumption and the onset of type 2 diabetes.
Results indicated that a weekly intake of French fries raised the risk of type 2 diabetes by 20%. In contrast, consuming an equivalent amount of boiled, baked, or mashed potatoes showed no association with the disease.
According to the CDC, one in ten Americans with diabetes has type 2. This condition can lead to elevated risks of heart attacks, strokes, and kidney damage.
The findings emphasize the importance of food preparation methods in determining health risks and benefits, noted Seyed Mohammad Mousavi, the lead author of the study and a postdoctoral researcher at the Harvard Chan School of Public Health.
“Not all potatoes are created equal,” he remarked. “Even consuming less than one serving of fries weekly can elevate the risk of type 2 diabetes.”
Unlike boiled or baked potatoes, fries are often cooked in oils high in trans fats or saturated fats. The body struggles to properly metabolize these fats, leading to insulin resistance—an issue that regulates blood sugar levels. Frequent consumption of fried foods can contribute to obesity and inflammation, further increasing the likelihood of type 2 diabetes.
“Fried potatoes absorb fat, raising their caloric content. Consuming multiple servings of fries can contribute to weight gain,” stated Candida Rebello, director of the Nutrition and Chronic Disease Program at Louisiana State University, who was not part of the study.
This research leveraged data collected when various frying methods were prevalent from 1984 to 2021. Nowadays, most fast-food chains utilize vegetable oils like canola, sunflower, soybean, and peanut oils. However, beef fat was common in the 1980s, which shifted to partially hydrogenated oils in the early 1990s. Most trans fats have been phased out of the U.S. diet by 2018.
Secretary of Health and Human Services, Robert F. Kennedy Jr., claimed that the seed oils in use today contribute to rising obesity levels in children, suggesting a return to beef fat—a stance lacking robust scientific backing.
“Beef tallow is rich in saturated fats, which can be harmful. I do not endorse that,” Mousavi emphasized.
One drawback of Mousavi’s study is that it doesn’t account for added unhealthy ingredients in boiled, baked, or mashed potatoes.
“What do people put on baked potatoes? Butter, bacon, cheese, sour cream,” said Shannon Gallien, an assistant professor of nutrition science at Texas Institute of Technology. “We don’t know if they consumed the skin either.”
Gallien noted that potato skins are rich in fiber and essential nutrients, helping regulate blood sugar. When prepared without deep frying or excessive fats, potatoes can provide a good source of potassium, which supports blood pressure regulation.
“Certainly, potatoes can be a nutritious food choice as long as they are neither fried nor smothered in fat,” Gallien stated.
Mousavi suggested that baking fries at home with healthier oils like olive or avocado oil could lower diabetes risk compared to fast food versions. Opting for whole grains, such as farro or whole-grain bread and pasta, could yield even greater benefits due to their lower glycemic index, reducing the likelihood of rapid blood sugar spikes.
His research found whole grains pose a lesser risk of diabetes than all potato varieties. Conversely, white rice correlated more strongly with the risk of type 2 diabetes than any of these alternatives.
Megan Marcahai, communications director at Potato USA, emphasized that fries can “fit into a healthful dietary framework when consumed in moderation.”
Gallien highlighted the importance of evaluating one’s overall diet, since it significantly impacts health more than single food items. Nutritionists generally endorse a colorful array of foods, incorporating healthy proteins, varied fruits, vegetables, whole grains, fish, beans, and nuts.
“People don’t eat isolated items. They consume a range of foods,” Gallien concluded.
Stone tools unearthed in Sulawesi, Indonesia, crafted by an enigmatic ancient human species
Budianto Hakim et al.
Seven stone tools discovered on Sulawesi, Indonesia, represent the earliest proof of ancient humans navigating the ocean, with an estimated age of 1.4 million years.
These artifacts may shed light on how a diminutive human species known as the “Hobbit” reached neighboring Flores Island.
The first artifact was found embedded in a sandstone outcrop at a location called Calio Budiant Hakim. In 2019, excavations revealed six additional tools on the same outcrop, courtesy of the Indonesian National Research Innovation Agency.
Alongside the stone tools, Hakim and his team also discovered parts of an upper jaw, teeth, and remains of a large species of pig, Celebochoerus, along with fragments from unidentified young elephants.
While researchers couldn’t date the tools directly, sediment analysis combined with fossil pig teeth allowed them to estimate an age range between 1.04 million and 1.48 million years. Previously, the oldest human evidence in Sulawesi was dated to 194,000 years ago.
A least one of the new artifacts appears to be a flake removed from a larger piece, with its edges skillfully shaped, as noted by team member Adam Blum from Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia. While non-human primates such as chimpanzees utilize hammer-like stones to crack nuts, they don’t manipulate flakes to create tools.
“This represents an early form of cognitive ability from a species that has since vanished,” states Brumm. “We don’t ascertain the specific species, but these creations indicate human intellect at the Calio site.”
The distinct hominin species, Homo floresiensis, was unearthed in Flores in 2003. Archaeological findings suggest human presence on the island over a million years ago. However, the means by which these early humans reached the island remains a mystery.
Both Flores and Sulawesi were separated from mainland Southeast Asia by expansive oceanic barriers, even during periods of the lowest sea levels. According to Blum, the distance to Sulawesi is too great for swimming, leading to the conclusion that these early human species likely could not construct maritime vessels.
“It’s conceivable that a rare geological event, such as a tsunami, swept some early humans into the ocean, where they might have clung to floating trees or mats of vegetation, eventually reaching these islands to form isolated populations,” he suggests.
Martin Porr from the University of Western Australia identifies Homo erectus as the most probable candidate for seafaring at that time, given similarities between the tools found in Sulawesi and those associated with this species.
While the new finds support this theory, they raise numerous questions, particularly regarding whether the skills of these early human groups may need to be reassessed.
Led by the late archaeologist Mike Morwood, the team who first identified Homo floresiensis was the first to propose that Sulawesi could be crucial in understanding the ancestry of the Hobbit. As Kira Westaway from Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia mentions, “Sulawesi is positioned along a significant current that flows from Sulawesi to Flores.”
“Even Mike would have been astonished by the discovery of these ancient stone tools,” she remarks. “Though one might argue that seven tools are insufficient to support major claims, they undeniably represent the presence of early human activities.”
Neanderthals, ancient humans, cave art: France
Join new scientist Kate Douglas as she embarks on a captivating exploration of the prominent Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, spanning from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Mark Twain famously remarked, “If you were born at the age of 80 and gradually refined down to 18, life would be perpetually joyous.” The quest for youth has captivated stories and myths throughout the ages; what if we could finally achieve it?
Recent research indicates that the GLP-1 medication Ozempic, containing semaglutide, might effectively reverse biological aging by around three years. This effect is notably observed in the brain, suggesting that medications like Ozempic could help mitigate conditions such as dementia. Additionally, it seems to reduce inflammation tied to various health concerns, including heart disease, chronic pain, and depression.
Originally developed for type 2 diabetes, semaglutide has changed the landscape of obesity treatment. It’s important to highlight that its anti-aging effects are particularly noted in individuals with HIV-related fat hypertrophy, though researchers believe its benefits may extend to a broader population.
Ozempic seems to have eradicated the inflammatory system associated with numerous health conditions.
It’s intriguing to consider whether we should all be using these drugs to reverse aging and reap the rewards of better health. However, we cannot assume this is wise without substantial evidence from large placebo-controlled trials involving healthy individuals. Conducting such studies may be contentious, as there are potential side effects to monitor. Moreover, when supplies are limited, it’s crucial to prioritize those in dire need.
Nevertheless, it appears that a number of healthy individuals are already utilizing these medications—largely “off-label”—without clarity on their safety. Future research should unveil a clearer understanding of these risks and provide insights into how weight loss affects muscle mass retention.
As the array of health advantages associated with these drugs continues to expand, it may be time to investigate their efficacy in healthy individuals, aiming to determine if they genuinely have the capacity to slow aging rather than speculating about youthful elixirs.
Robert F. Kennedy Jr., Director of the U.S. Health Bureau
Zuma Press, Inc. /Alamy
The U.S. Secretary of Health has claimed that mRNA vaccines are ineffective against respiratory illnesses and announced a $5 billion cut in funding for mRNA vaccine research. This contradicts existing scientific evidence, which shows that many mRNA vaccines are not only effective but often outperform other vaccine types. Here’s what you should know to assess these statements:
During his announcement, Robert F. Kennedy Jr., the head of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, stated, “These vaccines cannot effectively protect against upper respiratory tract infections such as COVID and influenza.” He indicated that funding would shift “to a safer, more versatile vaccine platform that remains effective even as the virus mutates.”
There are currently various vaccine types available: live viruses, inactivated viruses, genetically engineered viral shells, individual viral proteins, and mRNAs that encode viral proteins. The effectiveness of these vaccines is often influenced more by the virus than by the vaccine itself.
For instance, the MMR vaccine has a 100% effectiveness rate in preventing measles outbreaks when vaccination coverage exceeds 90%. This high effectiveness is due to the measles virus being a stable target and requiring complex routes deep within the body, allowing ample opportunities for the immune system to respond before symptoms develop or transmission occurs.
In contrast, respiratory viruses, which cause colds and flus, initially infect cells in the upper respiratory tract. This setting complicates the generation of sufficient protective antibodies, making it significantly harder to prevent infection and transmission compared to measles.
