Morrison, a marine creature from the Cambrian period, could represent an early arachnid
Junnn11 @ni075 CC BY-SA 4.0
Research indicates that the brains of ancient sea creatures, dating back over 500 million years, were structured similarly to those of spiders. This challenges past theories that arachnids originated on land.
Morrison reflects a time of significant biological diversity increase, known as the Cambrian Explosion, when various animal groups began appearing in fossil records. These creatures possessed chelicerae, pincer-like mouthparts likely used for tearing into small prey.
Previous beliefs suggested that modern relatives of Morrison, which include horseshoe crabs, were connected to spiders. However, Nicholas Strausfeld and his team at the University of Arizona propose otherwise.
The researchers reexamined specimens of Mollisonia symmetrica, collected in 1925 from British Columbia, Canada, and now housed at Harvard University’s Comparative Zoology Museum. Strausfeld and his colleagues identified a brain structure that had previously been overlooked.
In horseshoe crabs, the chelicerae exhibit a neural connection at the back of the brain; however, in Morrison, this structure was inverted, with chelicerae linked to two neural regions that offered a perspective on the forefront of the nervous system.
Strausfeld notes that this orientation is “characteristic of arachnid brains.” Unlike the brains of crustaceans and insects, which are folded inward, arachnids have crucial areas for planning agile movements situated at the back. This architecture likely contributes to the remarkable agility and speed seen in spiders.
While it was previously thought that arachnids evolved on land, the earliest existing land fossils of obvious arachnids will not appear for millions of years later, according to Strausfeld. “Perhaps the first arachnids inhabited tidal environments, like Morrison, in search of prey,” he mentions.
Mike Lee, a researcher at Flinders University in Adelaide, Australia, who was not involved in the study, suggests that Morrison may now be viewed as a primitive arachnid. “We now recognize it possessed a brain akin to that of a spider, indicating it was an aquatic relative of the early spiders and scorpions,” Lee states.
Nonetheless, he cautions that while researchers strive to extract as much insight as possible from a single fossil, there remains a degree of ambiguity in interpretation. “It’s akin to attempting to piece together a unique Pavlova after it has been dropped,” he explains.
The Pilbara Craton in Western Australia features rocks that date back 3.5 billion years.
Elizabeth Czitronyi / Alamy
Rocks from Australia reveal that tectonic plates were shifting as far back as 3.5 billion years ago, a breakthrough that alters our understanding of the onset of plate tectonics over subsequent hundreds of millions of years.
Currently, along with roughly eight major hard rock plates on Earth’s surface, several smaller plates are interacting with the softer rock layer beneath. When these plates’ edges grind against one another, it can lead to sudden geological upheavals, such as earthquakes, and gradual processes like mountain range formation.
However, there is disagreement among geologists regarding the configurations of these ancient plates and their movements. Some researchers claim to have found indications of tectonic activity as far back as 4 billion years ago when the planet was significantly hotter; others argue that more compelling evidence is noted after 3.2 billion years ago.
Much of this data derives from the chemical compositions of rocks, which suggest past movements. Despite this, records detailing the interactions of early plates remain scarce, which is regarded as critical evidence supporting plate tectonics.
Recently, Alec Brenner and his team from Yale University claim to have uncovered substantial evidence of relative plate movement dating back 3.5 billion years in the eastern Pilbara Craton of Western Australia. They traced the magnetic orientation of rocks aligned with Earth’s magnetic field, observing shifts similar to how a compass needle changes direction when the ground moves.
Brenner and colleagues initially dated the rock using radioisotope analysis, establishing that at certain times, the rock’s magnetism remained unchanged. By observing this magnetization shift, they demonstrated that the rock mass progressively moved at a rate of several centimeters each year. They compared these findings to similarly examined rocks in the Barberton Greenstone Belt in South Africa, which exhibited no such movement.
“This suggests that some type of plate boundary must exist between these two regions to accommodate that relative movement,” remarked Brenner during his presentation at the Goldschmidt Geochemical Conference in Prague, Czech Republic, on July 9.
“Approximately 3.8 billion years ago, the Pilbara plate transitioned from medium to high latitudes, eventually reaching proximity to Earth’s magnetic poles and, possibly millions of years later, to the latitude of Svalbard.”
“If two plates are moving relative to one another, there must be various dynamic interactions happening between them,” noted Robert Hazen from the Carnegie Institute of Science in Washington, DC. “It cannot be an isolated event.”
Nonetheless, multiple interpretations exist regarding the underlying causes of this movement, according to Hazen. The variability in plate movement rates adds to the confusion, and existing data could align with various theories regarding Earth’s interior structure at that time.
At the very least, this discovery indicates the presence of structural boundaries, according to Michael Brown from the University of Maryland. However, he argues that the nature of rock movement appears dissimilar to contemporary understanding of plate tectonics. “Essentially, the Pilbara plate moved to higher latitudes to prevent stagnation, which is atypical within any current plate structural model.”
Brown posits that this aligns with the theory suggesting the Earth’s crust consisted of numerous smaller plates propelled by a thermal mantle plume during that period. He believes the remnants of these small plates examined by Brenner and his team provide evidence of movement; however, due to their limited representation of the crust, they may not accurately reflect broader Earth movements.
Brenner’s team also discovered indications that the Earth’s magnetic field underwent reversals around 3.46 billion years ago. Unlike today’s magnetic field reversals, which occur every million years, these ancient magnetic shifts seemed to happen much more frequently, over spans of tens of millions of years. This could imply a fundamentally different set of energies and mechanisms at play, as noted by Brenner.
Hazen emphasized that the scarcity of magnetic data leads to ongoing debates about the state of Earth’s magnetic field during that era of its evolution. “I believe this discovery raises the bar significantly,” he asserts. “It represents a vital breakthrough in understanding early magnetic reversals, shedding light on the core’s geomechanics in ways previously unexplored.”
Recent images from the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope highlight NGC 1786, a spherical cluster located in the constellation of Dorado.
This Hubble image depicts NGC 1786, a spherical cluster approximately 163,000 light-years away in the Dorado constellation. The color images were created from various exposures captured in visible and near-infrared regions of the spectrum using Hubble’s Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3). Three filters sampled different wavelengths. Colors were assigned by applying distinct hues to each monochromatic image related to individual filters. Image credits: NASA/ESA/Hubble/M. Monelli/M Hözsaraç.
Spherical clusters are ancient star systems, bound together by gravity, typically spanning around 100-200 light-years.
These clusters host hundreds of thousands, or even millions, of stars. The significant masses at the cluster’s core attract stars inward, forming a spherical configuration.
Considered among the universe’s oldest known objects, spherical clusters are remnants from the early Galactic era. It’s believed that all galaxies harbor a population of these structures.
The Large Magellanic Cloud, a neighboring dwarf galaxy located about 163,000 light-years away, possesses roughly 60 spherical clusters, including NGC 1786.
This spherical cluster, also referred to as ESO 56-39, was discovered on December 20, 1835, by the British astronomer John Herschel.
“Data from the new image is derived from spherical clusters within Milky Way galaxies, including the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, as well as Fornax dwarf spheroidal galaxies,” stated Hubble astronomers.
“Our galaxy contains over 150 of these extensively studied ancient spherical formations.
“Due to its stability and longevity, it acts as a galactic time capsule, preserving stars from the galaxy’s formative stages.”
“While it was once believed that all stars in spherical clusters formed nearly simultaneously, our research on ancient clusters within our galaxy has revealed multiple populations of stars of varying ages,” they further explained.
“To utilize spherical clusters as historical markers, it’s essential to comprehend their formation and the origins of stars from different ages.”
“This observational program analyzed older spherical clusters like NGC 1786 in external galaxies to determine whether they contained multiple star populations.”
“Such studies can provide insights into the original formation mechanisms of the Large Magellanic Cloud as well as the Milky Way galaxy.”
Research conducted by astronomer Matthew Hopkins and his team at Oxford University suggests that 3i/Atlas, the second interstellar comet discovered near our solar system, may have been on its trajectory over 3 billion years ago.
Top view of the Milky Way displaying the predicted orbits of our Sun and 3i/Atlas. Comets are represented by dashed red lines, while the sun is indicated by a dashed yellow line. The comet’s route to the outer thick disc is mostly clear, whereas the sun remains close to the nucleus of the galaxy. Image credit: M. Hopkins / Otautahi Oxford Team / ESA / Gaia / DPAC / Stefan Payne-Wardenaar / CC-SA 4.0.
“All comets formed alongside our solar system, like Halley’s comets, are up to 4.5 billion years old,” Dr. Hopkins explained.
“In contrast, interstellar visitors can be significantly older. Our statistical analyses indicate that 3i/Atlas is very likely to be the oldest comet we’ve observed thus far.”
Unlike 1i/Oumuamua and 2i/Borisov, the two previous interstellar objects that passed through our solar system, 3i/Atlas appears to be on a more inclined path through the Milky Way.
A recent study forecasts that 3i/Atlas is likely to be rich in water ice, as it probably formed around the star of the ancient, thick disc.
“This is an aspect of the galaxy that we’ve never encountered before,” said Chris Lintot, a professor at Oxford University and host of The Sky at Night.
“I believe there is a two-thirds chance that this comet predates the solar system and has been drifting through interstellar space ever since.”
As it nears the Sun, the heat from sunlight activates 3i/Atlas, generating a coma and tail composed of steam and dust.
Initial observations indicate that the comet is already active and may even be larger than any of its interstellar predecessors.
If this is validated, it could influence the detection of similar objects by future telescopes, such as the upcoming Vera C. Rubin Observatory.
Furthermore, it could offer insights into the role that ancient interstellar comets play in the formation of stars and planets throughout the galaxy.
“We’re in an exciting phase. 3i/Atlas is already displaying signs of activity,” remarked Dr. Michele Bannister, an astronomer at the University of Canterbury.
“The gases we might observe in the future, as 3i/Atlas is heated by the Sun, will help us evaluate our models.”
“Some of the world’s largest telescopes are currently monitoring this new interstellar entity. One of them may make a significant discovery!”
Paleontologists have extracted ancient enamel protein sequences from fossilized teeth of epiacaratherium sp., a nasal bacteria that thrived in the High Arctic of Canada between 240 and 21 million years ago (early Miocene). This recovered sequence enabled researchers to ascertain that this ancient rhino diverged from other syoxidants during the mid-Eocene Oligocene period, approximately 410-250,000 years ago. Additionally, the findings illuminate the distinctions between two principal subfamilies of rhinocerotinae and Rhinocerotinae, indicating a more recent division of bone development around 340-22 million years ago.
Reconstruction of three extinct rhinoceros species: foreground features a Siberian unicorn (Elasmotherium sibiricum), accompanied by two Merck rhinos (Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis); In the distant background is a wooly rhino (Coelodonta antiquitatis). Image credit: Beth Zaiken.
Dr. Mark Dickinson and his team from York University investigated the teeth of epiacaratherium sp. They utilized a method known as chiral amino acid analysis, which aids in understanding how these proteins were preserved over time.
By assessing the degree of proteolysis and comparing it with previously studied rhino material, they confirmed that the amino acids originated from the teeth themselves, not from subsequent contamination.
“It’s astounding that these techniques allow us to revisit the past and delve deeper,” Dr. Dickinson remarked.
“Armed with our understanding of ancient proteins, we can now pose intriguing new questions regarding the evolution of ancient life on Earth.”
The rhinoceros holds particular significance as it is currently categorized as an endangered species. Exploring its extensive evolutionary history offers vital insights into how past environmental shifts and extinctions have influenced present biodiversity.
Historically, scientists have depended on the morphology of fossils or, more recently, ancient DNA (aDNA) to reconstruct the evolutionary narratives of long-extinct species.
Nonetheless, aDNA typically does not last more than a million years, constraining its utility in unraveling deep evolutionary history.
Although ancient proteins have been detected in Miocene fossils, previous samples extending back over 4 million years had been constrained to roughly the last 10 million years—full sequences were necessary for robust reconstructions of evolutionary lineages.
The latest research significantly broadens this temporal scope, indicating that proteins may endure across extensive geological timescales under optimal conditions.
“Success in analyzing ancient proteins from such old specimens provides fresh perspectives for scientists globally, who possess remarkable fossils in their collections,” stated Dr. Fazeera Munier of York University.
“This crucial fossil aids our understanding of the distant past.”
The results were published in the journal Nature this week.
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RS Patterson et al. Phylogenetically significant proteins from the early Miocene era. Nature Published online on July 9, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09231-4
The peculiar plants that existed since the dawn of terrestrial animals can process water to remarkable extremes, resembling water from metstones more than typical groundwater. Not only do they play a crucial role in today’s ecosystems, but their fossilized remnants also provide insights into Earth’s ancient climate and hydrological systems during the age of dinosaurs.
