An oil spill at sea represents one of the worst man-made disasters in history. Surprisingly, introducing a fire whirlpool may emerge as an innovative solution. A recent study reveals it might be an effective method to address the aftermath.
In responding to significant oil spills, emergency teams often ignite oil slicks on the ocean surface, creating fire pits “on-site” to curb the further spread of oil.
While this approach helps protect marine ecosystems, it simultaneously releases substantial amounts of smoke and toxic soot into the atmosphere.
The inspiration for this method traces back to an unusual incident in Kentucky in 2003, where a bourbon spill ignited 800,000 gallons, creating a 30-meter (100-foot) firestorm over a lake. Professor Elaine Oran and her team began exploring whether this process could be utilized more permanently.
“We were joking about what it would smell like,” she shared with BBC Science Focus. “Then we examined the event closely. The larger fire vortex was effectively consuming smaller fire vortices, drawing them in and absorbing them.”
The team constructed a 4.8-meter (16-foot) triple-walled triangular structure at a fire training facility in Texas, featuring a pool of crude oil at its center. When ignited, this setup created a roaring fire vortex approximately 5.2 meters (17 feet) high.
Initial large-scale experiments demonstrate that fire vortices burn spilled oil faster and cleaner than traditional fire pools, showcasing innovative potential for ocean cleanup. – Photo credit: Texas A&M University College of Engineering
Compared to conventional fire pools, the oil burns 40% faster, soot emissions are reduced by 40%, and up to 95% of the fuel is consumed.
The secret to this efficiency lies in the fire’s spin. Instead of spreading outward, the vortex pulls in oxygen from all angles, allowing for hotter and more complete combustion, akin to a giant incinerator rather than a simple bonfire.
However, harnessing this fire whirlpool’s power is no easy task. The structure is unpredictable; too much wind can lead to its collapse, while insufficient airflow control may revert it to a traditional fire pool.
Nonetheless, achieving a “Goldilocks Zone” on-site is “very realistic,” according to Oran, who envisions deploying a movable barrier structure directly above oil spills at sea.
“This research is more than just an experiment; it offers a glimpse into a future where fire is not merely a destructive force, but a tool to safeguard our oceans and our planet,” she stated.
While most people are aware of the destructive power of lightning in forests, few know about the subtle electrical phenomenon known as corona. This weak electrical glow is believed to occur on tree leaves during thunderstorms. Researchers at Penn State University utilized ultraviolet-sensitive equipment to directly observe and measure this intriguing phenomenon in tree species such as sweetgum and celery pine across various U.S. states.
Coronae glow on the tip of a spruce needle caused by a charged metal plate in the laboratory. Image credit: William Bruun.
Lightning strikes have captivated humanity since thunderstorms began sweeping through Earth’s forests, causing everything from trunk splits to wildfires, often turning night into day.
However, scientists are now shifting their focus to the more delicate electrical phenomena that manifest on leaf tips amid thunderstorms.
Unlike lightning, which can heat the air to extreme temperatures, corona represents a weak electrical discharge with a temperature only slightly above that of the surrounding air.
Despite their gentler nature, these electrical sparks can generate significant amounts of hydroxyl, a key oxidant in the atmosphere, potentially harming tree foliage and affecting charged particles within thunderstorm cloud bases.
“We have observed these phenomena, confirming their existence,” stated Dr. Patrick McFarland, a meteorologist at Pennsylvania State University.
“Having tangible evidence is incredibly exciting,” he added.
“In a laboratory setting, when you block all light, you can barely see the corona, which appears as a blue light,” he explained.
For this study, Dr. McFarland and his team designed a portable instrument equipped with multiple components to measure tree canopies and the atmospheric conditions that influence corona formation.
The centralized component is a 25 cm diameter telescope that focuses ultraviolet (UV) radiation onto a solar-blind UV camera sensitive to wavelengths between 255 and 273 nm.
During thunderstorms in North Carolina, scientists succeeded in observing corona on sweetgum and pine trees.
“The corona could potentially travel between leaves or trace along branches swaying in the wind,” the researchers noted.
Similar observations were recorded for various tree species during four additional thunderstorms from Florida to Pennsylvania.
“Our findings illustrate that the corona exhibits glowing patterns in wooded areas during thunderstorms,” the researchers stated.
“These corona effects can alter air quality in forests, subtly damage foliage, and influence storm conditions overhead.”
For further details, refer to the study published on February 12th in Geophysical Research Letters.
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PJ McFarland et al. 2026. Corona discharges glow on trees under thunderstorms. Geophysical Research Letters 53 (4): e2025GL119591; doi: 10.1029/2025GL119591
Climate change is potentially enhancing frogs’ mating rituals with a new study revealing fascinating insights.
Researchers from the University of California, Davis discovered that temperature significantly influences the quality of male frogs’ mating calls, with warmer weather leading to more alluring calls.
Typically, male frogs’ calls become less vibrant in early spring. However, as temperatures rise, their calls speed up, catching the attention of female frogs in search of a mate.
“Frog calls are greatly influenced by the environment’s temperature,” notes lead author Julian Pecny, a former graduate student in the Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology at UC Davis. Currently, she serves as the director of conservation science at the North Carolina Amphibian and Reptile Conservancy.
“As the pond warms, the male frog’s call shifts from a slow, dull sound to a quicker, almost urgent tone. Even humans can hear this change, and female frogs are attuned to it as well.”
The results of this study are published in Frontiers of Ecology and Environment, based on research conducted at Quail Ridge Ecological Reserve and Lassen Field Station, part of the UC Conservancy.
Pecny employed a microphone positioned at the edge of a pond to record the love songs of Sierran tree frogs, analyzing them against variations in water temperature.
Photo credit: Brian Todd/UC Davis. As temperatures rise, male Sierran tree frogs enhance their mating calls to signal to females that conditions for breeding are ideal.
Importantly, the researchers found that female frogs are not merely choosing the most attractive male singers; they are using call quality to assess whether environmental conditions are suitable for breeding.
“This could be a method for females to track changes in seasonality over time,” says Pekny. “As the pond gets warmer, the males’ enticing calls become faster.”
This phenomenon could have significant ramifications as our climate continues to warm. With 41 percent of amphibians at risk of extinction, understanding frogs’ breeding timing and its fluctuations is vital for conservation efforts.
Typically, male frogs arrive at the pond before females, starting their calls to compete for attention. However, females delay until conditions are right for their eggs to thrive, gathering essential information from the quality of the males’ calls.
“It’s crucial for males to reach the pond before their competitors,” stated co-author Brian Todd, a professor in the Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology at UC Davis. “Conversely, females should arrive only when it’s the right time for egg laying.”
This groundbreaking discovery could reshape our understanding of animal reactions to climate change and may also impact insect species that make courtship calls during this season.
Interestingly, it’s not only frogs that can hear these mating calls; humans can, too.
“If you listen carefully over several weeks, you might notice the difference,” Pekny suggests. “Imagine how female frogs identify male calls over the course of the season.”
When you envision the North Pole, you likely imagine a vast, icy wonderland devoid of life. Noise might be the last thing on your mind.
However, recent findings from a study published in npj Acoustics reveal that the underwater soundscape is far more expansive and diverse than we previously thought. This raises crucial questions about how to monitor and protect this unique environment.
Analyzing a decade’s worth of underwater sound data from Cambridge Bay in the Canadian Arctic, researchers discovered that climate change is accelerating ice loss, reshaping the region’s underwater soundscape—an alteration that could have serious ramifications for local wildlife.
“Climate change is more than tripling in the Arctic, which means ice is melting faster, melting earlier, and reforming later,” stated Dr. Philippe Blondel, the lead author of the study and a senior lecturer in the Department of Physics at the University of Bath, UK, in an interview with BBC Science Focus.
“As a result, the Arctic becomes more accessible for human activities. Navigation becomes easier for ships in an ice-free environment. A key finding from our research is that while ships generate noise, they are not the only contributors.”
The study identifies that not only large ships—often the focus of noise pollution regulations—but also other significant sources such as snowmobiles, aircraft, and smaller vessels contribute to underwater noise. Many of these smaller noise sources evade detection by satellite systems, leading to gaps in models that rely solely on vessel position data.
Vital Arctic species, including whales and seals, depend on sound for communication, navigation, finding food, and evading predators. With increasing underwater noise both in frequency and volume, these essential communication tools are increasingly compromised.
Whales rely on sound production and hearing for survival – Photo courtesy of Getty
Dr. Blondel likens the situation to standing next to a busy freeway. “You might only hear the ambient noise, but when a motorcycle rushes by, that high-frequency noise disrupts your ability to hear music.”
“When a large truck thunders past, it becomes nearly impossible to hear anything else.”
In a similar manner, one sound source could disrupt a whale trying to communicate with its calves, while another noise at a different frequency might drive the whale away from critical feeding areas.
However, the research team is not advocating for total silence in the Arctic. Instead, Blondel proposes that environmental policies should encompass a broader array of frequencies beyond the narrow “transport bands” typically measured in protection frameworks, such as the European Maritime Strategy Framework Directive.
He recommends establishing stricter shipping routes in the increasingly ice-free Arctic and implementing varying speed limits depending on wildlife presence, as potential strategies to mitigate harmful noise pollution.
Yet, enforcing such regulations poses challenges, as they would need to encompass everything from large vessels to smaller crafts, and the region is bordered by multiple nations.
“My primary goal was to demonstrate that when assessing the ocean’s soundscape, we need to consider all sound sources, not just large ships,” Blondel emphasized. “But my overarching aim is to establish some form of framework in the Arctic. We must devise effective noise guidelines before the situation worsens further.”
You can be compensated for your online posts, provided they are utilized for AI training.
According to Dr. Margaret Mitchell, the chief ethics scientist at Hugging Face, an open-source AI company, there is a pressing need for AI firms to trace AI-generated content back to its original creators.
“Many creators—including artists, writers, and everyday users—are losing out on compensation for their contributions,” she stated during her talk at AI Everything in Cairo, Egypt.
“I envision a future where we can truly identify the sources of input that make AI outputs possible and adequately reward them.”
Generative AI heavily relies on certain creators more than others. Some AI-generated works exhibit distinct links between input and output, such as a recognizable writing style or an artist’s signature.
Recently, renowned Japanese animator and film director Hayao Miyazaki criticized AI-generated images that mimic the unique style of his Studio Ghibli films.
But the issue extends beyond musicians and artists, as large-scale language models (LLMs) like ChatGPT and Google Gemini are trained on extensive online resources.
AI companies frequently “harvest” data from the internet to train their LLMs. – Credit: Getty
“We are all creators,” Mitchell emphasized, as reported by BBC Science Focus. It is essential that reward models recognize contributions from all online users, whether it’s a poem or a vacation sunset photo taken five years ago.
Fortunately, there are emerging models that can track the relationship between input and output, rewarding creators based on their contributions.
However, such a system is not yet in place, and existing AI business models hinder the funding required to develop it, Mitchell said, although some AI companies are exploring potential solutions.
For instance, in a document from 2021, AI company Anthropic’s CEO Dario Amodei proposed a “crazy idea” for a reward distribution model akin to the monetization platform Patreon, which was recently opened by court order.
Mitchell noted that existing LLMs could implement known technological strategies to facilitate this model. Clustering algorithms, for example, could help track similarities and attribute authorship.
To maintain user privacy, this model would require consent, allowing users to opt in for their data to be linked to their identity (with compensation) or remain anonymous.
“To foster innovation, we need to pave the way for this kind of research,” Mitchell asserted. “Currently, the path forward is completely closed.”
A groundbreaking study by geoscientists at the University of Florida and the Paris Institute of Geophysics reveals the origin of Earth’s most severe gravity anomaly, known as the Antarctic Gravity Hole (or Antarctic Geoid Depression). This anomaly is attributed to millions of years of slowed underground rock flow.
Evolution of the Antarctic geoid cyclone. Image credit: P. Glišović & AM Forte, doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-28606-1.
