Modern rendition of garum, a fermented fish sauce dating back to Roman times
Alexander Mychko / Alamy
Garum, a type of fermented fish sauce, was a favored condiment throughout the Roman Empire. Recent analyses of ancient DNA extracted from the production vats have uncovered the specific fish species used in this staple seasoning.
This Roman fish sauce was widely appreciated for its intense salty and umami flavors. However, philosopher Seneca famously remarked that one variant had a price “as audacious as that of rotten fish.” There were various types, including a liquid known as Garum or Liquamen, and a thicker paste called Allec. The preparation involved fermenting fish and plant materials, complicating the identification of the fish species used.
According to Paula Campos from the University of Porto, Portugal, “The small, fractured bones and the acidic conditions contribute significantly to the degradation of DNA.”
Campos and her team conducted DNA sequencing on bone samples dating back to the 3rd century AD, sourced from a Roman fish sauce production facility in northwestern Spain. They compared numerous overlapping DNA sequences against the complete fish genome, allowing them to confidently identify the species involved.
This analysis revealed that the remaining fish was predominantly European sardines, aligning with previous visual identifications at other Roman fish processing sites. Additional fish species such as herring, whiting, mackerel, and anchovy have also been identified in various garum production locales.
This finding indicates that “even degraded fish remains” can yield identifiable DNA, suggesting that “it could enhance our understanding of regional variations in the main ingredients of historical fish sauces and pastes,” noted Analisa Marzano, a colleague from the University of Bologna, Italy, who was not involved in the study.
The research shows a comparison of ancient and modern sardines, indicating less genetic mixing among sardine populations across different marine regions in ancient times. This knowledge “may help us gauge the impact of human-environment interactions over the centuries,” Marzano explained.
For future studies, Campos and her colleagues intend to analyze additional fish species from other Roman garum production sites. “We’re broadening our sampling to verify if the results are consistent throughout the Roman Empire,” she added.
Emotions can manifest as physical sensations—be it a surge of anger, a flutter of excitement, or waves of joy, our feelings often have a tangible presence in our bodies.
This phenomenon arises from the interplay between our mental and physical states.
For instance, experiencing anxiety on a first date may trigger a fight-or-flight response, leading to the release of hormones like adrenaline, which elevate heart rate and tense muscles, allowing you to perceive sensations in your chest and throughout your body.
Both positive and negative emotions can influence various bodily functions, including digestion, breathing, perspiration, skin sensitivity, salivation, blood circulation, body temperature, facial tension, and more.
That’s why we often refer to “gut feelings” and “nervous energy.” These physiological shifts can significantly impact our emotions, creating a continual feedback loop connecting our body and mind.
In 2013, a Finnish researcher conducted a study in which individuals mapped out how different emotions corresponded to specific body areas.
While each person’s emotional experience is unique, common sensations can often be found in specific regions. For example, anger typically resonates in the chest and hands, while happiness is prominently felt in the chest and face.
Over time, our perceptions of where we feel emotions in our bodies may have evolved.
A follow-up study in 2024 examined the emotional mappings of people in ancient Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) by analyzing a million words from historical texts to discover connections between emotions and body parts.
Researchers noted some parallels with present-day emotional responses. For instance, pride was linked to the heart by Mesopotamians, while happiness was most closely associated with the liver, and anger was related to the feet.
These distinctions may stem from Mesopotamian cultural beliefs surrounding the body, wherein the liver was viewed as the central organ of the soul’s essence.
This article addresses the inquiry from Elisevarn of Sheffield: “Why do we feel emotions in different parts of our body?”
For any questions, please email us atQuestion @sciencefocus.com or reach out viaFacebook,Twitter, orInstagramPage (please include your name and location).
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Paleontologists have unearthed a new species of large passerine birds based on fossilized remains from the Bannockburn Formation near St. Bathans in Otago, New Zealand.
Australian Magpie (Gymnorhina Tibicen), adults and juveniles, in Tabeumi, Fiji. Image credits: Charles J. Sharp, https://www.sharpphotography.co.uk / CC by-sa 4.0.
The newly identified bird inhabited New Zealand during the early Miocene period around 19 million years ago.
It has been named St. Batan’s Caloun (MioStrepera Canora), closely related to the Australian Magpie (Gymnorhina Tibicen) found in New Zealand today, likely exhibiting an entirely black plumage.
“We’ve experienced a lot of excitement and hard work,” shared Dr. Paul Scofield, senior curator at the Canterbury Museum.
“We probably haven’t encountered a member of this large magpie family for just five million years.”
“New Zealand’s ecosystem has undergone significant transformations over millions of years, welcoming diverse species throughout various eras,” noted Dr. Trevor Worthy, a researcher at Flinders University.
“There’s a notion that we should strive to restore New Zealand to its pre-European ecosystem.”
“However, that ecosystem had been in a constant state of flux for millions of years.”
“By the time humans arrived, Aotearoa had already lost much of the floral diversity that once thrived.”
“There were limited tree seeds available, but the decline of the choloun and other pigeons indicates this loss.”
“Different plant and animal groups emerged between 2.6 million and 11,700 years ago.”
“Even more have come since humans began to inhabit the land.”
“New Zealand’s pre-European ecosystem isn’t inherently better or worse than any other period in the past.”
“The fossil record hints at the absence of a utopian state and encourages us to celebrate the diversity present today.”
The fossilized remains of MioStrepera Canora were found at the St Bathans fossil site, which was once located at the bottom of a vast prehistoric lake.
“The research revealed that the Miocene bird population in New Zealand bears surprising similarities to contemporary Australian birds,” Dr. Scofield mentioned.
“New Zealand was vastly different during the Miocene, between 200,000 to 5 million years ago.”
“If you walked through New Zealand’s forests during that time, you would have seen abundant eucalyptus, laurel, and casuarinas, much like the forests of Australia today.”
“The most significant factor shaping New Zealand’s current landscape was the extinction of many plants and animals that thrived in warmer climates, following a rapid cooling that began around 13 million years ago.”
“It was likely not the only bird call you would have heard in ancient New Zealand.”
The discovery of MioStrepera Canora is detailed in a paper published in the journal Palz.
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Worth it et al. A large-scale clastatin passerine (Aves, Artamidae, Cracticinae) from the early Miocene of New Zealand. Palz published on June 25th, 2025. doi:10.1007/s12542-025-00736-x
Ancient artifacts crafted from mammoth tusks are the earliest recognized boomerangs
Talamo et al., 2025, PLOS One, CC-BY 4.0
The earliest known boomerang could be over 22,000 years older than previously believed, indicating it was crafted during a time when early humans exhibited a rise in artistic expression.
In 1985, archaeologists discovered a 72-centimeter ivory boomerang buried beneath six layers of sediment within the Obwazwa Cave in Poland. Further analysis of sediment revealed bone beads from Homo sapiens, made from nearby thumb bones, antlers, fox teeth, and pendants. In the 1990s, radiocarbon dating estimated the thumbs to be 31,000 years old, while surprisingly, the boomerang dated only to 18,000 years ago—thousands of years younger than the associated crafts.
Sarataramo at the University of Bologna suspects contamination. “Even minor amounts of modern carbon from adhesives and maintenance can skew radiocarbon dates by tens of thousands of years,” she explains. The analysis of carbon-nitrogen ratios in the thumbs indicated collagen changes, suggesting that the samples were not suitable for reliable radiocarbon dating.
Redoing the dating on the contaminated boomerang would have wasted resources and unnecessarily harmed significant artifacts, according to Taramo. Instead, she and her team re-dated the human thumb bones and 13 nearby animal bones, using statistical modeling to reconstruct the timeline. Their findings indicated that the entire sediment layer—along with the boomerangs and thumb bones—dated to approximately 39,000 to 42,000 years ago.
“In a way, this serves as a reminder for museums; if you discover something extraordinary, avoid covering it with glue or any repair materials prior to completing thorough analysis,” she asserts.
This new timeline suggests that the ivory boomerang predates the second oldest known wooden boomerang created by Australian Indigenous peoples. Unlike other simpler throwing tools, like the 300,000-year-old wooden artifact found in Schoningen, Germany, the boomerang has a curved, aerodynamic design, although it may not always return when thrown, according to Taramo.
While it’s likely that these ancient boomerangs could fly, their size and construction likely meant they did not return to the thrower. They may have held symbolic or ritual significance, potentially related to their placement alongside the thumb bones within a decorative stone ring, which featured intricate carvings and reddish pigments, along with a smooth polished surface.
This discovery provides insight into the cognitive abilities and craftsmanship of early humans during a remarkable period of artistic growth, known as the early Aulignacian, which began around 40,000 years ago. This era saw the emergence of iconic artifacts, including mammoth ivory figurines, rock art, and aesthetically refined tools in Europe, notes Taramo.
Dating back either 12 or 800 years ago, wild wallabies were caught and transported by canoe to nearby islands located dozens of kilometers away.
The Sahuru natives—a group of marsupials from a prehistoric landmass that eventually broke into Australia and New Guinea—likely accompanied human explorers and traders to the islands in Southeast Asia, providing food, decorative fur, and tools made from bones. This animal import is recognized as one of the earliest known instances of animal translocation, with established colonies thriving over millennia, according to Dylan Gaffney at Oxford University.
“This aligns with a broader understanding of how early humans managed, transported, and raised animals more deliberately than previously assumed. They didn’t merely endure in these tropical environments; they actively transformed them,” says Gaffney.
Research pertaining to species translocation typically prioritizes European explorers, who notably introduced invasive rabbits to Australia in the 18th and 19th centuries and reintroduced horses to the Americas in the late 1400s and early 1500s.
However, in the 1990s, two types of marsupial bones were identified—Phalanger Orientalis Breviceps or Phalanger Breviceps, along with Bandicoot bones (Echymipera Kalubu)—from the Eastern Islands of New Guinea, and Brown Forest Wallabies (Dorcopsis Muelleri) found on an island west of Halmahera, roughly 350 km from Sahuru’s ancient shores.
Based on the age of nearby charcoal remains and the sediment layers, research teams estimate that the Wallabies arrived around 8,000 years ago, while other species date back to between 13,000 and 24,000 years ago.
The specifics of how these animals arrived on the islands remain unclear—whether by human transport or natural means. To explore this, Gaffney and his colleagues examined a new archaeological site in Indonesia’s Rajaanpat Islands.
There, thousands-of-years-old skeletons indicate that the colony of brown forest wallabies thrived on the island about 4,000 years ago, though the reasons behind this are still uncertain.
Radiocarbon dating in a cave inland revealed evidence of wallabies being hunted and cooked as far back as 13,000 years ago, further supported by findings from another island to the west that dates back 5,000 years.
The team also uncovered several bone tools utilized in hunting and textile work, suggesting human activity at least 8,500 years ago.
In investigating how these animals arrived on distant islands, the team employed computer modeling that accounted for the sea levels and environmental conditions of that era.
This modeling supports the theory that humans transported the animals via canoes, Gaffney explains. Without human assistance, Wallabies would have struggled to survive the treacherous oceanic journey that could have lasted over 24 hours, relying on vegetation rafts for days to reach the islands. While swimming to nearby islands is conceivable, it’s uncertain whether forest wallabies (modern or ancient) possessed the ability to swim.
In contrast, canoe trips would have taken only a few hours to a couple of days, a timeframe that likely would have been manageable for breeding animals.
These findings underscore a sophisticated understanding of species movement by humans well before the era of European colonial expansion. Tom Matthews, who was not involved in the research and is from the University of Birmingham, UK, states, “We frequently assume that these introductions began within the last 500 years, but the evidence indicates that humans were reshaping their ecosystems long before then.”
The identification of human footprints in White Sands, New Mexico, estimated to be between 21,000 and 23,000 years old, was a significant advancement in our comprehension of the earliest inhabitants of the Americas. However, this research faced scrutiny concerning the dependability of radiocarbon dating materials, such as common aquatic plant seeds Rupiah Silhosa and coniferous pollen grains. A recent study, spearheaded by University of Arizona researcher Vance Holiday, indicates that the ancient mud from Perelora ceotero, the third material utilized for dating the footprints, dates back to approximately 20,700 to 22,400 years ago.
Ancient human footprints found in White Sands National Park, New Mexico, USA. Image credit: Bennett et al. , doi: 10.1126/science.abg7586.
Historically, scientists believed that humans entered North America roughly 16,000 to 13,000 years ago.
However, the footprints found at White Sands indicate that human presence in the area dates back to between 23,000 and 21,000 years ago. This timeline offers insights into the development of culture in North America.
The remnants of 10,000-year-old prints, uncovered nearly a century ago at a site near Clovis, New Mexico, led to a classification of artifacts long considered to represent the earliest known cultures in North America.
Critics have challenged two prior studies over the last four years, asserting that ancient species and pollen in the soil used for dating the footprints are unreliable indicators.
“The record is consistently strong, and it’s challenging to explain it all,” Dr. Holiday stated.
“As I mention in my publication, it would be an extraordinary coincidence for all these dates to be inaccurate.”
Thousands of years prior, the white sands formed from a series of lakes that eventually dried up.
Wind erosion created layers of plaster on the sand dunes that now characterize the region.
The footprints were excavated from stream beds that once fed into this ancient lake.
“Wind erosion has erased part of the narrative, leaving that segment lost. The remainder is buried beneath the world’s largest accumulation of plaster sand,” Dr. Holiday remarked.
For their latest research, Dr. Holiday and his team returned to White Sands in 2022 and 2023, excavating new trenches to gain deeper insights into the lakebed’s geology.
“We’ve put in considerable effort to explore this area,” stated Jason Windingstad, a doctoral candidate at the University of Arizona.
“You essentially find yourself questioning everything taught about North American populations.”
The authors recognize that their research hasn’t addressed lingering questions posed by critics since 2021: Why are there no artifacts or settlements left by the individuals who made the footprints?