Almost every oxygen atom in water contains eight neutrons, though some rare heavy isotopes possess nine or ten neutrons. When water evaporates, lighter isotopes do so more readily than their heavier counterparts, leading to predictable shifts in their ratios. Researchers can utilize this information to trace the origin of a specific water sample, determining whether it originated from groundwater, fog, or the rate at which it traversed through plants and the humidity levels experienced by those plants in the past.
Nevertheless, due to the minimal presence of heavier isotopes, acquiring reliable data on how these ratios fluctuate can be quite challenging, making it hard for scientists to draw definitive conclusions.
During examinations of water samples from desert flora and fauna, Zachary Sharp from the University of New Mexico and his colleagues discovered discrepancies between the observed data and the anticipated outcomes based on laboratory models.
Sharp and his team believe they have addressed the issue through a remarkable plant known as horsetail, which has been on Earth since the Devonian period approximately 400 million years ago and features segmented, hollow stems. “It’s a tall cylinder with countless holes, evenly spaced, a marvel of engineering,” states Sharp. “We couldn’t replicate this design in our lab.”
As water flows through each segment of the horsetail stem, it undergoes a process of repeated distillation. Sharp and his colleagues collected water samples at various points along the smooth idiot stem (Equisetum) cultivated near the Rio Grande in New Mexico.
By the time the water reaches the top of the stem, its isotopic composition markedly differs from other terrestrial waters. “If you encounter this sample, I suspect it originates from metstone, as it doesn’t come from Earth. [The oxygen isotope ratios],” Sharp remarked during a presentation at the Goldschmidt Geochemical Conference in Prague, Czech Republic, on July 7.
These horsetail analyses enable Sharp and his team to ascertain the variations in the water’s isotopic ratios under near-ideal conditions, allowing them to enhance model accuracy with these values.
By reassessing desert plant data with these refined models, previously inexplicable observations suddenly made sense. Sharp posits that these findings could illuminate other challenging observations, especially in arid regions.
Reaching heights of 30 meters, far surpassing today’s descendants, ancient horsetails provide even more extreme isotopic ratios and could serve as a key to understanding ancient water systems and climates, according to Sharp. Small, sand-like grains known as plant stone threads within horsetail stems can endure to the present day and may feature unique isotopic signatures influenced by atmospheric humidity. This factor affects the evaporation rate. “This could serve as a paleofat meter [humidity indicator]—how fascinating,” Sharp concludes.
The examination of North West Africa (NWA) 16286 reveals a lunar metstone with a distinctive chemical profile, offering new perspectives on the evolution of the moon’s interior and emphasizing the enduring nature of its volcanic activity.
Backscattered electron images of NWA 16286 samples. Image credit: Joshu Asu Nape/University of Manchester.
Discovered in Africa in 2023, NWA 16286 is one of only 31 moon basalts officially identified on Earth.
The distinct composition of the 311-gram metstone, featuring melted glassy pockets and veins, indicates it was likely impacted by an asteroid or metstone on the lunar surface before being ejected and eventually landing on Earth.
A recent study by researchers at the University of Manchester supports the theory that the moon has maintained internal heat production processes responsible for lunar volcanic activity across various stages.
Lead isotopic analyses suggest that these rock formations are the youngest basalt lunar metstones identified on Earth, dating back approximately 2.35 billion years, a time when lunar samples are scarce.
The sample’s unique geochemical profile distinguishes it from those brought back by previous lunar missions, indicating that its chemical characteristics likely result from lava flows that solidified after ascending from the moon’s depths.
“While the moon rocks returned from sample return missions provide valuable insights, they are limited to the immediate areas around those landing sites,” stated Dr. Joshua Snape from the University of Manchester.
“In contrast, this sample could originate from impact craters located anywhere on the moon’s surface.”
“Thus, there is a unique coincidence with this sample. It fortuitously landed on Earth, unveiling secrets about lunar geology without the need for an extensive space mission.”
The sample contains notably large crystals of olivine and is classified as olivine basalt, characterized by medium titanium levels and high potassium content.
Alongside the atypical age of the samples, researchers found that the lead isotopic composition of the rocks—geochemical signatures preserved when the rocks formed—originates from internal lunar sources with unusually high ratios of uranium and lead.
These chemical markers can assist in identifying the mechanisms behind the moon’s prolonged internal heat production.
“The sample’s age is particularly intriguing as it fills a billion-year gap in the history of lunar volcanism,” Dr. Snape noted.
“It is younger than the basalts collected during the Apollo, Luna, and Chang-E 6 missions, yet significantly older than the more recent rocks retrieved by the Chang-E 5 missions in China.”
“Its age and composition indicate that volcanic activity persisted throughout this entire timeframe, and our analysis suggests a potentially continuous process of heat generation from radioactive elements that generates heat over extended periods.
“Moon rocks are a rarity, making it always exciting to acquire samples that stand out from the norm.”
“This specific rock presents new constraints on the timing and nature of volcanic activity on the moon.”
“We still have much to learn about the lunar geological history. Further analyses to trace surface origins will inform where future sample return missions might be directed.”
Researchers have identified protein sequences within the dense enamel tissues of ancient nasal cavities and materials collected from the Burg and Lopelot sites in the Turkana Basin, Kenya.
The Turkana Basin within the East African lift system preserves fossil communities dating back more than 66 million years. Green et al. Powder samples were collected for paleontological skin analysis from the early Pleistocene back to the Oligocene (29 million years ago) from large herbivores. Image credit: Green et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09040-9.
“Teeth are the rocks in our mouths,” stated Dr. Daniel Green, a researcher at Harvard and Columbia University.
“They represent the most complex structures created by animals; hence, it’s possible to find teeth that are 100 million years old, offering geochemical records of animal life.”
“This includes insights into their diets, hydration, and habitats.”
“Previously, we believed that mature enamel, being the hardest part of teeth, should contain very little protein.”
Yet, by employing a novel proteomic technique known as liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), the researchers uncovered remarkable protein diversity in various biological tissues.
“The method comprises multiple stages where peptides are sorted according to size or chemistry, enabling detailed sequential analysis at unprecedented resolution,” explains Dr. Kevin Uno from Harvard and Columbia University.
“Recent findings indicate that there are dozens, potentially hundreds, of different proteins present in tooth enamel,” remarked Dr. Green.
Recognizing that many proteins exist in modern teeth, researchers pivoted towards studying fossils of nasal mesentery and related materials.
As herbivores, these creatures exhibited large teeth to crush their plant-based diets.
“These mammals could have enamels measuring 2-3 millimeters in thickness, providing ample material for investigation,” Dr. Green noted.
“Our discovery — peptide fragments and amino acid chains representing proteins spanning around 18 million years — stands to transform the field.”
“No one has previously identified peptide fragments of such antiquity.”
The oldest published findings to date date back around 3.5 million years.
“The newly identified peptides encompass a diverse array of proteins, representing what is known as the proteome,” Dr. Green remarked.
“One reason we are thrilled about these ancient teeth is that we lack a complete proteome for all proteins that could potentially be extracted from the bodies of these extinct elephants and rhinos, yet we can identify distinct groups.”
“Such collections could yield more information from these groups than from a single protein alone.”
“This research opens a new chapter for paleontology, enabling scientists to reconstruct the molecular and physiological traits of extinct species, moving beyond just bones and morphology,” stated Dr. Emmanuel Nudiemma, a researcher at the National Museum of Kenya.
“These peptide fragments can be utilized to delve into the relationships among ancient animals, much like contemporary methods that map human DNA relations.”
“Though a few animals analyzed in studies are completely extinct without living descendants, in theory, proteins could be extracted from their teeth and added to a phylogenetic tree,” Dr. Green elaborated.
“This information may clarify long-standing debates among paleontologists concerning the relationships among various mammalian lineages, utilizing molecular evidence.”
Survey results Today, I will be featured in the journal Nature.
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Dr. Green et al. Diverse enamel proteomes from rifts of East Africa over 108 million years. Nature Published online on July 9, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09040-9
Protein fragments survived in the extreme environment of Rift Valley, Kenya
Ellen Miller
In Kenya, fossilized teeth from an 18 million-year-old mammal yielded the oldest protein fragment ever discovered, extending the age record for ancient proteins by fivefold.
Daniel Green at Harvard, alongside Kenyan scientists, unearthed diverse fossil specimens, including teeth, in Kenya’s Rift Valley. Volcanic activity facilitated the preservation of these samples by encasing them in ash layers, enabling the age dating of the teeth to 18 million years. Nonetheless, it remained uncertain whether the protein in the tooth enamel endured.
The circumstances were not promising—Rift Valley is “one of the hottest places on Earth for the past 5 million years,” Green observes. This extreme environment presents “significant challenges.” Despite this, earlier research has detected tooth enamel proteins, albeit not from such ancient samples. To assess the longevity of protein traces, Green employed a small drill to extract powdered enamel from the teeth.
These samples were sent to Timothy Creland at the Smithsonian Museum Conservation Institute for analysis. He utilized mass spectrometry to categorize each molecular type in the sample by differentiating them by mass.
To his surprise, Creland uncovered sufficient protein fragments to yield significant classification insights. This identified the teeth as belonging to the ancient ancestors of elephants and rhinos, among other evidence. Creland expresses enthusiasm for demonstrating that “even these ancient species can be integrated into the Tree of Life alongside their modern relatives.”
While only a small amount of protein was recovered, the discovery remains monumental, asserts Frido Welker from the University of Copenhagen, Denmark. He emphasizes that growing protein and gaining insights into this ancient fossil is a “tremendous breakthrough.”
Unlike other tissues such as bone, sampling teeth is crucial for uncovering fragments of ancient and valuable proteins like these. “The sequence of enamel proteins varies slightly,” notes Creland.
The dental structure may have played a role in preserving proteins for such an extended period. As teeth are “primarily mineral,” these minerals assist in protecting enamel proteins through what Cleland describes as “self-chemical processes.” Furthermore, the enamel comprises only a small fraction of protein, aiding in its preservation, roughly 1%. “Whatever protein is present, it’s going to persist much longer,” Green asserts.
The endurance of protein fragments in Rift Valley suggests that fossils from other locales may also contain proteins. “We can genuinely begin considering other challenging regions of the planet, where we might not expect significant preservation,” Cleland comments. “Microenvironmental discrepancies may promote protein conservation.”
Beyond studying proteins from these specific periods, researchers aim to explore samples from various epochs. “We’re looking to delve deeper into history,” Cleland mentions. Green adds that analyzing younger fossils could offer a “baseline of expectation” for the number of conserved protein fragments compared to those from ancient specimens.
“We’re only beginning to scratch the surface,” Cleland concludes.
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Current forest die-offs due to global warming resemble those from the Permian and Triassic extinction events.
Ina Fassbender/AFP via Getty Images
Following a dramatic increase in carbon dioxide levels 252 million years ago, the death of forests resulted in enduring climate alterations, with the greenhouse effect persisting for millions of years.
Researchers striving to comprehend this phenomenon, which triggered the largest mass extinction in Earth’s history, caution that ongoing greenhouse gas emissions may lead to similar outcomes.
The extinction events of the Permian and Triassic are believed to have been triggered by extensive volcanic activity in what is now Siberia, elevating atmospheric CO2 concentrations.
The planet’s surface temperature soared by as much as 10°C, with average temperatures in the equatorial regions climbing to 34°C (93°F)—a rise of 8°C above the current average.
Although some scientists have recently posited that these mass extinction events may have limited effects on terrestrial ecosystems, Andrew Meldis from the University of Adelaide expresses confidence that life was nearly extinguished 252 million years ago.
“Small pockets of life might survive mass extinctions in isolated enclaves, but many areas within the Permian-Triassic fossil record reveal a complete ecosystem collapse,” notes Meldis.
He and his team scrutinized the fossil record to investigate why the Super Greenhouse event, which drives mass extinction, lasted five million years—far longer than the 100,000 years predicted by climate models.
The findings revealed that vast expanses of forests, originally with canopies of around 50 meters, were supplanted by resilient underground flora, typically ranging from 5 cm to 2 meters in height. Additionally, peat marshes, significant carbon storage ecosystems, vanished from tropical areas.
Employing computer models of Earth’s climatic and geochemical systems, researchers indicated that the depletion of these ecosystems contributes to elevated CO2 levels persisting for millions of years. This predominantly occurs because vegetation plays a crucial role in weathering, the mechanism that extracts carbon from the atmosphere and sequesters it in rocks and soil over extensive timescales.
With atmospheric CO2 levels rising rapidly, the parallels to the present are striking, asserts Meldis. As temperatures escalate, tropical and subtropical forests may find it increasingly challenging to adapt, potentially surpassing thresholds where vegetation ceases to maintain climate equilibrium.
Meldis explains that simply restoring former ecosystems will not lead to a “ping-pong effect.” He emphasizes that the atmosphere cannot be swiftly rejuvenated after the loss of the equatorial forest.
“You’re not transitioning from an ice house to a greenhouse and then back; the Earth will find a new equilibrium, which may differ significantly from prior states,” he elaborates.