According to Professor Alessandro Forte from the University of Florida, gaining a better understanding of how Earth’s interior influences gravity and sea levels can shed light on factors essential for the growth and stability of significant ice sheets.
“Variations in gravity due to differences in rock density beneath the surface, although small in absolute terms, can have a substantial impact on ocean levels,” he explained.
“In regions of reduced gravity, water tends to flow toward areas of higher gravity, causing sea levels to be relatively lower in those spots.”
“As a result of the Antarctic gravity hole, the sea level around Antarctica is significantly lower than it would typically be.”
In this research, Professor Forte and Dr. Petar Grišović from the Paris Institute of Geophysics have meticulously mapped out the Antarctic geoid cyclone, revealing its development throughout the Cenozoic Era, spanning from 66 million years ago to the present day.
The team utilized a global scientific initiative that integrates seismic data and advanced modeling techniques to reconstruct the 3D structure of Earth’s interior.
“It’s like performing a CT scan of the planet without the use of conventional X-rays,” Forte remarked.
“Earthquakes generate seismic waves, which act as the ‘light’ that reveals Earth’s inner structure.”
The researchers successfully created a global gravity map that aligns closely with satellite data, validating their underlying model.
The next challenge involved reversing the geophysical clock to examine how the Antarctic geoid cyclone has evolved over millions of years.
By employing physics-based reconstructions and sophisticated computer models, they retraced geological changes spanning 70 million years.
These historical analyses indicate that the Antarctic geoid cyclone began in a relatively weak state.
From approximately 50 to 30 million years ago, however, the gravity hole began to strengthen, coinciding with significant shifts in Antarctica’s climatic conditions, including the onset of a global ice age.
“We aim to test the causal relationship between this intensified gravity hole and the Antarctic ice sheet. Our new modeling will connect changes in gravity, sea levels, and continental elevation,” stated Professor Forte.
This research seeks to answer pivotal questions about the interactions between our climate and the processes occurring within Earth.
For more details, refer to the study published in December 2025 in the journal Scientific Reports.
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P. Grišović and A.M. Forte. 2025. Cenozoic evolution of Earth’s strongest geoid low reveals the dynamics of the Antarctic subsurface mantle. Scientific Reports 15, 45749; doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-28606-1
For years, glaciologists have been intrigued by the peculiar plume-like structures hidden beneath the Greenland Ice Sheet. Recent research conducted by scientists from the University of Bergen, NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, and the University of Oxford indicates that these enigmatic features are the result of thermal convection—an intriguing process typically associated with Earth’s mantle.
Location of a large plume-like structure (triangle) within the Greenland Ice Sheet. Credit: Leysinger Vieli et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-07083-3 / Law et al., doi: 10.5194/tc-20-1071-2026.
“Typically, we perceive ice as a solid material, so the revelation that parts of the Greenland Ice Sheet experience heat convection—similar to cooking pasta— is both extraordinary and fascinating,” said study co-author Professor Andreas Born from the University of Bergen.
“The realization that thermal convection can occur within ice sheets defies our expectations,” remarked lead author Dr. Robert Loh, also from the University of Bergen.
“However, the ice is at least a million times softer than Earth’s mantle, making the physics align. It’s truly a remarkable phenomenon in nature.”
“These findings could play a crucial role in reducing uncertainties in models predicting ice sheet mass balance and sea level rise,” added Professor Born.
Deep ice is found to be approximately ten times softer than previously assumed, but this does not imply a faster melting rate.
“Enhancing our understanding of ice physics is vital for greater certainty regarding future conditions; nonetheless, softer ice alone does not guarantee accelerated melting or increased sea levels. Further studies are necessary to explore this,” Dr. Loh emphasized.
Although these findings do not predict imminent disasters in Greenland or elsewhere, they underscore the complex and dynamic nature of this region.
“Greenland and its ecosystem are indeed unique,” Dr. Loh commented.
“The ice sheet is over 1,000 years old and is the only one on Earth that coexists with a culture and established communities along its edges.”
“Understanding the processes beneath the ice will better equip us to handle the changes occurring along coastlines globally.”
Read more about the research in the upcoming publication in Cryosphere this month.
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R. Law et al. 2026. Investigating the conditions under which convection is likely to occur within the Greenland Ice Sheet. Cryosphere 20: 1071-1086; doi: 10.5194/tc-20-1071-2026
Explore the Dark Craters near the Moon’s South Pole
Credit: Science Photo Library / Alamy
Scientists aim to establish a groundbreaking laser system in one of the moon’s coldest craters to significantly enhance the navigation capabilities of lunar landers and rovers.
Ultra-stable lasers are vital for highly precise timing and navigation systems. These lasers operate by reflecting a beam between two mirrors within a cavity, maintaining a consistent beam speed. This precision is largely due to the chamber’s size stability, which neither expands nor contracts. To achieve this, mirrors are typically maintained in a cryogenic vacuum, insulated from external vibrations.
The moon hosts numerous craters at its poles, which lack direct sunlight due to minimal axial tilt. Consequently, these permanently shadowed areas are extremely cold, with some craters projected to reach temperatures around -253°C (20 Kelvin) during the lunar winter.
Junye from JILA, along with a research team in Boulder, Colorado, has proposed that these icy conditions, combined with the moon’s absence of natural vibrations and an almost non-existent atmosphere, make these craters ideal for ultra-stable lasers. The potential stability of these lunar lasers could surpass that of any terrestrial counterparts.
“The entire environment is incredibly stable,” Ye emphasizes. “Despite variations between summer and winter on the Moon, temperature fluctuations range only from 20 to 50 Kelvin, contributing to a remarkably consistent environment.”
Ye and his research team envision a lunar laser device akin to an optical cavity already developed in JILA’s lab, featuring a silicon chamber equipped with dual mirrors.
Current optical cavity lasers on Earth can maintain coherence for just a few seconds, meaning their light waves can synchronize briefly. However, the moon-based laser is projected to sustain coherence for at least a minute, which will facilitate its role as a reference laser for a variety of lunar missions. This includes maintaining the lunar time zone and coordinating satellite formations using lasers for distance measurement. Given that light from the moon takes just over a second to reach Earth, it could also serve as a reliable reference for Earth-based activities, as highlighted by Ye.
Although implementing this idea poses challenges, the rationale is sound and could greatly benefit future lunar missions. According to Simeon Barber from the Open University, UK, “Recent lunar landers have experienced suboptimal landings due to varying lighting conditions, complicating vision-based systems. Leveraging stable lasers for positioning, navigation, and timing could enhance the reliability of landings in high-latitude areas.”
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Oona Chaplin as Varang in Avatar: Fire and Ash
Image credit: 20th Century Studio, 2025. Unauthorized reproduction is prohibited.
Bethan Ackerley Deputy Editor, London
No one crafts blockbusters quite like James Cameron. Avatar: Fire and Ash, the highly anticipated third installment set on the enchanting moon of Pandora, is both spectacular and visually stunning. The narrative unfolds with captivating themes ranging from interspecies conflicts to deep family dynamics.
Around 15 years after the ex-Marine Jake Sully was embraced by the Na’vi, he now resides on Pandora with his partner Neytiri and their children, having played a crucial role in defeating the human invaders and merging with their Na’vi bodies.
However, they now face the heart-wrenching loss of their eldest son, Neteyam. Their arch-nemesis, Colonel Quaritch, has allied himself with an influential Na’vi tribe that inhabits a volcano and is led by the formidable Varan (as depicted above).
Shakespeare may not measure up (the dialogue is rather crude, to say the least), but the allure of this intricately designed universe is undeniable.
Prepare to be mesmerized by the breathtaking visuals and the story of Payakan, a member of the sentient whale-like species known as the Tulukun, who serves as the emotional core of the film.
Research on Zebra Finches’ Eyes Reveals Unique Mechanisms
Ger Bosma/Alamy
The anatomy of zebra finches’ eyes is distinct from known vertebrate tissues. Their retinas, responsible for light detection, utilize an unusual energy source by absorbing glucose instead of the typical oxygen.
This groundbreaking discovery addresses a 400-year-old question regarding avian eye physiology. Christian Damsgaard from Aarhus University in Denmark notes, “This is compelling evidence that certain neurons can operate without oxygen, notably in common garden birds.”
The retina sends light signals to the brain, demanding considerable energy supplied by oxygen and nutrients through blood vessels. However, the thick avascular retina in zebra finches raises the question of how these essential nerve cells sustain life.
Damsgaard and his research team investigated zebra finches, or Teniopygia guttata, in the lab. By attaching oxygen sensors to their eyes, they discovered that the inner retinal layer does not receive oxygen.
“Oxygen enters through the back of the eye, but it cannot permeate the retina,” explains Damsgaard.
Analyzing metabolic gene activity in various retinal layers revealed frequent reliance on glycolysis in areas devoid of oxygen. Although this process is less efficient, it serves the retina’s energy needs.
“This method requires 15 times more glucose for equivalent energy output,” states Damsgaard. So, where does all this sugar come from?
The answer lies in the pecten, a structure of rake-shaped blood vessels found in avian eyes. Previously thought to transport oxygen, recent findings show that the pecten instead inundates the retina with glucose—four times what brain cells absorb—fueling its high-energy requirements.
According to Luke Tyrrell, researchers at the State University of New York at Plattsburgh are astonished that birds have evolved to depend on such a less efficient method for vision. “The avian retina is among the most energy-intensive tissues in the animal kingdom,” he adds.
This specialized, blood vessel-free retina may provide superior vision in birds, with the pecten sugar supply being a crucial evolutionary adaptation. An oxygen-independent retina could also contribute to their capabilities for high-altitude migratory flights.
For Pavel Niemec, findings from Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic, illustrate that evolution can yield counterintuitive solutions to physical challenges.
Damsgaard and his colleagues believe there may be future applications for modifying human cells to allow greater resilience under low-oxygen conditions, such as after a stroke.
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Experiment on Oxygen Production with Deep-Sea Nodule
Nippon Foundation
Scientists are set to deploy instruments to the ocean floor to explore the intriguing process of metal nodules producing oxygen in the Pacific Ocean. This unexpected phenomenon has ignited significant debate regarding the ethics of deep-sea mining.
In a surprising revelation from 2024, researchers identified that a potato-sized formation in the depths of the Pacific and Indian Oceans—including the distinguished Clarion-Clipperton Zone—functions as a vital oxygen source. This discovery challenges the conventional belief that large-scale oxygen production derives solely from sunlight and photosynthesis.
Dubbed “dark oxygen,” this phenomenon sustains life within the abyss, including microorganisms, sea cucumbers, and predatory sea anemones thriving thousands of meters beneath the surface. This finding casts doubt on proposals from deep-sea mining companies aiming to extract cobalt, nickel, and manganese by removing nodules from the ocean floor. A controversial deep-sea mining company was involved in this discovery, prompting a call for further scientific investigation.
Now, the team responsible for discovering dark oxygen is returning to the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, the prime location for potential deep-sea mining, to verify its existence and comprehend the mechanisms behind its production.
“Where does the oxygen come from for these diverse animal communities to thrive?” asked Andrew Sweetman from the Scottish Marine Science Society. “This could be an essential process, and we’re focused on uncovering it.”
The researchers propose that a metallic layer in the nodule generates an electrical current which splits seawater into hydrogen and oxygen. They’ve recorded up to 0.95 volts of electricity on the surface of the nodules—just below the standard 1.23 volts necessary for electrolysis. However, the team suggests that individual nodules or clusters could produce higher voltages.
Plans are underway to deploy a lander, essentially a metal frame housing various instruments, to a depth of 10,000 meters to measure oxygen flow and pH changes, as the electrolysis process releases protons, increasing water acidity.
Research Lander Deployed Into the Ocean
Scottish Marine Science Society
Given the potential role of microorganisms in this process, the lander will also collect sediment cores and nodules for laboratory analysis. Each nodule is home to approximately 100 million microorganisms, which researchers aim to identify through DNA sequencing and fluorescence microscopy.