“This is a valid inquiry. Some footprints discovered during the 2021 survey belong to a trackway that was created in mere seconds,” they explained.
“It is entirely plausible that hunter-gatherers would act with caution to avoid leaving resources in such a brief timeframe.”
“These individuals were aware of their resources and were distanced from their replacements.”
“They wouldn’t abandon artifacts casually. It doesn’t make sense for you to be viewing a debris field.”
The team’s recent findings will be published in the journal Advances in Science.
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Vance T. Holliday et al. 2025. Perelorace Geochronology supports the last Glacier Max (LGM) age of human tracks in White Sands, New Mexico. Advances in Science 11 (25); doi:10.1126/sciadv.adv4951
My child is extraordinary. He enters the kitchen, glances at me, and articulates enchanting words: “Could I please have a cheese and tomato sandwich?” Moments later, that very snack materializes in front of him.
Other young animals express their hunger through sounds and murmurs, but only humans possess advanced grammar and vocabulary systems that enable precise communication.
This narrative is part of our themed special, showcasing expert perspectives on some of science’s most astonishing concepts. Click here for additional insights.
Research into animal behavior reveals that these creatures exhibit many traits previously thought to be exclusive to humans—from culture to emotional depth, and even aspects of morality. While language may seem to set us apart, “I believe language gives us a unique status as a species,” says Brian Relch from the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
Given this context, one critical area of research focuses on how language originated and why it evolved solely within our human lineage.
Psychologist Simon Edelman from Cornell University proposes in The Magical Power of Language that there is a straightforward evolutionary rationale. Alongside his colleague Oren Korodny, now at Hebrew University in Jerusalem, he theorizes that the origins of language may date back approximately 1.7 million years, coinciding with early humans developing the ability to create stone tools—a skill beyond the capabilities of non-human animals.
The notion is that tool-making locations functioned as learning environments, where novice tool creators required guidance from experienced individuals. Proto-language may have developed as a way for mentors to instruct their students, possibly explaining why both language and tool-making appear to necessitate cognitive structures that organize thoughts in a coherent sequence.
However, around a decade ago, a pivotal experiment questioned this narrative. In 2014, Shelby Putt from Illinois State University and her team investigated how individuals learn to create tools, exposing 24 volunteers either to expert instructions or to direct demonstrations while occasionally engaging their attention. Surprisingly, both approaches proved effective, indicating that intricate tool-making may not rely on verbal language.
This does not imply that Putt views language and tool-making as entirely disconnected. She posits that creating complex tools required individuals to structure their thoughts and organize them to achieve their task. She asserts that this ability led to an expansion of brain regions associated with working memory, enabling easier mental manipulation of concepts.
Nonetheless, Putt suggests that humans utilized these cognitive frameworks to devise language, enhancing communication and potentially increasing survival odds.
All these scenarios presume that language functions fundamentally as a communication tool among individuals. However, an alternative perspective on the evolution of language emphasizes the ways it aids individuals in organizing their thoughts when confronted with complex tasks.
Some, including prominent linguist Noam Chomsky, argue that this may have driven language evolution, suggesting it had no relation to tool-making. These researchers propose that language emerged approximately 70,000 years ago, possibly due to random genetic mutations that reconfigured brain circuitry.
Ultimately, the origins of language remain a subject of debate. If Chomsky and his associates are correct, the development of language was less about magic and more about fortunate circumstances.
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The discovery of Litoria Tylerantiqua indicates that Australian tree frogs (Perodrius) were already present in Australia when the continent was still attached to Antarctica and South America.
Artist Reconstruction of Litoria Tylerantiqua (right) alongside the previously described species Platyplectrum casca (left) from Margon in southeast Queensland. Image: Samantha Yabsley, https://www.instagram.com/shy_art.
Litoria Tylerantiqua lived in Australia during the early Eocene period, approximately 55 million years ago.
The fossilized frog bones were retrieved in the 1990s by paleontologists at the University of New South Wales while screenwashing clay samples from the Tingamara fossil frog site in Margon, Queensland.
“About 55 million years ago, Australia, Antarctica, and South America were connected as the last remnants of Gondwana,” stated Dr. Roy Furman and his colleagues at the University of New South Wales and the Australian National University.
“During this era, the global climate was warmer, facilitating forested corridors linking South America and Australia.”
“Previously, Australia’s oldest tree frogs were believed to have originated from the late Illuminocene (around 26 million years ago) and the early Miocene (approximately 23 million years ago).”
“Fossils from the late Illuminocene have been discovered in the Northern Territory’s kangaroo wells and the Etadunna formation in Lake Palancarina, South Australia. Furthermore, the Riversley World Heritage Area in Queensland unveiled an early Miocene tree frog.”
“This new species extends the fossil record of Perodrids by roughly 30 million years, bringing it closer to the timeframe when Australian tree frogs diverged from their South American counterparts,” they noted.
“Previous estimates based on molecular clock analyses suggest that Australian and South American frogs diverged approximately 33 million years ago.”
Litoria Tylerantiqua is the only other known frog from Margon, also identified as Platyplectrum casca (previously categorized as Lechriodus Casca), recognized as the oldest frog species in Australia.
Both have existing relatives in Australia and New Guinea, showcasing incredible resilience over time.
“Despite their fragile nature, these frogs have surprisingly thrived, surviving numerous major extinction events since their origin around 250 million years ago.”
“Current global extinction threats, fueled by human activities like rapid climate change and the proliferation of pathogenic bacteria, pose significant challenges for frogs. The fossil record reveals how certain frog groups have navigated past adversities, potentially by adapting to less-threatened habitats.”
“This insight might guide future conservation efforts, such as relocating endangered frogs to safer environments.”
“If fossil records show similarly structured frogs occupying very different habitats, today’s frogs could potentially benefit from reintroductions into comparable environments.”
The findings are detailed in a study published in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
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Roy M. Furman et al. New fossil discoveries for early Eocene perodrids from local faunas of Southeast Queensland, Margon, Tingamara, and frog molecular lineages. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology published online on May 14, 2025. doi:10.1080/02724634.2025.2477815
Pre-contact Central and South American dogs (Canis Familiaris) – These are all dogs that existed prior to the arrival of European settlers, originating from a single maternal lineage that spread into North America. A recent study led by researchers at Oxford University indicates that the divergence times of dog breeds in North, Central, and South America align with the agricultural expansion occurring between 7,000 and 5,000 years ago, particularly highlighting the adoption of corn in South America.
Manin et al. Illustrating the gradual southward spread of dogs alongside early agricultural societies. Artwork by John James Audubon and John Bachman.
“Dogs traveled with the initial waves of people entering North America at least 15,000-16,000 years ago,” stated Oxford University researcher Aurely Mannin and colleagues.
“They were the only type of livestock brought to America from Eurasia before the arrival of European settlers.”
“Archaeological and physical evidence suggests that Arctic dogs were utilized for sledding, aiding groups of humans traversing the frigid tundra of Siberia.”
“Analysis of ancient DNA indicates that all dogs before contact with European settlers possess mitochondrial DNA from a lineage unique to the Americas.”
“Dogs from this lineage disseminated throughout the Americas, with the exception of the Amazon Basin, suggesting they became known only following the arrival of Europeans in the 16th century.”
In this latest study, the authors sequenced 70 complete mitochondrial genomes from both archaeological and modern dogs collected from Central Mexico to Central Chile and Argentina.
The findings indicate that all pre-contact dogs in Central and South America descended from a singular maternal lineage that diverged from North American dogs when humans initially settled the continent.
Instead of a rapid spread, dogs exhibited a slower pattern known as “segregation by distance,” gradually adapting to new environments and migrating with people between 7,000 to 5,000 years ago, coinciding with the rise of corn cultivation in early agricultural communities.
The influx of Europeans brought new dog breeds that predominantly replaced indigenous strains; however, researchers discovered that modern Chihuahuas still retain maternal DNA from pre-contact Mesoamerican ancestors.
These rare genetic traces underscore the enduring legacy of the first American dogs and the deep roots of this iconic breed.
“This research emphasizes the significant role that early agricultural communities played in the dispersal of dogs worldwide,” Dr. Manin remarked.
“In the Americas, it reveals that dogs were able to adapt slowly enough to develop genetic distinctions between North, Central, and South America.”
“This is quite unusual for livestock and unveils new avenues for research into the relationships between dogs and early agricultural societies.”
“This study contributes a new chapter to the extensive shared history of dogs and humans, influenced by migration across continents, survival, and lasting relationships,” the scientists concluded.
Survey results are set to appear in Proceedings of the Royal Society b.
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Aurely Manin et al. 2025. Ancient dog mitogenomes support the double dispersion of dogs and agriculture into South America. Proc. R. Soc. b 292 (2049): 20242443; doi: 10.1098/rspb.2024.2443
Biofluorescence, the process of absorbing high-energy light and re-emitting it as low-energy wavelengths, has been observed in various vertebrate and invertebrate lineages, particularly among fish. Research conducted by the American Museum of Natural History indicates that fish biofluorescence can be traced back at least 112 million years and has evolved over 100 times, predominantly in fish inhabiting coral reefs.
Phylogenesis of teleosts showing ancestral state reconstruction (absence/present) of biological fluorescence. Image credit: Carr et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-59843-7.
“Researchers have long known that biological fluorescence is prevalent in marine creatures, including sea turtles and corals, particularly among fish,” stated PhD Emily Kerr, a student at the American Museum of Natural History.
“To truly grasp the reasons and methods behind this unique adaptation, we need to explore the evolutionary background and the variety of biofluorescence currently utilized for camouflage, predation, or reproduction.”
In a first study published in the journal Natural Communication, Carr and colleagues investigated all known biological fluorescent extents, focusing on a species of bony fish, which comprises the largest living vertebrate group today.
This research identified 459 biological fluorescent species, including 48 previously unrecognized as biologically fluorescent.
The researchers discovered that biological fluorescence has evolved over 100 times in marine teleost fish, dating back to approximately 112 million years ago, with the initial occurrence found in eels.
Furthermore, fish species residing in or near coral reefs developed biological fluorescence approximately ten times faster than their non-reef counterparts, leading to a surge in fluorescent species following the mass extinction event around 66 million years ago that wiped out non-avian dinosaurs.
“This pattern coincides with the emergence of modern coral reefs and the rapid infiltration of fish into these environments, particularly after a significant loss of coral diversity due to the Cretaceous extinction,” Kerr explained.
“These relationships imply that the rise of contemporary coral reefs may have spurred the diversification of fluorescence in reef-associated teleost fish.”
Among the 459 documented biological fluorescent extents indicated in this study, the majority are linked to coral reefs.
In a second survey published in the journal PLOS 1, Kerr and co-authors employed a specialized photographic system with ultraviolet and blue excitation lights, alongside emission filters, to analyze the wavelengths emitted by fish from the ichthyology collection at the American Museum of Natural History.
These specimens, collected over the past 15 years during museum expeditions to locations like the Solomon Islands, Greenland, and Thailand, had shown fluorescence previously; however, the full spectrum of biological fluorescence emissions remained unexplored.
This study unveiled a broader diversity in the colors emitted by teleost fish, with some displaying at least six distinct fluorescence emission peaks across various wavelengths, surpassing prior reports.
“The unexpected variation observed among a wide array of these fluorescent fish suggests that they may utilize highly diverse and intricate signaling systems based on species-specific fluorescent emission patterns.”
“As these studies illustrate, biological fluorescence is extensive and remarkably phenotypically diverse among marine fish.”
“Our goal is to enhance our understanding of how fluorescence operates within these varied marine ecosystems and its role in evolutionary diversification.”
“The multitude of fluorescence emission wavelengths identified in this study could significantly impact the discovery of new fluorescent molecules that are routinely employed in biomedical applications, including the diagnosis and treatment of fluorescence-related ailments.”
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Carr et al. 2025. The extensive evolution of repeated biological fluorescence in marine fish. Nat Commun 16, 4826; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-59843-7
Carr et al. 2025. Marine fish display exceptional variability in biological fluorescence emission spectra. PLOS 1 20 (6): E0316789; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0316789
An extinct creature uncovered in North America offers fresh insights into the region’s life around 75 million years ago.
The creature has been described as “looking like a goblin jumping out of a rock,” according to Hank Woolley of the Los Angeles County Natural History Museum. This species, known as Monstaurus, is part of a group of reptiles that thrived during the late Cretaceous period. Woolley notes it could have been “around 3 to 4 feet from tail to tip.” “Best to stay away,” he warns.
Woolley named the species Borguamondor. The first part of the name derives from a Lord of the Rings character, while the second part is inspired by an invented Elvish word, referring to its bone armor — a trait shared with its relatives, modern Gira Monsters (Healoderma Sumpectum).
Remarkably preserved fossils were found in Utah two decades ago by Joseph Sertich. Initially, the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute believed it was a prehistoric lizard. Sertich recalls, “I found a collection of scattered bones in a low, flat sandy area,” including the skull, vertebrae, jawbone, and parts of a hip bone.
Sertich encouraged Woolley to investigate the fossils at the museum in 2022. B. Amondor represents an extinct species of lizard known as the Monstaurus. They found evidence that some could shed their tails when injured, making it the oldest known example of this defensive strategy that modern lizards employ.
bones belonging to Borguamondor
Utah Natural History Museum/Bureau of Land Management
According to researchers, B. Amondor dined on small mammals, frogs, snakes, insects, and “things not primarily plants,” even considering dinosaur eggs as part of its “round-length” diet. Its habitat was likely a wetland ecosystem, quite hot and humid, resembling the modern-day U.S. Gulf Coast rather than the arid landscape we see today.
Randall Nydam from Midwest University in Illinois, though not involved in this research, emphasizes the cautionary aspect of the story, reflecting on the vulnerabilities of such formidable “monsters,” both ancient and modern. “We must also acknowledge that they are long gone,” he states, “vanished due to changing circumstances.”