Catlin Maisner, a researcher at the University of New South Wales—who was not involved in the study—describes reconstructing these events as analogous to “trying to assemble a jigsaw puzzle with many missing pieces,” yet acknowledges the team’s arguments as “plausible.”
However, she notes considerable uncertainty regarding oceanic processes during this period. “The ocean harbors far more carbon than land and atmosphere combined, and we still lack a comprehensive understanding of how marine biology, chemistry, and physical circulation were affected during that event,” cautions Meissner.
Archaeologists have discovered a collection of 35 wooden tools, including drilling sticks and pointed hand tools, at an early Paleolithic site in Gantanquin, southwestern China. These findings indicate that the humans who utilized these tools focused on creating implements for excavation and processing rather than for hunting purposes.
Wooden tools found on the Gangtankin property in China. Image credit: Liu et al. , doi: 10.1126/science.adr8540.
While early humans have crafted wood tools for more than a million years, such artifacts are exceedingly rare in archaeological records, particularly from the early to mid-Pleistocene epochs.
The majority of ancient wooden tools have been uncovered in Africa and Western Eurasia, with notable specimens like spears and throwing rods found in Germany and the UK, alongside structural elements from Zambia and wooden plaques and excavation rods from sites in Israel and Italy.
For years, the Bamboo hypothesis has suggested that early East Asian populations largely depended on bamboo for toolmaking, though there is limited archaeological evidence supporting organic material-based tools in this region.
In a recent study led by Dr. Jian-Hui Liu and colleagues from the Yunnan Cultural Relics and Archaeology Institute, a diverse array of artifacts from the Gantangqing site was analyzed.
Among these were 35 wooden artifacts displaying clear signs of intentional shaping and use, along with indications of wear, suggesting they were deliberately crafted by humans.
These tools, made from pine, included probable hook-like implements used for cutting plant roots, varying from large, double-handed excavation sticks to smaller portable tools.
“In comparison to other prominent prehistoric wooden tool sites in Europe, Gantankin is characterized by a variety of medium-sized hunting equipment as well as a broader scope of handheld tools primarily designed for excavating and processing plants,” the researchers noted.
“The sophistication of these wooden tools emphasizes the significance of organic artifacts in understanding early human behavior, especially in contexts where only stone tools might suggest a more ‘primitive’ technological landscape.”
A study detailing these findings was published today in the journal Science.
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Jian-Hui Liu et al. 2025. Wooden tools from Gantankin in southwestern China, dating back 300,000 years. Science 389 (6755): 78-83; doi: 10.1126/science.adr8540
Approximately 100 million years ago, dinosaurs might have congregated to engage in a mating dance in a tidal area near Denver, Colorado. Recent research published in Cretaceous Research indicates that numerous intriguing scrape marks found in the stones of Colorado’s renowned dinosaur ridges are identified as Leks, potentially the largest known dinosaur mating display sites.
“Leks, or ‘Keeping Arena,’ refers to a location where numerous individuals come together to showcase courtship behaviors to attract mates,” stated Dr. Caldwell Bunting, the lead author of the study, in a conversation with BBC Science Focus.
Many contemporary birds, including knots and feathers—descendants of dinosaurs—exhibit similar behaviors, noted Bunting.
The hypothesis that dinosaurs engaged in such rituals was initially suggested by paleontologist Dr. Martin Lockley, who had observed comparable marks in the vicinity. This new study significantly strengthens that hypothesis, uncovering over 30 different scrape marks across various sediment layers.
These scratches found on Colorado’s dinosaur ridges may have been created during mating displays akin to those of modern birds. – Getty
The marks can be classified into two types: broad, shallow bowl-like impressions and narrow scrapes. It appears many were produced during movements involving rotation and kicking actions by both feet.
Drone imagery from the 2019 US Geological Survey and subsequent follow-up surveys enabled the team to map the site accurately, as access to the area was strictly controlled.
“This was a remarkable discovery,” remarked Bunting, who collaborated with Lockley until his passing in 2023.
“Our excitement was palpable. Upon reviewing the drone footage, we immediately spotted scuffs covering the entire screen. It truly felt like a ‘Eureka!’ moment for me.”
While the exact species responsible for these markings remains uncertain, Bunting speculates that based on nearby fossil footprints, Acrocanthosaurus—a predator similar to T. Rex—and ostrich-like ornithomimids could be possible contenders.
Bunting argues that it’s improbable T. Rex would engage in similar courtship behaviors, as such rituals necessitate complex social dynamics likely associated with group herding and movement.
Bunting aims to revisit other possible LEK sites in western Colorado to reassess initial interpretations of the scuff marks found there.
If verified, these marks could provide significant insights into the reproductive behaviors of dinosaurs, revealing not only their mating practices but also their competition for partners.
Read more:
About our experts
Dr. Caldwell Bunting is an alumnus of Old Dominion University. His research has appeared in journals such as Sedimentary Geology and Cretaceous Research.
A global consortium of researchers has successfully sequenced the complete genome of adult male Egyptians from over four millennia ago, predating the unification of Egypt and enriching our understanding of the early dynastic period and prior kingdoms.
The Nevamun hunt in the swamp with his wife and daughter is part of a mural from Chapelle, the tomb of Nevamun in the New Kingdom, in 1350 BC. Image credit: Werner Forman Archive/Bridgeman Images.
Dr. Pontus Skoglund from the Francis Crick Institute stated:
“While Ancient Egypt offers a rich tapestry of history and archaeology, the challenges of DNA preservation have rendered the genomic records of early Egyptian ancestors largely unparalleled.”
“Recent advances in genetic technology have enabled us to transcend these barriers and mitigate DNA contamination, giving us the first genetic insights into potential migrations of Egyptian populations during this era.”
In this research, scientists obtained and sequenced DNA from individual teeth belonging to Nuway rats from a village located 265 km south of Cairo.
Through analysis of the genetic code, they discovered that a significant portion of the individual’s ancestry traced back to ancient populations in North Africa.
The remaining 20% of ancestry linked to ancient peoples from the fertile crescent, particularly from a region known as Mesopotamia (roughly corresponding to modern Iraq).
These findings provide genetic proof that populations migrated to Egypt, intermingling with the local populace—previously revealed only through archaeological artifacts.
However, researchers caution that additional genomic sequences are required to fully comprehend the variations among Egyptian ancestors during this period.
By examining the chemical markers found in teeth related to diet and environmental factors, they concluded that these individuals likely grew up in Egypt.
They also analyzed skeletal remains to estimate age, gender, height, and gather insights into their ancestry and way of life.
These markers indicated that the skeleton exhibited muscle markings suggestive of prolonged occupations, such as pottery or other trades requiring similar movements.
“By piecing together the evidence from this individual’s DNA, bones, and teeth, we were able to construct a detailed portrait,” remarked Dr. Adeline Mores Jacobs from Liverpool John Moores University.
“We anticipate that future DNA samples from ancient Egypt will enhance our understanding of this migration from West Asia.”
“This individual’s life story is remarkable,” noted Dr. Linus Girdland Flink, co-author from Liverpool John Moores University.
“He lived and died during a pivotal moment in ancient Egypt, with his skeleton excavated in 1902 and subsequently donated to the World Museum in Liverpool.”
“We are beginning to uncover this individual’s story, revealing ancestral connections to the fertile crescent and illustrating the intermingling of diverse groups during this time.”
“The skeletal markings provide significant clues about his personal life and lifestyle. His pelvic bones are enlarged, showing extensive activity, and his arms exhibit signs of repetitive motion, while his right foot displays notable arthritis.”
“These findings suggest a connection to ceramics, possibly involving the use of ceramic wheels in ancient Egypt.”
“Nonetheless, the elevated burial status associated with his remains is not typically expected for potters, indicating he may have achieved a higher social standing.”
Fresco from the Theban Necropolis showcasing an ancient Egyptian potter
DeAgostini/Getty Images
In a groundbreaking discovery, researchers sequenced the complete genome of an ancient Egyptian individual for the first time. The DNA was sourced from the remains of an elderly man, possibly a potter, who lived over 4,500 years ago.
The analysis revealed that this ancient Egyptian had inherited roughly 20% of his DNA from ancestors residing in the fertile crescent, situated more than 1,000 kilometers east of Egypt. This indicates a connection between Egyptian and Mesopotamian cultures, despite the considerable distance.
The remains were unearthed in the early 1900s from Nuweyrat, a necropolis located near Beni Hasan, Egypt. They were discovered within a ceramic vessel placed in the tomb of Iwage. Currently, these remains are housed at the World Museum in Liverpool, England.
“We successfully dated this individual’s remains using radiocarbon analysis,” states Adeline Morez Jacobs from Liverpool John Moore University. He lived between 2855 and 2570 BC, making him one of the earliest individuals from ancient Egypt, whose history spans from 3150 to 30 BC.
Both the skeleton and DNA confirm that the individual was male. Signs of arthritis and other physical indicators suggest he was between 44 and 64 years old. “He was likely in his 60s at the time of death, which is quite advanced for that period,” says Joel Eilish at Liverpool John Moore University.
The man’s social status remains uncertain. “He might have been buried in a manner associated with the upper class,” observes Ireland. However, his skeletal structure indicates a struggle with physical activity. Evidence suggests he frequently looked down or leaned forward, and that he sat on hard surfaces for extended periods. Researchers speculate that his probable profession was as a potter, based on preserved representations of various ancient Egyptian occupations.
Using samples collected from his tooth roots, the team was able to sequence the entire male genome. Previously, only partial genomes from three ancient Egyptians who lived in the region over 1,000 years ago had been achieved.
“There are few genetic sequences available from ancient Egypt,” remarks Shirly Ben-Dor Evian from Haifa University, Israel.
This scarcity is largely attributed to the warm climate, which accelerates DNA degradation. “The conditions are simply too hot,” avers team member Pontus Skoglund from the Francis Crick Institute in London, referring to the sequence as a ‘long shot.’
“We speculated that pot burials would create a stable environment, complementing the rock-cut tombs where these burials occurred,” explains Linus Girdland-Flink from the University of Aberdeen, UK.
As expected, around 80% of the genetic lineage of this male individual corresponds to North African ancestry. However, the remaining 20% aligns with populations from the fertile crescent covering parts of modern-day Iraq, western Iran, Syria, and Turkey.
There are multiple theories regarding this finding, according to Ben-Dor Evian. “Explorers often speculate about these connections,” she comments. Even after agriculture became prevalent, “there always existed a segment of the population that remained nomadic or semi-nomadic,” which may account for DNA migration between the fertile crescent and Egypt.
Archaeological evidence has previously indicated a link between ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. “A significant cultural connection existed between the two, sharing artistic motifs,” states Ireland, noting that items like Lapis Lazuli were traded between the regions.
This connection might also have influenced the inception of writing systems. “Initial writing appeared almost simultaneously in both areas,” he explains, “with the development of Mesopotamian and Egyptian hieroglyphics taking place just 300 years apart.”
“Was it a local invention originating in both regions? [or] Did they influence each other in some manner?” queries Ben-Dor Evian. “This theory could suggest interaction through the movement of individuals.”
Modern rendition of garum, a fermented fish sauce dating back to Roman times
Alexander Mychko / Alamy
Garum, a type of fermented fish sauce, was a favored condiment throughout the Roman Empire. Recent analyses of ancient DNA extracted from the production vats have uncovered the specific fish species used in this staple seasoning.
This Roman fish sauce was widely appreciated for its intense salty and umami flavors. However, philosopher Seneca famously remarked that one variant had a price “as audacious as that of rotten fish.” There were various types, including a liquid known as Garum or Liquamen, and a thicker paste called Allec. The preparation involved fermenting fish and plant materials, complicating the identification of the fish species used.
According to Paula Campos from the University of Porto, Portugal, “The small, fractured bones and the acidic conditions contribute significantly to the degradation of DNA.”
Campos and her team conducted DNA sequencing on bone samples dating back to the 3rd century AD, sourced from a Roman fish sauce production facility in northwestern Spain. They compared numerous overlapping DNA sequences against the complete fish genome, allowing them to confidently identify the species involved.
This analysis revealed that the remaining fish was predominantly European sardines, aligning with previous visual identifications at other Roman fish processing sites. Additional fish species such as herring, whiting, mackerel, and anchovy have also been identified in various garum production locales.
This finding indicates that “even degraded fish remains” can yield identifiable DNA, suggesting that “it could enhance our understanding of regional variations in the main ingredients of historical fish sauces and pastes,” noted Analisa Marzano, a colleague from the University of Bologna, Italy, who was not involved in the study.
The research shows a comparison of ancient and modern sardines, indicating less genetic mixing among sardine populations across different marine regions in ancient times. This knowledge “may help us gauge the impact of human-environment interactions over the centuries,” Marzano explained.
For future studies, Campos and her colleagues intend to analyze additional fish species from other Roman garum production sites. “We’re broadening our sampling to verify if the results are consistent throughout the Roman Empire,” she added.
Emotions can manifest as physical sensations—be it a surge of anger, a flutter of excitement, or waves of joy, our feelings often have a tangible presence in our bodies.