Moreover, viruses responsible for colds, influenza, and COVID-19 are continuously mutating, driving evolutionary pressures for changes that can evade immunity from both infection and vaccination. Consequently, no influenza or COVID-19 vaccine can offer the same long-term protection as the measles components of MMR vaccines. However, mRNA vaccines perform comparably well.
For example, some mRNA COVID-19 vaccines are over 90% effective against symptomatic infections and provide enhanced protection against severe outcomes. In contrast, the effectiveness of non-mRNA vaccines for annual influenza prevention ranges from 20% to 60%. Additionally, a recent trial involving a combined COVID-19 and influenza mRNA vaccine has shown potential to surpass existing non-mRNA influenza vaccines for individuals over 50, who are most at risk.
Thus, Kennedy’s assertion regarding ineffectiveness is misguided. While this does not imply that mRNA vaccines will always be superior to others, new vaccines must outperform existing ones in clinical trials. If mRNA vaccines were ineffective, they would not receive approval.
Kennedy also posits that other vaccine types might sustain their effectiveness amidst viral mutations, likely referencing the concept of a “universal vaccine.” This idea aims to create a single vaccine effective against all variants of, for example, influenza or coronaviruses by targeting stable parts of the virus. However, achieving this is challenging since viruses often conceal stable regions beneath variable structures.
Despite extensive research efforts over the decades, developing a reliable universal vaccine has yet to be successful. Thus, investing heavily in this area may be unwise. Additionally, mRNA technology has been utilized in experimental settings for creating universal vaccines, making Kennedy’s second statement equally flawed.
Finally, effectiveness is just one factor; safety, cost, and the rapidity of vaccine development are also critical considerations. In this regard, mRNA technology provides significant advantages: it is safer than vaccines derived from live viruses, less expensive than those based on a single viral protein, and can be developed rapidly—essential in the context of quickly evolving respiratory viruses, especially during pandemics.
Moreover, mRNA vaccine technology has broader applications for developing a variety of other treatments. The funding cuts announced by Kennedy, based on erroneous claims, could impede progress by deterring companies from investing in this promising technology.
NHS Talking Therapies: Access to Science-Based Self-Help and Psychotherapy
Galina Zhigalova/Getty Images
A specific type of psychotherapy offered by the UK’s National Health Service (NHS) seems to benefit teenagers and young adults with anxiety and depression more than it does for older individuals.
In 2008, NHS England initiated a program designed to enhance access to scientifically informed self-help resources and psychotherapy. Currently referred to as NHS talk therapy for anxiety and depression, this initiative has generated a substantial database of anonymous user information, detailing treatments and outcomes.
Stringaris and his colleagues harnessed this data to evaluate the results from over 1.5 million individuals who accessed the therapy between 2015 and 2019. More than 1.2 million participants were aged between 25 and 65, leaving the younger cohort aged 16 to 24.
The researchers assessed changes in symptom severity pre- and post-treatment by utilizing two standard self-assessment tools: a patient health questionnaire-9 and a seven-item general anxiety disorder scale.
The results indicated that these scores exhibited approximately 35% improvement in individuals aged 16 to 24, compared to around 41% for those aged 25 to 65. Young people were roughly 20-25% less likely to be classified as recovered or to achieve significant improvements.
This could potentially result in thousands of young individuals recovering each year if they responded to treatment as effectively as their older counterparts, Stringaris remarks. “It is crucial to consider how mental health services might adapt to provide better care pathways for younger populations.”
Various factors could contribute to these discrepancies, including generational differences influenced by social media and online dating. Data further suggest that younger clients tend to miss scheduled appointments without prior notification, which may lead to poorer outcomes.
The study highlights the imbalances that warrant further exploration, says David Clark from Oxford University. “Research often reveals numerous insights that can be addressed. This paper marks the beginning of what could be a fruitful path ahead.”
Despite this, it remains essential to acknowledge the “gradual benefits” of the therapy. This relates to how clients fare compared to those who do not undergo treatment, he adds. “You start getting [younger] patients who are trying to establish themselves in life and pursue employment, indicating they may not have worse outcomes than older individuals,” Clark says.
Adrian Whittington from NHS England explains that talk therapy assists over a million individuals annually, most receiving treatment within six weeks. “We encourage them to take proactive steps towards care,” he states.
Genetics could play a significant role in the development of chronic fatigue syndrome or myalgic encephalomyelitis.
BlackJack3D/Getty Images
Recent large-scale studies have identified genetic factors that might increase the risk of developing chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), also known as myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME). Researchers have associated eight regions of the human genome with this condition based on DNA analyses from over 15,000 affected individuals.
“Our research offers the first strong evidence for genetic influences,” says Sonya Chowdhury from the UK charity Action for ME.
In the long term, these findings may aid in creating new diagnostic tools and treatments for ME/CFS. This condition has been recognized for decades and is primarily characterized by a debilitating response to minimal exertion, often accompanied by fatigue after mental effort.
Chowdhury adds that the results provide “recognition and validation” for individuals suffering from this condition. “Many people have been dismissed with comments such as, ‘It’s not a real illness,'” she explains. “They visited doctors who often downplayed their symptoms.”
“This represents a significant breakthrough for patients,” notes Andy Devereux Cooke, co-founder of Science for ME, a forum supporting those with the condition.
The research, termed Decode, involved analysis of DNA from over 15,500 individuals with ME/CFS against approximately 260,000 samples from unaffected individuals.
“Eight genetic signals were identified,” explains Chris Ponting from the University of Edinburgh, UK. These genomic regions appear to differ significantly in individuals with ME/CFS, suggesting that genetic variants in these areas could influence the likelihood of developing the condition. The findings were announced at a press briefing but have not yet been published in scientific journals or preprint platforms.
Among these eight regions, the research team pinpointed 43 protein-coding genes, with 29 deemed particularly noteworthy. “Delving into these genetic signals reveals associations with both immune and nervous system functions,” Ponting states. “Notably, the activity of these genes is prevalent in brain tissue, indicating a potential link to nervous system involvement.”
Additionally, researchers uncovered immune system-related genes, particularly rabgap1l, which may significantly heighten the risk of CFS. This aligns with anecdotal reports from many individuals with the condition, who often cite prior mild infections as precursors to their symptoms.
“I believed there was something distinct about the immune systems of individuals suffering from ME/CFS,” comments Jackie Cliff from Brunel University in London, noting that this study represents a substantial advancement in ME/CFS research.
Despite the fact that ME/CFS is significantly more prevalent in women, this study found no differences in genetic susceptibility between men and women. However, the team has yet to analyze the X and Y sex chromosomes.
The next steps involve examining these eight genome regions in greater depth to comprehend how genetic variations translate into molecular and cellular processes, both with and without ME/CFS. This could potentially pave the way for diagnostic tests and targeted treatments addressing the fundamental mechanisms of the disorder. However, this progress is contingent upon securing research funding, which is currently limited, says Cliff.
ME/CFS is estimated to impact 67 million individuals globally. A 2017 report from Think Tank 20/20 Health estimated that it incurs costs of £3.3 billion annually to the UK economy due to decreased productivity and healthcare expenses. “It’s an overlooked and marginalized illness that deserves attention and investment,” emphasizes Ponting.
White Cockatoos Display a Natural Inclination to Dance
Andrew Angelov/Alamy
The head nods, side-to-side movements, and body rolls are just a few of the over 30 dance moves showcased by these remarkable cockatoos.
Since gaining online fame in 2009, the sulfur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua galerita) has become an Internet dance sensation. In 2019, Aniruddh Patel from Tufts University and his team revealed that Snowball, a well-known dancing cockatoo, created 14 unique dance moves and even mixed some of them together.
To explore how prevalent this behavior is, Natasha Love and her research team from Charles Sturt University in Australia examined 45 videos of dancing cockatoos shared on social media. They discovered five different species: the sulfur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua alba), the umbrella cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis), Tanimbar cockatoos (Cacatua goffiniana), and a lesser sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua sanguinea).
The researchers identified 30 distinct dance moves, each performed by at least two birds. Of these, 17 had not been previously documented in scientific literature. Interestingly, closely related species exhibited varying styles in their dance.
Love and her team also conducted experiments on two pink cockatoos (Lophochroa leadbeateri) and two galahs (Eolophus roseicapilla) at the Wagga Wagga Zoo and Aviary in Australia.
They played various music tracks for the birds—such as “Wake Me Up” by Avicii, a financial podcast “She’s On The Money”, and white noise—and observed that the birds engaged in their dance moves regardless of the type of audio played.
This suggests that cockatoos are not merely mimicking human actions. “It’s uncertain why they dance, but it’s plausible they are expressing themselves in playful ways,” says Love.
Many of the observed dance moves correspond to displays seen during wild parrot courtship, indicating that the ability to dance may have roots in mating behavior, according to Love.
Video evidence leads her and her colleagues to conclude that dancing behavior can be found in at least 10 of the 21 known cockatoo species.
“Snowball developed his dance moves without formal instruction, yet it remains unclear how much of these behaviors are influenced by genetic factors. Recent research indicates that the similarity of movements among different parrots’ dances may not be as predictable,” Patel remarks. “These findings are exhilarating as they show that the capacity for flexible and creative dancing to music is not a trait exclusive to humans.”
So, which cockatoo species stands out as the best dancer? “From our zoo observations, Major Mitchell’s cockatoos seemed to display more enthusiasm and energy in their dances compared to other species,” Love notes.