Continuing the dialogue about B. Amondor, Sertich believes people should broaden their understanding of these creatures. “Imagining North America’s primal tropical forests should portray nightmare lizard-hunting dinosaurs navigating the underbrush and scaling trees,” he suggests.
Ancient Migration: A Journey Through a Colder Climate to the Americas
Getty Images/iStockphoto
This excerpt comes from our Human Stories newsletter, which explores the archaeological revolution. Subscribe to receive it monthly in your inbox.
The main theme of Human Stories revolves around the global migration of our species. From their origins in Africa, our ancestors traveled to Europe, Asia, Australia, and eventually reached the Americas. South America was the last continent they settled, with Antarctica being the notable exception.
This chapter of our history remains somewhat enigmatic. While ample research has focused on human migration into Europe, Asia, and North America, far less attention has been directed toward their entrance into South America.
Reflecting on this, I discovered that my previous detailed analysis of South America appeared in June 2023.
However, this narrative is beginning to evolve. On May 15th, a significant genetic study was published in Science, unveiling crucial insights into early inhabitants of South America. This extensive research indicates a diverse population across different regions, revealing a fourfold division of early groups. These findings align with newer stories of remarkable journeys and the extraordinary risks taken in the quest for new lands.
A Complex Journey
If you consider how Homo sapiens evolved in Africa, the task of reaching South America becomes apparent. The vast Atlantic Ocean acted as a major barrier between continents, complicating the path for humans.
This migration was not premeditated; at that time, people had no knowledge of South America’s existence. They journeyed as far as they could see, moving from Africa to Southwest Asia, and eventually to various parts of Eurasia. Some even ventured as far as the easternmost regions of Asia, now known as Chukotka in the Russian Far East.
From there, it was a relatively short journey to present-day Alaska in northwest North America. Evidence suggests humans arrived at least 16,000 years ago. Today, the Bering Strait—a mere 82 kilometers across—seems a significant barrier. However, thousands of years ago, colder climates meant lower sea levels, creating land connections between Asia and North America, notably Beringia. People may have unknowingly traversed what would become a monumental migration.
Supporting this theory, a study released in May highlighted that horses traveled regularly between North America and Asia via Beringia between 50,000 and 13,000 years ago, suggesting humans could have followed suit.
For unknown reasons, the earliest groups of Americans moved southward. Some utilized boats along the Pacific coast, while others ventured inland, ultimately reaching the southernmost tip of South America.
The archaeological record of these groups is rich. A study published in February analyzed a large collection of artifacts dating back 10,000 to 11,000 years in the Takualembo region of Uruguay.
Who were these early South Americans? That’s where new genetic research comes into play.
Continuing the Journey
Led by Hie Lim Kim from Nanyang Technological University in Singapore, researchers compiled genomic data from 1,537 individuals across 139 ethnic groups. This included individuals with ties to northern Eurasian populations, as well as groups from the Americas, particularly South America.
“Our study showcases the history of this vast migration,” Kim states.
Between 13,900 and 10,000 years ago, the initial settlers of South America divided into four genetically distinct groups. Signs of these genetic patterns persist in modern South Americans.
Kim highlights the challenge of providing a comprehensive account of these findings. While the study identifies genetic differences among populations, they don’t necessarily align with cultural traits. “We didn’t categorize them by culture or language,” she explains, “but solely based on ancestry.”
With this caveat, Kim’s team identified four groups: Amazonians, Andeans, Chaco Amerindians, and Patagonians, named for regions where contemporary genetic signals are strongest. For instance, Amazon ancestry aligns with current populations in the Amazon rainforest, Andean ancestry with those in the Andes mountains, and Patagonian ancestry with people from southern Argentina. The Chaco Amerindian lineage is traced to the Dry Chaco, spanning parts of Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay. “They are predominantly hunter-gatherers in arid regions,” says Kim.
Once these groups branched out, signs of significant gene flow between them became scarce. “They have never intermingled again,” says Kim, suggesting geographic barriers like the Andes may have fostered this separation.
However, Kim asserts this is likely not the entire narrative, as additional groups may exist. “Our sample from Brazil is limited,” she notes. “Many ethnic groups in the Amazon remain unexplored.”
Recent research further enriches this narrative. In March, archaeological evidence pointed to a location known as Southern Corn, situated near the 22nd parallel south encompassing northern Argentina, Paraguay, Chile, and Uruguay.
Another study from March detailed the journey of the Guarani, who traversed over 2,500 kilometers across South America, ultimately reaching the mouth of the Rio de la Plata estuary, now Buenos Aires and Montevideo.
Late May research uncovered the risks associated with migration; ancient Colombian DNA indicated an unknown hunter-gatherer population that inhabited the Bogotá Altiplano around 6,000 years ago. By 2,000 years ago, they were replaced by Central American populations, leaving no trace in today’s genetic pool.
South America is vast, and we have merely scratched the surface of its complex history. Numerous untold stories lie waiting to be uncovered.
Rivers like the Chuya in Russia can emit carbon dioxide and methane.
Parilov/Shutterstock
Globally, rivers are releasing ancient carbon into the atmosphere, revealing surprising insights for scientists and indicating that human impact on natural landscapes may be more severe than previously understood.
It is already established that rivers emit carbon dioxide and methane as part of the carbon cycle, a rapid gas exchange linked to the growth and decay of organisms, estimated to release around 2 Gigatonnes of carbon annually.
Researchers, including Josh Dean from the University of Bristol, explored the age of this carbon.
The team utilized radiocarbon dating to analyze carbon and methane released from over 700 river segments across 26 countries.
“When we compiled the available data, what we found was surprisingly significant. [Regarding the carbon released], these ancient stores may originate from much older reserves,” Dean states.
Ancient carbon is sequestered in geological formations such as rocks, peat bogs, and wetlands. The findings reveal that around one Gigatonne of this carbon is released annually via rivers, leading to the conclusion that ecosystems are currently removing one Gigatonne less carbon from the atmospheric balance than previously believed.
“This represents the first comprehensive assessment of river emissions on a global scale, which is quite remarkable,” remarks Taylor Maavara from the Cary Ecosystem Studies Institute in Millbrook, New York.
The pressing concern now is understanding the reasons behind the release of such ancient carbon. Factors might include climate change and human activities that alter natural landscapes. Dean observes that the carbon from rivers has appeared “aged” since the 1990s.
“Human activity may be accessing these long-term carbon reservoirs, which can lead to older carbon being released through these channels,” he explains.
For instance, rising temperatures due to climate change can result in carbon being released from thawing permafrost and increase the weathering rates of rocks. Additional factors such as peatland drainage and wetland desiccation could also play a role. Dean emphasizes the necessity for further research to ascertain the degree to which human activities contribute to this phenomenon and how carbon release varies over time.
“This is a critical area of research,” he asserts. “If we believe we are storing old carbon within these reservoirs, we’re mistaken; this understanding is crucial.” These insights carry significant implications for national climate strategies, particularly concerning reliance on natural ecosystems to mitigate ongoing emissions.
“This research raises intriguing questions about how and to what extent we can manage ancient carbon,” says Scott Teig from Oakland University in Rochester Hills, Michigan. He adds that tackling climate change is likely vital to prevent the release of CO2 and methane from these ancient reserves.
Paranthropus robustus is a well-documented species within the Hominin group that has yet to be associated with genetic evidence. This species thrived in what is now South Africa between 2 million and 1.2 million years ago. In a recent study, paleontologists extracted enamel protein sequences from a dental specimen, believed to be 2 million years old, discovered at the Swartkrans site in South Africa. The results indicate a greater diversity than previously recognized for Paranthropus robustus and support the potential existence of multiple species within the genus.
Advancements in ancient DNA (aDNA) sequencing have provided essential insights into the evolutionary connections among mid- to late Pleistocene hominins. However, our understanding of the earlier Pliocene-Pleistocene species, including Paranthropus robustus, remains limited.
This limitation is primarily due to the poor preservation of aDNA in African hominin fossils older than 20,000 years.
Paranthropus robustus has traditionally been regarded as a singular evolutionary line.
Yet, morphological overlaps between Paranthropus robustus and Australopithecus raise questions about their possible evolutionary links.
Moreover, variations in dental morphology suggest either an undiscovered diversity within Paranthropus robustus or the existence of multiple distinct species.
In this study, researchers from the University of Copenhagen, the University of Cape Town, and Dr. Paresa Madupe employed more durable ancient proteins to explore the variation within this ancient human species.
Four tooth enamel proteins were analyzed using high-resolution mass spectrometry and paleontological techniques, focusing on Paranthropus robustus fossils from the Swartkrans cave.
These specimens, dating from 2.2 to 1.8 million years ago, are among the earliest known hominins.
Molecular analysis of the protein sequences revealed significant variation at the molecular level among Paranthropus robustus individuals, including evidence from both male and female fossils, challenging the reliability of tooth size as a sole indicator of sexual dimorphism and suggesting that this variance cannot be attributed exclusively to sexual differences.
Notably, one individual appears to be genetically distinct from the others, highlighting considerable intraspecies variability within Paranthropus robustus.
The results align with recent morphological evidence, indicating previously unrecognized taxonomic diversity within the genus, including the proposed species Paranthropus capensis.
“Our study illustrates how paleobiological traits can assist in distinguishing sexual dimorphism from other forms of variation in the early Pleistocene human lineage in Africa,” the authors concluded.
Paresa P. Madupe et al. 2025. Enamel proteins reveal biological and genetic variation in southern Africa Paranthropus robustus. Science 388 (6750): 969-973; doi: 10.1126/science.adt953
Illustration of an ancient bird nesting above the Arctic Circle
Gabriel Ugueto
Recent findings of bone fragments from Alaska indicate that birds have been nesting and breeding in the Arctic for at least 73 million years.
“It’s quite unusual, as raising a newborn in the Arctic is challenging,” explains study author Lauren Wilson from Princeton University.
Currently, around 250 bird species can thrive at the poles. Some migrate great distances to enjoy continuous daylight in summer, while others brave the winter, enduring extreme cold and long periods of darkness. However, knowledge about how these birds first adapted to the highest latitudes remains limited.
Wilson and her team searched for ancient avian traces within the Princreek Formation in northern Alaska, which formed on coastal floodplains about 73 million years ago. At that time, northern Alaska was approximately 1,000-1,600 kilometers closer to the Arctic than it is today.
The researchers retrieved ancient soil samples from several narrow rock layers, encountering temperatures of -30°C (-22°F) in a makeshift tent. “This has definitely been the most demanding fieldwork I’ve undertaken,” Wilson admits.
Back at the lab, they spent hours peering through microscopes at sediments smaller than two millimeters, hunting for tiny fossil bone fragments.
The team uncovered over 50 fossil fragments belonging to ancient birds, primarily from chicks and even embryos. The fossilized bones of these young birds exhibit a sponge-like texture, indicative of rapid bone growth.
Although birds likely began nesting in the Arctic Circle 73 million years ago, these fossils represent the earliest evidence of such behavior, extending the timeline of avian presence back by 30 million years.
However, many fossils are fragmented and do not clarify whether these birds remained year-round or only in the warm summer months.
“The Arctic’s food web, which supports life in extreme cold and darkness, couldn’t exist without the plethora of birds that inhabit high latitudes,” says Steve Brusatte from the University of Edinburgh, who wasn’t involved in the study. “These fossils illustrate that birds have been a vital part of these high-latitude ecosystems for tens of millions of years.”
Wilson’s team identified three major bird groups represented among the fossil fragments: extinct tooth-like birds similar to ducks, extinct tooth-like birds reminiscent of gulls, and various species that may be related to modern birds.
Conversely, the samples did not include bones from older bird groups known as enantiornithines, or “opposite birds.” Gerald Mayle from the Senckenberg Institute in Germany, who also wasn’t part of the study, noted that this finding suggests that more advanced bird ancestors could survive the harsh Arctic conditions due to certain evolutionary advantages that older birds lacked.
The ecosystems that shaped the Princreek Formation existed when non-avian dinosaurs dominated the planet, with evidence that ancient birds coexisted with species like tyrannosaurs and horned ceratopsians in these Arctic environments. Some dinosaurs even nested within the Arctic Circle.
Researchers conducted an extensive study of bone artifacts from 26 Paleolithic caves and rock shelter locations in the Cantabria area of Spain and southwestern France.
173 work (a) and raw (b) taxonomic identification of bone objects: (1) blank, Tito Bastilo, sperm whale. (2) A launch point with a huge base, Islitz and a blue whale. (3) Lassempouy, Fin Whale; (4) Rascaldas, a sperm whale; (5) A launch point with a giant base, Hermitia and a gray whale. (6) Unclear object, St. Michelle, a sperm whale. (7-10) Santa Catalina, raw fragments of fin whale bones. Image credit: McGrath et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-59486-8.
“The largest creatures on Earth, whales were a vital source of nourishment and materials like oil and bone,” stated Dr. Christa McGrath, the lead author and an archaeologist from the University of Barcelona, along with her co-researchers.
“Hence, they are thought to have been instrumental in the survival of various coastal human populations.”
“Nonetheless, tracing the origins of human and near-human interactions is challenging since coastal archaeological sites are particularly prone to the impacts of rising sea levels, complicating the preservation of evidence regarding early human-mammal relationships.”
The authors examined 83 bone tools from various cave and rock shelter locations around the Bay of Biscay in Spain, along with an additional 90 bones from the Santa Catalina Cave in Biscay province.
Utilizing mass spectrometry and radiocarbon dating methods, they identified the species and age of the artifacts.
The earliest two dates were from the Cantabrian sites of Las Caño and Ergeyo, which dated to 20,200-19,600 and 19,600-19,000 years ago, respectively.