“The immense diversity of microorganisms is constantly evolving; we are continually discovering new species,” remarked Jeff Marlow from Boston University. “Are they active? Are they influencing their environment in crucial ways?”
Furthermore, since electrolysis is generally not observed under the intense pressures found on the ocean floor, the team intends to utilize a high-pressure reactor to replicate deep-sea conditions and conduct electrolysis experiments there.
“The pressure of 400 atmospheres is comparable to that at which the Titan submarine tragically imploded,” noted Franz Geiger from Northwestern University. “We seek to understand the efficiency of water splitting under such high pressure.”
The ultimate aim is to carry out electrochemical reactions in the presence of microorganisms and bacteria under an electron microscope without harming the microorganisms.
The United Nations’ International Seabed Authority has yet to decide on the legality of deep-sea mining in international waters, with U.S. President Donald Trump advocating for its implementation. The Canadian company, The Metals Company, has applied for authorization from the U.S. government to commence deep-sea mining operations.
A recent paper authored by Metals Company scientists contends that Sweetman and his colleagues have not produced sufficient energy to facilitate seawater electrolysis in 2024, suggesting the observed oxygen was likely transported from the ocean’s surface by the deployed landers.
Sweetman countered this claim, stating that the lander would displace any air bubbles on its descent, and asserted that oxygen measurement would not have occurred if deployed in other regions, such as the Arctic ocean floor, which is 4,000 meters deep. Out of 65 experiments conducted at the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, he noted that 10% exhibited oxygen consumption while the remainder indicated oxygen production.
Sweetman and his colleagues also discovered that the oxidation phase of the electrolysis process can occur at lower voltages than those recorded on the nodule’s surface. A rebuttal presenting this data has been submitted to Natural Earth Science and is currently under review.
“From a commercial perspective, there are definitely interests attempting to suppress research in this field,” stated Sweetman in response to the Metals Company’s opposition to his findings.
“It is imperative to address all comments, regardless of their origin,” added Marlowe. “That is our current predicament in this process.”
In a picturesque mountain pasture in Austria, a remarkably intelligent cow is reshaping our understanding of animal cognition.
Meet Veronica, a pet Swiss brown cow who has innovatively learned to use both ends of a stick to scratch her back. This impressive tool use is exceedingly rare in the animal kingdom and has never been documented in cattle before.
Dr. Antonio Osuna Mascaro, a professor at the University of Veterinary Medicine in Vienna, led the groundbreaking study published in Current Biology. The research highlights how Veronica creatively utilizes available tools to scratch herself.
Initially, researchers provided her with a broom brush, expecting her to only use the bristles. However, Veronica adapted her tool use based on the specific itch needing relief.
For larger or more intense itches on her back, she utilized the bristled end of the brush. Conversely, for lighter itches, such as on her sensitive lower abdomen, she opted for the smooth handle end.
“The only well-documented occurrence similar to this was when a chimpanzee cleverly manipulated the ends of a stick to forage for termites,” Osuna Mascaro stated, as reported by BBC Science Focus.
Researchers emphasize that domestic animals have often been overlooked by behavioral scientists, meaning their perceived lack of intelligence may stem more from insufficient observation than from the animals’ actual capabilities.
“Understanding that cows possess the ability to innovate and use tools flexibly sends a powerful message about our biases regarding cow intelligence and capabilities,” Osuna Mascaro added.
Osuna Mascaro (left) shared that Veronica (right) is affectionate and cherished by her human family. – Credit: Antonio J. Osuna Mascaró
Veronica: The Beloved Cow
The study emphasizes that while Veronica is unique, her intelligent behavior is not an isolated case.
As a cherished pet, Veronica enjoys access to open spaces, daily human engagement, and the freedom to explore her environment. At 13 years old, she is significantly older than the average domestic cow.
Her human companion, Witger Vigele, first observed Veronica using tools over a decade ago. Intrigued by her intelligence, researchers analyzed footage of her behavior and decided to meet this extraordinary cow.
Researchers urge everyone to appreciate intelligent cows like Veronica – Credit: AJ Osuna-Mascaró
The findings suggest that our perceptions of domestic animals’ intelligence may not relate to their actual abilities, but rather to the opportunities they are given to demonstrate their intelligence and whether we take the time to observe them.
“I would love to hear from anyone who has witnessed cows displaying similar behaviors firsthand,” Osuna Mascaro expressed.
“The key element is using an object dynamically to achieve goals that would be otherwise difficult or impossible,” he concluded.
Two ancient wolf cubs, discovered buried in the Siberian permafrost over a decade ago, are now shedding new light on their past through rich DNA evidence hidden in their remains.
For the first time, researchers have uncovered a piece of woolly rhino meat—an animal comparable in size to modern white rhinos but with a thick furry coat—preserved in the stomach of one of the wolf puppies. The DNA from this meat and fur has remarkably survived for over 14,000 years under the ice, enabling scientists to sequence the entire genome. They published their findings in the Wednesday Journal “Genome Biology and Evolution”.
“This is the first instance where an entire genome has been reconstructed from an Ice Age animal found within another Ice Age animal,” stated study author Camilo Chacón-Duque, an evolutionary biologist from Uppsala University in Sweden. “The genome quality is exceptional and of high resolution.”
A piece of woolly rhinoceros tissue found in the stomach of a preserved wolf pup in Stockholm in 2020.love darren
The woolly rhinoceros in question went extinct approximately 14,400 years ago, just a few hundred years prior to its disappearance from the fossil record. This gives researchers a unique glimpse into the genome of a species on the brink of extinction.
“This sample represents the youngest woolly rhinoceros ever sequenced, marking the closest proximity of the species to extinction,” Chacon-Duque noted.
Evolutionary biologists have long debated whether it was human hunters or climate change that ultimately led to the woolly rhinoceros’s extinction. New genomic data indicates that the population may have been robust until its sudden decline.
Tumat-1 wolf pup in Vienna in 2018.Miech Germonpre
The first of the two small puppies was discovered by ivory hunters searching for mammoth tusks in Siberia nearly 15 years ago, with the other being found four years later.
These mummified animals, known as the “Tumat pups,” have unexpectedly aided scientists in exploring the fate of another species.
According to the research, both puppies were female and likely littermates, found just six feet apart and sharing several DNA traits, as noted in a study published in Quaternary Research magazine last year.
A section of permafrost where a Tumat wolf pup was discovered near the Russian village of Tumato in 2011. Co-author Sergei Fedorov and his colleagues are in the foreground.Sergey Fedorov
“They died at a young age, around nine weeks,” explained Anne-Catherine Wyborg Runge, co-author of the Quaternary research paper. “At that age, they still had their baby teeth.”
Initial studies suggested that thawing permafrost may have triggered landslides, entombing the wolves in ice and snow, although it’s also possible that the puppies perished due to a collapsing burrow.
“They would have been buried instantly and then frozen for 14,000 years,” noted Runge’s co-author Nathan Wales, a senior archaeology lecturer at the University of York, UK.
Interestingly, the puppies were discovered near where ancient humans hunted woolly mammoths, suggesting they might have been domesticated dogs rather than wild wolves. However, no mammoth DNA was found in the pup’s stomach. Researchers believe one pup’s last meal was woolly rhinoceros meat, while the other had recently eaten a bird, leaving behind rhino meat and some feathers in the permafrost.
Study co-authors Sergei Fedorov and Mikkel Sinding conducted an autopsy in Vienna in 2018 on a Tumat wolf pup whose stomach contained woolly rhinoceros tissue fragments.Miech Germonpre
In a recent study published Wednesday, Chacón-Duque sequenced resilient chunks of meat from the animal’s last meal.
“This piece had remained in the pup’s stomach for years. It’s truly remarkable,” Runge remarked.
Although complete woolly rhinoceros genomes are rare, researchers compared their findings with two other high-quality genomes from rhinos that went extinct approximately 18,000 and 49,000 years ago.
Rab Dalen, co-author of the new study, poses with a woolly rhinoceros horn.Irina Kirilova
Chacón-Duque and team detected no signs of inbreeding or harmful mutations within the population, indicating it was robust.
“They haven’t identified any indicators suggesting population collapse, which is peculiar considering the species went extinct,” noted Wales, an ancient DNA expert not involved in the study.
Several centuries after the woolly rhinoceros roamed these areas, a significant warming phase commenced in the Northern Hemisphere, marking the end of the Ice Age. Study authors believe this newly sequenced DNA supports the hypothesis that climate change contributed to the woolly rhino’s extinction.
J Camilo Chacón Duque, co-author of the groundbreaking study.Natalia Romagosa
Chacón-Duque posits that the rising temperatures likely exert stress on cold-adapted populations, and human expansion could have facilitated the spread of diseases affecting the woolly rhino.
“All these factors likely interacted synergistically, contributing to the species’ ultimate demise,” Chacón-Duque concluded. “Without a doubt, climate change played a significant role.”
Mick Westbury, an associate professor and expert on ancient rhinos from the Technical University of Denmark, agrees with the theory’s plausibility.
However, Westbury points out that rare ancient DNA can pose interpretation challenges and that generational changes can heavily impact a species’ genetics. The woolly rhinoceros may have been at risk even if genetic analyses did not immediately indicate it.
“Sometimes, genomics alone doesn’t provide the complete picture,” Westbury remarked.
Nonetheless, Westbury suggests that these findings could offer vital insights for conservation efforts as human-induced climate change becomes an increasing threat to existing species.
“Our results indicate that the woolly rhino does not appear to be on the brink of extinction,” Westbury noted. “A species may seem genetically viable on the surface but still face vulnerabilities.”
The Armored Rockhead Poacher (Boslagonus Swanee) possesses a mysterious anatomical feature: a bowl-shaped cavity in its skull that has puzzled marine biologists for years. This unique trait is now believed to play a critical role in an innovative form of communication.
The Rockhead Poacher (Boslagonus Swanee) at the Oregon Coast Aquarium. Image credit: Rhinopias / CC BY-SA 4.0.
Originally described by Franz Steindachner in 1876, Boslagonus Swanee belongs to the family Agonidae. This fascinating fish can be found at depths of up to 18 meters in the eastern Pacific Ocean, from Alaska down to Carmel Bay in California.
Marine experts have long speculated about the purpose of the cavernous cranial fossa, which is roughly the size of the fish’s brain. Some theories suggest it aids in camouflage among rocky environments, while others propose it enhances hearing and sensory perception.
Recent advancements in imaging technology have led Louisiana State University student Daniel Geldof to propose a groundbreaking explanation. His findings suggest it might resonate with the rhythm of rock music rather than the serenity of coral reefs.
“My dissertation project aims to uncover the reasons behind this unique feature,” Geldof explained.
Utilizing a high-resolution micro-CT scanner, his team created an intricate 3D model of the rockhead poacher’s anatomy.
These scans indicated that the fish’s initial set of ribs are notably large, flat, and free-moving, positioned near the epigastric region of the skull without direct attachment.
Located at the base of these ribs are powerful muscles and tendons resembling drumsticks.
When these ribs vibrate against the skull’s calcified cavities, they create pulses of sound that can be transmitted through the substrate.
Geldof posits that this percussive mechanism likely evolved to facilitate communication among fish in their acoustically challenging intertidal habitats, where traditional underwater communication might be hindered by crashing waves and background noise.
In this rugged, shallow environment, using substrate vibrations may provide a more efficient means of communication aligned with the fish’s unique lifestyle.
Furthermore, Professor Geldof’s research combined contrast-enhanced soft tissue scans with data on bone structures to map the nerves, muscles, and microstructures within rockhead poachers, suggesting that the cranial fossa may serve sensory functions as well.
Branches of the dorsal lateral line nerve—a crucial component of the fish’s movement-sensing system—extend into the cavity, and the arrangement of microstructures suggests a role in mechanoreception, allowing the fish to sense movement and pressure.
Geldof concludes that this anatomical feature is multifunctional, serving both communicative and sensory purposes within the dynamic intertidal ecosystem.
“The intricate details of this small structure reflect not just a scientific inquiry, but a fundamental human curiosity,” he states.