This phenomenon arises from the interplay between our mental and physical states.
For instance, experiencing anxiety on a first date may trigger a fight-or-flight response, leading to the release of hormones like adrenaline, which elevate heart rate and tense muscles, allowing you to perceive sensations in your chest and throughout your body.
Both positive and negative emotions can influence various bodily functions, including digestion, breathing, perspiration, skin sensitivity, salivation, blood circulation, body temperature, facial tension, and more.
That’s why we often refer to “gut feelings” and “nervous energy.” These physiological shifts can significantly impact our emotions, creating a continual feedback loop connecting our body and mind.
In 2013, a Finnish researcher conducted a study in which individuals mapped out how different emotions corresponded to specific body areas.
While each person’s emotional experience is unique, common sensations can often be found in specific regions. For example, anger typically resonates in the chest and hands, while happiness is prominently felt in the chest and face.
Over time, our perceptions of where we feel emotions in our bodies may have evolved.
A follow-up study in 2024 examined the emotional mappings of people in ancient Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) by analyzing a million words from historical texts to discover connections between emotions and body parts.
Researchers noted some parallels with present-day emotional responses. For instance, pride was linked to the heart by Mesopotamians, while happiness was most closely associated with the liver, and anger was related to the feet.
These distinctions may stem from Mesopotamian cultural beliefs surrounding the body, wherein the liver was viewed as the central organ of the soul’s essence.
This article addresses the inquiry from Elisevarn of Sheffield: “Why do we feel emotions in different parts of our body?”
For any questions, please email us atQuestion @sciencefocus.com or reach out viaFacebook,Twitter, orInstagramPage (please include your name and location).
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Paleontologists have unearthed a new species of large passerine birds based on fossilized remains from the Bannockburn Formation near St. Bathans in Otago, New Zealand.
Australian Magpie (Gymnorhina Tibicen), adults and juveniles, in Tabeumi, Fiji. Image credits: Charles J. Sharp, https://www.sharpphotography.co.uk / CC by-sa 4.0.
The newly identified bird inhabited New Zealand during the early Miocene period around 19 million years ago.
It has been named St. Batan’s Caloun (MioStrepera Canora), closely related to the Australian Magpie (Gymnorhina Tibicen) found in New Zealand today, likely exhibiting an entirely black plumage.
“We’ve experienced a lot of excitement and hard work,” shared Dr. Paul Scofield, senior curator at the Canterbury Museum.
“We probably haven’t encountered a member of this large magpie family for just five million years.”
“New Zealand’s ecosystem has undergone significant transformations over millions of years, welcoming diverse species throughout various eras,” noted Dr. Trevor Worthy, a researcher at Flinders University.
“There’s a notion that we should strive to restore New Zealand to its pre-European ecosystem.”
“However, that ecosystem had been in a constant state of flux for millions of years.”
“By the time humans arrived, Aotearoa had already lost much of the floral diversity that once thrived.”
“There were limited tree seeds available, but the decline of the choloun and other pigeons indicates this loss.”
“Different plant and animal groups emerged between 2.6 million and 11,700 years ago.”
“Even more have come since humans began to inhabit the land.”
“New Zealand’s pre-European ecosystem isn’t inherently better or worse than any other period in the past.”
“The fossil record hints at the absence of a utopian state and encourages us to celebrate the diversity present today.”
The fossilized remains of MioStrepera Canora were found at the St Bathans fossil site, which was once located at the bottom of a vast prehistoric lake.
“The research revealed that the Miocene bird population in New Zealand bears surprising similarities to contemporary Australian birds,” Dr. Scofield mentioned.
“New Zealand was vastly different during the Miocene, between 200,000 to 5 million years ago.”
“If you walked through New Zealand’s forests during that time, you would have seen abundant eucalyptus, laurel, and casuarinas, much like the forests of Australia today.”
“The most significant factor shaping New Zealand’s current landscape was the extinction of many plants and animals that thrived in warmer climates, following a rapid cooling that began around 13 million years ago.”
“It was likely not the only bird call you would have heard in ancient New Zealand.”
The discovery of MioStrepera Canora is detailed in a paper published in the journal Palz.
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Worth it et al. A large-scale clastatin passerine (Aves, Artamidae, Cracticinae) from the early Miocene of New Zealand. Palz published on June 25th, 2025. doi:10.1007/s12542-025-00736-x
Ancient artifacts crafted from mammoth tusks are the earliest recognized boomerangs
Talamo et al., 2025, PLOS One, CC-BY 4.0
The earliest known boomerang could be over 22,000 years older than previously believed, indicating it was crafted during a time when early humans exhibited a rise in artistic expression.
In 1985, archaeologists discovered a 72-centimeter ivory boomerang buried beneath six layers of sediment within the Obwazwa Cave in Poland. Further analysis of sediment revealed bone beads from Homo sapiens, made from nearby thumb bones, antlers, fox teeth, and pendants. In the 1990s, radiocarbon dating estimated the thumbs to be 31,000 years old, while surprisingly, the boomerang dated only to 18,000 years ago—thousands of years younger than the associated crafts.
Sarataramo at the University of Bologna suspects contamination. “Even minor amounts of modern carbon from adhesives and maintenance can skew radiocarbon dates by tens of thousands of years,” she explains. The analysis of carbon-nitrogen ratios in the thumbs indicated collagen changes, suggesting that the samples were not suitable for reliable radiocarbon dating.
Redoing the dating on the contaminated boomerang would have wasted resources and unnecessarily harmed significant artifacts, according to Taramo. Instead, she and her team re-dated the human thumb bones and 13 nearby animal bones, using statistical modeling to reconstruct the timeline. Their findings indicated that the entire sediment layer—along with the boomerangs and thumb bones—dated to approximately 39,000 to 42,000 years ago.
“In a way, this serves as a reminder for museums; if you discover something extraordinary, avoid covering it with glue or any repair materials prior to completing thorough analysis,” she asserts.
This new timeline suggests that the ivory boomerang predates the second oldest known wooden boomerang created by Australian Indigenous peoples. Unlike other simpler throwing tools, like the 300,000-year-old wooden artifact found in Schoningen, Germany, the boomerang has a curved, aerodynamic design, although it may not always return when thrown, according to Taramo.
While it’s likely that these ancient boomerangs could fly, their size and construction likely meant they did not return to the thrower. They may have held symbolic or ritual significance, potentially related to their placement alongside the thumb bones within a decorative stone ring, which featured intricate carvings and reddish pigments, along with a smooth polished surface.
This discovery provides insight into the cognitive abilities and craftsmanship of early humans during a remarkable period of artistic growth, known as the early Aulignacian, which began around 40,000 years ago. This era saw the emergence of iconic artifacts, including mammoth ivory figurines, rock art, and aesthetically refined tools in Europe, notes Taramo.
Dating back either 12 or 800 years ago, wild wallabies were caught and transported by canoe to nearby islands located dozens of kilometers away.
The Sahuru natives—a group of marsupials from a prehistoric landmass that eventually broke into Australia and New Guinea—likely accompanied human explorers and traders to the islands in Southeast Asia, providing food, decorative fur, and tools made from bones. This animal import is recognized as one of the earliest known instances of animal translocation, with established colonies thriving over millennia, according to Dylan Gaffney at Oxford University.
“This aligns with a broader understanding of how early humans managed, transported, and raised animals more deliberately than previously assumed. They didn’t merely endure in these tropical environments; they actively transformed them,” says Gaffney.
Research pertaining to species translocation typically prioritizes European explorers, who notably introduced invasive rabbits to Australia in the 18th and 19th centuries and reintroduced horses to the Americas in the late 1400s and early 1500s.
However, in the 1990s, two types of marsupial bones were identified—Phalanger Orientalis Breviceps or Phalanger Breviceps, along with Bandicoot bones (Echymipera Kalubu)—from the Eastern Islands of New Guinea, and Brown Forest Wallabies (Dorcopsis Muelleri) found on an island west of Halmahera, roughly 350 km from Sahuru’s ancient shores.
Based on the age of nearby charcoal remains and the sediment layers, research teams estimate that the Wallabies arrived around 8,000 years ago, while other species date back to between 13,000 and 24,000 years ago.
The specifics of how these animals arrived on the islands remain unclear—whether by human transport or natural means. To explore this, Gaffney and his colleagues examined a new archaeological site in Indonesia’s Rajaanpat Islands.
There, thousands-of-years-old skeletons indicate that the colony of brown forest wallabies thrived on the island about 4,000 years ago, though the reasons behind this are still uncertain.
Radiocarbon dating in a cave inland revealed evidence of wallabies being hunted and cooked as far back as 13,000 years ago, further supported by findings from another island to the west that dates back 5,000 years.
The team also uncovered several bone tools utilized in hunting and textile work, suggesting human activity at least 8,500 years ago.
In investigating how these animals arrived on distant islands, the team employed computer modeling that accounted for the sea levels and environmental conditions of that era.
This modeling supports the theory that humans transported the animals via canoes, Gaffney explains. Without human assistance, Wallabies would have struggled to survive the treacherous oceanic journey that could have lasted over 24 hours, relying on vegetation rafts for days to reach the islands. While swimming to nearby islands is conceivable, it’s uncertain whether forest wallabies (modern or ancient) possessed the ability to swim.
In contrast, canoe trips would have taken only a few hours to a couple of days, a timeframe that likely would have been manageable for breeding animals.
These findings underscore a sophisticated understanding of species movement by humans well before the era of European colonial expansion. Tom Matthews, who was not involved in the research and is from the University of Birmingham, UK, states, “We frequently assume that these introductions began within the last 500 years, but the evidence indicates that humans were reshaping their ecosystems long before then.”
The identification of human footprints in White Sands, New Mexico, estimated to be between 21,000 and 23,000 years old, was a significant advancement in our comprehension of the earliest inhabitants of the Americas. However, this research faced scrutiny concerning the dependability of radiocarbon dating materials, such as common aquatic plant seeds Rupiah Silhosa and coniferous pollen grains. A recent study, spearheaded by University of Arizona researcher Vance Holiday, indicates that the ancient mud from Perelora ceotero, the third material utilized for dating the footprints, dates back to approximately 20,700 to 22,400 years ago.
Ancient human footprints found in White Sands National Park, New Mexico, USA. Image credit: Bennett et al. , doi: 10.1126/science.abg7586.
Historically, scientists believed that humans entered North America roughly 16,000 to 13,000 years ago.
However, the footprints found at White Sands indicate that human presence in the area dates back to between 23,000 and 21,000 years ago. This timeline offers insights into the development of culture in North America.
The remnants of 10,000-year-old prints, uncovered nearly a century ago at a site near Clovis, New Mexico, led to a classification of artifacts long considered to represent the earliest known cultures in North America.
Critics have challenged two prior studies over the last four years, asserting that ancient species and pollen in the soil used for dating the footprints are unreliable indicators.
“The record is consistently strong, and it’s challenging to explain it all,” Dr. Holiday stated.
“As I mention in my publication, it would be an extraordinary coincidence for all these dates to be inaccurate.”
Thousands of years prior, the white sands formed from a series of lakes that eventually dried up.
Wind erosion created layers of plaster on the sand dunes that now characterize the region.
The footprints were excavated from stream beds that once fed into this ancient lake.
“Wind erosion has erased part of the narrative, leaving that segment lost. The remainder is buried beneath the world’s largest accumulation of plaster sand,” Dr. Holiday remarked.
For their latest research, Dr. Holiday and his team returned to White Sands in 2022 and 2023, excavating new trenches to gain deeper insights into the lakebed’s geology.
“We’ve put in considerable effort to explore this area,” stated Jason Windingstad, a doctoral candidate at the University of Arizona.
“You essentially find yourself questioning everything taught about North American populations.”
The authors recognize that their research hasn’t addressed lingering questions posed by critics since 2021: Why are there no artifacts or settlements left by the individuals who made the footprints?
“This is a valid inquiry. Some footprints discovered during the 2021 survey belong to a trackway that was created in mere seconds,” they explained.
“It is entirely plausible that hunter-gatherers would act with caution to avoid leaving resources in such a brief timeframe.”
“These individuals were aware of their resources and were distanced from their replacements.”
“They wouldn’t abandon artifacts casually. It doesn’t make sense for you to be viewing a debris field.”
The team’s recent findings will be published in the journal Advances in Science.
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Vance T. Holliday et al. 2025. Perelorace Geochronology supports the last Glacier Max (LGM) age of human tracks in White Sands, New Mexico. Advances in Science 11 (25); doi:10.1126/sciadv.adv4951
My child is extraordinary. He enters the kitchen, glances at me, and articulates enchanting words: “Could I please have a cheese and tomato sandwich?” Moments later, that very snack materializes in front of him.
Other young animals express their hunger through sounds and murmurs, but only humans possess advanced grammar and vocabulary systems that enable precise communication.
This narrative is part of our themed special, showcasing expert perspectives on some of science’s most astonishing concepts. Click here for additional insights.