She emphasizes that further studies are necessary to discern whether birds actually enjoy dancing and if encouraging this behavior can enhance the well-being of domesticated parrots.
Like all cells, human eggs are subject to mutations
CC Studio/Science Photo Library
Research indicates that human eggs may be shielded from certain types of mutations associated with aging. In a recent study, scientists discovered that as women age, there are no signs of accumulating mutations in the mitochondrial DNA of their egg cells.
“When we consider age-related mutations, we typically think about older individuals having more mutations compared to younger ones,” notes Kateryna Makova from Pennsylvania State University. “However, this assumption doesn’t always hold true.”
Mitochondria, which provide the primary energy source for the body’s cells, are inherited solely from the mother. While mitochondrial DNA mutations are generally benign, they can sometimes result in complications that impact muscles and neurons, particularly due to their high energy demands. “Oocytes” [egg cells] serve as this biological reservoir,” explains Ruth Lehmann from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, who was not part of this study.
Prior research has shown that older mothers tend to pass down more chromosomal mutations, leading to the general assumption that a similar pattern exists with mitochondrial DNA mutations. To investigate this, Makova and her team utilized DNA sequencing to identify new mutations across 80 eggs sourced from 22 women aged 20 to 42 years.
The findings revealed that mitochondrial mutations in female eggs do not actually escalate with advancing age, unlike those found in salivary and blood cells. “It seems we have evolved a mechanism that mitigates the accumulation of mutations, allowing for their replication later in life,” remarks Makova.
Previous research has indicated that mitochondrial DNA mutations in macaque eggs showed an increase while their reproductive capacity remained stable until the animal reached about nine years of age. “It would be worthwhile to also study younger women. This could apply to humans as well,” comments team member Barbara Arbetuber from Penn State University.
Illustration of neurons affected by Alzheimer’s disease
Science Photo Library / Alamy Stock Photo
Research indicates that administering lithium to mice with low brain levels reverses cognitive decline associated with Alzheimer’s disease. These findings imply that lithium deficiency could contribute to Alzheimer’s, and low-dose lithium treatments may have therapeutic potential.
Several studies have highlighted a relationship between lithium and Alzheimer’s. A 2022 study found that individuals prescribed lithium faced nearly half the risk of developing Alzheimer’s. Another paper published recently linked lithium levels in drinking water with a reduced risk of dementia.
However, as Bruce Yankner from Harvard University points out, hidden variables may influence these results. He suggests that other elements in drinking water, like magnesium, might also contribute to a lower dementia risk.
Yankner and his team assessed metal levels in the brains of 285 deceased individuals, 94 of whom had Alzheimer’s, and 58 exhibited mild cognitive impairment. The remaining participants showed no cognitive decline prior to death.
They discovered that lithium concentrations in the prefrontal cortex (a vital area for memory and decision-making) were about 36% lower in those without cognitive decline, and 23% lower in individuals with mild cognitive impairment. “I believe environmental factors, including diet and genetics, play a significant role,” states Yankner.
There’s another concerning aspect. In Alzheimer’s patients, amyloid plaques exhibited nearly three times more lithium than areas without plaques. “Lithium is sequestered by these plaques,” explains Yankner. “Initially, there’s a lithium intake disorder, and as the disease advances, lithium levels decline further due to its binding to amyloid.”
To further investigate cognitive effects, the research team genetically modified 22 mice to mimic Alzheimer’s symptoms and reduced their lithium consumption by 92%. After around eight months, these mice performed significantly worse on various memory assessments compared to 16 mice on normal diets. For instance, even after six days of training, lithium-deficient mice took approximately 10 seconds longer to locate a hidden platform in a water maze. Their brains also had about 2.5 times more amyloid plaques.
Genetic evaluations of brain cells from the lithium-deficient mice indicated heightened activity of genes linked to neurodegeneration and Alzheimer’s. These mice experienced increased encephalopathy, and their immune cells failed to eliminate amyloid plaques, mirroring changes seen in Alzheimer’s patients.
The researchers then evaluated various lithium compounds for their ability to bind with amyloid and found that orotium— a compound created through the combination of lithium and orotic acid— had the least propensity to be trapped in plaques. A nine-month treatment regimen with orotium significantly diminished amyloid plaques in Alzheimer’s-like mice and improved memory performance compared to regular mice.
These findings point toward the potential of lithium orotium as a treatment for Alzheimer’s. High doses of various lithium salts are already being employed to manage conditions such as bipolar disorder. “A significant challenge with lithium treatment in the elderly is the risk of kidney and thyroid toxicity due to high dosages,” notes Yankner. However, he mentions that the quantities used in this study were about 1,000 times lower than those typically administered, which may account for the absence of kidney or thyroid issues observed in the mice.
Nonetheless, clinical trials are crucial to gauge how low doses of orotium lithium might impact humans, says Rudolf Tansy at Massachusetts General Hospital. “The challenge lies in determining who truly requires lithium,” he adds. “Excessive lithium intake can result in severe side effects.”
Researchers experimented with sticky hydrogels by attaching rubber ducks to rocks by the sea
Hao Guo, Hongguang Liao, Hailong Fan
The rubber ducks that remained attached to coastal rocks for over a year demonstrate the durability of this innovative sticky material. This adhesive has potential applications in deep-sea robotics, repair tasks, and as a surgical adhesive in medical contexts.
“We have created an ultra-sticky hydrogel that performs exceptionally well even when submerged,” says Hailong Fan from Shenzhen University, China. This hydrogel is a soft and flexible material.
Subsequently, at Hokkaido University in Japan, Fan and his team examined 24,000 sticky protein sequences from various organisms to pinpoint the most adhesive amino acid combination, the foundational components of proteins. They leveraged this knowledge to design 180 unique adhesive hydrogels and utilized artificial intelligence models trained on hydrogel properties to optimize formulas for enhanced adhesive agents.
This method allowed the researchers to create a novel class of adaptable, highly sticky hydrogels. According to Fan, this material can adhere to surfaces even after being repeatedly halted and re-stocked or submerged in seawater. Under these circumstances, it surpassed an adhesive strength of 1 megapascal in water, which is about ten times stronger than most soft, sticky materials.
The study indicates that it “illustrates a paradigm shift in the design of high-performance soft materials.” Zhao Qin at Syracuse University in New York commended the team’s efforts in unraveling the adhesive mechanisms of natural proteins and utilizing them in new materials.
The most playful showcase of the hydrogel’s adhesion involved leaving a yellow rubber duck stuck to wave-battered rocks along the shore. In a more pragmatic test, the hydrogel promptly sealed a leaking water pipe. This hints at its potential for repairing underwater structures and improving the durability of flexible electronics and robotics.
This material is also biocompatible, as confirmed by implanting it under the skin of mice, which opens up avenues for biomedical uses such as implants and surgical adhesives.
The impressive adhesiveness of these hydrogels is notable, but it’s important to consider that the material needs to maintain sufficient thickness to function effectively. Researchers hope to test it beyond ideal lab environments, especially in real-world scenarios with rough, contaminated, or moving surfaces.
The team has filed for patents concerning this novel material through Hokkaido University.
Items like cereal bars and protein bars can be either homemade or bought, potentially containing ultra-processed components.
Drong/Shutterstock
Following a super processed homemade diet may result in losing double the weight compared to an ultra-processed diet or snack.
Foods are generally classified as highly processed when they contain ingredients that aren’t typically found in home cooking, such as high fructose corn syrup or additives designed to enhance flavor and appearance, like flavorings and stabilizers.
Numerous studies have associated the consumption of ultra-processed foods with negative health impacts, including cardiovascular issues, type 2 diabetes, and weight gain. These studies have consistently noted that ultra-processed foods often contain high levels of sugar, salt, and fat, found in snacks like cookies and microwave dinners, raising questions about whether it’s just the ingredients that make them unhealthy, or if there’s something inherently harmful about the processing itself.
To explore this in relation to weight loss, Samuel Dicken and his colleagues at University College London conducted randomized trials where participants consumed either an ultra-processed or minimally processed diet. The study involved 55 overweight or obese individuals randomly assigned to one of the two diets.
“People often picture pizza and chips, but the researchers indicate that both diets align with the UK Eatwell Guide, which emphasizes a protein-rich diet including beans, fish, eggs, and meat, and encourages intake of at least five portions of fruits and vegetables. Both diets were matched to have similar levels of fat, sugar, salt, and carbohydrates,” Dicken explains.
Meals were provided to participants, marking the first study to compare such diets in a real-world setting rather than in controlled environments like hospitals or laboratories. The ultra-processed group consumed foods with lower fat and salt content, including breakfast cereals, protein bars, chicken sandwiches, and frozen lasagna, which are typically marketed with “healthy” nutritional claims in supermarkets,” Dicken notes.
The minimally processed group enjoyed homemade foods like overnight oats, chicken salad, homemade bread, and spaghetti bolognese. Both groups were given ample food, approximately 4000 calories per day, and instructed to eat to their satisfaction. Participants followed one diet for eight weeks, switched to the other after a four-week break, and alternated between both.
While the study aimed to examine the health impacts of balanced diets made in various ways rather than to focus solely on weight loss, both diets led to reductions in weight. The minimally processed food group lost 2% of their weight, while the ultra-processed group saw a 1% decrease.
“We observed greater weight loss with minimally processed diets, along with more significant fat reduction and lowered cravings,” Dicken says.