“Our findings show that the bones came from at least five large whale species, with the oldest dating back around 19,000-20,000 years,” mentioned Senior author Dr. Jean Mark Petitillon, an archaeologist at Toulouse-Jean-Jalaise University and CNRS University.
“This provides some of the earliest known proof of humans utilizing whales as tools.”
“Zoomorphometry is an effective method for studying past marine mammal diversity, especially when key morphological features are absent in the bone remains and artifacts.
“We identified gray whales that not only existed in Biscay Bay but are now confined to the North Pacific and Arctic oceans.”
“Moreover, chemical analysis of the bones indicates that the feeding patterns of these ancient whales varied slightly from those of contemporary ones, highlighting potential shifts in behavior and marine environments.”
“This discovery not only enhances our understanding of the early human use of whale remains but also illuminates the role whales held in ancient ecosystems.”
The team’s study is set to be published in the journal Nature Communications.
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K. McGrath et al. 2025. Late Paleolithic whale bone tools in the Bay of Biscay reveal insights into human and whale ecology. Nature Communications 16, 4646; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-59486-8
Locally referred to as Makarahi, meaning “big rock,” this boulder was displaced over 200 m inland by a tsunami approximately 7,000 years ago.
Limestone rock Makarahi. Image credits: Kohler et al. , doi: 10.1016/j.margeo.2025.107567.
The Makarahi boulder measures 14 x 12 x 6.7 m and weighs nearly 1,200 tons, making it the largest known boulder located atop a cliff and one of the largest vibration-transport boulders globally.
This limestone formation is situated 200 meters away from the coastline on the southern shore of Tongatapu, Tonga.
“Our research focused on the southern part of Tongatapu Island, examining coastal cliffs that show signs of past tsunamis,” stated Martin Kohler, a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Queensland.
“At the end of our fieldwork day, while conversing with some local farmers, they pointed us toward this rock.”
“I was truly astonished. It was found inland, outside our designated research area, indicating it must have been moved there by a massive tsunami.”
“It was remarkable to witness this large boulder enveloped in lush vegetation.”
“We created a 3D model before returning to the coast to identify a location from which boulders could be dislodged from cliffs over 30 meters high.”
Through numerical modeling, the researchers determined that a wave height of roughly 50 m lasting about 90 seconds would be required to transport the Makarahi boulder from its original cliff edge to its new location.
“The University of Queensland has provided a fantastic opportunity to explore the forces shaping our world,” remarked Dr. Annie Lau, a coastal geomorphologist at the institution.
“The recent tsunami in Tonga in 2022 resulted in six fatalities and extensive damage.”
“Gaining insights into extreme past events is crucial for preparing and assessing risks related to current and future hazards.”
“The findings concerning the Makarahi boulder offer evidence of Holocene Pacific tsunamis that have occurred since about 11,700 years ago.”
“This analysis will enhance our understanding of rock wave transport and improve coastal hazard assessments in tsunami-affected regions worldwide.”
The team’s study is published in the journal Marine Geology.
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Martin Kohler et al. 2025. Investigating the world’s highest boulder atop a cliff: preliminary insights and numerical simulations of transport on cliffs ranging from 30-40 m in Tongatapu (Tonga). Marine Geology 487, 107567; doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2025.107567
CT scan of the front of a skate depicting a hard, tooth-like dentition (orange) on its skin
Yara Haridi
Recent analysis of animal fossils suggests that teeth initially developed as sensory organs rather than for chewing. The earliest tooth-like structure seems to have originated as a sensitive nodule in the skin of primitive fish, allowing them to detect variations in the surrounding water.
The findings support the long-held belief that teeth originally evolved outside the mouth, as noted by Yara Haridi from the University of Chicago.
While some evidence exists to back this theory, significant questions remain. “What purpose do all these teeth on the exterior serve?” queries Khalidi. One possibility is that they functioned as defensive armor; however, Khalidi proposes an additional theory: “It’s beneficial to protect oneself with tough materials, but imagine if those materials could also enhance sensory perception of the environment?”
True teeth are exclusively found in vertebrates, such as fish and mammals. Although some invertebrates possess dental structures, their underlying tissues are fundamentally different. This indicates that teeth originated with the evolution of the earliest vertebrates: fishes.
Khalidi and her research team scrutinized fossils claimed to be the oldest examples of fish teeth, utilizing advanced synchrotron scanning techniques.
They examined fragments of fossils from the genus Anatrepis, which spanned from the late Cambrian (539 to 487 million years ago) to the early Ordovician period (487 to 443 million years ago). These organisms featured a hard exoskeleton with perforations.
These perforations were interpreted as dentin tubules, which are one of the hard tissues composing teeth. In human teeth, dentin serves multiple functions, including sensation and the detection of temperature and pain.
However, Haridi and her colleagues found no such evidence. “We observed the internal structure [of the tubules],” she states. Their examination revealed that the tubules most closely resemble structures known as sensilla, which are found in the exoskeletons of insects and spiders.
This means that Anatrepis are arthropods rather than fish, implying that their tubules do not directly lead to the evolution of teeth.
“Dentin likely emerged as a novel feature in vertebrates, but the hardened external sensory capabilities existed much earlier in invertebrates,” remarks Gareth Fraser from the University of Florida, who was not involved in the research.
Beyond Anatrepis, the earliest known true teeth belong to Ellipticus, which dates exclusively to the Ordovician period. These possess actual dentin found in the skin’s teeth.
Khalidi suggests that like the invertebrate Anatrepis, early vertebrates such as Ellipticus evolved independently to develop skin structures, where sensory nodules had undergone significant evolution. “These two entirely different organisms had to navigate the ancient ocean’s muddy terrain,” she explains. Significantly, the study also indicates that some modern fish skin still retains nerve endings, indicating sensory functionality.
As certain fish transitioned into active predators, they required a method for securing prey, leading to the evolution of hard teeth that moved to their mouths for biting.
“Based on the available data, tooth-like structures may have initially evolved in the skin of ancient vertebrates before migrating into the mouth, evolving into teeth,” Fraser concludes.
Significant amber deposits found in northern Japan may have been propelled from the forest into the sea by tsunamis occurring between 116 million and 114 million years ago during the early Cretaceous period. This is according to a recent study conducted by geological surveys at Japan and Chuo University.
Amber deposits from Sichuan Quarry in Hokkaido, northern Japan. Image credit: Kubota et al. , doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-96498-2.
Identifying traces of ancient tsunamis can be challenging, as the powerful waves tend to reshape coastlines. The sediment left behind often resembles deposits created by other high-energy events, like storms.
Nevertheless, amber, which originates on land and is then transported to the sea, acts as a historical record of tsunami occurrences, illuminating the physical processes influencing sediment movement during these events.
“A tsunami is a destructive ocean wave primarily caused by significant changes in submarine or coastal crust, as well as impacts from asteroids,” explains Dr. Aya Kubota, a researcher at geological surveys at Japan and Chuo University.
“They have been extensively studied during the Holocene (the last 11,700 years) due to their relevance in disaster prevention.”
“Aside from asteroid sediments, accurately identifying ancient tsunamis before major vegetation growth is extremely difficult for two key reasons.”
“First, coastal tsunami deposits are easily eroded in their dynamic environments. Second, well-defined criteria for identifying tsunami deposits have not been established, as they can be difficult to differentiate from other high-energy coastal events, such as cyclones.”
In their research, Dr. Kubota and colleagues examined amber-rich silica deposits from the Shiko River Quarry in northern Hokkaido, which formed during the early Cretaceous period around 115 million years ago.
Using fluorescence imaging, the authors discovered that the amber samples exhibited clear deformation in what is known as the flame structure. This occurs when the amber is still pliable at the time of deposition, allowing it to change shape before solidifying.
This suggests that a substantial quantity of amber was swiftly transported from land into the open ocean due to the backwash from one or more tsunamis, experiencing minimal exposure to air.
The amber then settled at the seabed, becoming covered with a layer of silt, which helped to preserve it.
“Other terrestrial sediments carried into open water could be instrumental in studying significant ancient catastrophic events, such as tsunamis,” the researchers concluded.
Their study was published in the journal Scientific Reports on May 15th.
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A. Kubota et al. 2025. Amber, a deep-sea sediment from the Cretaceous period, reveals a massive tsunami. Sci Rep 15, 14298; doi:10.1038/s41598-025-96498-2
This discovery implies that the first animals began emerging from the oceans around 400 million years ago and adapted to terrestrial life much quicker than previously thought.
Stuart Smida, a paleontologist from California State University, remarked, “I believed the transition from fins to limbs took more time.”
Before this, the oldest known reptile footprints were found in Canada and dated to 318 million years ago.
The ancient footprints were uncovered in sandstone slabs near Melbourne, revealing reptile-like feet with elongated toes and claws.
Scientists estimate that the creature was about 2.5 feet long (80 cm) and might resemble a modern monitor lizard. These findings were published on Wednesday in the journal Nature.
Co-authors and paleontologists, including Arlberg from Uppsala University in Sweden, indicated that the evidence showcases the identification of nails surrounding the footprint.
“It’s a walking animal,” he stated.
Located near Melbourne, Australia, sandstone slabs reveal fossil footprints of reptile-like creatures that roamed approximately 350 million years ago. The footprint is highlighted in yellow (front paw) and blue (back paw), indicating the movement of three similar animals, according to the researchers. Grzegorz Niedzwiedzki / Prof. Per Per Erik Ahlberg via AP
Only animals that evolved to live entirely on land developed the claws seen in these fossils. Earlier vertebrates, such as fish and amphibians, did not have hard claws and depended on aquatic environments for laying eggs.
In contrast, branches of the evolutionary tree leading to modern reptiles, birds, and mammals, known as amniotes, developed feet equipped with claws suited for traversing dry ground.
Smida commented, “This is the earliest evidence we’ve encountered of animals with claws.”
During the time these ancient reptiles existed, the environment was warm and humid, with expansive forests beginning to take shape. Australia was then part of the supercontinent Gondwana.
The fossil footprints tell a story of a day in the life, Ahlberg explained. A reptile fled across the ground before light rain; some rain droplets lightly obscured the tracks. Subsequently, two more reptiles dashed in opposing directions before the ground hardened and became covered with sediment.
Co-author John Long, a paleontologist at Flinders University in Australia, stated:
The preservation of ancient stones is illustrated in the context of Ashurbanipal. A team of archaeologists from the University of Heidelberg has discovered depictions of two gods and other figures representing the rulers of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, spanning from 699 to 631 BC.
A fragment of a 2,600-year-old stone relief from the archaeological site of Nineveh. Image credit: Aaron Schmidt.
Two artifacts, dating back 2,600 years, were unearthed at the archaeological site of Nineveh, located in modern-day Mosul, northern Iraq.
Nineveh served as the capital and largest city of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and for almost 50 years, it was the largest city in the world.
“The ancient city of Nineveh is recognized as one of the most significant cities in North Mesopotamia. King Sennacherib established it as the capital of the Assyrian Empire in the 8th century BC,” stated Professor Aaron Schmidt from the University of Heidelberg and his team.
The recently unearthed relief from the throne room of King Ashurbanipal’s North Palace stands out not only for its dimensions but also for the intricate scenes it portrays.
This enormous stone slab measures 5.5 m (18 feet) long and 3 m (10 feet) tall, weighing approximately 12 tons.
3D model of stone relief from the archaeological site of Nineveh: dark gray marks the fragments, while light gray areas indicate reconstructions based on findings. King Ashurbanipal is depicted in the center, flanked by the god Ashur (left) and the guardian goddess of Nineveh (right), followed by fish spirits and skilled attendants. Image credit: Michael Rummel.
“Among the various reliefs found in the Assyrian palace, this is the first to prominently feature the major gods,” commented Professor Schmidt.
“At the center of the newly uncovered relief is King Ashurbanipal, the last major ruler of the Assyrian Empire.”
“He is positioned next to the two greatest deities: Assur and Ishtar, along with the guardian goddess of Nineveh.”
“Surrounding them are fish spirits, symbolizing divine life and sovereignty, as well as armed supporters, potentially depicted as scorpions.”
“The evidence implies that a large winged solar disk may have originally adorned the relief.”
Researchers will continue to analyze the depictions meticulously and aim to publish their findings in an academic journal.
“This relief was originally located in a niche opposite the front entrance of the throne room, indicating its significance within the palace,” Professor Schmidt elaborated.
“We discovered a fragment of the relief in an earth-filled hole behind this niche.”
“It’s possible it was buried during the Hellenistic period around the 3rd or 2nd century BC.”
The burial of these fragments is likely one reason why British archaeologists failed to locate them over a century ago.
Paleontologists have identified three new fossil species. Sivulliusalmo Alaskensis was found in a purine cream formation in northern Alaska, USA.
Chinook salmon (oncorhynchus tschawytscha). Image credit: US Geological Survey.
“Sivulliusalmo Alaskensis reveals significant insights,” remarked Dr. Patrick Druckenmiller, the director of the University of Alaska Museum in the North.
“Our research uncovers several additional species of ancient fish new to the Arctic, including two new pike species: Archaeosiilik Gilmulli and Nunikuluk Gracilis, as well as the oldest record within the group comprising carp and minnows.”
“Many fish we now consider unique to Alaska’s high-latitude environment existed alongside dinosaurs.”
The discovery of Sivulliusalmo Alaskensis adds an impressive 20 million years to the fossil history of the salmon family.
Previously, the oldest known salmonidae fossil was from British Columbia and Washington.
“It’s noteworthy that the Salmonidae, which typically thrives in cold water, adapted and flourished during the warm Cretaceous period, enduring for millions of years amidst significant geographical and climatic changes,” noted Andres Lopez, Fish Curator at the University of Alaska in the north.
“Even though the Arctic was warm during that era, there would still be substantial seasonal variations in temperature and sunlight, much like today.”