Research into animal behavior reveals that these creatures exhibit many traits previously thought to be exclusive to humans—from culture to emotional depth, and even aspects of morality. While language may seem to set us apart, “I believe language gives us a unique status as a species,” says Brian Relch from the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
Given this context, one critical area of research focuses on how language originated and why it evolved solely within our human lineage.
Psychologist Simon Edelman from Cornell University proposes in The Magical Power of Language that there is a straightforward evolutionary rationale. Alongside his colleague Oren Korodny, now at Hebrew University in Jerusalem, he theorizes that the origins of language may date back approximately 1.7 million years, coinciding with early humans developing the ability to create stone tools—a skill beyond the capabilities of non-human animals.
The notion is that tool-making locations functioned as learning environments, where novice tool creators required guidance from experienced individuals. Proto-language may have developed as a way for mentors to instruct their students, possibly explaining why both language and tool-making appear to necessitate cognitive structures that organize thoughts in a coherent sequence.
However, around a decade ago, a pivotal experiment questioned this narrative. In 2014, Shelby Putt from Illinois State University and her team investigated how individuals learn to create tools, exposing 24 volunteers either to expert instructions or to direct demonstrations while occasionally engaging their attention. Surprisingly, both approaches proved effective, indicating that intricate tool-making may not rely on verbal language.
This does not imply that Putt views language and tool-making as entirely disconnected. She posits that creating complex tools required individuals to structure their thoughts and organize them to achieve their task. She asserts that this ability led to an expansion of brain regions associated with working memory, enabling easier mental manipulation of concepts.
Nonetheless, Putt suggests that humans utilized these cognitive frameworks to devise language, enhancing communication and potentially increasing survival odds.
All these scenarios presume that language functions fundamentally as a communication tool among individuals. However, an alternative perspective on the evolution of language emphasizes the ways it aids individuals in organizing their thoughts when confronted with complex tasks.
Some, including prominent linguist Noam Chomsky, argue that this may have driven language evolution, suggesting it had no relation to tool-making. These researchers propose that language emerged approximately 70,000 years ago, possibly due to random genetic mutations that reconfigured brain circuitry.
Ultimately, the origins of language remain a subject of debate. If Chomsky and his associates are correct, the development of language was less about magic and more about fortunate circumstances.
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The discovery of Litoria Tylerantiqua indicates that Australian tree frogs (Perodrius) were already present in Australia when the continent was still attached to Antarctica and South America.
Artist Reconstruction of Litoria Tylerantiqua (right) alongside the previously described species Platyplectrum casca (left) from Margon in southeast Queensland. Image: Samantha Yabsley, https://www.instagram.com/shy_art.
Litoria Tylerantiqua lived in Australia during the early Eocene period, approximately 55 million years ago.
The fossilized frog bones were retrieved in the 1990s by paleontologists at the University of New South Wales while screenwashing clay samples from the Tingamara fossil frog site in Margon, Queensland.
“About 55 million years ago, Australia, Antarctica, and South America were connected as the last remnants of Gondwana,” stated Dr. Roy Furman and his colleagues at the University of New South Wales and the Australian National University.
“During this era, the global climate was warmer, facilitating forested corridors linking South America and Australia.”
“Previously, Australia’s oldest tree frogs were believed to have originated from the late Illuminocene (around 26 million years ago) and the early Miocene (approximately 23 million years ago).”
“Fossils from the late Illuminocene have been discovered in the Northern Territory’s kangaroo wells and the Etadunna formation in Lake Palancarina, South Australia. Furthermore, the Riversley World Heritage Area in Queensland unveiled an early Miocene tree frog.”
“This new species extends the fossil record of Perodrids by roughly 30 million years, bringing it closer to the timeframe when Australian tree frogs diverged from their South American counterparts,” they noted.
“Previous estimates based on molecular clock analyses suggest that Australian and South American frogs diverged approximately 33 million years ago.”
Litoria Tylerantiqua is the only other known frog from Margon, also identified as Platyplectrum casca (previously categorized as Lechriodus Casca), recognized as the oldest frog species in Australia.
Both have existing relatives in Australia and New Guinea, showcasing incredible resilience over time.
“Despite their fragile nature, these frogs have surprisingly thrived, surviving numerous major extinction events since their origin around 250 million years ago.”
“Current global extinction threats, fueled by human activities like rapid climate change and the proliferation of pathogenic bacteria, pose significant challenges for frogs. The fossil record reveals how certain frog groups have navigated past adversities, potentially by adapting to less-threatened habitats.”
“This insight might guide future conservation efforts, such as relocating endangered frogs to safer environments.”
“If fossil records show similarly structured frogs occupying very different habitats, today’s frogs could potentially benefit from reintroductions into comparable environments.”
The findings are detailed in a study published in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
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Roy M. Furman et al. New fossil discoveries for early Eocene perodrids from local faunas of Southeast Queensland, Margon, Tingamara, and frog molecular lineages. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology published online on May 14, 2025. doi:10.1080/02724634.2025.2477815
Pre-contact Central and South American dogs (Canis Familiaris) – These are all dogs that existed prior to the arrival of European settlers, originating from a single maternal lineage that spread into North America. A recent study led by researchers at Oxford University indicates that the divergence times of dog breeds in North, Central, and South America align with the agricultural expansion occurring between 7,000 and 5,000 years ago, particularly highlighting the adoption of corn in South America.
Manin et al. Illustrating the gradual southward spread of dogs alongside early agricultural societies. Artwork by John James Audubon and John Bachman.
“Dogs traveled with the initial waves of people entering North America at least 15,000-16,000 years ago,” stated Oxford University researcher Aurely Mannin and colleagues.
“They were the only type of livestock brought to America from Eurasia before the arrival of European settlers.”
“Archaeological and physical evidence suggests that Arctic dogs were utilized for sledding, aiding groups of humans traversing the frigid tundra of Siberia.”
“Analysis of ancient DNA indicates that all dogs before contact with European settlers possess mitochondrial DNA from a lineage unique to the Americas.”
“Dogs from this lineage disseminated throughout the Americas, with the exception of the Amazon Basin, suggesting they became known only following the arrival of Europeans in the 16th century.”
In this latest study, the authors sequenced 70 complete mitochondrial genomes from both archaeological and modern dogs collected from Central Mexico to Central Chile and Argentina.
The findings indicate that all pre-contact dogs in Central and South America descended from a singular maternal lineage that diverged from North American dogs when humans initially settled the continent.
Instead of a rapid spread, dogs exhibited a slower pattern known as “segregation by distance,” gradually adapting to new environments and migrating with people between 7,000 to 5,000 years ago, coinciding with the rise of corn cultivation in early agricultural communities.
The influx of Europeans brought new dog breeds that predominantly replaced indigenous strains; however, researchers discovered that modern Chihuahuas still retain maternal DNA from pre-contact Mesoamerican ancestors.
These rare genetic traces underscore the enduring legacy of the first American dogs and the deep roots of this iconic breed.
“This research emphasizes the significant role that early agricultural communities played in the dispersal of dogs worldwide,” Dr. Manin remarked.
“In the Americas, it reveals that dogs were able to adapt slowly enough to develop genetic distinctions between North, Central, and South America.”
“This is quite unusual for livestock and unveils new avenues for research into the relationships between dogs and early agricultural societies.”
“This study contributes a new chapter to the extensive shared history of dogs and humans, influenced by migration across continents, survival, and lasting relationships,” the scientists concluded.
Survey results are set to appear in Proceedings of the Royal Society b.
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Aurely Manin et al. 2025. Ancient dog mitogenomes support the double dispersion of dogs and agriculture into South America. Proc. R. Soc. b 292 (2049): 20242443; doi: 10.1098/rspb.2024.2443
Biofluorescence, the process of absorbing high-energy light and re-emitting it as low-energy wavelengths, has been observed in various vertebrate and invertebrate lineages, particularly among fish. Research conducted by the American Museum of Natural History indicates that fish biofluorescence can be traced back at least 112 million years and has evolved over 100 times, predominantly in fish inhabiting coral reefs.
Phylogenesis of teleosts showing ancestral state reconstruction (absence/present) of biological fluorescence. Image credit: Carr et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-59843-7.
“Researchers have long known that biological fluorescence is prevalent in marine creatures, including sea turtles and corals, particularly among fish,” stated PhD Emily Kerr, a student at the American Museum of Natural History.
“To truly grasp the reasons and methods behind this unique adaptation, we need to explore the evolutionary background and the variety of biofluorescence currently utilized for camouflage, predation, or reproduction.”
In a first study published in the journal Natural Communication, Carr and colleagues investigated all known biological fluorescent extents, focusing on a species of bony fish, which comprises the largest living vertebrate group today.
This research identified 459 biological fluorescent species, including 48 previously unrecognized as biologically fluorescent.
The researchers discovered that biological fluorescence has evolved over 100 times in marine teleost fish, dating back to approximately 112 million years ago, with the initial occurrence found in eels.
Furthermore, fish species residing in or near coral reefs developed biological fluorescence approximately ten times faster than their non-reef counterparts, leading to a surge in fluorescent species following the mass extinction event around 66 million years ago that wiped out non-avian dinosaurs.
“This pattern coincides with the emergence of modern coral reefs and the rapid infiltration of fish into these environments, particularly after a significant loss of coral diversity due to the Cretaceous extinction,” Kerr explained.
“These relationships imply that the rise of contemporary coral reefs may have spurred the diversification of fluorescence in reef-associated teleost fish.”
Among the 459 documented biological fluorescent extents indicated in this study, the majority are linked to coral reefs.
In a second survey published in the journal PLOS 1, Kerr and co-authors employed a specialized photographic system with ultraviolet and blue excitation lights, alongside emission filters, to analyze the wavelengths emitted by fish from the ichthyology collection at the American Museum of Natural History.
These specimens, collected over the past 15 years during museum expeditions to locations like the Solomon Islands, Greenland, and Thailand, had shown fluorescence previously; however, the full spectrum of biological fluorescence emissions remained unexplored.
This study unveiled a broader diversity in the colors emitted by teleost fish, with some displaying at least six distinct fluorescence emission peaks across various wavelengths, surpassing prior reports.
“The unexpected variation observed among a wide array of these fluorescent fish suggests that they may utilize highly diverse and intricate signaling systems based on species-specific fluorescent emission patterns.”
“As these studies illustrate, biological fluorescence is extensive and remarkably phenotypically diverse among marine fish.”
“Our goal is to enhance our understanding of how fluorescence operates within these varied marine ecosystems and its role in evolutionary diversification.”
“The multitude of fluorescence emission wavelengths identified in this study could significantly impact the discovery of new fluorescent molecules that are routinely employed in biomedical applications, including the diagnosis and treatment of fluorescence-related ailments.”
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Carr et al. 2025. The extensive evolution of repeated biological fluorescence in marine fish. Nat Commun 16, 4826; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-59843-7
Carr et al. 2025. Marine fish display exceptional variability in biological fluorescence emission spectra. PLOS 1 20 (6): E0316789; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0316789
An extinct creature uncovered in North America offers fresh insights into the region’s life around 75 million years ago.
The creature has been described as “looking like a goblin jumping out of a rock,” according to Hank Woolley of the Los Angeles County Natural History Museum. This species, known as Monstaurus, is part of a group of reptiles that thrived during the late Cretaceous period. Woolley notes it could have been “around 3 to 4 feet from tail to tip.” “Best to stay away,” he warns.
Woolley named the species Borguamondor. The first part of the name derives from a Lord of the Rings character, while the second part is inspired by an invented Elvish word, referring to its bone armor — a trait shared with its relatives, modern Gira Monsters (Healoderma Sumpectum).
Remarkably preserved fossils were found in Utah two decades ago by Joseph Sertich. Initially, the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute believed it was a prehistoric lizard. Sertich recalls, “I found a collection of scattered bones in a low, flat sandy area,” including the skull, vertebrae, jawbone, and parts of a hip bone.
Sertich encouraged Woolley to investigate the fossils at the museum in 2022. B. Amondor represents an extinct species of lizard known as the Monstaurus. They found evidence that some could shed their tails when injured, making it the oldest known example of this defensive strategy that modern lizards employ.
bones belonging to Borguamondor
Utah Natural History Museum/Bureau of Land Management
According to researchers, B. Amondor dined on small mammals, frogs, snakes, insects, and “things not primarily plants,” even considering dinosaur eggs as part of its “round-length” diet. Its habitat was likely a wetland ecosystem, quite hot and humid, resembling the modern-day U.S. Gulf Coast rather than the arid landscape we see today.
Randall Nydam from Midwest University in Illinois, though not involved in this research, emphasizes the cautionary aspect of the story, reflecting on the vulnerabilities of such formidable “monsters,” both ancient and modern. “We must also acknowledge that they are long gone,” he states, “vanished due to changing circumstances.”