The research team also investigated other health metrics and discovered that the minimally processed diets decreased body fat volume and blood lipid levels. Interestingly, the ultra-processed diet was linked to lower levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), known as “bad” cholesterol.
However, Ciarán Forde from Wageningen University in the Netherlands points out that ultra-processed meals tend to be more calorie-dense than their minimally processed counterparts. “Fundamental questions remain regarding which types of processing or ingredients contribute to the effects observed,” he adds.
Forde suggests that it is unsurprising participants lost weight considering their starting point of being overweight and obese while transitioning to healthier diets. This may indicate that the weight loss results are not applicable to the general population.
The crossbreeding of South American tomato plants with potato-like species approximately 8 million years ago resulted in the development of modern potatoes (Sun Chronology). A collaborative team of biologists from China, Canada, Germany, the US, and the UK indicates that this ancient evolutionary milestone led to the emergence of tubers, an expanded underground structure used for storing nutrients in plants like potatoes, yams, and taros.
Interspecies hybridization can drive species radiation by generating various allelic combinations and traits. While all 107 wild relatives of cultivated potatoes and petota lineage share characteristics of subterranean tubers, the exact mechanisms of nodulation and extensive species diversification remain unclear. An analysis of 128 genomes, including 88 haplotype-degraded genomes, indicates that Zhang et al believe Petota is of ancient hybrid origin, revealing stable mixed genome ancestors derived from ethoberosam and tomato strains approximately 8 to 9 million years ago. Image credit: Zhang et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.06.034.
Cultivated potatoes rank as the third most crucial staple crop globally, alongside wheat, rice, and corn, contributing to 80% of human calorie consumption.
In terms of appearance, modern potato plants are similar to three potato-like species found in Chile, known as Etuverosam. However, they do not produce tubers.
Phylogenetic analysis reveals that potato plants are more closely related to tomatoes.
To clarify this discrepancy, Dr. Sanwen Huang, PhD, from the Institute for Agricultural Genomics at Shenzhen, China, along with colleagues, analyzed 450 genomes of cultivated and 56 wild potatoes.
“Our research shows how interspecies hybridization can instigate the emergence of new traits and lead to the formation of more species,” explained Dr. Huang.
“We have finally unraveled the mystery of potato origins.”
“Collecting samples of wild potatoes has been extremely challenging, making this dataset the most comprehensive collection of wild potato genomic data analyzed to date,” noted Dr. Zhiyang Zhang, a researcher at the Institute of Agricultural Genomics at Shenzhen, China Academy of Agricultural Sciences.
The researchers discovered that all potato species contained a stable mix of genetic material from both exo root and tomato plants, indicating that potatoes originated from ancient hybridization between the two.
Although Etuberosam and tomatoes are distinct species, they share a common ancestor from around 14 million years ago.
Even after diverging for about 5 million years, they still managed to interbreed, resulting in the earliest potato plants exhibiting tubers approximately 8-9 million years ago.
The team also traced the origins of key tuber-forming genes in potatoes, which comprise genetic contributions from both parent species.
They identified the gene SP6A, functioning as a master switch indicating when plants should begin tuber formation, originating from the tomato lineage.
Another crucial gene, it1, derived from the Echuberosum lineage, assists in regulating the growth of underground stems that develop into tubers.
Hybrid offspring require both components to produce tubers.
This evolutionary advancement coincided with the rapid uplift of the Andes, a period when new ecological environments emerged.
The ability to store nutrients in tubers enabled early potatoes to adapt quickly to changing conditions and withstand the harsh mountain climate.
Moreover, tubers facilitate a mode of propagation without seeds or pollination, allowing new plants to grow from tuber buds.
This adaptability enabled them to expand swiftly from temperate grasslands to cold alpine pastures across Central and South America, filling various ecological niches.
“The evolution of tubers has provided potatoes with significant advantages in challenging environments, fostering the emergence of new species and contributing to the incredible diversity of potatoes we now depend on,” Dr. Huang concluded.
The study was published in the journal Cell on July 31, 2025.
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Zhiyang Zhang et al. Ancient hybridization underpins the diversification and radiation of potato lines. Cell Published online on July 31, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.06.034
The glow within the cluster is the soft luminosity of stars that have been stripped from their galaxy amidst the layers of galaxy clusters.
Abell 3667 is depicted in this Decam image. Image credits: CTIO/NOIRLAB/NSF/AURA/ANTHONY ENGLERT, Brown University/TA Rector, Noirlab/M. Zamani & D of University of Alaska Anchorage & NSF. De Martin, NSF’s Noirlab.
Galaxy clusters comprise thousands of galaxies, varying widely in age, shape, and size.
Typically, they have a mass about 10 billion times that of the Sun.
Historically, galactic clusters were regarded as the largest structures in the universe, spanning hundreds of millions of light-years and including numerous galactic clusters and groups, until superclusters were discovered in the 1980s.
Nonetheless, galaxy clusters still hold the title of the largest gravitationally bound structure in the universe.
“The study of galaxy clusters not only informs us about the formation of the universe, but it also places constraints on the characteristics of dark matter,” stated Brown University astronomer Anthony Englat and his team.
One significant clue astronomers seek to grasp the history of galactic clusters is the light within the cluster. This faint glow is emitted by stars that have been stripped from their original galaxy due to the immense gravitational forces of the forming galaxy cluster.
These stars provide evidence of past galactic interactions, although most current telescopes and cameras face challenges in detecting them.
The subtle intra-cluster light from the galaxy cluster Abel 3667 shines vividly in new images created from a total of 28 hours of observation at 570 megapixels using the Dark Energy Camera (Decam) at NSF’s M. Blanco 4-M Telescope, a program of NSF’s Noirlab at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory.
“Abell 3667 is located over 700 million light-years away from us,” the astronomer mentioned.
“Most of the faint light sources in this image are distant galaxies, not foreground stars from our own Milky Way.”
“In Abell 3667, two small galaxy clusters are currently merging, as evidenced by the luminous bridge (yellow) of stars extending toward the center of this image.”
“This bridge is formed from material stripped off from the merging galaxies, forming one massive conglomerate known as the brightest cluster galaxy.”
“Not only does this sparkling sky encompass distant galaxies, but it also highlights faint foreground features due to the prolonged exposure.”
“The Milky Way’s hair follicles, or integrated flux nebula, consist of faint clouds of interstellar dust that appear as soft bluish chains crossing the image.”
“These structures are patches of dust that are illuminated by the light of the stars within our own galaxy.”
“They present as diffuse, filamentous formations that can span extensive areas of the sky.”
Survey results will be published in the Astrophysics Journal Letter.
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Anthony M. Engrat et al. 2025. Announcing optical bridges in Abel 3667 in-cluster light: LSST precursor data. apjl 989, L2; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ade8f1
Most treatments for back pain provide temporary relief
Amenic181/ShutterStock
A brief course of a specific type of psychotherapy has proven to be three times more effective in alleviating chronic low back pain than conventional treatments, even after several years.
Cognitive Function Therapy (CFT) offers individuals a customized program designed to help them comprehend and manage pain via movement and lifestyle adaptations. In a 2023 study, researchers reported significant chronic back pain relief lasting at least a year after just eight sessions.
Recent findings revealed that these sessions continue to provide relief even three years later. CFT leads to three times the improvement in pain and associated disability when compared to the conventional care options patients typically receive, such as pain medications, physical therapy, and massage treatments.
“Our findings suggest that for patients with severe impairments, back pain management can yield long-lasting benefits,” notes Jan Hartvigsen from the University of Southern Denmark.
Back pain is among the leading causes of global disability, and existing treatments often only provide mild, temporary relief. In the 2023 trial, Hartvigsen and his team enlisted 492 participants suffering from chronic low back pain, categorized as experiencing at least four points on a pain scale of 0-10.
Among the participants, one-third continued with their usual care regimen. In contrast, the other two-thirds paused standard care to partake in seven CFT sessions over a final 12-week span, concluding with a 26-week session.
During these sessions, specially trained physical therapists examined each participant’s thoughts regarding their posture, pain, emotions, and lifestyle factors. Their goal was to help participants view their pain in a new light. They focused on modifying exercise habits and control strategies, promoting healthier diets, rest techniques, stress management, and workout plans.
“Individuals living with chronic pain often fear using their bodies,” explains Hartvigsen. “It’s not a mental issue; they require support from someone who can build a strong therapeutic bond with them, as their behaviors, beliefs, and nervous systems are very flexible and conditioned to these pain-related behaviors.”
Half of the participants in the CFT group also received biofeedback, a sensor-based approach that enables real-time monitoring of movement patterns to retrain posture and motion.
After one year, pain intensity and disability levels, measured by the Roland Morris Disability Questionnaire, showed substantial improvements—approximately three to four times greater in the CFT group than in those receiving traditional care. Biofeedback enhanced the effectiveness of CFT marginally.
In a follow-up three years later, the Hartvigsen research team gathered updated evaluations from 312 participants evenly split between treatment groups.
The results indicated that those who underwent CFT experienced nearly three times greater improvement in both pain and disability when contrasted with the standard care group. Furthermore, about three times more individuals in the CFT group recorded lower disability ratings, indicating pain did not severely hinder their functionality.
However, all participants were permitted to pursue additional care after the initial unmonitored year.
Abandoned coal power plant at an abandoned Indiana Army Ammunition Factory
American Explorer/Shutterstock
Numerous decommissioned coal-fired power plants have the potential to become reliable backup or emergency energy sources for the grid, eliminating the dependence on fossil fuels. Instead, they can utilize thermal energy trapped in soil.