“Salmon were among the fish adept at navigating these dramatic shifts.”
“Despite the planet’s numerous geological and climatic transformations, the ancestors of the same species group persisted in dominating the region’s freshwater ecosystems.”
The new species is the latest finding from the Prin Creek Formation, renowned for its dinosaur fossils discovered along the Colville River in northern Alaska.
During the Cretaceous period, Alaska was significantly closer to the Arctic than it is today.
“Fish fossils are among the most abundant in the Purine Creek Formation, yet they are challenging to distinguish in the field,” stated Dr. Druckenmiller.
“Consequently, we transported the fine sand and gravel samples to our museum lab, where microscopic analysis revealed the bones and teeth.”
“Our new findings heavily rely on small, fossilized jaws, some of which are small enough to fit on the edge of a pencil eraser.”
For detailed examination, the researchers employed micro-computed tomography to digitally reconstruct the small jaws, teeth, and other bones.
“We identified very distinct jaws and other components of the salmon family, which were recognized as belonging to this lineage,” said Dr. Druckenmiller.
“The presence of salmonidae in the Cretaceous polar regions and their coexistence with common low-light fish from this period suggests that salmonidae likely thrived in northern climates.”
“The high latitudes of the northern regions may have been vibrant centers for their evolutionary development.”
This paper was published in the journal Paleontology papers.
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Donald B. Brinkman et al. 2025. Fish from the Purine Cream Formation in the northern slopes of Alaska: the pre-Cretaceous and their paleobiogeographic significance. Paleontology papers 11(3): E70014; doi: 10.1002/spp2.70014
Extinct Kangaroos from the genus Protemnodon A recent study by paleontologists from the University of Adelaide, Queensland Museum, and Monash University discovered that these creatures were not adventurous wanderers traversing the plains, but rather homebodies that remained close to their habitats throughout their lives. This finding aligns with behaviors observed in modern kangaroo species, yet it was surprising to the researchers.
Protemnodon. Image credits: Andrey Atuchin / Rochelle Lawrence / Scott Hocknull.
Among large herbivorous mammals, greater body sizes are often associated with broader foraging ranges; however, it remains uncertain if this trend applies to extinct Australian megafauna.
In this study, paleontologist Christopher Laurikainen Gaete and colleagues investigated protemnodon fossils found in the Etna Cave, located north of Rockhampton in Central Queensland, Australia.
They examined strontium isotopes from kangaroo teeth, revealing matches only with local limestone rather than distant rock formations.
“The strontium isotopes in the fossilized teeth indicate the geology of the region where food was sourced,” they noted.
The findings suggest that Protemnodon had a significantly smaller foraging range than anticipated for its size, which is estimated at up to 170 kilograms.
Prior research indicates that Protemnodon likely lacked the capacity for long-distance travel due to its large size, thereby restricting its movement.
Additionally, this new study suggests that the stable, lush rainforest habitat provided sufficient food sources, negating the need for Protemnodon to wander far.
When climate change and increasing aridity disrupted this rainforest ecosystem about 280,000 years ago, the reduced foraging area may have left Protemnodon unable to find sufficient food, ultimately leading to the local extinction of these giant kangaroos.
Further investigations are needed to ascertain whether the limited range of Australia’s gigantic marsupials is a widespread pattern attributable to habitat rather than body size.
“We utilized data from contemporary kangaroos to predict a much broader foraging range for these giant extinct kangaroos,” explained Laurikainen Gaete.
“We were astonished to find they didn’t roam at all.”
“These innovative isotopic techniques have significantly advanced our field,” remarked Dr. Scott Hocknall, a senior scientist and curator at the Queensland Museum and paleontologist at Monash University.
“Think of it as an ancient GPS tracker. Fossils allow us to monitor individual movement, dietary habits, social interactions, and causes of death.”
“The ongoing debate regarding the extinction of Australia’s megafauna has persisted for decades, and now we can analyze it from an individual and species-specific standpoint,” stated Professor Anthony Doset, a paleontologist at the University of Wollongong.
“These precise methodologies enable us to examine each site and individual, facilitating more accurate extinction models.”
Researchers are currently planning to apply these methods to reconstruct the past behaviors and diets of MT ETNA and other extinct kangaroo species in the Capricorn Cave region.
“Many of the kangaroo species on Kangaroo Island, such as those found in Capricorn Caves, include tree kangaroos, pademelons, and rock wallabies, with descendants inhabiting the wet tropics and Papua New Guinea,” noted Professor Doset.
“We will employ these same techniques to explore how these surviving kangaroo species adapted to the environmental changes that contributed to the massive extinctions.”
The study will be published in the journal PLOS 1.
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C. Laurikainen Gaete et al. 2025. Megafauna Mobility: An assessment of the foraging range of extinct macropodids from central Queensland, Australia. PLOS 1 20(4): E0319712; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0319712
Paleontologists have unearthed fossil footprints from both invertebrates and vertebrates, dating back between 500,000 and 25 million years, including a faux Saber Tooth cat (Nimravid).
Nimravid footprints from the John Day Formation in Oregon, USA. Image credit: NP.
Paleontologists indicate that these specimens provide a nearly continuous 50 million-year record of mammalian evolution.
Within the Joda, four geological layers are identified: Clarno (50-39 million years), John Day (31-25 million years), Muscoll (16-12 million years), and rattlesnakes (8-6 million years).
The recently uncovered footprints belong to the Clarno and John Day layers.
“These footprints reveal intriguing behaviors and species previously undocumented in the extensive fossil records of the monument,” the researchers stated.
The series of footprints in the 29 million-year-old volcanic ash layer of the John Day Formation may have been created by Nimravid, a saber-toothed predator comparable in size to a bobcat, Hoplophoneus.
The absence of nail marks supports the notion of retractable nails, akin to modern-day felines.
Additionally, three round hoof prints of the same age likely belong to large herbivores, such as ancient tapirs and rhinoceroses.
Two small bird impressions, as well as a beak mark and an invertebrate trail, were found in the Clarno Formation.
These findings suggest ancient shorebirds were foraging for food in shallow waters.
Connor Bennett, a paleontologist at Utah Institute of Technology, remarked:
“It’s captivating; such a long duration for a species to maintain foraging patterns as seen in its ancestors.”
Within the same layer, scientists discovered an unusual fossil track featuring scattered toe impressions.
This indicates that lizards breaking through the lakebed represent one of the few known reptile trajectories from this period in North America.
“These tracks provide a unique window into ancient ecosystems,” stated Dr. Nicholas Famoso, Joda’s paleontology program manager.
“They add behavioral context to the body fossils amassed over the years, enhancing our understanding of prehistoric Oregon’s climate and environmental conditions.”
“Fossil tracks not only confirm the presence of these animals but also reveal their lifestyles,” Bennett added.
The team’s survey results will be published in the journal Palaeontologia Electronica.
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Connor J. Bennett et al. 2025. Following their footsteps: Reports of vertebrate fossil tracks from John Day Fossil Bed National Monument, Oregon, USA. Palaeontologia Electronica 28(1): A11; doi: 10.26879/1502
The formation of a large overpass 20 million years ago connected continents, influenced climate, separated oceans, and changed the course of evolution. According to recent papers published in Nature reviews the Earth and the environment, researchers from various disciplines such as plate tectonics, evolutionary anthropology, and climate research provide a comprehensive summary of the closure of the Tethys Seaway.
About 30 million years ago, the Earth looked drastically different. Africa was isolated from other continents, and the vast Thetis Ocean extended from the Atlantic to the Indo-Pacific oceans through the present-day Mediterranean.
However, approximately 20 million years ago, the first land bridge formed between Africa and Asia, dividing the Tethys Sea into the Mediterranean and Arabian Seas.
This land bridge allowed mammals like ancestors, giraffes, and elephants to migrate from Africa to Asia and Europe, influencing the evolution of both land and sea creatures and plants.
Scientists explain how they believe this land bridge was created. Around 50-60 million years ago, rock slabs descended into the Earth’s mantle, forming “conveyor belts” for hot rocks to rise in underground plumes.
About 30 million years later, these hot rocks reached the surface when tectonic plates collided, leading to the uplift of land that connected Africa for the first time in 75 million years.
According to Eivind Straume, a leading author of the study, the formation of this land bridge had a significant impact on continental configurations and evolutionary paths of animals migrating between Africa and Asia.
Researchers suggest that the closure of the Tethys Seaway has affected global climate, causing desertification in the Sahara, intensifying monsoon seasons in Southeast Asia, and enhancing marine biodiversity.
Archaeologists discovered and analyzed three hearths at the Upper Paleolithic site of Korman ‘9 (45,000-10,000 years ago) on the right bank of the Dniester River in Ukraine. Their findings show that ice age humans built different types of hearths, using mostly wood, but perhaps using bones and fat to burn fire.
Murphy et al. Provides a high-resolution Earth Character Study on three combustion features related to the profession of Epigravet on the Kolman 9 site in Ukraine, with age dropping to the last glacial maximum.
It is widely assumed that an important tool for human survival, especially in cold weather, is the ability to create, maintain and use fires.
Many literature provides data on the benefits of fire use regarding human evolution and its fundamental function in everyday life.
More recent research also shows the labor-intensive nature of using fireworks. The implication of fire use was not only an essential survival tool, but also played an important role in the way hunter-gatherer groups organize themselves.
This includes how hunter-gatherers acquire resources such as wooden fuel, how to initiate and maintain a fire if they store or cache fuel materials for future use, or how sites and activities are organized around the combustion function.
“The fire didn’t just keep it warm. It was also essential for cooking, making tools and social gatherings,” said Dr. Philip R. Nigust, an archaeologist at the University of Vienna.
“We know that fires have spread around this period, but there is little evidence from the height of the ice age,” added Dr. William Murfrey, an archaeologist at the University of Algarve.
In the current study, the researchers focused on the archaeological site of Komann 9 in Ukraine.
“Korman ‘9 is an Upper Paleolithic site on a north facing terrace on the right bank of the Dniester River in Ukraine,” they said.
“This site was discovered in 2012 while researching a site along the Dniester River.”
Through microstratigraphic analysis, microtransfer and colorimetric analysis, scientists have identified three flat wood furnaces.
One interesting discovery to come is that these fires have reached temperatures above 600 degrees Celsius, demonstrating a sophisticated mastery of fireworks even in the face of extreme environmental stresses.
The analysis also shows that humans use wood as the main fuel during peak ice ages, and charcoal analysis indicates spruce wood. However, other fuels such as bones and fat may be used.
“Some of the animal bones found on the site were burned in the fire at temperatures above 650 degrees Celsius,” said Dr. Majolaine D. Bosch, a museum of the University of Vienna zoo physician, Austrian Academy of Sciences and the Museum of Natural History.
“We are currently investigating whether they are being used as fuel or if they were accidentally burned.”
All three fireplaces are open and flat. However, the new results suggest that fire use was refined as it is likely that fireplaces were constructed and used in different ways each season.
One of the three fireplaces is large and thick, suggesting that a higher temperature was achieved here.
“People had full control over the fire and knew how to use it in a variety of ways depending on the purpose of the fire,” Dr. Nigust said.
“However, our results also show that these hunter-gatherers used the same location at different times of the year during their annual migration.”
William Chase Murfrey et al. 2025. The use of fires during the last Glacier largest era: evidence from the epigravet of Kolmann 9 in the Middle Donierster Valley in Ukraine. Geography 40(2): E70006; doi: 10.1002/gea.70006
Every April, the Lilid Meteor Shower returns to our sky, offering the chance to get a glimpse of the fireballs across the sky.
Though not the most prolific meteor exhibit of the year, Lilid is a welcome treat for Stargazer.
All you need to know about Lilid in 2025 is when to look up, what to expect, how to get the best views and more.
When is Lyrid Meteor Shower 2025?
Lilid will be active from April 15th to 25th, 2025, and peak activity is expected on the evening of April 22nd early on April 23rd.
Your best bet is to still go out before dawn on April 23rd. The radiation point (the part of the sky where the meteor appears to come from) is the best.
Where to see Lilid
Lilids are emitted from the constellation Lyra, located near the bright star Vega, one of the easiest stars in the Northern Hemisphere.
Look east or northeast after midnight and let your eyes clean the sky. Meteors may appear in any direction rather than near meteors.
No telescopes or binoculars are required. In fact, it’s better to see the meteor shower with the naked eye and be able to take in as many sky as possible.
read more:
Can you hear the meteor?
Meteors, Asteroids, Comets: What’s the difference?
How can you tell that a metstone comes from a particular planet?
How many meteors are there?
Under a dark moonless sky, Lilids usually produce 10-15 meteors per hour, but sudden bursts can produce up to 100.
Lilid is known for being quick and sometimes bright, with strange fireballs thrown in properly.
The month around this time will pass the third quarter, so if it rises it will be very bright. Thankfully, this won’t last until around 4am (US and UK). This means you’ll get unobstructed meteor monitoring for hours.
Laila’s constellation. Vega is a bright star in the top right. – Getty
What causes the Lyrid Meteor Shower?
The Lyrid meteor is caused by the Earth passing through the traces of debris left by Comet Thatcher. It finally reached the approach closest to the sun in 1861, so it takes a long time to wait until our path comes again (c. 2276).
When comet dust and rock fragments collide at high speed in the atmosphere (approximately 50 km/s), they burn out and create stripes of light seen from the ground.
Lilid is actually one of the oldest recorded meteor showers. Chinese astronomers observed them over two to six hundred years ago.
Tips for viewing lyrids
Catching a meteor shower is not complicated, but some wise strategies can make all the difference.
Find a dark place It’s quite far from the city lights – less light pollution, the better.
Give me time to adjust my eyes In the darkness. It can take 20-30 minutes to see the sky at its best.