Continuing the dialogue about B. Amondor, Sertich believes people should broaden their understanding of these creatures. “Imagining North America’s primal tropical forests should portray nightmare lizard-hunting dinosaurs navigating the underbrush and scaling trees,” he suggests.
Ancient Migration: A Journey Through a Colder Climate to the Americas
Getty Images/iStockphoto
This excerpt comes from our Human Stories newsletter, which explores the archaeological revolution. Subscribe to receive it monthly in your inbox.
The main theme of Human Stories revolves around the global migration of our species. From their origins in Africa, our ancestors traveled to Europe, Asia, Australia, and eventually reached the Americas. South America was the last continent they settled, with Antarctica being the notable exception.
This chapter of our history remains somewhat enigmatic. While ample research has focused on human migration into Europe, Asia, and North America, far less attention has been directed toward their entrance into South America.
Reflecting on this, I discovered that my previous detailed analysis of South America appeared in June 2023.
However, this narrative is beginning to evolve. On May 15th, a significant genetic study was published in Science, unveiling crucial insights into early inhabitants of South America. This extensive research indicates a diverse population across different regions, revealing a fourfold division of early groups. These findings align with newer stories of remarkable journeys and the extraordinary risks taken in the quest for new lands.
A Complex Journey
If you consider how Homo sapiens evolved in Africa, the task of reaching South America becomes apparent. The vast Atlantic Ocean acted as a major barrier between continents, complicating the path for humans.
This migration was not premeditated; at that time, people had no knowledge of South America’s existence. They journeyed as far as they could see, moving from Africa to Southwest Asia, and eventually to various parts of Eurasia. Some even ventured as far as the easternmost regions of Asia, now known as Chukotka in the Russian Far East.
From there, it was a relatively short journey to present-day Alaska in northwest North America. Evidence suggests humans arrived at least 16,000 years ago. Today, the Bering Strait—a mere 82 kilometers across—seems a significant barrier. However, thousands of years ago, colder climates meant lower sea levels, creating land connections between Asia and North America, notably Beringia. People may have unknowingly traversed what would become a monumental migration.
Supporting this theory, a study released in May highlighted that horses traveled regularly between North America and Asia via Beringia between 50,000 and 13,000 years ago, suggesting humans could have followed suit.
For unknown reasons, the earliest groups of Americans moved southward. Some utilized boats along the Pacific coast, while others ventured inland, ultimately reaching the southernmost tip of South America.
The archaeological record of these groups is rich. A study published in February analyzed a large collection of artifacts dating back 10,000 to 11,000 years in the Takualembo region of Uruguay.
Who were these early South Americans? That’s where new genetic research comes into play.
Continuing the Journey
Led by Hie Lim Kim from Nanyang Technological University in Singapore, researchers compiled genomic data from 1,537 individuals across 139 ethnic groups. This included individuals with ties to northern Eurasian populations, as well as groups from the Americas, particularly South America.
“Our study showcases the history of this vast migration,” Kim states.
Between 13,900 and 10,000 years ago, the initial settlers of South America divided into four genetically distinct groups. Signs of these genetic patterns persist in modern South Americans.
Kim highlights the challenge of providing a comprehensive account of these findings. While the study identifies genetic differences among populations, they don’t necessarily align with cultural traits. “We didn’t categorize them by culture or language,” she explains, “but solely based on ancestry.”
With this caveat, Kim’s team identified four groups: Amazonians, Andeans, Chaco Amerindians, and Patagonians, named for regions where contemporary genetic signals are strongest. For instance, Amazon ancestry aligns with current populations in the Amazon rainforest, Andean ancestry with those in the Andes mountains, and Patagonian ancestry with people from southern Argentina. The Chaco Amerindian lineage is traced to the Dry Chaco, spanning parts of Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay. “They are predominantly hunter-gatherers in arid regions,” says Kim.
Once these groups branched out, signs of significant gene flow between them became scarce. “They have never intermingled again,” says Kim, suggesting geographic barriers like the Andes may have fostered this separation.
However, Kim asserts this is likely not the entire narrative, as additional groups may exist. “Our sample from Brazil is limited,” she notes. “Many ethnic groups in the Amazon remain unexplored.”
Recent research further enriches this narrative. In March, archaeological evidence pointed to a location known as Southern Corn, situated near the 22nd parallel south encompassing northern Argentina, Paraguay, Chile, and Uruguay.
Another study from March detailed the journey of the Guarani, who traversed over 2,500 kilometers across South America, ultimately reaching the mouth of the Rio de la Plata estuary, now Buenos Aires and Montevideo.
Late May research uncovered the risks associated with migration; ancient Colombian DNA indicated an unknown hunter-gatherer population that inhabited the Bogotá Altiplano around 6,000 years ago. By 2,000 years ago, they were replaced by Central American populations, leaving no trace in today’s genetic pool.
South America is vast, and we have merely scratched the surface of its complex history. Numerous untold stories lie waiting to be uncovered.
Rivers like the Chuya in Russia can emit carbon dioxide and methane.
Parilov/Shutterstock
Globally, rivers are releasing ancient carbon into the atmosphere, revealing surprising insights for scientists and indicating that human impact on natural landscapes may be more severe than previously understood.
It is already established that rivers emit carbon dioxide and methane as part of the carbon cycle, a rapid gas exchange linked to the growth and decay of organisms, estimated to release around 2 Gigatonnes of carbon annually.
Researchers, including Josh Dean from the University of Bristol, explored the age of this carbon.
The team utilized radiocarbon dating to analyze carbon and methane released from over 700 river segments across 26 countries.
“When we compiled the available data, what we found was surprisingly significant. [Regarding the carbon released], these ancient stores may originate from much older reserves,” Dean states.
Ancient carbon is sequestered in geological formations such as rocks, peat bogs, and wetlands. The findings reveal that around one Gigatonne of this carbon is released annually via rivers, leading to the conclusion that ecosystems are currently removing one Gigatonne less carbon from the atmospheric balance than previously believed.
“This represents the first comprehensive assessment of river emissions on a global scale, which is quite remarkable,” remarks Taylor Maavara from the Cary Ecosystem Studies Institute in Millbrook, New York.
The pressing concern now is understanding the reasons behind the release of such ancient carbon. Factors might include climate change and human activities that alter natural landscapes. Dean observes that the carbon from rivers has appeared “aged” since the 1990s.
“Human activity may be accessing these long-term carbon reservoirs, which can lead to older carbon being released through these channels,” he explains.
For instance, rising temperatures due to climate change can result in carbon being released from thawing permafrost and increase the weathering rates of rocks. Additional factors such as peatland drainage and wetland desiccation could also play a role. Dean emphasizes the necessity for further research to ascertain the degree to which human activities contribute to this phenomenon and how carbon release varies over time.
“This is a critical area of research,” he asserts. “If we believe we are storing old carbon within these reservoirs, we’re mistaken; this understanding is crucial.” These insights carry significant implications for national climate strategies, particularly concerning reliance on natural ecosystems to mitigate ongoing emissions.
“This research raises intriguing questions about how and to what extent we can manage ancient carbon,” says Scott Teig from Oakland University in Rochester Hills, Michigan. He adds that tackling climate change is likely vital to prevent the release of CO2 and methane from these ancient reserves.
Paranthropus robustus is a well-documented species within the Hominin group that has yet to be associated with genetic evidence. This species thrived in what is now South Africa between 2 million and 1.2 million years ago. In a recent study, paleontologists extracted enamel protein sequences from a dental specimen, believed to be 2 million years old, discovered at the Swartkrans site in South Africa. The results indicate a greater diversity than previously recognized for Paranthropus robustus and support the potential existence of multiple species within the genus.
Advancements in ancient DNA (aDNA) sequencing have provided essential insights into the evolutionary connections among mid- to late Pleistocene hominins. However, our understanding of the earlier Pliocene-Pleistocene species, including Paranthropus robustus, remains limited.
This limitation is primarily due to the poor preservation of aDNA in African hominin fossils older than 20,000 years.
Paranthropus robustus has traditionally been regarded as a singular evolutionary line.
Yet, morphological overlaps between Paranthropus robustus and Australopithecus raise questions about their possible evolutionary links.
Moreover, variations in dental morphology suggest either an undiscovered diversity within Paranthropus robustus or the existence of multiple distinct species.
In this study, researchers from the University of Copenhagen, the University of Cape Town, and Dr. Paresa Madupe employed more durable ancient proteins to explore the variation within this ancient human species.
Four tooth enamel proteins were analyzed using high-resolution mass spectrometry and paleontological techniques, focusing on Paranthropus robustus fossils from the Swartkrans cave.
These specimens, dating from 2.2 to 1.8 million years ago, are among the earliest known hominins.
Molecular analysis of the protein sequences revealed significant variation at the molecular level among Paranthropus robustus individuals, including evidence from both male and female fossils, challenging the reliability of tooth size as a sole indicator of sexual dimorphism and suggesting that this variance cannot be attributed exclusively to sexual differences.
Notably, one individual appears to be genetically distinct from the others, highlighting considerable intraspecies variability within Paranthropus robustus.
The results align with recent morphological evidence, indicating previously unrecognized taxonomic diversity within the genus, including the proposed species Paranthropus capensis.
“Our study illustrates how paleobiological traits can assist in distinguishing sexual dimorphism from other forms of variation in the early Pleistocene human lineage in Africa,” the authors concluded.
Paresa P. Madupe et al. 2025. Enamel proteins reveal biological and genetic variation in southern Africa Paranthropus robustus. Science 388 (6750): 969-973; doi: 10.1126/science.adt953
Illustration of an ancient bird nesting above the Arctic Circle
Gabriel Ugueto
Recent findings of bone fragments from Alaska indicate that birds have been nesting and breeding in the Arctic for at least 73 million years.
“It’s quite unusual, as raising a newborn in the Arctic is challenging,” explains study author Lauren Wilson from Princeton University.
Currently, around 250 bird species can thrive at the poles. Some migrate great distances to enjoy continuous daylight in summer, while others brave the winter, enduring extreme cold and long periods of darkness. However, knowledge about how these birds first adapted to the highest latitudes remains limited.
Wilson and her team searched for ancient avian traces within the Princreek Formation in northern Alaska, which formed on coastal floodplains about 73 million years ago. At that time, northern Alaska was approximately 1,000-1,600 kilometers closer to the Arctic than it is today.
The researchers retrieved ancient soil samples from several narrow rock layers, encountering temperatures of -30°C (-22°F) in a makeshift tent. “This has definitely been the most demanding fieldwork I’ve undertaken,” Wilson admits.
Back at the lab, they spent hours peering through microscopes at sediments smaller than two millimeters, hunting for tiny fossil bone fragments.
The team uncovered over 50 fossil fragments belonging to ancient birds, primarily from chicks and even embryos. The fossilized bones of these young birds exhibit a sponge-like texture, indicative of rapid bone growth.
Although birds likely began nesting in the Arctic Circle 73 million years ago, these fossils represent the earliest evidence of such behavior, extending the timeline of avian presence back by 30 million years.
However, many fossils are fragmented and do not clarify whether these birds remained year-round or only in the warm summer months.
“The Arctic’s food web, which supports life in extreme cold and darkness, couldn’t exist without the plethora of birds that inhabit high latitudes,” says Steve Brusatte from the University of Edinburgh, who wasn’t involved in the study. “These fossils illustrate that birds have been a vital part of these high-latitude ecosystems for tens of millions of years.”
Wilson’s team identified three major bird groups represented among the fossil fragments: extinct tooth-like birds similar to ducks, extinct tooth-like birds reminiscent of gulls, and various species that may be related to modern birds.
Conversely, the samples did not include bones from older bird groups known as enantiornithines, or “opposite birds.” Gerald Mayle from the Senckenberg Institute in Germany, who also wasn’t part of the study, noted that this finding suggests that more advanced bird ancestors could survive the harsh Arctic conditions due to certain evolutionary advantages that older birds lacked.
The ecosystems that shaped the Princreek Formation existed when non-avian dinosaurs dominated the planet, with evidence that ancient birds coexisted with species like tyrannosaurs and horned ceratopsians in these Arctic environments. Some dinosaurs even nested within the Arctic Circle.
Researchers conducted an extensive study of bone artifacts from 26 Paleolithic caves and rock shelter locations in the Cantabria area of Spain and southwestern France.
173 work (a) and raw (b) taxonomic identification of bone objects: (1) blank, Tito Bastilo, sperm whale. (2) A launch point with a huge base, Islitz and a blue whale. (3) Lassempouy, Fin Whale; (4) Rascaldas, a sperm whale; (5) A launch point with a giant base, Hermitia and a gray whale. (6) Unclear object, St. Michelle, a sperm whale. (7-10) Santa Catalina, raw fragments of fin whale bones. Image credit: McGrath et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-59486-8.
“The largest creatures on Earth, whales were a vital source of nourishment and materials like oil and bone,” stated Dr. Christa McGrath, the lead author and an archaeologist from the University of Barcelona, along with her co-researchers.
“Hence, they are thought to have been instrumental in the survival of various coastal human populations.”