The idea involves accumulating a large mound of soil near the coal facility and embedding industrial heaters within it. During periods of low electricity demand, these devices transform inexpensive electricity into heat, storing it in the soil at around 600°C. When electricity demand peaks, the heat can be transferred from the soil through heated liquid pipes.
A generator linked to the turbine blades of a coal plant can convert this heat into supplemental energy. The heat transforms water into steam, turning the turbine blades to produce electricity. “Rather than burning coal to heat water for steam, we harness heat from the energy stored within the soil,” explains Ken Caldeira from Stanford University in California.
This type of energy storage is crucial in supporting renewable energy sources like wind and solar, which often generate power intermittently. Soil offers a more affordable, abundant, and accessible resource for long-term energy storage compared to alternatives like lithium batteries and hydrogen fuels.
“The most exciting aspect is the low cost of energy capacity, especially since it is significantly cheaper than other energy technologies,” states Alicia Wongel at Stanford University.
Nonetheless, this approach has its challenges. “In such systems, minimizing plumbing and electrical costs is crucial, yet can be difficult,” notes Andrew Maxson from the Electric Power Research Institute, a non-profit research organization based in California.
Most soil consists of naturally heat-resistant materials like silicon dioxide and aluminum oxide, which makes it “very resilient to heat,” says Austin Vernon from Standard Thermals in Oklahoma. His startup aims to commercialize this “thermal” technology, especially for repurposing retired coal power plants in conjunction with nearby solar and wind energy sources.
There are many retired coal facilities across the United States. Close to 300 coal-fired power plants were shut down between 2010 and 2019, and an additional 50 gigawatts of coal capacity is expected to reach retirement age by 2030. In the late 2000s, cheaper natural gas and renewable energy began to outcompete coal.
Christian Phong from the Rocky Mountain Institute, a research organization in Colorado, views the idea of repurposing defunct coal plants positively. “This provides an opportunity for local communities to engage in the clean energy transition, generating jobs and additional tax revenue while navigating the shift away from coal,” he remarks.
Around 56 million years ago, during a period of significant geological warming known as the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), the mesonychid mammal Dissacus Praenuntius exhibited remarkable dietary changes—it began to consume more bones.
Dissacus Praenuntius. Image credit: DIBGD / CC by 4.0.
“I am a doctoral student at Rutgers University in New Brunswick,” stated Andrew Schwartz from the University of New Jersey.
“We are observing a similar trend: rising carbon dioxide levels, increasing temperatures, and the destruction of ecosystems.”
In their study, Schwartz and his team analyzed small pits and marks left on fossilized teeth using a method known as dental microwear texture analysis. The research focused on the extinct mammal Dissacus Praenuntius, part of the Mesonychidae family.
This ancient omnivore weighed between 12 and 20 kg, comparable in size to jackals and coyotes.
Common in the early Cenozoic forests, it likely had a diverse diet that included meat, fruits, and insects.
“They resembled wolves with large heads,” Schwartz remarked.
“Their teeth were similar to those of hyenas, though they lacked small hooves on their toes.”
“Before this phase of warming, Dissacus Praenuntius mainly consumed tough meat, akin to a modern cheetah’s diet.”
“However, during and after this ancient warming period, their teeth showed wear patterns consistent with crushing hard substances like bones.”
“Our findings indicate that their dental microwear is similar to that of lions and hyenas.”
“This suggests they were consuming more brittle food rather than their usual smaller prey, which became scarce.”
This shift in diet occurred alongside a slight decrease in body size, likely a result of food shortages.
“While earlier theories attributed body size reduction solely to rising temperatures, this latest research indicates that food scarcity was a significant factor,” Schwartz explained.
“The rapid global warming of this time lasted around 200,000 years, but the changes it caused were swift and dramatic.”
“Studying periods like this can offer valuable lessons for understanding current and future climatic changes.”
“Examining how animals have adapted and how ecosystems responded can reveal much about what might happen next.”
“The research underscores the importance of dietary flexibility; species that can consume a variety of foods are more likely to endure environmental pressures.”
“In the short term, excelling in a specific area can be beneficial,” Schwartz added.
“However, in the long run, generalists—animals that are adaptable across various niches—are more likely to survive environmental changes.”
This understanding can assist modern conservation biologists in identifying vulnerable species today.
Species with specialized diets, like pandas, may struggle as their habitats diminish, while more adaptable species, such as jackals and raccoons, might thrive.
“We’re already starting to see these trends,” Schwartz noted.
“Previous research has shown that African jackals have begun to consume more bones and insects over time, likely due to habitat loss and climate stress.”
The study also indicated that rapid climate change, reminiscent of historical events, could lead to significant shifts in ecosystems, influencing prey availability and predator behaviors.
This suggests that contemporary climate change could similarly disrupt food webs, pushing species to adapt and face extinction risks.
“Nonetheless, Dissacus Praenuntius was a robust and adaptable species that thrived for about 15 million years before eventually going extinct,” Schwartz said.
Scientists believe this extinction was driven by environmental changes and competition with other species.
The study was published in June 2025 in the journal Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology.
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Andrew Schwartz et al. 2025. Dietary Changes in Mesonychids During the Eocene Heat Maximum: The Case of Dissacus Praenuntius. Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology 675:113089; doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2025.113089
Similar to the tyrannosaurus dinosaur Tyrannosaurus Rex, a study conducted by paleontologists at the University of Bristol revealed that other massive carnivorous dinosaurs, while having skulls designed for formidable bite forces, exhibited much weaker bites and specialized instead in physical reduction and clefts.
Tyrannosaurus Rex Holotype specimens from the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh, USA. Image credit: Scott Robert Anselmo/CC BY-SA 3.0.
Dr. Andrew Lowe, a paleontologist at the University of Bristol, noted:
“Tyrannosaurs developed skulls that were robust and capable of grinding, while other species exhibited relatively weaker but more specialized skull structures, indicating diverse feeding strategies despite their large size.”
“In essence, there wasn’t a singular ‘best’ skull design for being a predatory giant; a variety of designs functioned effectively.”
Dr. Lowe and his colleague, Dr. Emily Rayfield, sought to understand how bipedalism affected skull biomechanics and feeding methods.
Historically, it was known that predatory dinosaurs evolved in distinct regions of the world at varying times, showcasing a range of skull shapes, even as they reached similar sizes.
These observations prompted questions about whether the skulls were functionally similar underneath or if significant differences existed in predatory behaviors.
To explore the connection between body size and skull biomechanics, the researchers employed 3D techniques, including CT scans and surface scans, to analyze skull mechanics, assess feeding performance, and measure bite strength across 18 species of theropods, a category of carnivorous dinosaurs ranging from small to gigantic.
While they anticipated some variations among species, the analysis astounded them as it revealed distinct biomechanical differences.
“For instance, the Tyrannosaurus Rex skull, designed for high bite force, ultimately compromised on stress resistance,” Dr. Lowe explained.
“Conversely, other large species like Giganotosaurus exhibited a calculated stress pattern, indicating a relatively gentle bite.”
“This insight led us to consider how multiple evolutionary paths could exist for life as a massive, carnivorous organism.”
Surprisingly, skull stress did not exhibit a consistent increase with size; some smaller species experienced higher stress levels than certain larger counterparts due to greater muscle mass and bite force.
The findings demonstrate that being a predatory giant does not always equate to having a bone-crushing bite.
In contrast to the Tyrannosaurus Rex, other dinosaurs, such as Spinosaurus and Allosaurus, evolved into giants while maintaining weaker bites better suited for slashing and shredding flesh.
“I often liken Allosaurus to modern Komodo Dragons in terms of feeding behavior,” Dr. Lowe commented.
“On the other hand, the larger tyrannosaurs had skulls optimized for high bite force, akin to modern crocodiles that crush their prey.”
“This biomechanical variability suggests that dinosaur ecosystems could have supported a broader spectrum of ecology among giant carnivores than previously thought, indicating reduced competition and increased specialization.”
This study will be featured in the journal Current Biology this week.
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Andre J. Lowe & Emily J. Rayfield. 2025. The carnivorous dinosaur lineage employs a variety of skull performances in huge sizes.Current Biology 35 (15): 3664-3673; doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.06.051
The Navier-Stokes equations provide predictions for fluid flow
Liudmila Chernetska/Getty Images
Here’s an excerpt from the elusive newsletter of space-time. Each month, we let physicists and mathematicians take over your keyboard, sharing intriguing concepts from the universe’s vast expanse. You can Sign up for Losing Space and Time here.
The Navier-Stokes equations have approximately 200 years of history in modeling fluid dynamics, yet I still find them perplexing. It’s a strange feeling, especially given their significance in building rockets, creating medications, and addressing climate change. But it’s crucial to adopt a mathematical mindset.
The equations are effective. If they weren’t, we wouldn’t rely on them across such diverse applications. However, achieving results doesn’t guarantee comprehending them.
This situation parallels many machine learning algorithms. We can set them up, code for training, and observe outputs. Yet when we hit ‘GO’, they evolve, utilizing every step in their process to optimize outcomes. Thus, we often refer to them as “black boxes” for their obscure input-output mechanics.