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Daniel L. Geldof 2025. The Truth About Holes: The Morphology of Rockhead Poachers’ Skull Holes, Boslagonus Swanee (Agonidae). LSU Master’s Thesis 6270
A groundbreaking research team at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology has successfully generated a high-quality Denisovan genome assembly using ancient DNA extracted from molar teeth found in the Denisovan Cave. This genome, dating back approximately 200,000 years, significantly predates the only previously sequenced Denisovan specimen. The findings are prompting a reevaluation of when and where early human groups interacted, mixed, and migrated throughout Asia.
Artist’s concept of Penghu Denisovans walking under the bright sun during the Pleistocene in Taiwan. Image credit: Cheng-Han Sun.
Dr. Stéphane Peregne, an evolutionary geneticist from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, along with his team, recovered this Denisovan genome from molars excavated in the Denisova Cave, located in the Altai Mountains of southern Siberia. This cave is historically significant as it was the site where Denisovans were first discovered in 2010 through DNA analysis of finger bones.
This cave continues to be pivotal in the study of human evolution, revealing repeated occupations by Denisovans, Neanderthals, and even offspring resulting from the interbreeding of these groups.
“The Denisovans were first identified in 2008 based on ancient DNA sourced from Denisova 3, a phalanx found in the Denisova Cave,” Dr. Peregne and his colleagues noted.
“This analysis confirms that Denisovans are closely related to Neanderthals, an extinct human group that thrived in Western Eurasia during the mid-to-late Pleistocene.”
Since then, twelve fragmentary remains and a single skull have been associated with Denisovans through DNA or protein analysis, with Denisova 3 being the only specimen yielding a high-quality genome.
The newly studied molars, belonging to a Denisovan male who lived approximately 200,000 years ago, are predating modern humans’ migration out of Africa.
“In 2020, a complete upper left molar was found in Layer 17, one of the oldest cultural layers within the southern chamber of the Denisova Cave, dating between 200,000 and 170,000 years old based on photostimulated luminescence,” the scientists elaborated.
“Designated as Denisova 25, this molar resembles others found at Denisova Cave, specifically Denisova 4 and Denisova 8, and exhibits larger dimensions compared to Neanderthal and most post-Middle Pleistocene hominid molars, indicating it likely belonged to a Denisovan.”
“Two samples of 2.7 mg and 8.9 mg were extracted by drilling a hole at the cement-enamel junction of the tooth, with an additional 12 subsamples varying from 4.5 to 20.2 mg collected by carefully scraping the outer root layer using a dental drill.”
Thanks to excellent DNA preservation, researchers successfully reconstructed the genome of Denisova 25 with high coverage, matching the quality of the 65,000-year-old female Denisova 3 genome.
Denisovans likely had dark skin, in contrast to the pale Neanderthals. The image depicts a Neanderthal. Image credit: Mauro Cutrona.
Comparisons between the genomes indicate that Denisovans were not a singular, homogeneous population.
Instead, at least two distinct Denisovan groups inhabited the Altai region at various intervals, with one group gradually replacing the other over millennia.
Earlier Denisovans possessed a greater amount of Neanderthal DNA than later populations, suggesting that interbreeding was a regular event rather than an isolated occurrence in the Ice Age landscape of Eurasia.
Even more intriguing, the study uncovered evidence that Denisovans engaged in interbreeding with “hyperarchaic” hominin groups that diverged from the human lineage before the ancestors of Denisovans, Neanderthals, and modern humans branched off.
“This second Denisovan genome illustrates the recurrent admixture between Neanderthals and Denisovans in the Altai region, suggesting these mixed populations were eventually supplanted by Denisovans from other regions, reinforcing the notion that Denisovans were widespread and that populations in the Altai may have existed at the periphery of their geographic range,” the researchers explained.
The Denisovan 25 genome presents valuable insights into the long-standing mysteries regarding the Denisovan ancestry in contemporary populations.
People in Oceania, parts of South Asia, and East Asia all carry Denisovan DNA, albeit from different Denisovan sources.
Through genetic comparison, scientists have identified at least three separate Denisovan origins, highlighted by their genetic segments found in thousands of modern genomes.
One lineage closely relates to the later Denisovan genome and is linked to widespread ancestry across East Asia and beyond.
A second, more distantly related Denisovan population contributed independently to Oceanian and South Asian ancestry.
Notably, East Asians do not share this highly divergent Denisovan ancestry, implying their ancestors may have taken a different route into Asia, potentially from the north, whereas Oceanian ancestors likely migrated through South Asia.
“Neanderthal-like DNA fragments appear in all populations, including Oceanians, aligning with a singular out-of-Africa migration; however, the distinct Denisovan gene flow points to multiple migrations into Asia,” the researchers stated.
Reconstruction of a young Denisovan woman based on skeletal profiles derived from ancient DNA methylation maps. Image credit: Maayan Harel.
The researchers believe certain Denisovan genetic traits offered advantages that increased their prevalence in modern human populations through the process of natural selection.
By analyzing both Denisovan genomes, the authors pinpointed numerous regions in present-day populations that appear to have originated from Denisovan introgression, particularly in Oceania and South Asia.
Genetic alterations observed in other Denisovans provide intriguing insights into their physical appearances.
Several unique mutations in Denisovans influence genes connected to cranial shape, jaw protrusion, and facial characteristics—attributes that align with the limited fossil record associated with Denisovans.
A shift in regulatory mechanisms is on the horizon. The Fox P2 gene, implicated in brain development and language in modern humans, raises important questions regarding the cognitive capabilities of Denisovans, although researchers emphasize that genetic data cannot replace direct fossil or archaeological evidence.
“The impact of Denisovan alleles on modern human phenotypes might also shed light on Denisovan biology,” the researchers pointed out.
“Examining alleles linked to contemporary human traits, we identified 16 associations with 11 Denisovan alleles, covering aspects like height, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and C-reactive protein levels.”
“Additionally, we recognized 305 expressed quantitative trait loci (QTL) and 117 alternative splicing QTLs that affect gene expression across 19 tissues in modern humans, with the most significant effects observable in the thyroid, tibial artery, testis, and muscle tissues.”
“These molecular effects can be utilized to explore additional phenotypes that are not retained in the fossil record. This updated catalog provides a more reliable foundation for investigating Denisovan traits, adaptations, and disease susceptibilities, some of which may have influenced modern humans through admixture.”
NASA’s Perseverance Rover: Pioneering Exploration for Past Life on Mars
Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech
On the surface of Mars, minute details provide critical insights into the planet’s past. In 2025, new findings will shed light on possible microbial life that may have once thrived.
NASA’s Perseverance rover has gathered samples indicating the potential for ancient life. Specifically, it uncovered a rock featuring tiny specks, known as “leopard spots,” encircled by a distinctive dark ring. These geological features resemble those associated with microbial fossils on Earth.
This year, Joel Hurowitz and his team at Stony Brook University conducted a detailed analysis of the leopard spots and identified forms of iron and sulfur commonly linked to microbial activity. “This evidence is more promising than anything I’ve encountered in the last two decades,” stated Hannah Sizemore from the Planetary Science Institute in Arizona.
Previous indications of potential life on Mars included unexpected changes in methane levels and fossil-like structures in Martian meteorites. “I am more excited about these discoveries compared to earlier findings,” Sizemore added, emphasizing that the previous data lacked the correct physical scale for microbial evidence. In contrast, the leopard spots on Mars could directly indicate microbial activity.
The Perseverance rover has also detected other potential biosignatures, such as a small greenish mineral blob typically associated with microbial life on Earth. “Life on Mars is subtle. It’s not like seeing herds of wildlife,” remarked Andrew Steele, who was instrumental in formulating the rover’s scientific objectives. “Identifying signs of life will require the best technology we have available.”
Perseverance Rover Reveals Mars Rocks with Unique ‘Leopard Spots’
Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
Equipped with advanced scientific tools, Perseverance is crucial for identifying whether these Martian rocks exhibit signs of ancient life. The mission involves caching samples for a future retrieval back to Earth for comprehensive testing.
“These samples could provide decisive evidence regarding the existence of life on Mars,” Steele remarked. “However, before we can confirm this, we need to return the samples to our laboratories.”
Unfortunately, the prospect of retrieving these samples is growing uncertain. The 2026 NASA budget proposal under the Trump administration raises concerns about the Mars Sample Return Project’s viability. If approved, it would eliminate plans to recover the meticulously gathered samples from Perseverance.
It’s possible that evidence of past life on Mars has already been discovered, yet we may never fully understand it. “While we are making strides, the understanding of Mars’ habitability remains fluid,” Sizemore said. “We’re on the edge of a potential breakthrough. However, we can neither ignore it nor prove it without further missions.”
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European scientists first discovered the platypus due to its unique fur and anatomy. A sketch sent from Australia in 1798 left them in disbelief.
This specimen was so extraordinary that British zoologist George Shaw initially deemed it impossible, stating there was no reason to doubt its authenticity.
Could a prankster have stitched a duck’s beak onto a beaver’s body? To verify, Shaw meticulously examined the specimen for seams, but none were found. Thus, he became the first person to officially describe the animal, naming it platypus anatinus, originally referred to as “duck-like flat feet.” Over time, the classification evolved to Ornithorhynchus anatinus, meaning “duck-billed platypus.”
The platypus resembles a whimsical creation from a children’s book, combining features from various animals. It has a duck’s beak, an otter’s body, and a beaver’s tail. Notably, it lays eggs like birds while nursing its young with milk, a trait shared with mammals.
After extensive research and debate, scientists classified the platypus as a primitive type of mammal known as monotremes.
The term “monotreme” comes from the Greek word for “single opening,” referring to a multifunctional orifice, or “cloaca,” utilized for excretion, reproduction, and laying eggs.
The platypus is among five living monotreme species, along with four echidna species, all of which lay eggs instead of giving live birth.
Image of a platypus swimming – Males possess hollow spurs on their hind legs to inject venom. Image courtesy of Getty Images
The female platypus lays two small, leathery eggs in a breeding burrow, typically surrounded by grass. After around ten days, the platypus hatchlings, known as “
About the size of a butterbean, these hatchlings are born blind and hairless, making them entirely dependent on their mother.
For the next four months, she nourishes them with rich, nutritious milk that she secretes through special pores on her hairless abdomen, which they lap up from her fur.
Furthermore, the platypus’ beak is equipped with special receptor cells that detect electric signals generated by prey movements, including crustaceans and insect larvae.
Untypically for mammals, the platypus is also venomous. Males utilize their hollow spurs to inject venom into rivals to attract female attention.
In terms of swimming style, platypuses differ from river otters, which use all four legs for propulsion or beavers that use their hind legs and tail. Instead, platypuses swim by paddling solely with their front feet, using their tails and webbed hind legs primarily for steering.
If that wasn’t strange enough, consider the platypus genome.
Unlike most mammals that have two sex chromosomes, the platypus has ten, along with genes typical of mammals, genes from reptiles, and some entirely unique genes.
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IRAS 23077+6707: A Turbulent Protoplanetary Disk – Located approximately 1,000 light-years away, this young star exhibits an unexpectedly chaotic and turbulent surrounding protoplanetary disk, with material fragments extending farther than what astronomers have previously observed in similar systems. For more details, check the study here.
This Hubble image showcases the protoplanetary disk surrounding IRAS 23077+6707. Image credit: NASA / ESA / STScI / K. Monsch, CfA / J. DePasquale, STScI.
Protoplanetary disks, rich in dust and gas, form around young stars and serve as primary locations for planet formation.
The disk surrounding IRAS 23077+6707 spans approximately 644 billion km (400 billion miles), making it about 40 times the diameter of our solar system, reaching to the outer Kuiper belt.
This vast disk obscures the star, which scientists suggest could be a massive star or potentially a binary star system.
Not only is this disk the largest known for planet formation, but its unique characteristics also make it exceptionally rare.