Wear warm clothesEven in spring. The temperature in the early morning can be chilly.
Lie down It allows you to comfortably scan the sky on a blanket or reclining chair.
be patient – Meteors have bursts and may take some time to catch good ones.
If you’re having trouble finding the sky you need, Technology helps. “Star Map apps like Sky Guide, Star Walk 2, and Stellarium will help you find Sky Vega and Lyra using your phone.” Dr. Sham Balajia researcher in space particle physics and cosmology at King’s College London.
“Many apps use augmented reality, so just point your phone in the sky and you’ll see where to look.”
Is this the best meteor shower of the year?
Not at all – that title is usually sent to Persade in August or Geminid in December.
However, Lilid is the first decent meteor shower for Northern Hemisphere observers, and could be surprisingly dramatic.
Additionally, for the UK people, they arrive during school holidays. So, if the sky is clear, it’s the perfect excuse to make a late family stargaze.
read more:
Can you hear the meteor?
Meteors, Asteroids, Comets: What’s the difference?
How can you tell that a metstone comes from a particular planet?
Astronomers using the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope discovered a very ancient grand design spiral galaxy that existed just a billion years after the Big Bang. Named Zhúlóng (Torch Dragon), this galaxy is the most distant bulging disc galaxy candidate for which spiral arms have been known to date.
This image of Zhúlóng, the furthest spiral galaxy discovered to date, shows its very well-defined spiral arm, old bulge in the middle, and a large star-forming disc resembling the structure of the Milky Way. Image credits: NASA/CSA/ESA/M. Xiao, University of Geneva/G. Brammer, Niels Bohr Institute/Dawn JWST Archive.
Large spiral galaxies like our Milky Way are expected to take billions of years to form.
For the first billion years of universe history, galaxies are considered small, chaotic and irregular.
However, Webb is beginning to reveal very different photos.
Telescope deep infrared imaging reveals surprisingly large and well-structured galaxies much earlier than previously expected.
Among these new findings is Zhúlóng, the most distant spiral galaxy candidate ever identified, seen at a redshift of 5.2.
Despite this early period, galaxies exhibit surprisingly mature structures. Old bulge in the middle, large star-forming discs, spiral arms – a feature usually found in nearby galaxies.
“What stands out for Zhúlóng is both how similar it is to the Milky Way, its shape, size and star mass,” says Dr. Mengyuan Xiao, a postdoctoral researcher at Unige.
“The disc spans over 60,000 light years, comparable to our own galaxy, and the star contains over 100 billion solar masses.”
“This makes it one of the most persuasive Milky Way analogs discovered at such an early age, raising new questions about how a large, ordered spiral galaxy will form right after the Big Bang.”
The Zhúlóng Galaxy was discovered as part of a panoramic investigation.
“The findings highlight the possibility of purely parallel programs to reveal rare, distant objects that stress-test galaxy formation models,” says Dr. Christina Williams, a No-Arab astronomer and lead researcher of the Panorama Program.
Spiral structures were previously thought to take billions of years, but large galaxies were not expected to exist much later in the universe.
“The discovery shows that Webb is fundamentally changing the way we see the universe in its early days,” says Professor Pascal Oesch, an astronomer at Unige and a co-researcher of the Panorama Program.
a paper The discovery was published in the journal today Astronomy and Astrophysics.
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Mengyuan Xiao et al. 2025. Panorama: Discovery of a super gentle grand design spiral galaxy from z to 5.2. A&A 696, A156; doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202453487
Magnetic field turbulence may have allowed aurora to occur more widely 41,000 years ago
evgeniyq/istockphoto/get ty image
About 41,000 years ago, Earth’s magnetic fields became weaker to only a few modern levels, with a significant increase in radiation impacting the planet’s surface. Some researchers suggest that while the Lasshamps event may have driven Neanderthals to extinction, as is known, modern humans may have protected themselves using tailored clothing and ochre sunscreen.
Earth’s magnetic field spreads out into space and acts as a protective shield against harmful radiation. Magnetic poles usually line up at the North and Antarctic, but sometimes wander due to changes in the planet’s liquid outer core.
“This system variation can lead to variations in the strength and direction of the Earth’s magnetic field, such as those observed during the Laschamps event,” he says. Agnit Mukhopadhyay At the University of Michigan.
By studying magnetic features preserved in volcanic rocks and sediments, Mukopadiyai and his colleagues created a detailed 3D reconstruction of the Earth’s magnetic field during the Raschamp event.
They found evidence that the magnetic pole shifted towards the equator, making the field strength weaker to 10% of today’s levels.
Auroras made by charged particles are usually only visible near the poles, but this will change during the Laschamp event. “The aurora can be seen in a much larger area, perhaps even near the equator,” says Mukopadhyai.
The weakened magnetic field could have allowed more sun and cosmic radiation to reach the Earth’s surface, changing the climate of the region. “These environmental changes may have encouraged adaptive behavior in human populations, including increased use of protective clothing for UV shields and ochre,” says Mukhopadhyay.
Researchers argue that the production of tailored clothing and the use of reddish mineral ochre as sunscreen may have been given Homo sapiens Benefits for Neanderthals who are thought to have become extinct during this period.
“There is definitely a rough overlap in terms of timing between the ancient modern invasion of Europe and the events of Las Shampus,” he says. Amy Mosig Way At the Australian Museum in Sydney. “But it is probably stretch to say that modern humans are better sunscreen in the form of tailored clothing than Neanderthals, and that’s probably what it is to say that this contributed to the ability to travel even further than the Neanderthals and subsequent Eurasian rule.”
Veronica Wowl Yale University says there is evidence of ancients who used ochre at this time. For example, the Ethiopian PORC-EPIC site records ochre use 45,000 years ago, which she says was enhanced 40,000 years ago. They may have used it for other reasons such as creating sunscreen and artwork and adhesives.
Ladis Laf Neyman JCMM in the Czech Republic says it is not known whether modern humans have used ochre as sunscreen. “If that were the case, it could have protected them more, but it didn’t necessarily save them,” he says. “Europeans were really piling up against them at the time.”
He points out that the Raschamp event coincided with a very cold period known as Heinrich Event 4 and a massive volcanic eruption in Italy called the Campania Ignimbrite Explosion.
“The big advantage Homo sapiens What they had as a species compared to Neanderthals was that they had a large population of other people living in Africa and elsewhere. Homo sapiens After these events, we may move to Europe,” says Neyman.
In what wasn’t exactly the tax evasion trial of the century – given that it took place in the second century – the charges faced by the defendants were so weighty that they included forgery, financial fraud, and fraudulent slave sales. While tax evasion is an age-old practice, these particular crimes were deemed extremely serious under Roman law, with penalties ranging from hefty fines and lifelong exile to grueling labor and, in the most severe cases, being devoured by wild animals in a practice known as damnatio ad bestias.
The details of the allegations were recorded on papyrus, which was discovered decades ago in the Judean Desert and recently subjected to analysis. The documentation includes preliminary notes for the prosecutor and hastily drafted minutes from the judicial hearings. According to the ancient records, the tax evasion schemes involved document tampering, illicit slave sales, and manumission.
The accused in both tax cases were men. One of them, Gadalius, was the son of a poor notary who had ties to the local administrative elite. In addition to convictions for extortion and forgery, his extensive list of transgressions included banditry, incitement, and four appearances in court for tax evasion before the Roman governor. Gadalius’s partner in crime was a certain Saurus, identified as his “friends and collaborators,” and the mastermind Caper. While the ethnicity of the accused is not explicitly mentioned, their Jewish background is inferred from their biblical names Gedaliah and Saul.
This ancient legal saga unfolded during the reign of Hadrian, around the year 130 AD or possibly before 132 AD when Simon Bar Kochiba, the leader of the Messianic rebels, launched a large-scale uprising, marking the third and final conflict between the Jewish people and the Empire. The rebellion was brutally suppressed, resulting in hundreds of thousands of casualties, mass expulsions of Jewish communities, and the renaming of Syria and Palestine by Hadrian.
Anna Dolganov, a historian of the Roman Empire at the Austrian Archaeological Institute who deciphered the scroll, remarked, “The papyrus sheds light on the Roman authorities’ suspicion of their Jewish subjects.” She pointed out that there is archaeological evidence of a coordinated effort during the Bar Kochiba rebellion. “It is plausible that individuals like Gadalia and Saurus, who sought to subvert Roman rule through tax evasion, were involved in the uprising’s planning,” Dr. Dolganov suggested.
In the latest edition of Tyche, an ancient journal published by the University of Vienna, Dr. Dolganov and three colleagues from Austria and Israel present court proceedings as case studies. Their research unveils how Roman institutions and imperial law influenced the administration of justice in an environment with relatively few Roman citizens.
“This document provides intriguing and valuable insights into the slave trade in this region of the empire,” noted Dennis P. Kehoe, a classicist at Tulane University not involved in the study. “The allegations may involve the Jews owning slaves.”
Tracing the Papil Trail
The exact date and location of the papyrus’s discovery remain uncertain, but Dr. Dolganov suggested it was found by an ancient Bedouin dealer in the 1950s. She suspected Nahal Haver, a steep canyon west of the Dead Sea where Bar Kochiba rebels sought refuge in a cave hid along the natural fault line of a limestone cliff. In 1960, archaeologists unearthed documents from the era in one of the Jewish hideouts, with more discoveries made since then.
A 133-line irregular scroll, initially misclassified, went unnoticed in the Israeli Antiquities Authority archives until 2014 when Hannah Cotton Parietl, a classicist at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, identified it as being written in ancient Greek. Given the complexity and exceptional length of the document, a team of scholars was assembled to conduct detailed physical examinations and cross-referencing with historical sources.
Deciphering the papyrus and piecing together its intricate narrative posed a significant challenge for Dr. Dolganov. “The text features small, densely packed letters and highly rhetorical Greek replete with technical legal terminology,” she remarked. Unlike more straightforward documents such as contracts, there were no standardized templates for translation ease. “The fact that we only have the latter half of the original text further complicates matters,” Dr. Dolganov added.
Researchers speculated that the tax evasion scheme aimed to circumvent official scrutiny. This necessitated meticulous detective work to decipher the sequence of events. “I had to adopt the Roman fiscal authorities’ perspective to grasp the text’s nuances,” Dr. Dolganov explained. She also had to step into the accused’s shoes to understand the rationale behind tax fraud in the remote fringes of the Roman world.
The ancient stratagems resonate with contemporary tax experts. A German legal expert relayed to Dr. Dolganov that the subterfuges of Gadalius and Saurus mirrored present-day practices of tax evasion, such as asset shifting and fictitious transactions. The Roman interrogation methods aligned closely with modern-day investigative custody for financial crimes, marked by intimidation and frequently rigorous questioning.
A Princeton University classicist unaffiliated with the project, Brent Shaw, remarked:
Championing a Rebellion
The cases against Gadalius and Saurus were bolstered by intelligence provided by informants who betrayed them to the Roman authorities. Interestingly, the text implies that the informer might have been none other than Saurus himself, who implicated his partners to shield himself from an imminent financial scrutiny. The most plausible scenario posits that Saurus, a Jewish resident, orchestrated the pseudo-sale of several slaves to Chareas, a neighbor residing in the adjacent Arabian province, as per Dr. Dolganov’s interpretation.
By selling slaves across provincial borders, Saurus sought to obfuscate assets from scrutiny. While physically present in Saurus’s custody, the slaves, undocumented in Arabia, evaded declaration by Chareas. “Effectively, the slaves vanished on paper from Judea and never materialized in Arabia, eluding Roman oversight,” Dr. Dolganov noted. “This ensured that no further taxes were levied on these slaves.”
The Empire implemented a sophisticated system for monitoring slave ownership and collecting various levies, including a 4% tax on slave sales and a 5% duty on estates. “To emancipate empire-owned slaves, detailed documentary evidence of current and prior ownership was mandatory,” Dr. Dolganov elucidated. “Any missing or dubious documents would trigger an inquiry by Roman administrators.”
In an attempt to conceal Saurus’s double-dealings, Gadalius, the son of a notary, allegedly fabricated bills of sale and other legal documents. When authorities detected irregularities, the defendant purportedly bribed the local municipal council for protection. During the trial, Gadalius shifted blame onto his deceased father for the forgeries, while Saurus implicated Chaireas in the document tampering. The papyrus does not provide insights into their motives. “The rationale behind men risking forgery to liberate slaves without legitimate documentation remains a mystery,” Dr. Dolganov mused.
One conjecture posits that by orchestrating fake slave sales followed by manumission, Gadalis and Saurus may have been adhering to a Jewish religious mandate to free those enslaved. Alternatively, there might have been a profit incentive in capturing individuals across borders, potentially entrenching them as free Romans after freeing them from “enslavement.” Or Gadalia and Saurus might have engaged in human trafficking, a possibility that is as speculative as it is fraught with implications, Dr. Dolganov emphasized.
One aspect of the trial that struck Dr. Dolganov was the prosecutor’s professionalism. Employing sophisticated rhetorical strategies reminiscent of Cicero and Quintilian, the prosecutor exhibited a mastery of Roman legal terminology and concepts in Greek. “Here, on the edge of the Roman Empire, we witness a highly skilled legal practitioner steeped in Roman law,” Dr. Dolganov remarked.
The papyrus does not reveal the final verdict. “If a Roman judge deemed these men as incorrigible criminals deserving execution, Gadalius, as a member of the local elite, might have met a more merciful end through decapitation,” Dr. Dolganov suggested. “In any case, it beats being torn apart by a leopard.”
Iceberg calving from a Greenland glacier can carry rocks to distant coasts
Professor Ross Mitchell
The rocks transported by icebergs from Greenland to Iceland add to evidence that the European climate became much colder for a century or two in 540 AD.