The same uncertainty looms over the Navier-Stokes equations. While we possess a clearer understanding of the processes behind fluid dynamics compared to many machine learning methods—thanks to outstanding computational fluid dynamics solvers—these equations can still yield chaotic results. Identifying why this occurs is a significant problems in mathematics, linked to the Millennium Prize Problems, marking it as one of the seven most challenging unresolved questions. This makes deciphering the Navier-Stokes anomaly a million-dollar endeavor.
To grasp the challenge, let’s delve into the Navier-Stokes equation, particularly the adaptation for modeling “incompressible Newtonian fluids.” Think of it like water—conversely to air, it resists compression. (Though a more generalized version exists, I will focus on this variant, as it tied closely to my four-year doctoral thesis.)
These equations may seem daunting, but they stem from two well-established principles of the universe: mass conservation and Newton’s second law. For instance, the first equation describes the fluid parcel’s velocity, addressing how the fluid moves and alters shape without adding or removing mass.
The second equation is a complex representation of Newton’s famed equation, f = ma, applied to fluid parcels with density (ρ). It states that the momentum change rate of a fluid (left side) equals the applied force (right side). Simply put, the left side addresses mass acceleration; the right side deals with pressure (p), viscosity (μ), and exerted forces (f).
So far, so good. These equations derive from solid universal laws and function admirably—until they don’t.
2D liquid flows at right angles
NumberPhile
Consider a setup where a 2D fluid flows around a right angle. As the fluid approaches the corner, it is compelled to pivot along the channel. You could replicate this experiment in a laboratory setting, and many do around the globe. The fluid smoothly adapts its path, and life as we know it persists.
But what happens when you apply the Navier-Stokes equations to this scenario? These equations model fluid behavior and reveal how velocity, pressure, density, and related attributes progress over time. Yet, upon inputting this setup, the calculations suggest an infinite angular velocity. This isn’t just excessively large; it’s beyond comprehension—endless.
Model of 2D fluids’ flow at right angles using the Navier-Stokes equation
Keaton Burns, Dedalos
What’s happening? This result is absurd. I have conducted this experiment and observed that nothing unusual occurred. So, why did the equations fail? This is precisely where mathematicians get intrigued.
When I visit schools to discuss university applications, students invariably inquire about the admission processes at institutions like Oxford or Cambridge (I participate in selection interviews for both). I share my criteria for evaluating a strong applicant, emphasizing the importance of “thinking like a mathematician.” Breaking equations fascinates mathematicians for a reason.
It’s remarkably useful when a model operates successfully in 99.99% of cases, producing meaningful, viable results that tackle real-world problems. Despite its occasional failure, the Navier-Stokes equations remain indispensable for engineers, physicists, chemists, and biologists, aiding in solving intricate matters.
Designing a quicker Formula 1 car requires harnessing airflow dynamics. Developing a fast-acting drug necessitates understanding blood flow patterns. Predicting carbon dioxide’s effect on climate demands insights into atmospheric-oceanic interactions. Each of these scenarios pertains to fluid dynamics, making the Navier-Stokes equations critical across varied applications as they adapt to fill different mediums.
However, addressing a multitude of complex scenarios with unique dynamics necessitates elaborate equations. This complexity explains our limited understanding. Indeed, the Navier-Stokes equations are designated as Millennium Prize Problems. The Clay Mathematics Institute emphasizes the need for deeper insight as fundamental to resolving the million-dollar inquiry.
“Our vessel follows the waves as they ripple across the lake. Meanwhile, turbulent airflow continues to affect modern aircraft travel. Mathematicians and physicists feel that answers regarding turbulence and breezes lie in understanding the solutions to the Navier-Stokes equations. They seek to unveil the hidden secrets of these equations.”
How can we enhance our comprehension of equations? By experimenting until they break, something I often suggest to high school students. The cracks represent your gateway. Continue probing until the facade shatters, revealing the hidden treasures beneath.
Consider the historical context of solving quadratic equations, particularly in finding the value of x that satisfies the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. Many will recognize this from their GCSE studies and understand that quadratic equations typically yield two roots.
This equation usually functions correctly, producing two solutions when substituting values for A, B, and C. However, certain conditions can render it ineffective, such as when b2 – 4AC <0, leading to non-existent square roots. I’ve identified circumstances where equations fail.
But how is this possible? Mathematicians from the 16th and 17th centuries proposed utilizing instances where quadratic equations seemed faulty to define “imaginary numbers,” stemming from negative square roots. This insight catalyzed the emergence of complex numbers and the rich mathematical frameworks that followed.
In essence, we often learn invaluable insights from failures more than from successful instances. For the Navier-Stokes equations, the rare occasions of malfunction occur when modeling infinite velocity in a right-angled fluid flow. Similar instances can arise when addressing vortex reconnection or soap membrane separation processes—real phenomena replicable in labs that produce infinite variable trends using Navier-Stokes.
Such apparent failures could uncover deeper truths about our mathematical models. Nevertheless, discussions remain open. It might indicate a level of detail issue in numerical simulations or faulty assumptions regarding individual liquid molecule behavior.
Conversely, these breakdowns may enlighten aspects of the Navier-Stokes equation’s inherent structure, bringing us a step closer to unlocking their mysteries.
How can I maintain my brain health for an extended period?
Tom Wang / Alamy
As we age, some cognitive lapses may appear unavoidable. However, in recent years, it’s become evident that age does not uniformly affect everyone’s brain. Even individuals with plaque buildup associated with Alzheimer’s disease can display sharp cognitive abilities, while others may experience considerable decline from relatively minor damage.
What distinguishes these individuals? The primary element is cognitive reserves, which provide a protective shield against brain aging and allow adaptation to various damages. This cognitive buffer is profoundly influenced by lifestyle choices, behaviors, and, perhaps, cognitive patterns.
With an improved understanding of cognitive reserves, scientists are increasingly exploring methods to enhance them. There are indeed ways to fortify our neural defenses, particularly during specific life stages.
The concept of cognitive reserve was first introduced by Yakov Stern at Columbia University in New York, indicating that higher levels of education and challenging professions are associated with a lower likelihood of developing dementia. Over the years, the ways we cultivate our brains can explain varying degrees of degeneration and differing outcomes influenced by numerous lifestyle factors.
This phenomenon is generally referred to as “cognitive reserve,” which can be categorized into three types. “Brain reserve” refers simply to the physical size of the brain; a larger brain may be more resilient to cognitive decline. “Cognitive reserve” denotes the dynamic capability of our brains to adapt in the face of degeneration—akin to taking alternate routes when the primary road is obstructed. Lastly, “brain maintenance” describes the brain’s proactive measures to safeguard itself against diseases.
The encouraging news is that, aside from education, many lifestyle factors influencing these essential defenses against cognitive decline have been identified. “We now appreciate cognitive reserves as dynamic attributes that evolve throughout our lives,” states Alvaro Pascual-Leone from Harvard Medical School.
One significant factor is bilingualism. Research by Ellen Bialystok at York University, who first identified the correlation between speaking a second language and enhanced cognitive reserve, indicates that bilingual individuals can delay the onset of dementia by up to four years. The mental agility required for switching languages seems to grant greater neural flexibility, allowing bilingual individuals to maintain cognitive function despite increased brain atrophy. Additionally, a recent study found that bilingualism supports the maintenance of the hippocampus, a brain region integral to memory processing.
Musical training is another impactful activity. Research released in July shows that elderly individuals who received music training displayed superior ability to discern speech in noisy environments compared to non-musicians. Brain imaging revealed that, unlike non-musicians, they did not need to engage additional neural networks to perform the task.
If you play informally, research indicates there may be a threshold effect. While occasional play does offer modest cognitive benefits, significant improvements arise from practicing for at least an hour nearly every day.
Physical exercise is often cited as beneficial, although the evidence is mixed. One study analyzing 454 post-mortem brains revealed that the most physically active individuals retained better cognitive function despite comparable levels of Alzheimer’s-related brain damage. This was true even when controlling for cognitive decline impairing motor abilities. Exercise enhances cerebral blood flow and increases protective brain chemicals, yet further investigation is necessary.
Is it ever too late to enhance cognitive reserves?
For years, experts believed that cognitive reserve was largely established during childhood—and there is some truth to this theory. “Without early stimulation, certain neural pathways may not develop fully. If not utilized later, these pathways can diminish over time,” explains Rhonda R. Voskuhl at UCLA.
However, recent findings demonstrate that cognitive reserves continue to develop throughout our lives. Middle age might present a particularly critical period for enhancement. Research indicates that those who remain mentally and physically active in their 40s and 50s—through reading, socializing,playing card games, learning new instruments, etc.—exhibit improved recognition abilities later in life. Importantly, these advantages are independent of childhood education or later activities. Thus, midlife offers unique opportunities for bolstering cognitive reserves.
And there’s no reason to stop—taking piano lessons later in life can protect against neurodegeneration. Even if you’re beginning to experience the decline you’re aiming to evade, opportunities to build reserves still exist, according to Pascual-Leone. “Individuals experiencing mild early cognitive decline due to Alzheimer’s can still strengthen their cognitive reserve, helping to mitigate or suspend the risk of dementia,” he states. “It is never too late.”
Finally, while it’s easy to focus on physical activities that enhance cognitive reserves, emerging research suggests that psychological traits may also play a significant role.
For instance, having a sense of purpose correlates with a greater quality of life, where individuals with a more substantial sense of purpose experience superior cognitive functioning despite similar levels of Alzheimer’s damage.