“Nonetheless, tracing the origins of human and near-human interactions is challenging since coastal archaeological sites are particularly prone to the impacts of rising sea levels, complicating the preservation of evidence regarding early human-mammal relationships.”
The authors examined 83 bone tools from various cave and rock shelter locations around the Bay of Biscay in Spain, along with an additional 90 bones from the Santa Catalina Cave in Biscay province.
Utilizing mass spectrometry and radiocarbon dating methods, they identified the species and age of the artifacts.
The earliest two dates were from the Cantabrian sites of Las Caño and Ergeyo, which dated to 20,200-19,600 and 19,600-19,000 years ago, respectively.
“Our findings show that the bones came from at least five large whale species, with the oldest dating back around 19,000-20,000 years,” mentioned Senior author Dr. Jean Mark Petitillon, an archaeologist at Toulouse-Jean-Jalaise University and CNRS University.
“This provides some of the earliest known proof of humans utilizing whales as tools.”
“Zoomorphometry is an effective method for studying past marine mammal diversity, especially when key morphological features are absent in the bone remains and artifacts.
“We identified gray whales that not only existed in Biscay Bay but are now confined to the North Pacific and Arctic oceans.”
“Moreover, chemical analysis of the bones indicates that the feeding patterns of these ancient whales varied slightly from those of contemporary ones, highlighting potential shifts in behavior and marine environments.”
“This discovery not only enhances our understanding of the early human use of whale remains but also illuminates the role whales held in ancient ecosystems.”
The team’s study is set to be published in the journal Nature Communications.
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K. McGrath et al. 2025. Late Paleolithic whale bone tools in the Bay of Biscay reveal insights into human and whale ecology. Nature Communications 16, 4646; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-59486-8
Locally referred to as Makarahi, meaning “big rock,” this boulder was displaced over 200 m inland by a tsunami approximately 7,000 years ago.
Limestone rock Makarahi. Image credits: Kohler et al. , doi: 10.1016/j.margeo.2025.107567.
The Makarahi boulder measures 14 x 12 x 6.7 m and weighs nearly 1,200 tons, making it the largest known boulder located atop a cliff and one of the largest vibration-transport boulders globally.
This limestone formation is situated 200 meters away from the coastline on the southern shore of Tongatapu, Tonga.
“Our research focused on the southern part of Tongatapu Island, examining coastal cliffs that show signs of past tsunamis,” stated Martin Kohler, a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Queensland.
“At the end of our fieldwork day, while conversing with some local farmers, they pointed us toward this rock.”
“I was truly astonished. It was found inland, outside our designated research area, indicating it must have been moved there by a massive tsunami.”
“It was remarkable to witness this large boulder enveloped in lush vegetation.”
“We created a 3D model before returning to the coast to identify a location from which boulders could be dislodged from cliffs over 30 meters high.”
Through numerical modeling, the researchers determined that a wave height of roughly 50 m lasting about 90 seconds would be required to transport the Makarahi boulder from its original cliff edge to its new location.
“The University of Queensland has provided a fantastic opportunity to explore the forces shaping our world,” remarked Dr. Annie Lau, a coastal geomorphologist at the institution.
“The recent tsunami in Tonga in 2022 resulted in six fatalities and extensive damage.”
“Gaining insights into extreme past events is crucial for preparing and assessing risks related to current and future hazards.”
“The findings concerning the Makarahi boulder offer evidence of Holocene Pacific tsunamis that have occurred since about 11,700 years ago.”
“This analysis will enhance our understanding of rock wave transport and improve coastal hazard assessments in tsunami-affected regions worldwide.”
The team’s study is published in the journal Marine Geology.
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Martin Kohler et al. 2025. Investigating the world’s highest boulder atop a cliff: preliminary insights and numerical simulations of transport on cliffs ranging from 30-40 m in Tongatapu (Tonga). Marine Geology 487, 107567; doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2025.107567
CT scan of the front of a skate depicting a hard, tooth-like dentition (orange) on its skin
Yara Haridi
Recent analysis of animal fossils suggests that teeth initially developed as sensory organs rather than for chewing. The earliest tooth-like structure seems to have originated as a sensitive nodule in the skin of primitive fish, allowing them to detect variations in the surrounding water.
The findings support the long-held belief that teeth originally evolved outside the mouth, as noted by Yara Haridi from the University of Chicago.
While some evidence exists to back this theory, significant questions remain. “What purpose do all these teeth on the exterior serve?” queries Khalidi. One possibility is that they functioned as defensive armor; however, Khalidi proposes an additional theory: “It’s beneficial to protect oneself with tough materials, but imagine if those materials could also enhance sensory perception of the environment?”
True teeth are exclusively found in vertebrates, such as fish and mammals. Although some invertebrates possess dental structures, their underlying tissues are fundamentally different. This indicates that teeth originated with the evolution of the earliest vertebrates: fishes.
Khalidi and her research team scrutinized fossils claimed to be the oldest examples of fish teeth, utilizing advanced synchrotron scanning techniques.
They examined fragments of fossils from the genus Anatrepis, which spanned from the late Cambrian (539 to 487 million years ago) to the early Ordovician period (487 to 443 million years ago). These organisms featured a hard exoskeleton with perforations.
These perforations were interpreted as dentin tubules, which are one of the hard tissues composing teeth. In human teeth, dentin serves multiple functions, including sensation and the detection of temperature and pain.
However, Haridi and her colleagues found no such evidence. “We observed the internal structure [of the tubules],” she states. Their examination revealed that the tubules most closely resemble structures known as sensilla, which are found in the exoskeletons of insects and spiders.
This means that Anatrepis are arthropods rather than fish, implying that their tubules do not directly lead to the evolution of teeth.
“Dentin likely emerged as a novel feature in vertebrates, but the hardened external sensory capabilities existed much earlier in invertebrates,” remarks Gareth Fraser from the University of Florida, who was not involved in the research.
Beyond Anatrepis, the earliest known true teeth belong to Ellipticus, which dates exclusively to the Ordovician period. These possess actual dentin found in the skin’s teeth.
Khalidi suggests that like the invertebrate Anatrepis, early vertebrates such as Ellipticus evolved independently to develop skin structures, where sensory nodules had undergone significant evolution. “These two entirely different organisms had to navigate the ancient ocean’s muddy terrain,” she explains. Significantly, the study also indicates that some modern fish skin still retains nerve endings, indicating sensory functionality.
As certain fish transitioned into active predators, they required a method for securing prey, leading to the evolution of hard teeth that moved to their mouths for biting.
“Based on the available data, tooth-like structures may have initially evolved in the skin of ancient vertebrates before migrating into the mouth, evolving into teeth,” Fraser concludes.
Significant amber deposits found in northern Japan may have been propelled from the forest into the sea by tsunamis occurring between 116 million and 114 million years ago during the early Cretaceous period. This is according to a recent study conducted by geological surveys at Japan and Chuo University.
Amber deposits from Sichuan Quarry in Hokkaido, northern Japan. Image credit: Kubota et al. , doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-96498-2.
Identifying traces of ancient tsunamis can be challenging, as the powerful waves tend to reshape coastlines. The sediment left behind often resembles deposits created by other high-energy events, like storms.
Nevertheless, amber, which originates on land and is then transported to the sea, acts as a historical record of tsunami occurrences, illuminating the physical processes influencing sediment movement during these events.
“A tsunami is a destructive ocean wave primarily caused by significant changes in submarine or coastal crust, as well as impacts from asteroids,” explains Dr. Aya Kubota, a researcher at geological surveys at Japan and Chuo University.
“They have been extensively studied during the Holocene (the last 11,700 years) due to their relevance in disaster prevention.”
“Aside from asteroid sediments, accurately identifying ancient tsunamis before major vegetation growth is extremely difficult for two key reasons.”
“First, coastal tsunami deposits are easily eroded in their dynamic environments. Second, well-defined criteria for identifying tsunami deposits have not been established, as they can be difficult to differentiate from other high-energy coastal events, such as cyclones.”
In their research, Dr. Kubota and colleagues examined amber-rich silica deposits from the Shiko River Quarry in northern Hokkaido, which formed during the early Cretaceous period around 115 million years ago.
Using fluorescence imaging, the authors discovered that the amber samples exhibited clear deformation in what is known as the flame structure. This occurs when the amber is still pliable at the time of deposition, allowing it to change shape before solidifying.
This suggests that a substantial quantity of amber was swiftly transported from land into the open ocean due to the backwash from one or more tsunamis, experiencing minimal exposure to air.
The amber then settled at the seabed, becoming covered with a layer of silt, which helped to preserve it.
“Other terrestrial sediments carried into open water could be instrumental in studying significant ancient catastrophic events, such as tsunamis,” the researchers concluded.
Their study was published in the journal Scientific Reports on May 15th.
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A. Kubota et al. 2025. Amber, a deep-sea sediment from the Cretaceous period, reveals a massive tsunami. Sci Rep 15, 14298; doi:10.1038/s41598-025-96498-2
This discovery implies that the first animals began emerging from the oceans around 400 million years ago and adapted to terrestrial life much quicker than previously thought.
Stuart Smida, a paleontologist from California State University, remarked, “I believed the transition from fins to limbs took more time.”
Before this, the oldest known reptile footprints were found in Canada and dated to 318 million years ago.
The ancient footprints were uncovered in sandstone slabs near Melbourne, revealing reptile-like feet with elongated toes and claws.
Scientists estimate that the creature was about 2.5 feet long (80 cm) and might resemble a modern monitor lizard. These findings were published on Wednesday in the journal Nature.
Co-authors and paleontologists, including Arlberg from Uppsala University in Sweden, indicated that the evidence showcases the identification of nails surrounding the footprint.
“It’s a walking animal,” he stated.
Located near Melbourne, Australia, sandstone slabs reveal fossil footprints of reptile-like creatures that roamed approximately 350 million years ago. The footprint is highlighted in yellow (front paw) and blue (back paw), indicating the movement of three similar animals, according to the researchers. Grzegorz Niedzwiedzki / Prof. Per Per Erik Ahlberg via AP
Only animals that evolved to live entirely on land developed the claws seen in these fossils. Earlier vertebrates, such as fish and amphibians, did not have hard claws and depended on aquatic environments for laying eggs.
In contrast, branches of the evolutionary tree leading to modern reptiles, birds, and mammals, known as amniotes, developed feet equipped with claws suited for traversing dry ground.
Smida commented, “This is the earliest evidence we’ve encountered of animals with claws.”
During the time these ancient reptiles existed, the environment was warm and humid, with expansive forests beginning to take shape. Australia was then part of the supercontinent Gondwana.
The fossil footprints tell a story of a day in the life, Ahlberg explained. A reptile fled across the ground before light rain; some rain droplets lightly obscured the tracks. Subsequently, two more reptiles dashed in opposing directions before the ground hardened and became covered with sediment.
Co-author John Long, a paleontologist at Flinders University in Australia, stated:
The preservation of ancient stones is illustrated in the context of Ashurbanipal. A team of archaeologists from the University of Heidelberg has discovered depictions of two gods and other figures representing the rulers of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, spanning from 699 to 631 BC.
A fragment of a 2,600-year-old stone relief from the archaeological site of Nineveh. Image credit: Aaron Schmidt.
Two artifacts, dating back 2,600 years, were unearthed at the archaeological site of Nineveh, located in modern-day Mosul, northern Iraq.
Nineveh served as the capital and largest city of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and for almost 50 years, it was the largest city in the world.
“The ancient city of Nineveh is recognized as one of the most significant cities in North Mesopotamia. King Sennacherib established it as the capital of the Assyrian Empire in the 8th century BC,” stated Professor Aaron Schmidt from the University of Heidelberg and his team.
The recently unearthed relief from the throne room of King Ashurbanipal’s North Palace stands out not only for its dimensions but also for the intricate scenes it portrays.
This enormous stone slab measures 5.5 m (18 feet) long and 3 m (10 feet) tall, weighing approximately 12 tons.
3D model of stone relief from the archaeological site of Nineveh: dark gray marks the fragments, while light gray areas indicate reconstructions based on findings. King Ashurbanipal is depicted in the center, flanked by the god Ashur (left) and the guardian goddess of Nineveh (right), followed by fish spirits and skilled attendants. Image credit: Michael Rummel.
“Among the various reliefs found in the Assyrian palace, this is the first to prominently feature the major gods,” commented Professor Schmidt.
“At the center of the newly uncovered relief is King Ashurbanipal, the last major ruler of the Assyrian Empire.”
“He is positioned next to the two greatest deities: Assur and Ishtar, along with the guardian goddess of Nineveh.”
“Surrounding them are fish spirits, symbolizing divine life and sovereignty, as well as armed supporters, potentially depicted as scorpions.”
“The evidence implies that a large winged solar disk may have originally adorned the relief.”
Researchers will continue to analyze the depictions meticulously and aim to publish their findings in an academic journal.
“This relief was originally located in a niche opposite the front entrance of the throne room, indicating its significance within the palace,” Professor Schmidt elaborated.