This cold season in the Northern Hemisphere has been shown previously by research on tree rings and sediment cores, but is linked to many historical events around the world, from the collapse of the northern WEI dynasty in China to the decline of the city of Teotihuacan, Central America. The Justinian plague that affected the Eastern Roman Empire after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 may also have been caused in part by cold weather.
Christopher Spencer Queen’s University in Kingston, Canada and his colleagues decided to explore Iceland’s west coast beaches, as they showed it was a light colour, rather than the basalt black of almost every other beach in Iceland.
Its bright colour turned out to be due to the presence of many shells, but while walking through the area, Spencer spotted a cobblestone-sized granite stone. It was immediately clear to him that these rocks were not from Iceland. “It’s a bit embarrassing how easy it is to make a discovery,” he says.
Sure enough, analysis of the rocks confirmed that they came from various parts of Greenland. Greenland is the closest point, about 300 km from Iceland. So, Spencer must have been carried by icebergs spotted and washed away on the beach from Greenland’s glacier.
The beach formations where Greenland rocks reside were previously dated from AD 500 to AD 700, says Spencer. Greenland icebergs can still reach this area, but Greenland Rock has not been found in other layers of the beach.
An ancient rock collection analyzed in the study was traced to Greenland
Dr. Christopher Spencer
Therefore, this finding indicates that numerous Greenlandic Icebergs were washed away at this beach during the period when this layer was formed. This suggests that because of the cold conditions, Greenland’s glaciers grew larger during this period, hiding more icebergs, says Spencer.
This is neatly linked to evidence of cold seasons, sometimes known as the late antique red ice age. The cause of this event is unknown. Some people think it was caused by volcanoes, while others think it was caused by a surprising piece of Earth from a comet. Spencer believes that the solar heat is simply dependent on changes in the orbit that reaches Earth.
The extent to which climate contributed to events such as the collapse of Rome remains debated, but there is growing evidence that climate change has shaped the fate of many civilizations.
Since it was discovered during the excavation of Heinrich Schlimann in the legendary fortress city of Troy, Depas Amphikypellon – The cylindrical goblet with two curved handles, considered to be the goblet mentioned in Homer’s epic, is considered a potential drinking container for wine. New research by archaeologists at the University of Tübingen, Bonn and Jena University confirms this hypothesis by identifying high concentrations of fruit acids that exhibit regular use exclusively for wine, but these same acids were also found in Troy cups and beakers. This raises questions about the social and cultural significance of beverages. Although previously recognized as the exclusive coat of arms of the early Bronze Age, wine consumption may have been more widespread than previously assumed.
Height 15 cm Depas Amphikypellon It was excavated by Heinrich Schlimann of Troy. Image credit: Valentin Marcard / University of Tübingen.
‘Hefaestus spoke, then rose to his feet and handed the double goblet to his beloved mother.” says the first book iliadtells us how fire gods, metalworking and volcanoes encourage mothers.
‘As he spoke, the white goddess Hera smiled. She reached for her son’s goblet.‘
‘He pulled out the sweet nectar from the mixing bowl, right to left to left for all the other gods.‘
This drinking container Depas Amphikypellonwell known to archaeologists.
The object is a thin clay goblet with two handles narrowed to a pointed base.
Over 100 ships have been previously discovered in Troy from 2500 to 2000 BC.
They are also scattered from the Aegean Sea to Asia and Mesopotamia, and can hold between 0.25 and 1 liter.
“Heinrich Schlimann has already speculated that Depas’ goblet was handed over to celebrate. iliadsaid Dr. Stephen Blum, an archaeologist at the University of Tubingen.
“The classic archaeological collection at the University of Tübingen has two fragments and depas goblets from the Schliman terrorist attack.”
In the new study, researchers heated 2 grams of samples from two fragments and studied the resulting mixture using Gas Chromatography (GC) and mass spectrometry (GC-MS).
“The evidence for succinic acid and pyruvate was conclusive. It only occurs when grape juices ferment,” said Dr. Maxim Reigeot, a researcher at the University of Bonn.
“So now we can confidently state that the wine is actually drunk not only from grape juice but also from DePas’ goblet.”
Wine was the most expensive drink of the Bronze Age, and DePas’ goblets were the most precious ship. DePas’ goblets have been found in a temple and palace complex.
Therefore, scientists speculated that wine drinking took place on special occasions in elite circles.
But did the lower classes of Troy drink wine as everyday food and luxury?
“We also studied ordinary cups where chemicals were found in the outer settlements of Troy.
“So it’s clear that wine was a daily drink for the public as well.”
Team’s paper It was published in American Journal of Archeology.
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Stephen We are Bram et al. 2025. Wine consumption problems in Troy in the early Bronze Age: organic residue analysis and Depas Amphikypellon. American Journal of Archeology 129(2); doi:10.1086/734061
The light of Lyman Afa from Jades-GS-Z13-1 took us nearly 13.47 billion to contact us, as it dates back just 330 million years from the Big Bang.
This image shows the Jades-GS-Z13-1 (middle red dot) imaged with Webb’s near-infrared camera (Nircam) as part of the Jades program. Image credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/WEBB/STSCI/JADES COLLABORATION/BRANT ROBERTSON, UC SANTA CRUZ/BEN JOHNSON, CFA/Sandro Tacchella, Cambridge/Phill Cargile, CFA/J. Witstok, P. Jakobsen & A. Pagan, Stsci/M. Zamani, Esa & Webb.
NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope’s key scientific goal was to see more than ever before the distant past of our universe, when the first galaxy formed after the Big Bang.
This search has already led to record-breaking galaxies when observing programs such as the JWST Advanced Deep Deep Alactic Survey (Jades).
Webb’s extraordinary sensitivity to infrared also opens up a whole new path for research into when and how such galaxies were formed, and their impact on the universe of the time known as Cosmic Dawn.
Astronomers studying one of these very early galaxies have been discovered in a spectrum of light that challenges our established understanding of the early history of the universe.
The Jades-GS-Z13-1 (GS-Z13-1 for short) was discovered in images taken by Webb’s Nircam (near-infrared camera) as part of the Jades program.
Dr. Roberto Maiolino and colleagues at the University of Cambridge and London used galaxy brightness with various infrared filters to estimate the redshift that measures the distance of a galaxy from Earth, based on how light stretches along the path of a space.
NIRCAM imaging resulted in an initial redshift estimate of 12.9. In an attempt to confirm that extreme redshift, astronomers observed the galaxy using Webb’s near-infrared spectrometer (NIRSPEC) instrument.
The resulting spectrum confirmed that the redshift was 13.0. This is the equivalent of a galaxy seen just 330 million years after the Big Bang, the current 13.8 billion-year-old minority in the universe.
However, unexpected features also stood out. One is the wavelength of light of a particular distinct bright wavelength, identified as Lyman alpha radiation emitted by hydrogen atoms.
This emission was far stronger than astronomers who thought they could be possible at this early stage of space development.
“The early universe was soaked in a thick mist of neutral hydrogen,” Dr. Maiolino said.
“Most of this haze was lifted in a process called reionization, which was completed about a billion years after the Big Bang.”
“The GS-Z13-1 shows the incredibly clear and Telltail signature of the Lyman Alpha radiation, which can only be seen after the surrounding mist has been fully lifted,” he said.
“This result was completely unexpected by early galaxy formation theories, which surprised astronomers.”
“Before and during the reionization, the enormous amount of neutral hydrogen mist surrounding the galaxy blocked the ultraviolet rays of released energy, like the filtration effect of colored glass.”
“Until sufficient stars were formed and the hydrogen gas could ionize, such light, including Lyman Alpha radiation, could not escape these fledgling galaxies and reach Earth.”
“According to Lyman Alpha radiation from this galaxy has therefore had great significance in our early understanding of the universe.”
“We’ve seen a lot of people who have had a lot of trouble with the world,” said Dr. Kevin Hayneline, an astronomer at the University of Arizona.
“We could have thought that early universes were covered in dense mists that would be very difficult to find even a powerful lighthouse peering through, but here, beams of light from this galaxy penetrate the veil.”
“This fascinating emission line has a major impact on how and when the universe has been reionized.”
The source of GS-Z13-1’s Lyman Alpha radiation from this galaxy is yet to be known, but it may contain the first light from the earliest generation of stars formed in the universe.
“The large bubbles of ionized hydrogen surrounding this galaxy may have been created by the star’s unique population, much larger, hotter and brighter than the stars formed at the later epoch, and perhaps representative of the first generation of stars, said Dr. Joris Wittok, an astronomer at Cambridge and Appenhagen University.
“The powerful active galactic nucleus (AGN) driven by one of the first super-large black holes is another possibility identified by our team.”
Team’s Survey results Published in the March 26th issue of the journal Nature.
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J. Wittstock et al. 2025. We witness the onset of reionization with Lyman-α ejection in the redshift13. Nature 639, 897-901; doi:10.1038/s41586-025-08779-5
New research shows that satiety-inducing molecules called bombesins are present not only in humans and other vertebrates, but also invertebrates such as starfish and their marine relatives.
Common starfish (Rubens of Asteria) Brofjorden is located in Govik, the Lysekil municipality in Sweden. Image credit: W. Carter.
Bombesin, a small peptide, plays an important role in regulating hunger by signaling when it is sufficient for us to eat.
When injected into mammals, bombesin was found to reduce the size of the meal and increase the time between meals.
This has led scientists to believe that bombesin-like neurohormones produced in the brain and intestines are part of the body’s natural system to control food intake.
Furthermore, along with weight loss inducers such as Ozempic, compounds that mimic the action of bombesin are occurring for the treatment of obesity.
In a new study, Professor Maurice Elphick and colleagues at Queen Mary University in London explored the evolutionary history of bombesin.
By analyzing the genome of invertebrates, they discovered a gene encoding a bombesin-like neurohormone. Common starfish (Rubens of Asteria) other cerebral dermatosis, such as sea urchins and sea cucumbers.
“It was like searching for needles in a haystack, but eventually we discovered a gene encoding a bombesin-like neurohormones in the genome of a starfish and its parent,” Professor Elphick said.
Researchers then turned their attention to the function of the bombesin in this starfish, named Arbn.
Mass spectrometry was used to determine the molecular structure of ARBNs and to be chemically synthesized and tested.
They investigated how ARBN affects starfish feeding behavior. Starfish have a unique way of eating. The stomach is stretched out from the mouth to digest prey such as mussels and oysters.
“When I tested Arbn, I found that it caused a starfish stomach contraction,” said Dr. Weiling Huang, a researcher at Queen Mary University in London.
“This suggested that ARBN may be involved in stimulating stomach contractions when starfish stop feeding.”
“And this is exactly what I found. When I injected Albun into the starfish while pounding my stomach, it caused my stomach and returned it to my mouth.”
“In addition, it took longer to surround the mussels compared to those injected with ARBN, which also delayed the onset of feeding.”
The discovery of the ancient role of bombesin in appetite regulation sheds light on the evolutionary origins of animal feeding behavior.
“We can estimate that this function dates back 5 billion years to the common ancestors of starfish, humans and other vertebrates,” Professor Elphick said.
a paper Regarding the survey results, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Heiling Han et al. 2025. Discovery and functional characterization of bombesin-type neuropeptide signaling systems in invertebrates. pnasin press; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2420966122
Relief from the palace of Ashbanipal showing him in a tank
British Museum/Odey Hussein
It is one of the oldest and greatest stores of knowledge. This is a huge library of texts accumulated by Assyrian king Ashrbanipal, who ruled ancient Mesopotamia around 2,700 years ago. However, after his death it was plundered and burned to the ground. Luckily, the text was written on clay tablets, so it was burned and preserved by heat.
Fragments of Gilgamesh’s Epic
British Museum/Cumringed
When the library ruins were discovered in today’s Iraq during the Victorian period, the incredible wealth of this lost world became apparent. New book, Ancient Wisdom Library Serena Wysnom of the University of Leicester in the UK can create vivid portraits of Mesopotamian life from the shattered remains of around 30,000 tablets in the library in Ashbanipal.
Royal Board Games
Camlin is good
Written in Cuneiform, the world’s oldest form of writing, the tablet not only brings back the kings and queens to life, but also brings to the lament of priests, traders and professionals. It also includes magic spells and letters of complaints. Our lives are influenced by ripples of this ancient world, with 60 minutes of time, mathematical discoveries and the invention of constellations.
Clay Prism with an account for Ashurbanipal’s military campaign
Anthony Huan/CC by-sa 2.0
Photo from above: Relief from the palace of Ashrbanipal shows him in a tank. Fragments of Gilgamesh’s Epictells the story of the Great Flood. According to a letter by his brother, the royal game of Urboard games that Ashrbanipal enjoyed as a boy. Clay prisms containing descriptions of Ashurbanipal’s military campaign. And a letter in which his sister blames his wife for her poor mucus.
A letter in which his sister criticizes his wife for poor mucus.
Odey Hussein
Ancient Wisdom Library It is currently being released in the UK and will be released in the US on May 12th.
Human Origin: Neolithic and Bronze Age Turkeys
embark on a fascinating journey through Türkiye. Turkey is a land rich in historical treasures that illuminate stories of human origin.
Fossil feathers are usually preserved or embedded in amber as impressions of carbonaceous membranes and lake sediments and marine sediments, but are rarely mineralized. In a new study, paleontologists have examined the mineralised feathers of 30,000 years old Griffon vultures preserved in ash-rich volcanic deposits of the Koli-Albani Volcanic Complex in Rome, Italy. Bird feathers were conserved in three dimensions, conserving tissue ultrastructures such as melanosomes. These ultrastructures are mineralized with nanocrystalline zeolites, a preservation mode that has not been previously reported in fossil soft tissue.
A 30,000-year-old fossil feather of a Griffon vulture preserved in volcanic rocks at the Koli-Albani Volcanic Complex in Rome, Italy. Image credit: Edoardo Terranova.