Similarly, maintaining a consistent mindset—the belief that life is comprehensible and manageable—can further enhance resilience against brain damage. Although the mechanism remains unidentified, several studies suggest that people exhibiting high coherence show reduced brain activation when completing identical tasks, hinting at enhanced neural efficiency as opposed to those with lower coherence.
The takeaway is that while you cannot alter the brain you were born with or the education you received early in life, it’s never too late to influence how it ages. It may not always be straightforward. “What challenges the brain is beneficial to the brain,” says Bialystok. However, engaging in social activities, staying physically active, learning a new language, playing an instrument, and finding purpose in life appear to be incredibly impactful.
The Arts and Science of Crafting Science Fiction
Dive into the fascinating realm of science fiction and discover how to create your own compelling science fiction narratives during this immersive weekend experience.
The newly identified Stephenson 2 DFK 52, an extraordinary red supergiant, is situated within the expansive stellar cluster RSGC2.
This image showcases the red supergiant star Stephenson 2 DFK 52 and its surroundings. Image credits: Alma / ESO / NAOJ / NRAO / Siebert et al.
RSGC2 is a cluster containing at least 26 red supergiants located at the base of the Milky Way’s diagonal crux spiral arm, approximately 5,800 parsecs (18,917 light-years) away.
Also referred to as Stephenson 2, this cluster is an active site for recent star formation where the arms intersect with galaxy bulges.
A team of astronomers led by Mark Siebert from Chalmers University of Technology observed the RSGC2 star using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA).
“What we catch in this image of Stephenson 2 DFK 52 is indeed a supermassive red star that is shedding clouds of gas and dust as it approaches the end of its lifecycle,” they explained.
“Such nebulae are typically found around supermassive stars; however, this particular cloud presents an intriguing mystery for astronomers.”
“This cloud of ejected material is the most expansive discovered around a giant star, spanning an impressive 1.4 light-years.”
“Stephenson 2 DFK 52 is quite similar to Betelgeuse, another renowned red supergiant, so we anticipated observing a comparable cloud surrounding it.”
“If Stephenson 2 DFK 52 is as close to us as Betelgeuse, the surrounding cloud would appear about one-third the size of the full moon.”
Recent observations from ALMA have enabled astronomers to quantify the mass of material enveloping the star and analyze its velocity.
“Regions moving towards us appear in blue, while those receding are represented in red,” they stated.
“The data suggests that the star experienced a significant mass loss event about 4,000 years ago, followed by a slow-down in its current mass loss rate.”
The team estimates that Stephenson 2 DFK 52 has a mass between 10-15 solar masses and has already lost 5-10% of its mass.
“The rapid expulsion of such materials within a brief time frame poses a mystery,” the researchers commented.
“Could an unusual interaction with a companion star be responsible? Why does the cloud exhibit such a complex shape?”
“Understanding why Stephenson 2 DFK 52 has expelled so much material can illuminate insights into its eventual fate.
Mark A. Sheebert et al. 2025. Discovery of the extraordinary red supergiant Stephenson 2 DFK 52 within the expansive stellar cluster RSGC2. A&A in press; Arxiv: 2507.11609
The stunning new image from the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope reveals intriguing details of the Tarantula Nebula, a dynamic region of star formation located in the Large Magellanic Cloud.
This Hubble image showcases part of the Tarantula Nebula, located about 163,000 light years away in the Dorado constellation. The colorful image is a composite of various exposures captured by Hubble’s Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) across ultraviolet, near-infrared, and spectral optical ranges. It is based on data collected using four different filters. Colors have been assigned by applying various hues to each monochromatic image produced by the individual filters. Image credits: NASA/ESA/Hubble/C. Murray.
The Tarantula Nebula is situated roughly 163,000 light years from the southern constellation of Dorado.
Also known as NGC 2070 or 30 Dorados, this nebula is part of the expansive Magellanic Cloud, which is one of our closest galactic neighbors.
The nebula’s brilliant glow was first observed in 1751 by French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille.
At its core lies some of the most massive stars known, with some reaching up to 200 solar masses, making this region ideal for studying how gas clouds collapse under gravitational forces to give rise to new stars.
“The Tarantula Nebula is the largest and brightest area of star formation not only within the Large Magellanic Cloud but also among the entire group of nearby galaxies that include the Milky Way,” astronomers associated with Hubble stated.
“Within the nebula are some of the most massive stars discovered, some of which are approximately 200 times the mass of our Sun.”
“The scene depicted here is located far from the nebula’s center, where the superstar cluster known as R136 resides, but is quite close to a rare star called the Wolf-Rayet Star.”
“The Wolf-Rayet star is an enormous star that has shed its outer hydrogen layers; it is extremely hot, bright, and generates a dense, powerful wind,” they elaborated.
The Tarantula Nebula is frequently observed by Hubble, and its multi-wavelength capabilities play a crucial role in capturing the intricate details of the nebula’s dusty cloud formations.
“The data used to produce this image come from an observational program known as Scylla, which is named after the multi-faceted sea monster from the Greek mythology of Ulysses,” the astronomer noted.
“The Scylla program was developed to complement another Hubble observational initiative called Ulysses (the Ultraviolet Legacy Library of Young Stars as a fundamental criterion).”
“While Ulysses focuses on giant young stars in the small Magellanic Cloud, Scylla explores the gas and dust structures surrounding these stars.”
Paleontologists have uncovered a remarkable new genus and species of early extinct plesioaurooid plesiosaurs from a nearly complete skeleton discovered in the Jurassic Posidonian shale of Holzmaden, Germany.
Reconstruction of Plesionectes longicollum‘s life. Image credit: Peter Nicolaus.
The newly identified species, Plesionectes longicollum, thrived in the early Jurassic seas approximately 183 million years ago.
This marine reptile reached lengths of about 3.2 m, with a body length of 1.25 m and a tail measuring 81 cm.
The skeleton, complete with fossilized soft tissue remnants, was excavated in 1978 from a Posidonia Shale quarry in Holzmaden, Germany, and its distinct anatomical features are now fully recognized through thorough scientific examination.
“The specimen has been part of our collection for decades, yet prior studies never fully explored its unique anatomy,” remarked Dr. Sven Sachs, paleontologist at Naturkunde-Museum Bielefeld.
“Our in-depth analysis uncovered a rare combination of skeletal traits that distinctly separate them from all previously recognized plesiosaurs.”
Skeleton of Plesionectes longicollum. Scale bar – 30 cm. Image credit: S. Sachs & D. Madzia, doi: 10.7717/Peerj.19665.
Plesionectes longicollum is particularly significant as it represents the oldest known plesiosaur from the Holzmadden area.
“This discovery contributes another piece to the evolutionary puzzle of marine ecosystems during a pivotal period in Earth’s history,” stated Dr. Daniel Magia, a paleontologist at the Polish Academy of Sciences.
“The early Toarcian epoch, when this creature existed, was marked by substantial environmental changes, including major marine anoxic events that impacted life in oceans globally.”
This finding illustrates that the Posidonian shales, well-known for their remarkably preserved fossils, harbor an even greater diversity of marine reptiles than previously acknowledged.
“The Posidonian Shale of Holzmaden has already yielded five other plesiosaur species, encompassing representatives from three major plesiosaur lineages,” the authors noted.
“This new addition provides one of the most vital insights into Jurassic marine life, enhancing our understanding of this era.”
Survey results will be available online in the journal Peerj.
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S. Sachs & D. Madzia. 2025. An unusual early fledgling plesiosauroid from the Lower Jurassic Posidonian Shale in Holzmaden, Germany. Peerj 13:E19665; doi:10.7717/peerj.19665
Astronomers captured a new high-resolution image of the planetary nebula NGC 6072 using two instruments on board the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope.
This Webb/Nircam image depicts NGC 6072, a planetary nebula located about 4,048 light years away in the constellation of Scorpius. Photo credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/STSCI.
NGC 6072 is situated approximately 1,241 parsecs (4,048 light years) away from the southern constellations of Scorpius.
Also known by designations such as ESO 389-15, HEN 2-148, and IRAS 16097-3606, this nebula has a dynamic age of about 10,000 years.
It was first discovered by British astronomer John Herschel on June 7, 1837.
“Since their discovery in the 1700s, astronomers have learned that planetary nebulae, the expanding shells of luminous gases expelled by dying stars, can take on various shapes and forms,” noted Webb astronomers.
“While most planetary nebulae are circular, elliptical, or bipolar, the new Webb image of NGC 6072 reveals a more complex structure.”
Images captured by Webb’s Nircam (near-infrared camera) suggest that NGC 6072 displays a multipolar configuration.
“This indicates there are multiple oval lobes being ejected from the center in various directions,” the astronomers explained.
“These outflows compress the surrounding gas into a disk-like structure.”
“This suggests the presence of at least two stars at the center of this nebula.”
“In particular, a companion star appears to be interacting with an aging star, drawing in some of its outer gas and dust layers.”
The central area of the nebula glows due to hot stars, reflected in the light blue hue characteristic of near-infrared light.
The dark orange regions, composed of gas and dust, create pockets and voids appearing dark blue.
This material likely forms when dense molecules shield themselves from the intense radiation emitted by the central star.
There may also be a temporal aspect; for thousands of years, rapid winds from the main star could have been blowing away the surrounding material as it loses mass.
This web/milli image highlights the planetary nebula NGC 6072. Image credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/STSCI.
The long wavelengths captured by Webb’s Miri (mid-infrared instrument) emphasize the dust, unveiling a star that astronomers believe resides at the center of the nebula.