“It’s uncommon to capture such fine detail in protoplanetary disks. The new Hubble images suggest that planetary nurseries might be much more dynamic and chaotic than we previously thought,” explained Dr. Christina Monsch, an astronomer at Harvard University and the Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
“Observing this disk nearly head-on reveals its delicate upper layers and asymmetrical features,” she added.
Both the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope and the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope have glimpsed similar structures, but IRAS 23077+6707 allows for unmatched visibility of its substructure in visible light.
This unique perspective makes it an exceptional laboratory for studying planet formation and the environments in which it occurs.
Edge-on, these disks resemble hamburgers, with bright upper and lower layers of glowing dust and gas, separated by a dark central lane.
In addition to its significant height, the new images reveal that vertical filament-like structures only appear on one side of the disk, indicating an uneven distribution of material.
“We were astonished by how asymmetric this disk appeared,” noted Dr. Joshua Bennett Lovell from the Harvard University & Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
“Hubble provides us with an exceptional view of the chaotic processes involved in the formation of disks and new planets. This process remains poorly understood, but these insights allow for fresh study opportunities.”
All planetary systems originate from a disk of gas and dust surrounding young stars. Over time, gas is absorbed by the star while planets form from the remaining material.
IRAS 23077+6707 might act as an extended analog to the early Solar System, with an estimated disk mass between 10 to 30 times that of Jupiter, providing sufficient material for multiple gas giant planets.
This and other discoveries make IRAS 23077+6707 an extraordinary case for examining planetary system formation.
“Theoretically, IRAS 23077+6707 could support a vast planetary system,” Dr. Monch stated.
“While planet formation may differ in such expansive conditions, the fundamental processes are likely akin to those in smaller systems.”
“At this point, we have more questions than answers, but these new images serve as a valuable foundation for understanding how planets evolve in diverse environments.”
Christina Monche et al. 2025. Hubble reveals the complex multiscale structure of the edge-on protoplanetary disk IRAS 23077+6707. APJ in press. arXiv: 2510.11819
A long-awaited change in drug policy could pave the way for scientists to explore the benefits and risks of marijuana, the most widely used federally prohibited substance.
On Thursday, President Donald Trump signed an executive order aimed at reclassifying marijuana from a Schedule I substance to a Schedule III substance, a move initiated during the Biden administration.
“Decades of federal drug control policy have overlooked the medical applications of marijuana,” states the order. “This oversight hampers scientists and manufacturers in conducting essential safety and efficacy studies to inform healthcare providers and patients.”
This reclassification is expected to enhance research into medical marijuana, without federally legalizing the substance. However, marijuana use in the U.S. is rising significantly. Gallup data suggests that 15% of adults may smoke marijuana in 2023 and 2024, an increase from 7% in 2013.
The poll did not differentiate between medical and recreational use, revealing the highest usage (19%) among 18- to 34-year-olds—an age group that has exhibited concerning psychological side effects from cannabis use. A recent study published in the journal Pediatrics indicated that even infrequent use was linked to increased psychological distress and lower academic performance in teens.
Medical marijuana is often prescribed for chronic pain relief, to manage nausea and vomiting in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy, and to stimulate appetite in individuals with specific medical conditions. It remains uncertain how rescheduling cannabis will impact funding for recreational cannabis research.
Scientists like Ziva Cooper are hopeful that reclassification will transform public health through in-depth marijuana research.
“Studying cannabis, also known as marijuana, for both its therapeutic and side effects has been very challenging,” said Cooper, director of the Center for Cannabis and Cannabinoids at UCLA. “The rapid evolution of this industry often outpaces consumer behavior and research developments.”
“It’s challenging to study, and as a scientist committed to public health, it’s tough to keep up with the shifting landscape.”
Schedule I is the most restrictive category within U.S. drug scheduling recognized by the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA), applying to substances with “no currently accepted medical use and high abuse potential,” such as ecstasy and heroin. Schedule III substances, which include ketamine and anabolic steroids, are classified as having a “moderate to low potential for physical and psychological dependence.”
Even in cannabis-friendly regions, Cooper acknowledges that he faces similar research obstacles as those in states like Idaho, where cannabis use is prohibited.
“Researchers are unable to test readily available products; they can only inquire about basic characteristics of the cannabis available at compounding pharmacies visible from their lab,” Cooper said. “This creates limitations on sourcing the cannabis for research.”
Need for Thorough Research on Marijuana’s Benefits and Risks
Last year, the National Institutes of Health allocated $75 million for cannabinoid research, a slight increase from $70 million in 2023. Moreover, $217 million was directed towards cannabinoid studies, with $53 million specifically for cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive cannabinoid.
Dr. Brooke Wurster, medical director of the master’s in medical cannabis science and business program at Thomas Jefferson University, pointed out that bureaucratic challenges often confine cannabis research to observational studies rather than the rigorous clinical trials required for pharmaceuticals, resulting in mixed findings.
For instance, a study published in 2024 in the journal Current Alzheimer’s Research found a 96% reduced risk of subjective cognitive decline among recreational cannabis users aged 45 and older compared to non-users. In contrast, 2025 research in the JAMA Network Open indicated that heavy cannabis users aged 22-36 exhibited memory impairments.
A recent study in Biomedicine suggested cannabinoids as a “promising” alternative for opioid use in chronic pain management, emphasizing an urgent need for large-scale randomized controlled trials. Meanwhile, a study last year found that JAMA Network Open reported increased medical visits for cannabis-related disorders among older Medicare beneficiaries from 2017 to 2022.
The reclassification will enable researchers to examine and prepare specific marijuana formulations, Wurster noted. Even in states with medical cannabis programs, cannabis quality and potency can vary significantly across dispensaries.
“We can comprehensively monitor immediate symptoms, blood levels, and long-term effects,” she explained. “All the essential elements required for drug research mandated by the federal government.”
While cannabis has medical benefits for some individuals, Jonathan Caulkins, H. Guyford Steever Professor of Operations Research and Public Policy at Carnegie Mellon University, cautioned that administrative barriers alone do not account for cannabis not being a “miracle cure” for conditions like cancer and Alzheimer’s.
“Studies conducted in countries like Canada, France, and Israel are not under the same restrictions,” Caulkins stated. “We should not assume U.S. law is the sole reason cannabis hasn’t emerged as a definitive treatment option.”
Wurster emphasized that these changes bring new responsibilities for the medical community, as smoked and inhaled products may not be safe for all individuals.
“We still need to comprehend the best methods for delivering appropriate medications and guidance to the right patients,” she cautioned. “Available products are frequently unregulated and present significant mental health risks, particularly among young users, as well as cardiovascular concerns, necessitating greater caution.”
A Major Shift in Cannabis Policy After 55 Years
The regulatory barriers that researchers face have roots extending back over fifty years. Under the Nixon administration, the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 categorized marijuana as a Schedule I drug.
Almost six decades later, much regarding marijuana’s medicinal potential remains undiscovered. Currently, from a legal standpoint, it is viewed merely as a substance of abuse, Wurster noted.
Susan Ferguson, director of the Institute on Addiction, Drugs and Alcohol at the University of Washington School of Medicine, anticipates that obtaining cannabis research licenses will soon become easier for scientists. Presently, researchers can broadly license drugs classified from Schedule II to V, while those exploring Schedule I substances must secure individual licenses for each.
“This necessitates a detailed written protocol,” she explained. “It involves DEA personnel visiting to review research and experimental strategies, which complicates the process considerably.”
Ferguson believes that reclassifying marijuana would “open the floodgates” for clinical research. Participants may be more willing to engage in Schedule III studies than in those involving Schedule I drugs.
Ferguson compared cannabis to alcohol and tobacco, which, although common, are not benign. Due to medical research, their risks are well documented.
“We have yet to conduct that level of research on cannabis,” Ferguson concluded. “Ultimately, we aim to inform people more comprehensively about the risks and benefits associated with its use.”
In a groundbreaking study, researchers uncovered ancient gases and fluids trapped within 1.4 billion-year-old rock salt crystals in northern Ontario, Canada. Their analysis reveals that oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations during the Mesoproterozoic Era (1.8 billion to 800 million years ago) were suppressed to just 3.7% of current levels, while carbon dioxide was found to be ten times pre-industrial levels. These findings indicate a period of climatic stability, suggesting atmospheric oxygen levels temporarily exceeded the needs of early animals long before their emergence.
Examples of primary halite, mixed halite, and secondary halite rock inclusion aggregates. Image credit: Park et al., doi: 10.1073/pnas.2513030122.
Scientists have long recognized that liquid inclusions within rock salt crystals preserve samples of Earth’s primordial atmosphere.
However, accurately measuring these inclusions has presented significant challenges. These inclusions encompass both air bubbles and saline water, with gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide interacting differently in liquids compared to air.
“It’s astonishing to crack open a sample of air that is over a billion years older than the dinosaurs,” said Justin Park, a graduate student at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
“Our carbon dioxide measurements are unprecedented,” stated Morgan Schaller, a professor at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
“For the first time, we can trace this era of Earth’s history with remarkable precision. These are authentic samples of ancient air.”
Measurements indicate that Mesoproterozoic atmospheric oxygen levels sat at 3.7%, mirroring today’s levels. This high oxygen concentration was sufficient to support the existence of complex multicellular life, which would not arise for hundreds of millions of years.
Conversely, carbon dioxide was found to be ten times more abundant than present levels, effectively counterbalancing the “weak young sun” and fostering the climate conditions seen today.
One pivotal question arises: if oxygen levels were adequate for animal life, why did evolution take so long?
“This sample represents a snapshot in geological time,” Park explained.
“It may reflect a brief oxygenation event during this lengthy period, humorously dubbed the ‘billion boring years.'”
“This era in Earth’s history was marked by low oxygen levels, geological stability, and minimal evolutionary change.”
“Despite its moniker, direct observational data from this time is crucial for understanding the emergence of complex life and the evolution of our atmosphere.”
Prior indirect estimates suggested low carbon dioxide levels for this epoch, contradicting evidence of a lack of significant glaciation during the Mesoproterozoic.
The team’s direct measurements of elevated carbon dioxide, alongside temperature estimates from the salt, imply that Mesoproterozoic climate conditions were milder and more akin to today’s climate than previously assumed.
“Algae began to flourish during this period, continuing to play a vital role in global oxygen production today,” Professor Schaller remarked.
“The relatively elevated oxygen levels may directly result from the increasing prevalence and complexity of algae.”
“The insights we gained could represent an exciting moment in what is otherwise regarded as a billion years of monotony.”
The team’s research paper has been published today in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Justin G. Park et al.. 2025. Bringing the Boring Billion to Life: Direct constraints from 1.4 Ga fluid inclusions reveal a favorable climate and oxygen-rich atmosphere. PNAS 122 (52): e2513030122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2513030122
Scientists have discovered an unexpectedly high quantity of pre-solar particles (dust from supernovae predating our solar system) in samples obtained from the near-Earth asteroid (101955) Bennu by NASA’s Osiris-Rex spacecraft.
Characterization of pre-solar spinel hibonite particles collected from the asteroid Bennu. Image credit: Nguyen et al., doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02688-3.
Dr. Anh Nguyen from NASA’s Johnson Space Center and colleagues noted, “Pre-solar stardust particles are typically found in trace amounts within meteorites, interplanetary dust particles, Antarctic meteorites, samples returned from comet 81 P/Wild2 by NASA’s Stardust mission, and those from the carbonaceous asteroid Ryugu collected by JAXA’s Hayabusa2 mission.”
“Their distinct isotopic compositions arise from nucleosynthetic processes in evolved red giant stars, supernovae, and novae.”
“The mineralogy and chemistry of these pre-solar particles can provide insights into condensation conditions and the impacts of secondary alteration, as they are prone to changes and destruction in space, solar nebulae, and planetesimals.”
In their study, researchers examined pre-solar particles found within two different rock types in the samples from Bennu.
The sample had six times the particles compared to any other astronomical material studied, indicating its parent body formed in an area of a protoplanetary disk abundant with the dust from a dying star.