The fossil vulture was discovered in 1889 near Rome by a local landowner who recognized its incredible preservation.
The entire body was preserved as a three-dimensional impression, with fine details such as the lid of the eye and wing wings.
The new study, led by University College Cork paleontologist Valentina Rossi, shows that feather preservation extends to the pigmented structure of small microscopic feathers.
“Fossil feathers are usually preserved in ancient mudstones laid in lakes and lagoons,” Dr. Rossi said.
“Fossil vultures are preserved in ash deposits, which is very unusual.”
“When analyzing the feathers of fossil vultures, we found ourselves in unknown territory.”
“These feathers are different from what we normally see in other fossils.”
The authors discovered that feathers are preserved in mineral zeolites by analyzing small samples of fossil feathers using electron microscopy and chemical testing.
“Zeolites are silicon and aluminum rich minerals and are common in volcanic and hydrothermal geological environments,” Dr. Rossi said.
“Zeolites can be formed as primary minerals (using clean crystals) or secondary during the natural changes in volcanic glass and ash, giving rocks a mudlock-like side.”
“The changes in ashes due to the passage of water induced precipitation of zeolite nanocrystals, replicating feathers to the details of the smallest cells.”
“Fine preservation of feather structures indicates that vulture corpses were buried in cold thermal clastic matter.”
“We are used to think that volcanic deposits are associated with high temperature, fast-moving thermal breaking flows that destroy soft tissue,” says Professor Dawid Iurino of the University of Milan.
“However, these geological environments are complex and can include cold deposits that can store soft tissue at the cellular level.”
“The fossil record is constantly amazed us with new fossil species, strange new body shapes, in this case a new style of fossil preservation,” said Professor Maria McNamara, a professor of Cork at the University.
“We never found any delicate tissues, such as feathers, preserved in volcanic rocks.”
“Discoveries like these broaden the range of potential rock types that can be found in fossils.
a paper The findings were published in the journal Geological.
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Valentina Rossi et al. Fossil feathers from the Coralbani Volcanic Complex (central Italy, late Pleistocene) preserved in zeolites. GeologicalPublished online on March 18th, 2025. doi: 10.1130/g52971.1
Who were the first inhabitants of Western Europe, what their physical characteristics were, and where they lived are some of the pending questions in the study of Eurasian settlements during the early Pleistocene epoch. Information on ancient humanity available from Western Europe is limited and limited to the Iberian Peninsula. Now, paleontologists have discovered a fragment of the midface of humanity at the site of the Sima del Elephante in Sierra de Atapuerc, Spain. Fossils, which were 1.4 million to 1.1 million years ago, represent the earliest human faces of Western Europe ever identified.
Archaeological excavations at the Sima del Elephante in Sierra de Atapuerc, Spain. Image credits: Maria D. Guillen/Iphes-Cerca.
“It is suggested that Eurasia was first settled by Hymonin at least 1.8 million years ago,” he said, institut Catetut Catetut Catetut Catetut de Paleoecologia Humana IEvolucióSocial, Rovira I Virgili, and Museo nacional de Ciencias natures, and colleagues
“Evidence of early human settlements in Western Europe is limited to highly fragmented fossil samples from the Iberian Peninsula, with few clues as to the appearance and classification of these human beings.”
“The fossils from the Spanish site, about 850,000 years ago, are Homo Alivisora species of early people with thin midfaces that resemble modern humans. ”
“In 2007, a Hominin Joborne (ATE9-1) was found at the Simadel Elephante site in northern Spain, between 12 and 1.1 million years ago, but it was not a definitive allocation. Homo Alivisor. ”
In the new study, the authors examined the fossil ruins of Hominin Midface from the Sima Del Elefante site.
The fragment labeled ATE7-1 consists of a substantial portion of the maxilla and zygote bone from the left side of an adult.
Using both physical evidence and 3D imaging techniques, the researchers reconstructed the fossil fragments, estimated to be between 1.4 million and 1.1 million.
They also discovered additional archaeological sites: stone tools and ruins of slaughtered animals.
“These practices demonstrate that the first Europeans had a close understanding of available animal resources and knew how to systematically utilize them,” Dr. Huguett said.
According to scientists, the ATE7-1 fossil does not display the “modern” midface features found in Homo Alivisor Fossils, but there are some similarities Homo Erectus system.
They tentatively allocated fossils Homo aff. Erectusshows affinity for Homo Erectuswithholding further evidence.
This finding may suggest that at least two people live in Western Europe Homo Early Pleistocene species: Homo aff. Erectusand later Homo Alivisor.
“The evidence is why it was assigned to the ''because it is still insufficient for a definitive classification. Homo aff. Erectus“Dr. Maria Martinon Torres, a researcher at the Centro Nacional de Investigation, said he is a researcher at Evolcion Humana in London and University College London.
“This designation recognizes the affinity of ATE7-1 Homo Erectus While it leaves the possibility that it belongs to another species open. ”
“Our findings demonstrate at least two different human invasions of Western Europe during the Pleistocene era, providing fascinating insights into the evolution of the genus. Homo. ”
“While their size is small, pioneering analysis of facial fragments greatly enriched our understanding of the origins and dynamics of the earliest Europeans on the continent.”
“More research and fossil samples are needed to investigate the relationships between these populations and further improve their classification,” the researchers concluded.
Their paper It was published in the journal this month Nature.
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R. Huguett et al. The oldest human face in Western Europe. NaturePublished online on March 12, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-08681-0
A primitive amphibian called the Temnospondyls survived the aftermath of the end-of-permian mass extinction that occurred about 252 million years ago. University of Bristol.
Reconstruction of the Temnospondyl species Mastodon Saurus. Image credit: Mark P. Whiton, https://www.markwitton.co.uk.
The Permian mass extinction is the most severe biological crisis in the last 540 million years, eliminating more than 90% of marine species and 75% of terrestrial species.
Dr. Aamir Mehmoud, a researcher at the University of Bristol, said:
“These were predatory animals that ate fish and other prey, but were primarily water-related, just like modern amphibians such as frogs and salamanders.”
“We know that the weather was hot, especially after the extinction event. Why were these water-loving animals so successful?”
The early Triassic period was an era of repeated volcanic activity that led to global warming, motivation, reduced atmospheric oxygen, acid rain, and long stages of widespread wildfires, creating such hostile conditions that the tropics lacked animal life.
This “tropical dead zone” dramatically affected the distribution of both marine and terrestrial organisms.
Dr. Suresh Singh of the University of Bristol said:
“We measured the size and characteristics of the skull and teeth that tell us about their function.”
“To our surprise, we discovered that they weren’t much different due to the crisis,” said Dr. Armin Elssler of the University of Bristol.
“The Temnospondils exhibited the same range of body sizes as the Permian, some of them were small, insect-eating, and others were bigger.”
“These large forms included animals in long snoo trapping fish and generalist feeders covered in vast nudes.”
“However, what’s unusual is that their body size and functional diversity expanded about five million years after the crisis and then returned.”
There is evidence that due to severe global warming in the first 5 million years of the Triassic, life on land and on seas has left the tropical region to avoid fever.
“Our work shows that Temnospondil was able to cross the tropical dead zone unexpectedly,” said Professor Mike Benton of the University of Bristol.
“The fossils are known from South Africa and Australia in the south, North America, Europe, and Siberia in the north.”
“Temnospondyls must have been able to cross the tropical zones during the cool episode.”
“Their explosion of success in the early Triassic period was not tracked,” Dr. Amir said.
“They dealt with hot conditions, perhaps because they could eat most prey animals and perhaps because they had a low food need by hiding in sparse waters.”
“However, when dinosaurs and mammalian ancestors began to diversify in the mid-Triassic period, Temnospondil began to undergo a long decline.”
a paper The findings will be published in the journal Royal Society Open Science.
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Aamir Mehmoud et al. 2025. Permian – the ecology and geography of the recovery of Temnospondil after the mass extinction of the Triassic period. Royal Society Open Sciencein press; doi: 10.1098/rsos.241200
Paleontologists have documented a collection of bone tools from one horizon, 1.5 million years ago, in Tanzania’s All-Bai Valley. These bone tools preceded more than a million years ago other evidence of systematic bone tool production, shedding new light on the almost unknown world of early human bone technology.
The elephant’s humerus, which was 1.5 million years ago, has soaked into the tool. Image credit: CSIC.
Early humans had already made stone tools with some capacity for at least a million years, but there was little evidence of widespread adoption from bones about 500,000 years ago.
Humanity, who shaped the newly discovered bone tools, did it in the same way they created stone tools by shaving small flakes and creating sharp edges.
The transfer of this technology from one medium to another shows that the human race who made bone tools had a high understanding of tool creation, and that they can adapt their technology to different materials, important intellectual leaps.
It could be that human ancestors at the time had higher levels of cognitive skills and brain development than scientists thought.
“The discovery envisages that early humans will greatly expand their technical options, previously limited to stone tools production, and now allow new raw materials to be incorporated into a repertoire of potential artifacts.”
“At the same time, this expansion of technological potential demonstrates the advances in the cognitive and mental structures of these humans, who knew how to incorporate innovation by adapting knowledge of stone work to manipulation of bones.”
“The tool provides evidence that their creators work carefully on the bones, shatter the flakes and create useful shapes,” says Dr. Renata Peters, a researcher at the University of London.
“We were excited to find these bone tools from these early time frames.”
“It means that human ancestors were able to transfer skills from stones to bones, a level of complex cognition that we have not seen elsewhere in a million years.”
The 1.5 million-year-old bone tool was discovered at the T69 complex site in Friedalie Ki Collongo West Gully in the All-By Valley in northern Tanzania.
The research authors discovered a collection of 27 bones shaped into the site’s tools. The bones mostly came from large mammals, mostly elephants and hippopotamus.
The tool is made only from the bones of the animal’s limbs. These are because they are the most dense and strong.
Very early stone tools have come from the All Old One era, which grew from about 2.7 million to 1.5 million years ago. It employs a simple method of making stone tools by shaving one or several flakes from the stone core using hammer stones.
The bone tool reported in the current study was a time when ancient human ancestors began in the Akeirian era, when they began around 1.7 million years ago.
Acheulean technology is best characterized by using more complex hand axes carefully shaped by napping.
Bone tools show that these more advanced techniques have been carried over and adopted for use in bone.
Prior to this discovery, bones shaped into tools were only sporadically identified in rare and isolated cases of the fossil record, not a way to imply that human ancestors systematically produced them.
Due to the overall shape, size and sharp edges, exactly what the tool was used is unknown, but it may have been used to deal with animal corpses in food.
It is also unknown that human ancestor species created the tool.
Alongside the collection of bone artifacts, no relics of humanity were found, but they are known at the time, Homo Erectus and Paranthropus Boisei He was a resident of this area.
“These tools were such an unexpected discovery, so we hope that our findings will encourage archaeologists to reconsider bone discoveries around the world in case other evidence of bone tools is missed,” the researchers said.
Their paper Today I’ll be appearing in the journal Nature.
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I. de la Torr et al. Systematic bone tool production 1.5 million years ago. NaturePublished online on March 5th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-08652-5
A team of geologists from Curtin University discovered clear evidence of a high-speed impact that occurred 3.47 billion years ago (Archean EON) in the heart of the Pilbara region of Western Australia. This discovery makes it the oldest impact crater found on Earth, surpassing the previous record of 2.2 billion years.
Grind cones from the Arctic Dome in the heart of Australia’s Pilbara region. Image credit: Curtin University.
“When more than a million craters with diameters exceeding 1 km and over 40 km, more than 100 km, the moon holds an exquisite record of the intense artillery fire that the body of the inner solar system has endured during the first billion years of its history.”
“On Earth, this early impact record appears to reflect the destructive efficiency of erosion and subduction, bringing the primary skin back to the convection mantle.”
“Nevertheless, the oldest part of many cratons, the ancient (4-2.5 billion years ago) nuclei of the continent formed 3.5 billion years ago, must maintain evidence of impact fluxes beyond similar regions of the moon of comparable age.”
“However, the oldest recognized terrestrial impact structure in Yarabuba, Western Australia dates 2.23 billion years ago. Where are Archean Craters?”
Professor Johnson and his co-authors investigated the Archiunlock Formation at the Arctic Dome in the Pilbara region and discovered evidence affecting major metstones 3.5 billion years ago.
“This discovery has challenged our previous assumptions about the ancient history of our planet,” Professor Johnson said.
Researchers discovered Archean Crater thanks to crushed cones. This is a unique rock formation that has only formed under the intense pressure of the Metstone strike.
The crushed cone at the site, about 40 km west of the marble bar, was formed when metstones over 36,000 km/h were pounded into the area.
This was a major planetary event, with craters over 100 km wide sending fragments flying around the world.
“We know that in the early solar systems, seeing the moon is common,” Professor Johnson said.
“To date, the absence of truly ancient craters means they are largely ignored by geologists.
“This study provides an important part of the puzzle of Earth’s impact history and suggests that there may be many other ancient craters that can be discovered over time.”
“The discovery shed new light on the way metstones formed the early environment of the Earth,” said Chris Kirkland, a professor at Curtin University.
“Discovering this impact and finding more from the same period can explain a lot about how life began, as impact craters created an environment that is friendly to microbial life, such as heated pools.”
“It also fundamentally refines our understanding of the formation of the earth’s crust. The enormous amount of energy from this impact may have played a role in shaping the early Earth’s crust by pushing part of the Earth’s crust underneath another or rising from deeper into the Earth’s mantle towards the surface.
“It may have contributed to the formation of the craton, the large, stable land that formed the foundation of the continent.”
Discoveries are reported in a paper In the journal Natural Communication.
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CL Kirkland et al. 2025. The Old Archian Impact Crater in Pyrabara Craton, Western Australia. Nut commune 16, 2224; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-57558-3
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