“The image appears as a small pink dot,” remarked the researchers.
“The mid-infrared wavelengths also reveal a concentric ring expanding outward from the central region.
“This might indicate the presence of a secondary star at the heart of the nebula, obscured from direct observation.”
“This secondary star orbits the primary star, creating rings of material that spiral outward as the original star sheds mass over time.”
“The red regions captured by Nircam and the blue areas highlighted by Miri track cool molecular gases (likely molecular hydrogen), while the central region tracks hot ionized gases.”
wudingloong wui existed around 200 million years ago in Yunnan Province, China, during the early Jurassic Epoch.
Reconstructed skeletons and representative bones of wudingloong wui. Individual scale bars – 5 cm. Reconstructed skeleton scale bar – 50 cm. Image credit: Wang et al., doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-12185-2.
wudingloong wui was a medium-sized member of the non-Sauropodang group, part of the Sauropodomorpha, a highly successful dinosaur clade found nearly worldwide, from Antarctica to Greenland.
“The Chinese non-Sauropodian sauropods are primarily known from the Rufen and the adjacent Lower Jurassic Rufen Formation in Yunnan Province, including species like Lufengosaurus, Yunnanosaurus, Jing Shanosaurus, xingxiulong, and Yizhousaurus,” said Jamin Wang, a paleontologist at the Chinese Geological Museum and a collaborator.
“The discovery of Qianlong from the Jurassic Jillusin Formation in the neighboring Gituhou province is a recent finding that expands our understanding of non-Sauropodian Sauropodomorphs in China.”
“The discovery of wudingloong wui provides additional evidence that the Sauropodomorph community in southwestern China is the most taxonomically diverse and morphologically varied in the world, featuring a range of species from early Massospondylidae to non-Sauropod forms.”
Fossilized remains of wudingloong wui were collected from the Yubacun Layer in Wande Town, Yunnan Province, China.
“The specimen includes a partial skeleton comprising the skull, lower jaw, atlas, axis, and the third cervical vertebra.”
“Fully developed skull elements and closed central nerve sutures suggest that the specimen is likely a mature individual.”
wudingloong wui is the earliest and statistically oldest Sauropodomorph dinosaur discovered in East Asia.
“The new species fits within the Sauropodomorph classification, predating Massospondylidae and Sauropodiformes, thus contributing valuable information to the Sauropodomorph community in southwestern China,” the researchers stated.
“Thus, the Sauropodomorph community in early Jurassic southwestern China is possibly characterized by four distinct associations comprising four relatively small species, including the medium-sized Massospondylid Lufengosaurus, early Zauropod horns, and assemblages resembling late Triassic to early Jurassic medium-sized sauropods, presumably quadrupedal Massopodans, akin to those found in the Elliott Formation of South Africa and the Zauropodmorph group in Zimbabwe.”
“Close phylogenetic ties between wudingloong and Plateosauravus from the Elliott Formation in late Triassic South Africa, as well as Ruehleia from late Triassic Germany, indicate that the early dispersal of Sauropodomorphs in East Asia occurred at least during the Late Triassic Rhaetian (206-201 million years ago) or around the Triassic-Jurassic boundary (201 million years ago).”
“To substantiate this hypothesis, further samples and additional analyses are required.”
“Nonetheless, the discovery of wudingloong raises questions regarding the distribution of non-Sauropodian sauropods in East Asia and its correlation with Triassic-Jurassic extinction events.”
The team’s paper is published in the journal Scientific Reports.
____
YM. King et al. 2025. The new early Jurassic dinosaurs represent the earliest and oldest Sauropodmorph in East Asia. Sci Rep 15, 26749; doi:10.1038/s41598-025-12185-2
On Monday, air quality warnings were issued for millions across the upper Midwest and northeastern regions as smoke from wildfires in Canada moved into these areas.
Areas expected to experience hazy skies include Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Northern Indiana, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Vermont, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Delaware, and Maine. The National Weather Service reports.
In Canada, approximately 200 wildfires remain uncontrolled, including 81 in Saskatchewan, 159 in Manitoba, and 61 in Ontario. Data from Canada’s Interagency Forest Fire Centre indicates that over 16.5 million acres have been affected this year, which may lead to a record-breaking wildfire season.
The Air Quality Index on Monday across 14 Midwest and Northeastern states indicated conditions ranging from “moderate” to “unhealthy” for the general population.
Wildfire smoke is particularly hazardous as it contains fine particles measuring less than 2.5 micrometers in diameter, which is about 4% the width of an average human hair. This type of pollution can penetrate deeply into the lungs, exacerbating asthma, lung cancer, and other chronic respiratory conditions.
High levels of air pollution can lead to inflammation and weaken the immune system. Infants, children, the elderly, and pregnant women are especially at risk during poor air quality conditions.
Research indicates that climate change contributes to the frequency and intensity of wildfires. Elevated temperatures can desiccate vegetation, elevating the likelihood of wildfires igniting and spreading quickly.
Cities experiencing poor air quality on Monday included Milwaukee, Detroit, Buffalo, Albany (New York), Boston, and New York City. Multiple alerts are in effect until Tuesday, as reported by the Weather Bureau.
In the western regions, several wildfires are causing additional air quality concerns. Over 65,000 acres have burned in California’s Los Padres National Forest, where high temperatures and dry conditions are fueling the growth of wildfires.
In Colorado, the Air Quality Index also displayed “moderate” readings on Monday.
“If the smoke becomes thick in your area, we advise you to remain indoors,” stated the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment. This recommendation particularly applies to individuals with heart diseases, respiratory issues, young children, and the elderly. If smoke levels are moderate to intense, consider reducing outdoor activities.
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Microorganisms may derive energy from surprisingly confined environments
Book Worms / Public Domain Sources from Aramie / Access Rights
Fractured rocks from earthquakes could reveal a variety of chemical energy sources for the microorganisms thriving deep beneath the surface, and similar mechanisms may feed microorganisms on other planets.
“This opens up an entirely new metabolic possibility,” says Kurt Konhauser, from the University of Alberta, Canada.
All life forms on Earth rely on flowing electrons to sustain themselves. On the planet’s surface, plants harness sunlight to create carbon-based sugars that are consumed by animals, including humans. This initiates a flow of electrons from the carbon to the oxygen we breathe. The chemical gradient formed by these carbon electron donors and oxygen electron acceptors, known as redox pairs, generates energy.
Underground, microbes also depend on redox pairs, but these deep ecosystems lack access to various solar energy forms. Hence, traditional carbon-oxygen pairings are inadequate. “Challenges remain in identifying these underground [chemical gradients]. Where do they originate?” Konhauser questions.
Hydrogen gas, generated by the interaction of water and rock, serves as a primary electron source for these microbes, much like carbon sugars do on the surface. This hydrogen arises from the breakdown of water molecules, which can occur when radioactive rocks react with water or iron-rich formations. During earthquakes, when silicate rocks are fragmented, they expose reactive surfaces that can split water, producing considerable amounts of hydrogen.
However, to utilize that hydrogen, microorganisms require electron acceptors to complete the redox pair. Attributing value solely to hydrogen is misleading. “Having the food is great, but without a fork, you can’t eat it,” remarks Barbara Sherwood Lollar from the University of Toronto, Canada.
Konhauser, Sherwood Lollar, and their research team employed rock-crushing machines to simulate the reactions that yield hydrogen gas within geological settings, which could subsequently form a complete redox pair. They crushed quartz crystals, mimicking strains in various types of faults and mixing the water present in most rocks with different iron and rock forms.
The crushed quartz reacted with water to generate significant quantities of hydrogen, both in stable molecular forms and more reactive species. The team’s findings revealed many of these hydrogen radicals react with iron-rich liquids, creating numerous compounds capable of either donating or accepting enough electrons to establish different redox pairs.
“Numerous rocks can be harnessed for energy,” Konhauser pointed out. “These reactions mediate diverse chemical processes, suggesting various microorganisms can thrive.” Secondary reactions involving nitrogen or sulfur could yield even broader energy sources.
“I was astonished by the quantities,” said Magdalena Osburn from Northwestern University, Illinois. “It produces immense quantities of hydrogen, and it also initiates fascinating auxiliary chemistry.”
Researchers estimate that earthquakes generate far less hydrogen than other water-rock interactions within the Earth’s crust. However, their insights imply that active faults may serve as local hotspots for microbial diversity and activity, Sherwood Lollar explained.
Importantly, a complete earthquake isn’t a prerequisite. Similar reactions can take place as rocks fracture in seismically stable areas, like continents or geologically dead planets such as Mars. “Even within these massive rocks, you can observe pressure redistributions and shifts,” she noted.
“It’s truly exciting to explore sources I was recently unfamiliar with,” stated Karen Lloyd from the University of Southern California. The variety of usable chemicals produced in actual fault lines is likely even more diverse. “This likely occurs under varying pressures, temperatures, and across vast spatial scales, involving a broader range of minerals,” she said.
Energy from infrequent events like earthquakes may also illuminate the lifestyles of what Lloyd refers to as aeonophiles—deep subterranean microorganisms thought to have existed for extensive time periods. “If we can endure 10,000 years, we may experience a magnitude 9 earthquake that yields a tremendous energy surge,” Lloyd added.
This research is part of a growing trend over the last two decades that broadens our understanding of where and how organisms can endure underground, states Sherwood Lollar. “The deep rocks of continents have revealed much about the habitability of our planet,” she concluded.
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