The research also pointed out that while Bennu’s parent asteroid has experienced significant fluid-induced alterations, there are still pockets of less-altered material within the sample, offering clues to its origins.
“These remnants are rich in organic compounds and pre-solar silicate particles, which are generally vulnerable to alteration caused by asteroid water,” Dr. Nguyen remarked.
“It’s remarkable that they were preserved in the Bennu sample, suggesting certain materials escaped alteration in the parent body.”
“Our investigation highlights the variety of pre-solar material that accumulates during parent formation.”
A study detailing the findings was published in the journal on December 2nd, in Nature Astronomy.
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Anh Nguyen et al. Abundant supernova dust and heterogeneous water alteration revealed by stardust of two lithofacies on asteroid Bennu. Nat Astron published online on December 2, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02688-3
In 1986, NASA’s Voyager 2 conducted the sole direct measurement of Uranus’ radiation environment. These findings revealed a well-recognized system characterized by a weak ion emission band and an unexpectedly strong electron emission band. Nevertheless, these observations might not have been taken under standard conditions. A recent study by scientists at the Southwest Research Institute compared Voyager 2’s data with comparable phenomena on Earth. Their findings, in conjunction with a new interpretation of the Voyager 2 flyby, suggest that the interaction of solar wind with Uranus’ magnetosphere may have amplified electromagnetic waves, enabling electrons to reach relativistic speeds. This opens new avenues for exploration at Uranus and emphasizes the necessity for missions orbiting the planet.
Allen et al. The researchers compared the effects on space weather of the high-speed solar wind structures that caused intense solar storms on Earth in 2019 (first panel) (second panel) with conditions observed on Uranus by Voyager 2 in 1986 (third panel), revealing a potential solution to a 39-year-old mystery regarding the extreme radiation belts discovered. Image credit: SwRI.
In 1986, during its unique flyby of Uranus, Voyager 2 recorded unexpectedly high levels of electron emission bands.
These electron emission belts were surprising, based on extrapolations from other planetary systems.
Since then, scientists have puzzled over how Uranus could maintain such a tightly constrained electron emission belt, making it distinct from other planets in the solar system.
Robert Allen and his colleagues from the Southwest Research Institute hypothesize that the observations made by Voyager 2 might closely resemble processes occurring on Earth due to significant solar wind storms.
They propose that a solar wind structure, known as a corotating interaction region, was traversing the Uranus system at that time.
This accounts for the exceptionally high energy levels detected by Voyager 2.
“Science has progressed significantly since Voyager 2’s flyby,” stated Dr. Allen.
“We aimed to analyze the Voyager 2 data in relation to Earth observations gathered in the years that followed.”
A recent study indicates that during Voyager 2’s mission, the Uranian system may have undergone a space weather event that triggered powerful radio frequency waves—the most intense recorded throughout Voyager 2’s journey.
“In 1986, scientists believed these waves would dissipate and scatter the electrons within Uranus’ atmosphere,” Dr. Allen noted.
“However, they have come to understand that under specific conditions, these same waves can accelerate electrons and contribute additional energy to the planetary system.”
“In 2019, Earth experienced a similar event that resulted in a significant acceleration of radiation belt electrons,” said Sarah Vines from the Southwest Research Institute.
“If a comparable mechanism interacted with the Uranus system, it would explain the unexpected additional energy observed by Voyager 2.”
Nonetheless, these revelations also raise numerous questions regarding the fundamental physics and the sequence of events that allow the emission of such powerful waves.
“This underscores the importance of launching a mission focused on Uranus,” Dr. Allen emphasized.
“This discovery also holds significant implications for analogous star systems like Neptune.”
The results are published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.
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RC Allen et al. 2025. Unraveling the mystery of Uranus’ electron radiation belts: Using insights from Earth’s radiation belts to reassess Voyager 2 observations. Geophysical Research Letters 52 (22): e2025GL119311; doi: 10.1029/2025GL119311
NASA’s Perseverance spacecraft has identified thousands of light-toned rock fragments, also known as floating rocks, several of which exhibit spectral characteristics of an aluminum-rich clay mineral known as kaolinite. To understand their origins, planetary scientists utilized data from Perseverance’s SuperCam and Mastcam-Z instruments to analyze the chemistry and reflectance spectra of the floating rocks in relation to deeply weathered paleosols (ancient soils) and hydrothermal kaolin deposits recorded in Earth’s geological archives. The increased levels of aluminum and titanium, along with the reduced amounts of iron and magnesium, differentiate these rocks from hydrothermal deposits, aligning them more closely with the bleached layers of paleosoils formed during periods of significant rainfall in Earth’s past greenhouse climates. Thus, these rocks may signify some of the most aqueous periods in Mars’ history.
Mastcam-Z landscape and multispectral images of light-toned float rocks atop the Jezero Crater Margin Unit near the Hans Amundson Memorial Works (Sol 912). It shows the spectral diversity of this material. Image credit: Broz others., doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02856-3.
“Rocks like these are likely among the most significant outcrops we’ve observed from orbit because their formation is challenging to replicate elsewhere on Mars,” stated Dr. Bryony Hogan, Perseverance’s long-term planner and a researcher at Purdue University.
“Given that these require substantial water, we believe they could be indicative of an ancient, warmer, wetter climate that experienced prolonged periods of rainfall.”
“Tropical environments, such as rainforests, are where kaolinite clays are predominantly found on Earth,” added Adrian Broz, Ph.D., a postdoctoral researcher at Purdue University.
“Thus, when finding kaolinite on Mars, which is desolate and frigid with no surface liquid water, it suggests that there used to be significantly more water than is present today.”
Kaolinite fragments, varying in size from pebbles to larger rocks, contribute to the ongoing discussion about the climate of Mars billions of years ago.
Initial analyses using the SuperCam and Mastcam-Z instruments have involved comparing kaolinite to analogous rocks on Earth.
Debris from Mars could yield crucial insights into not only the planet’s historical environmental conditions but also how it transitioned to its current desolate state.
“Kaolinite carries its own enigmas,” emphasized Dr. Hogan.
“Currently, there are no significant outcrops nearby that could explain the presence of these light-colored rocks, despite their distribution along the mission’s path since Perseverance’s landing in Jezero Crater in February 2021.”
“This crater once housed a lake that was approximately twice the size of Lake Tahoe.”
“While there are compelling indicators of significant water events, the origin of these rocks remains uncertain.”
“It’s possible they were transported into the Jezero lake by rivers that formed the delta regions, or they may have been ejected into Jezero by a meteorite impact. The complete picture is still unclear.”
Satellite imaging has revealed substantial kaolinite outcrops in various regions of Mars.
“However, until we can physically reach these large outcrops with spacecraft, these small rocks are the only tangible evidence we have regarding their formation,” Dr. Hogan noted.
“Currently, the findings in these rocks suggest a historically warmer and wetter environment.”
Mastcam-Z and SuperCam observations of hydrated layers of aluminum-rich floating rock in Jezero Crater, Mars. Image credit: Broz others., doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02856-3.
The researchers compared the Martian kaolinite samples studied by Perseverance to rock samples located near San Diego, California, and in South Africa. The similarities between the rocks from both planets were striking.
On Earth, kaolinite forms in both rainy tropical climates and hydrothermal systems where hot water permeates into rocks.
Nonetheless, this process leaves behind chemical signatures that differ from the effects of cold leaching from rain over extended periods.
Scientists evaluated various hydrothermal leaching scenarios against Martian rocks using datasets from three distinct sites.
Rocks like kaolinite from Mars act as time capsules, potentially preserving billions of years of information regarding environmental conditions throughout Earth’s history.
“All life requires water, so if these Martian rocks signify a rainfall-driven environment, that’s an extraordinary indication of a potentially habitable space where life could have flourished on Mars,” stated Dr. Broz.
The team’s paper has been published in the journal Communication Earth and Environment.
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AP Broz others. 2025. Alteration history of aluminum-rich rocks in Mars’ Jezero Crater. Communication Earth and Environment 6,935; doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02856-3
A collaborative effort by researchers from the U.S. and Japan examined extracts from near-Earth asteroid (101955) Bennu, gathered by NASA’s OSIRIS-REx (Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, and Security Regolith Explorer) spacecraft, and uncovered several bioessential sugars, such as ribose (an RNA sugar) and glucose (a metabolic substrate).
This mosaic image of asteroid Bennu consists of 12 images collected by OSIRIS-REx’s PolyCam instrument on December 2, 2018 from a range of 15 miles (24 km). Image credit: NASA / NASA Goddard Space Flight Center / University of Arizona.
“The OSIRIS-REx mission successfully returned 121.6 g of regolith (unconsolidated granular material) from Bennu to Earth on September 24, 2023, under stringent conditions,” stated Yoshihiro Furukawa, a researcher at Tohoku University, along with his team.
“The samples were preserved in high-purity nitrogen at NASA’s Johnson Space Center.”
“Initial studies revealed that Bennu possesses mineralogical and elemental traits similar to carbonaceous chondrites, is enriched in carbon and nitrogen compared to most meteorites, but resembles ungrouped carbonaceous chondrites, and has undergone extensive aqueous alteration.”
“The analyzed samples from Bennu so far include soluble organic compounds like amino acids, amines, carboxylic acids, aldehydes, nucleobases, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and a diverse array of soluble molecules comprising carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.”
“We utilized this pristine asteroid material to investigate extraterrestrial bioessential sugars.”
The research team made a notable discovery of ribose, which contains five carbon atoms, and glucose, which has six, marking the first time these sugars have been identified in extraterrestrial samples.
While these sugars do not serve as direct evidence of life, their detection—along with previously identified amino acids, nucleobases, and carboxylic acids in Bennu samples—suggests that the fundamental building blocks of biomolecules were widely distributed throughout the solar system.
Furukawa et al. We discovered the essential sugars ribose and glucose in samples from the near-Earth asteroid Bennu collected by NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission. Image credit: NASA / Goddard / University of Arizona / Dan Gallagher.
In Earth life, deoxyribose and ribose serve as critical components of DNA and RNA, respectively.
DNA is the primary vehicle for genetic information within cells. RNA, on the other hand, has various roles, and its presence is vital for life as we know it.
The ribose in RNA forms the sugar-phosphate “backbone” of the molecule, linking together nucleobases that carry genetic information.
“All five nucleobases that constitute DNA and RNA, along with phosphate, have already been identified in the Bennu samples brought back by OSIRIS-REx,” Dr. Furukawa noted.
“The recent discovery of ribose confirms that all elements required to form RNA molecules are present in Bennu.”
“Finding ribose in an asteroid sample is not unexpected.”
“Ribose has previously been found in two meteorites on Earth.”
“What’s significant about the Bennu sample is that researchers did not identify any deoxyribose.”
“If Bennu is indicative of conditions, it suggests that ribose may have been more abundant than deoxyribose in the early solar system environment.”
The researchers theorize that the detected ribose, along with the absence of deoxyribose, bolsters the RNA world hypothesis. This hypothesis posits that the first forms of life relied on RNA as the main molecule for storing information and facilitating the chemical reactions crucial for survival.
“Modern life relies on a complex system organized primarily by three types of functional biopolymers: DNA, RNA, and proteins,” Dr. Furukawa elaborated.
“However, early forms of life may have been simpler. RNA not only stores genetic information but can also catalyze numerous biological reactions, making it a strong candidate for the earliest functional biomacromolecule.”
“Bennu’s samples also contain glucose, a fundamental energy source for life on Earth, providing the first evidence that an essential energy source was present in the early solar system as well.”
a paper detailing these findings was published in this week’s edition of Nature Earth Science.
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Yuya Furukawa et al. Bioessential sugars found in samples from the asteroid Bennu. Nature Earth Science published online on December 2, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41561-025-01838-6
The genome of the vampire squid (Vampirotutis sp.) is among the largest of any animal, containing over 10 billion base pairs.
The vampire squid (Vampirotutis sp.) is among the deep sea’s most enigmatic creatures. Image credit: Steven Haddock/MBARI.
The vampire squid, often referred to as a “living fossil,” inhabits ocean basins worldwide at depths ranging from 500 to 3,000 meters.