“We discovered a fragment of the relief in an earth-filled hole behind this niche.”
“It’s possible it was buried during the Hellenistic period around the 3rd or 2nd century BC.”
The burial of these fragments is likely one reason why British archaeologists failed to locate them over a century ago.
Paleontologists have identified three new fossil species. Sivulliusalmo Alaskensis was found in a purine cream formation in northern Alaska, USA.
Chinook salmon (oncorhynchus tschawytscha). Image credit: US Geological Survey.
“Sivulliusalmo Alaskensis reveals significant insights,” remarked Dr. Patrick Druckenmiller, the director of the University of Alaska Museum in the North.
“Our research uncovers several additional species of ancient fish new to the Arctic, including two new pike species: Archaeosiilik Gilmulli and Nunikuluk Gracilis, as well as the oldest record within the group comprising carp and minnows.”
“Many fish we now consider unique to Alaska’s high-latitude environment existed alongside dinosaurs.”
The discovery of Sivulliusalmo Alaskensis adds an impressive 20 million years to the fossil history of the salmon family.
Previously, the oldest known salmonidae fossil was from British Columbia and Washington.
“It’s noteworthy that the Salmonidae, which typically thrives in cold water, adapted and flourished during the warm Cretaceous period, enduring for millions of years amidst significant geographical and climatic changes,” noted Andres Lopez, Fish Curator at the University of Alaska in the north.
“Even though the Arctic was warm during that era, there would still be substantial seasonal variations in temperature and sunlight, much like today.”
“Salmon were among the fish adept at navigating these dramatic shifts.”
“Despite the planet’s numerous geological and climatic transformations, the ancestors of the same species group persisted in dominating the region’s freshwater ecosystems.”
The new species is the latest finding from the Prin Creek Formation, renowned for its dinosaur fossils discovered along the Colville River in northern Alaska.
During the Cretaceous period, Alaska was significantly closer to the Arctic than it is today.
“Fish fossils are among the most abundant in the Purine Creek Formation, yet they are challenging to distinguish in the field,” stated Dr. Druckenmiller.
“Consequently, we transported the fine sand and gravel samples to our museum lab, where microscopic analysis revealed the bones and teeth.”
“Our new findings heavily rely on small, fossilized jaws, some of which are small enough to fit on the edge of a pencil eraser.”
For detailed examination, the researchers employed micro-computed tomography to digitally reconstruct the small jaws, teeth, and other bones.
“We identified very distinct jaws and other components of the salmon family, which were recognized as belonging to this lineage,” said Dr. Druckenmiller.
“The presence of salmonidae in the Cretaceous polar regions and their coexistence with common low-light fish from this period suggests that salmonidae likely thrived in northern climates.”
“The high latitudes of the northern regions may have been vibrant centers for their evolutionary development.”
This paper was published in the journal Paleontology papers.
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Donald B. Brinkman et al. 2025. Fish from the Purine Cream Formation in the northern slopes of Alaska: the pre-Cretaceous and their paleobiogeographic significance. Paleontology papers 11(3): E70014; doi: 10.1002/spp2.70014
Extinct Kangaroos from the genus Protemnodon A recent study by paleontologists from the University of Adelaide, Queensland Museum, and Monash University discovered that these creatures were not adventurous wanderers traversing the plains, but rather homebodies that remained close to their habitats throughout their lives. This finding aligns with behaviors observed in modern kangaroo species, yet it was surprising to the researchers.
Protemnodon. Image credits: Andrey Atuchin / Rochelle Lawrence / Scott Hocknull.
Among large herbivorous mammals, greater body sizes are often associated with broader foraging ranges; however, it remains uncertain if this trend applies to extinct Australian megafauna.
In this study, paleontologist Christopher Laurikainen Gaete and colleagues investigated protemnodon fossils found in the Etna Cave, located north of Rockhampton in Central Queensland, Australia.
They examined strontium isotopes from kangaroo teeth, revealing matches only with local limestone rather than distant rock formations.
“The strontium isotopes in the fossilized teeth indicate the geology of the region where food was sourced,” they noted.
The findings suggest that Protemnodon had a significantly smaller foraging range than anticipated for its size, which is estimated at up to 170 kilograms.
Prior research indicates that Protemnodon likely lacked the capacity for long-distance travel due to its large size, thereby restricting its movement.
Additionally, this new study suggests that the stable, lush rainforest habitat provided sufficient food sources, negating the need for Protemnodon to wander far.
When climate change and increasing aridity disrupted this rainforest ecosystem about 280,000 years ago, the reduced foraging area may have left Protemnodon unable to find sufficient food, ultimately leading to the local extinction of these giant kangaroos.
Further investigations are needed to ascertain whether the limited range of Australia’s gigantic marsupials is a widespread pattern attributable to habitat rather than body size.
“We utilized data from contemporary kangaroos to predict a much broader foraging range for these giant extinct kangaroos,” explained Laurikainen Gaete.
“We were astonished to find they didn’t roam at all.”
“These innovative isotopic techniques have significantly advanced our field,” remarked Dr. Scott Hocknall, a senior scientist and curator at the Queensland Museum and paleontologist at Monash University.
“Think of it as an ancient GPS tracker. Fossils allow us to monitor individual movement, dietary habits, social interactions, and causes of death.”
“The ongoing debate regarding the extinction of Australia’s megafauna has persisted for decades, and now we can analyze it from an individual and species-specific standpoint,” stated Professor Anthony Doset, a paleontologist at the University of Wollongong.
“These precise methodologies enable us to examine each site and individual, facilitating more accurate extinction models.”
Researchers are currently planning to apply these methods to reconstruct the past behaviors and diets of MT ETNA and other extinct kangaroo species in the Capricorn Cave region.
“Many of the kangaroo species on Kangaroo Island, such as those found in Capricorn Caves, include tree kangaroos, pademelons, and rock wallabies, with descendants inhabiting the wet tropics and Papua New Guinea,” noted Professor Doset.
“We will employ these same techniques to explore how these surviving kangaroo species adapted to the environmental changes that contributed to the massive extinctions.”
The study will be published in the journal PLOS 1.
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C. Laurikainen Gaete et al. 2025. Megafauna Mobility: An assessment of the foraging range of extinct macropodids from central Queensland, Australia. PLOS 1 20(4): E0319712; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0319712
Paleontologists have unearthed fossil footprints from both invertebrates and vertebrates, dating back between 500,000 and 25 million years, including a faux Saber Tooth cat (Nimravid).
Nimravid footprints from the John Day Formation in Oregon, USA. Image credit: NP.
Paleontologists indicate that these specimens provide a nearly continuous 50 million-year record of mammalian evolution.
Within the Joda, four geological layers are identified: Clarno (50-39 million years), John Day (31-25 million years), Muscoll (16-12 million years), and rattlesnakes (8-6 million years).
The recently uncovered footprints belong to the Clarno and John Day layers.
“These footprints reveal intriguing behaviors and species previously undocumented in the extensive fossil records of the monument,” the researchers stated.
The series of footprints in the 29 million-year-old volcanic ash layer of the John Day Formation may have been created by Nimravid, a saber-toothed predator comparable in size to a bobcat, Hoplophoneus.
The absence of nail marks supports the notion of retractable nails, akin to modern-day felines.
Additionally, three round hoof prints of the same age likely belong to large herbivores, such as ancient tapirs and rhinoceroses.
Two small bird impressions, as well as a beak mark and an invertebrate trail, were found in the Clarno Formation.
These findings suggest ancient shorebirds were foraging for food in shallow waters.
Connor Bennett, a paleontologist at Utah Institute of Technology, remarked:
“It’s captivating; such a long duration for a species to maintain foraging patterns as seen in its ancestors.”
Within the same layer, scientists discovered an unusual fossil track featuring scattered toe impressions.
This indicates that lizards breaking through the lakebed represent one of the few known reptile trajectories from this period in North America.
“These tracks provide a unique window into ancient ecosystems,” stated Dr. Nicholas Famoso, Joda’s paleontology program manager.
“They add behavioral context to the body fossils amassed over the years, enhancing our understanding of prehistoric Oregon’s climate and environmental conditions.”
“Fossil tracks not only confirm the presence of these animals but also reveal their lifestyles,” Bennett added.
The team’s survey results will be published in the journal Palaeontologia Electronica.
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Connor J. Bennett et al. 2025. Following their footsteps: Reports of vertebrate fossil tracks from John Day Fossil Bed National Monument, Oregon, USA. Palaeontologia Electronica 28(1): A11; doi: 10.26879/1502
The formation of a large overpass 20 million years ago connected continents, influenced climate, separated oceans, and changed the course of evolution. According to recent papers published in Nature reviews the Earth and the environment, researchers from various disciplines such as plate tectonics, evolutionary anthropology, and climate research provide a comprehensive summary of the closure of the Tethys Seaway.
About 30 million years ago, the Earth looked drastically different. Africa was isolated from other continents, and the vast Thetis Ocean extended from the Atlantic to the Indo-Pacific oceans through the present-day Mediterranean.
However, approximately 20 million years ago, the first land bridge formed between Africa and Asia, dividing the Tethys Sea into the Mediterranean and Arabian Seas.
This land bridge allowed mammals like ancestors, giraffes, and elephants to migrate from Africa to Asia and Europe, influencing the evolution of both land and sea creatures and plants.
Scientists explain how they believe this land bridge was created. Around 50-60 million years ago, rock slabs descended into the Earth’s mantle, forming “conveyor belts” for hot rocks to rise in underground plumes.
About 30 million years later, these hot rocks reached the surface when tectonic plates collided, leading to the uplift of land that connected Africa for the first time in 75 million years.
According to Eivind Straume, a leading author of the study, the formation of this land bridge had a significant impact on continental configurations and evolutionary paths of animals migrating between Africa and Asia.
Researchers suggest that the closure of the Tethys Seaway has affected global climate, causing desertification in the Sahara, intensifying monsoon seasons in Southeast Asia, and enhancing marine biodiversity.
Archaeologists discovered and analyzed three hearths at the Upper Paleolithic site of Korman ‘9 (45,000-10,000 years ago) on the right bank of the Dniester River in Ukraine. Their findings show that ice age humans built different types of hearths, using mostly wood, but perhaps using bones and fat to burn fire.
Murphy et al. Provides a high-resolution Earth Character Study on three combustion features related to the profession of Epigravet on the Kolman 9 site in Ukraine, with age dropping to the last glacial maximum.
It is widely assumed that an important tool for human survival, especially in cold weather, is the ability to create, maintain and use fires.
Many literature provides data on the benefits of fire use regarding human evolution and its fundamental function in everyday life.
More recent research also shows the labor-intensive nature of using fireworks. The implication of fire use was not only an essential survival tool, but also played an important role in the way hunter-gatherer groups organize themselves.
This includes how hunter-gatherers acquire resources such as wooden fuel, how to initiate and maintain a fire if they store or cache fuel materials for future use, or how sites and activities are organized around the combustion function.
“The fire didn’t just keep it warm. It was also essential for cooking, making tools and social gatherings,” said Dr. Philip R. Nigust, an archaeologist at the University of Vienna.
“We know that fires have spread around this period, but there is little evidence from the height of the ice age,” added Dr. William Murfrey, an archaeologist at the University of Algarve.
In the current study, the researchers focused on the archaeological site of Komann 9 in Ukraine.
“Korman ‘9 is an Upper Paleolithic site on a north facing terrace on the right bank of the Dniester River in Ukraine,” they said.
“This site was discovered in 2012 while researching a site along the Dniester River.”
Through microstratigraphic analysis, microtransfer and colorimetric analysis, scientists have identified three flat wood furnaces.
One interesting discovery to come is that these fires have reached temperatures above 600 degrees Celsius, demonstrating a sophisticated mastery of fireworks even in the face of extreme environmental stresses.
The analysis also shows that humans use wood as the main fuel during peak ice ages, and charcoal analysis indicates spruce wood. However, other fuels such as bones and fat may be used.
“Some of the animal bones found on the site were burned in the fire at temperatures above 650 degrees Celsius,” said Dr. Majolaine D. Bosch, a museum of the University of Vienna zoo physician, Austrian Academy of Sciences and the Museum of Natural History.
“We are currently investigating whether they are being used as fuel or if they were accidentally burned.”
All three fireplaces are open and flat. However, the new results suggest that fire use was refined as it is likely that fireplaces were constructed and used in different ways each season.
One of the three fireplaces is large and thick, suggesting that a higher temperature was achieved here.
“People had full control over the fire and knew how to use it in a variety of ways depending on the purpose of the fire,” Dr. Nigust said.
“However, our results also show that these hunter-gatherers used the same location at different times of the year during their annual migration.”
William Chase Murfrey et al. 2025. The use of fires during the last Glacier largest era: evidence from the epigravet of Kolmann 9 in the Middle Donierster Valley in Ukraine. Geography 40(2): E70006; doi: 10.1002/gea.70006
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