This creature is soft-bodied and has a size, shape, and color reminiscent of a football.
It features a dark red body, large blue eyes, and cloak-like webbing connecting its eight arms.
When threatened, the squid can turn itself inside out, displaying rows of menacing “siri.”
In contrast to other squid species that reproduce in a single event later in life, vampire squids exhibit signs of multiple reproductive cycles.
“Modern cephalopods, including squids, octopuses, and cuttlefish, diverged into two main lineages over 300 million years ago: the 10-armed Decapoda (cuttlefish and cuttlefish) and the eight-armed Octopoda (octopuses and vampire squids),” explained biologist Masaaki Yoshida from Shimane University and his team.
“Despite its name, the vampire squid has eight arms similar to those of an octopus, yet it shares significant genomic characteristics with cuttlefish and cuttlefish.”
“It occupies a unique position between these two lineages, and for the first time, its relationship has been revealed at the chromosomal level through genome analysis.”
“Although classified within the octopus lineage, it retains features of a more ancestral squid-like chromosomal structure, shedding light on the evolutionary history of early cephalopods.”
A recent study sequenced the genome of a vampire squid from specimens gathered in the Western Pacific Ocean.
“With over 11 billion base pairs, the vampire squid’s genome is nearly four times larger than the human genome and represents the largest cephalopod genome analyzed to date,” the researchers noted.
“Despite its vast size, the chromosomes share a surprisingly conserved structure.”
“Thus, Vampirotutis is termed a ‘living fossil of the genome,’ embodying modern-day descendants of ancient lineages that retain essential features from their evolutionary background.”
The study revealed that while modern octopuses have undergone significant chromosome fusions and alterations during evolution, octopuses have managed to preserve some decapod-like karyotypes.
This conserved genome structure provides fresh insights into how cephalopod lineages branched apart.
“Vampire squids exist right on the boundary between octopuses and squids,” commented Dr. Oleg Simakov, a researcher at the University of Vienna.
“The genome unfolds deep evolutionary narratives about how these distinctly different lineages emerged from a shared ancestor.”
By comparing the vampire squid with other sequenced species, including the pelagic octopus Argonauta hians, scientists could trace the trajectory of chromosomal changes throughout evolution.
“The genome sequence of Argonauta hians reveals, for the first time, a ‘bizarre’ pelagic octopus (paper nautilus) where females have secondarily acquired shell-like calcified structures,” the researchers stated.
“The analysis suggests that early coleoids had a squid-like chromosomal organization that subsequently fused and compacted into the modern octopus genome, a process termed mixed fusion.”
“These irreversible rearrangements may have instigated significant morphological innovations, including weapon specialization and the loss of the outer shell.”
“Although the vampire squid is classified among octopuses, it preserves an older genetic lineage than both groups,” added Dr. Emese Todt, a researcher at the University of Vienna.
“This enables us to study the early phases of cephalopod evolution directly.”
“Our research provides the clearest genetic evidence to date indicating that the common ancestor of octopuses and squids was more squid-like than previously recognized.”
“This study underscores that large-scale chromosomal rearrangements, rather than the emergence of new genes, have primarily driven the extraordinary diversity of modern cephalopods.”
The findings are detailed in a study published in the Journal on November 21, 2025 iscience.
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Masaaki Yoshida et al. 2025. The extensive genome of a vampire squid unveils the derived state of modern octopod karyotypes. iscience 28 (11): 113832; doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2025.113832
Few entities in the universe are as intricate as dark matter, an unseen and exotic “matter” believed to account for most of the mass within galaxies.
The hypothesis suggests that aligning our current physical theories with observed universe phenomena necessitates the presence of substantial volumes of invisible matter. Scientists are convinced that this “missing mass” is real due to its gravitational pull, although direct detection has eluded them; they can only infer its presence.
Nearly a century after dark matter was first hypothesized, Japanese astrophysicists claim to have found the first concrete evidence of its existence—gamma rays emanating in a halo-like formation near the heart of the Milky Way.
“Naturally, we’re extremely enthusiastic!” said Tomonori Toya, a professor in the astronomy department at the University of Tokyo, in an email to NBC News. “While the research aimed at detecting dark matter, I thought the chances of success felt akin to hitting the jackpot.”
Toya’s assertion of being the first to identify dark matter is met with skepticism by some experts. Nonetheless, the findings, published on Tuesday in the Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics, shed light on the relentless pursuit of dark matter and the challenges of investigating the unseen in space.
Dark matter is estimated to constitute around 27% of the universe, whereas ordinary matter (like humans, objects, stars, and planets) makes up roughly 5%, according to NASA. The remainder consists of another enigmatic component known as dark energy.
Toya’s research utilized data from NASA’s Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, which is focused on the center of our galaxy. This telescope is adept at capturing a powerful form of electromagnetic radiation called gamma rays.
The idea of dark matter was first proposed by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky in the 1930s when he detected anomalies in the mass and movement of galaxies within the gigantic Coma cluster. The galaxies’ velocities exceeded expectations, implying they were bound together rather than escaping the cluster.
The subsequent theory introduced a truly extraordinary form of matter. Dark matter is undetectable because it does not emit, absorb, or reflect light. However, given its theoretical mass and spatial occupation in the universe, its presence can be inferred from its gravitational effects.
Various models strive to elucidate dark matter, but scientists contend that it comprises exotic particles that exhibit different behaviors compared to familiar matter.
One widely considered theory posits that dark matter consists of hypothetical particles known as WIMPs (weakly interacting massive particles), which have minimal interaction with ordinary matter. However, when two WIMPs collide, they can annihilate and emit potent gamma rays.
In his investigation, Toya identified a gamma-ray emission equating to about one millionth of the brightness of the Milky Way. The gamma rays also appeared spread out in a halo-like formation across extensive sky areas. Should these emissions originate from a single source, it may indicate that black holes, stars, or other cosmic entities, rather than diffuse dark matter, generate the gamma rays.
Gamma-ray intensity map covering roughly 100 degrees toward the galactic center. The gray horizontal line in the central section corresponds to the galactic plane, which was excluded from the analysis to avoid strong astrophysical radiation.Tomonori Toya / University of Tokyo
“To my knowledge, there’s no cosmic phenomena that would cause radiation exhibiting the spherical symmetry and unique energy spectrum observed here,” Toya remarked.
However, certain scientists not associated with the study expressed doubts about the findings.
David Kaplan, a physics and astronomy professor at Johns Hopkins University, emphasized that our understanding of gamma rays is still incomplete, complicating efforts to reliably connect their emissions to dark matter particles.
“We don’t yet know all the forms of matter in the universe capable of generating gamma rays,” Kaplan indicated, adding that these high-energy emissions could also originate from rapidly spinning neutron stars or black holes that consume regular matter and emit energetic jets.
Thus, even when unusual gamma-ray emissions are identified, deriving meaningful interpretations is challenging, noted Eric Charles, a scientist at Stanford University’s SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory.
“There are numerous intricacies we don’t fully grasp, and we observe a plethora of gamma rays across extensive areas of the sky linked with galaxies. It’s particularly difficult to decipher what transpired there,” he explained.
Dillon Braut, an assistant professor at Boston University’s Department of Astronomy and Physics, remarked that the gamma-ray signals and halo-like formations discussed in the study appear in regions of the sky that are “incredibly challenging to model.”
“Therefore, any claims should be treated with utmost caution,” Braut communicated to NBC News via email. “And, naturally, extraordinary claims necessitate extraordinary proof.”
Kaplan labeled the study as “intriguing” and “meriting further investigation,” but remained uncertain if subsequent analyses would substantiate the findings. Nonetheless, he anticipates that future advancements will allow scientists to directly validate dark matter’s existence.
“It would be a monumental shift as it appears poised to dominantly influence the universe,” he stated. “It accounts for the evolution of galaxies and, consequently, stars, planets, us, and is crucial for comprehending the universe’s origin.”
Toya himself acknowledged that further exploration is necessary to authenticate or refute his assertions.
“If accurate, the outcomes would have such significance that the research community would earnestly evaluate their legitimacy,” he noted. “While I have confidence in my findings, I hope other independent scholars can verify these results.”
For many years, researchers have been intrigued by two massive structures hidden deep beneath the Earth’s surface. These anomalies might possess geochemical characteristics that differ from the surrounding mantle, yet their source remains unclear. Geodynamicist Yoshinori Miyazaki from Rutgers University and his team offer an unexpected explanation regarding these anomalies and their significance in influencing Earth’s capacity to sustain life.
This diagram shows a cross-section that reveals the interior of the early Earth, featuring a hot molten layer situated above the core-mantle boundary. Image credit: Yoshinori Miyazaki/Rutgers University.
The two enigmatic structures, referred to as large low-shear velocity regions and ultra-low velocity regions, lie at the boundary between the Earth’s mantle and core, approximately 2,900 km (1,800 miles) beneath the Earth’s exterior.
Large low-shear velocity regions are vast, continent-sized masses of hot and dense rock.
One of these regions is located beneath Africa, while the other is situated beneath the Pacific Ocean.
The ultra-low velocity zone resembles a thin layer of melt that adheres to the core much like a puddle of molten rock.
Both structures significantly slow seismic waves and display unusual compositions.
“These are not random, odd phenomena,” Dr. Miyazaki, co-author of a related paper published in the journal Nature Earth Science, explained.
“They represent traces of Earth’s primordial history.”
“Understanding their existence could help us unravel how our planet formed and what made it habitable.”
“Billions of years in the past, the Earth was covered by an ocean of magma.”
“While scientists anticipated that as the mantle cooled, it would establish distinctive chemical layers—similar to how frozen juice separates into sweet concentrate and watery ice—seismic surveys have shown otherwise. Instead, large low-shear velocity regions and ultra-low velocity zones appear as irregular accumulations at the Earth’s depths.”
“This contradiction sparked our inquiry. When starting with a magma ocean and performing calculations, the outcome does not match the current observations in the Earth’s mantle. A critical factor was missing.”
The researchers propose that over billions of years, elements such as silicon and magnesium may have leached from the core into the mantle, mixing with it and hindering the development of pronounced chemical layers.
This process could clarify the bizarre structure of the large low-shear velocity and ultra-low velocity regions, potentially visibly representing the solidified remnants of a basal magma ocean tainted by core materials.
“What we hypothesized is that this material could be leaking from the core,” Dr. Miyazaki noted.
“Incorporating core components might account for our current observations.”
“This discovery goes beyond merely understanding the chemistry of the deep Earth.”
“Interactions between the core and mantle may have shaped the Earth’s cooling process, volcanic activity, and atmospheric evolution.”
“This could help clarify why Earth possesses oceans and life, while Venus is a frigid hothouse and Mars a frozen wasteland.”
“Earth has water, life, and a relatively stable atmosphere.”
“In contrast, Venus’ atmosphere is over a hundred times thicker than Earth’s and is mainly carbon dioxide, while Mars’ atmosphere is much thinner.”
“While we do not fully comprehend why this is the case, the processes occurring within the planet—its cooling and layer evolution—could be a significant part of the explanation.”
By synthesizing seismic data, mineral physics, and geodynamic modeling, the authors reaffirm that the extensive low-shear velocity regions and ultra-low velocity zones offer crucial insights into Earth’s formative processes.
These structures may also contribute to volcanic hotspots like those in Hawaii and Iceland, thereby connecting deep Earth dynamics to the planet’s surface.
“This study exemplifies how the integration of planetary science, geodynamics, and mineral physics can aid in unraveling some of Earth’s long-standing enigmas,” said co-author Dr. Jie Deng, a researcher at Princeton University.
“The notion that the deep mantle may still retain the chemical memory of ancient core-mantle interactions provides fresh perspectives on Earth’s unique evolution.”
“Every new piece of evidence contributes to piecing together Earth’s early narrative, transforming scattered hints into a more coherent picture of our planet’s development.”
“Despite the limited clues we have, we are gradually forming a significant narrative,” Dr. Miyazaki remarked.
“With this research, our confidence in understanding Earth’s evolution and its distinctiveness can now be bolstered.”
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J. Deng et al. 2025. Heterogeneity in the deep mantle formed through a basal magma ocean contaminated by core materials. Nature Earth Science 18, 1056-1062; doi: 10.1038/s41561-025-01797-y
Researchers have announced a groundbreaking method for detecting traces of past life, which may enhance efforts to find extraterrestrial life on other planets.
Utilizing advanced chemical techniques alongside artificial intelligence, scientists have uncovering signs of ancient life in Earth’s 3.3 billion-year-old rock formations. They are optimistic that a similar methodology could be utilized on samples from icy bodies like Mars or Europa in the future.
A study published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences involved analyzing over 400 samples of ancient sediments, fossils, modern flora, fauna, fungi, and meteorites to rigorously test the new detection model.
The outcome? A system capable of differentiating between remnants of life and non-living materials with more than 90% accuracy.
“This serves as a compelling example of how contemporary technology can illuminate Earth’s oldest narratives and revolutionize our exploration of ancient life on both Earth and beyond,” said Dr. Michael Wong, an astrobiologist and planetary scientist who co-authored the study. “This is a powerful new asset in the field of astrobiology.”
To extract subtle chemical signatures left by ancient organisms, the research team employed pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to break down molecular structures within the samples.
Subsequently, these intricate chemical patterns were analyzed using machine learning models to identify biosignatures that were too degraded for conventional interpretation.
Organic matter extracted from 2.5 billion-year-old rock samples containing fossilized microorganisms, such as this photomicrograph, still holds fragments of biomolecules possibly produced by photosynthesis – Photo credit: Andrew D. Czaja
Co-author Dr. Robert Hazen remarked in BBC Science Focus that this technique signifies a “paradigm shift” in the field, as the algorithm does not rely on detecting specific molecules like DNA or lipids, which could indicate past life.
Instead, it focuses on the distribution of available substances and whether these patterns imply that life may have existed there.
“For the first time, we are examining distribution capabilities,” he explained. “This supports broader analyses when investigating highly degraded samples with minimal information.”
The oldest biosignature identified dates back 3.3 billion years, nearly double the previous record of around 1.7 billion years.
Additionally, researchers uncovered molecular evidence indicating that oxygen-producing photosynthesis occurred at least 2.5 billion years ago, extending the known chemical record of photosynthesis by over 800 million years.
Historically, scientists have traced life back 3.5 billion years through two main types of evidence: ancient rock formations created by microbial communities that formed sticky, layered “mats,” yielding mound-like structures called stromatolites, and observable changes in isotope ratios within the rocks.
however, suitable samples for such analyses remain rare. The new machine learning technique circumvents the requirement for intact fossils or preserved biomolecules, offering a complementary method applicable to a broader array of rocks.
The algorithm also goes beyond a basic survival or non-survival assessment. It can already differentiate between photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic organisms, as well as categorize broad cell groups known as eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
“We analyzed extensive data patterns and found clear distinctions between living and non-living entities,” Hazen noted. This capability could be vital for investigations on Mars, where scientists are uncertain about the biochemical nature of any potential life.
3.5 billion-year-old shale sample used for analysis – Photo credit: Michael L. Wong
If retrieving samples from Mars becomes excessively costly, Hazen envisions a rover equipped with an array of devices that could apply the same machine learning technique directly on the Martian surface. His team recently secured funding from NASA to develop such an instrument package.
In the interim, the team plans to implement the technique on samples from Earth’s Mars-like deserts, aiding the groundwork for future analyses of Martian rock.
“What’s notable is that this approach does not depend on finding recognizable fossils or intact biomolecules,” emphasized co-lead author Dr. Anirudh Prabhu.
“AI has not only expedited our data analysis but also empowered us to interpret messy and degraded chemical data. AI opens new avenues for exploring ancient and extraterrestrial environments, guided by patterns we may never have considered otherwise.”
The authors cautioned that while the model is complementary to existing techniques, it should not yet be viewed as definitive proof of life. However, they believe it could become an essential analytical tool in both earth and planetary science.
“For decades, we’ve sought signs of life in ancient rocks with a limited set of tools,” remarked co-author and paleontologist Professor Andrew Knoll.
“What’s extraordinary about this work is that it enhances our toolkit and introduces entirely new, more profound questions. Machine learning can help unveil biological signals that were, until now, largely undetectable. This represents a significant leap forward in our ability to interpret Earth’s deep-time record of life.”
Tea tree (Camellia sinensis) is among the most vital beverage crops globally. The size of tea buds not only impacts the yield and quality of fresh leaves but also influences the compatibility of various tea types. In a recent study, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences gathered images of apical buds at the one-bud, two-leaf stage from 280 representative tea lines. Their analysis of genetic diversity revealed that the length, width, circumference, and area of tea buds followed a normal distribution. A comparative transcriptome analysis of extreme bud sizes demonstrated a significant negative correlation between the expression levels of four substances. nox genes also showed a relationship with tea bud size, indicating that CsKNOX6 could be a key gene regulating tea bud size negatively.
Tea tree (Camellia sinensis). Image credit: Kim Young Han.
The tea plant stands out as one of the world’s leading beverage crops, cultivated in over 60 countries and consumed by more than 2 billion people globally.
In premium tea production, leaves are typically harvested based on criteria including one bud, one leaf per bud, and two leaves per bud.
Tea bud size not only significantly impacts the yield and quality of fresh leaves but is also closely linked to the processing potential of tea.
Various tea types have different shapes and specific requirements for bud and leaf size.
Research into the molecular mechanisms governing tea bud and leaf size has historically been sparse, hindering genetic improvement efforts.
Understanding the genetic regulatory frameworks of tea bud size is crucial for enhancing tea plant varieties and boosting yield.
In the study led by Dr. Jiedan Chen, the dimensions—length, width, circumference, and area—of buds were quantified across 280 diverse tea strains.
These traits exhibited continuous variation with high heritability, indicating robust genetic control.
Comparative transcriptome analysis of accessions with extreme bud sizes identified four candidate class I KNOX transcription factors that had significantly elevated expression in cultivars with smaller buds.
Among these, genome-wide association mapping is emphasizing CsKNOX6 as a likely pivotal regulatory gene.
CsKNOX6 is located on chromosome 10, with its sequence indicating nuclear localization, aligning with its role in transcription regulation.
To validate its functionality, researchers modelled CsKNOX6 in the plant Arabidopsis.
Transgenic plants exhibited abnormal shoot development, yielding significantly smaller leaves, with leaf area reduced to just 13% of wild-type levels.
This functional evidence substantiates the conclusion that CsKNOX6 serves as a negative regulator of bud and leaf size.
“Bud size is a critical attribute for both agricultural productivity and the quality of tea in the market,” scientists shared.
“Identifying CsKNOX6 creates direct genetic targets for selective breeding, including marker-driven improvements.”
“Although functional tests in Arabidopsis provide substantial support, future gene editing or transgenic validation in tea plants will be vital to confirm regulatory mechanisms in these perennial woody species.”
“This discovery paves the way for precision breeding strategies that enhance yield, consistency, and suitability of tea varieties.”
Identifying CsKNOX6 opens new possibilities for developing tea varieties with optimized bud sizes for various production goals, including premium hand-picked teas or high-yield mechanical harvesting.
This gene can be integrated into molecular breeding programs via SNP marker selection or gene editing approaches to fine-tune developmental growth.
A paper detailing this discovery was published in the journal horticultural research.
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Shuran Zhang et al. 2025. Integration of digital phenotyping, GWAS, and transcriptome analysis reveals key genes for tea plant bud size (Camellia sinensis). horticultural research 12(6):uhaf051; doi: 10.1093/hr/uhaf051
Recent studies indicate that humans possess the capability to detect objects without physical contact, a skill seen in certain animals.
Chen and colleagues. The first study examined human fingertip sensitivity to tactile signals from buried objects, while the second utilized a robotic arm with a long short-term memory model to detect objects. Image credit: Gemini AI.
Typically, human touch is viewed as a sense limited to direct physical interaction with objects.
However, recent insights into animal sensory mechanisms challenge this perception.
Some species of sandpipers and plovers, for instance, utilize a form of remote touch to locate prey concealed beneath the sand.
Remote touch allows for the detection of objects hidden beneath particles by subtle mechanical signals transmitted through the medium when nearby pressure is applied.
In a groundbreaking study, Dr. Elisabetta Versace from Queen Mary University of London and her team explored whether humans share similar capabilities.
Participants delicately glided their fingers over the sand to locate a hidden cube before making physical contact.
Remarkably, the study outcomes revealed a sensitivity analogous to that found in shorebirds, despite humans lacking the specialized beak structure that facilitates this ability in avians.
Modeling the physical attributes of this phenomenon, researchers concluded that human hands are so sensitive they can perceive buried objects through minute sand displacements.
This sensitivity approaches the theoretical threshold for detecting mechanical “reflections” of granules when the movement of sand is reflected by a stable surface (the concealed object).
When evaluating the performance of humans against robotic tactile sensors trained using long short-term memory (LSTM) algorithms, humans achieved a remarkable accuracy of 70.7% within the anticipated detection range.
Interestingly, the robot could sense objects from slightly greater distances on average but encountered frequent false positives, resulting in an overall accuracy of only 40%.
These findings affirm that humans can genuinely detect objects prior to physical contact, showcasing an extraordinary aspect of our senses typically linked to direct interactions.
Both humans and robots demonstrated performance nearing the maximum sensitivity predicted by physical models of displacement.
This research uncovers that humans can identify objects buried in sand without direct contact, broadening our understanding of the extent of tactile perception.
Additionally, it provides quantitative evidence of tactile abilities previously undocumented in humans.
The study also presents a valuable benchmark for enhancing tactile sensing in assistive technologies and robotic systems.
Emulating human sensory perception, engineers can design robots that incorporate near-human touch sensitivity for practical uses in tasks such as surveying, excavation, and exploration where visual cues are limited.
“This is the first instance of remote contact being examined in humans, reshaping our concept of the perceptual fields of living beings, including humans,” stated Dr. Versace.
“This discovery opens avenues for creating tools and assistive technologies that amplify the human sense of touch,” remarked Dr. Student Chen Zhenchi.
“These insights could lead to the development of advanced robots capable of performing delicate tasks, such as locating untouched archaeological artifacts or navigating sandy or granular terrains like Martian soil or ocean floors.”
“More generally, this research facilitates the development of touch-based systems that enhance safety and effectiveness in exploring hidden and hazardous locations.”
“What makes this study particularly intriguing is the mutual influence between human research and robotic research,” noted Dr. Lorenzo Hamone, a researcher at University College London.
“Human experiments informed the robot’s learning strategy, while the robot’s efficacy offered new interpretations of human data.”
“This serves as a prime example of how psychology, robotics, and artificial intelligence can collaborate, illustrating how interdisciplinary teamwork can ignite both fundamental discoveries and technological advancements.”
Z. Chen and colleagues. Exploring haptics for object localization in granular media: A human-robot study. 2025 IEEE International Conference on Development and Learning; doi: 10.1109/ICDL63968.2025.11204359
Astronomers are particularly interested in understanding how the orbits of planets around other stars evolve. In an idealized model, orbits consist of two uniform spheres revolving around a common center of mass. However, the reality is often more intricate. These deviations from ideal models provide insights into these systems, shedding light on their geometric arrangements in the universe and the potential presence of unseen companion planets.
Recently, a team of astronomers carried out a large-scale survey of Exoplanet TrES-1 b. The researchers selected TrES-1 b to analyze its orbital changes over the last two decades, since its discovery in 2004, because it belongs to the category of exoplanets that are relatively straightforward to observe: hot Jupiters. Hot Jupiters are gas giants similar in size to our solar system’s Jupiter, but they orbit their host stars at much closer distances, sometimes completing a revolution in just a few days. TrES-1 b orbits a star with just under 90% of the mass of our Sun every three days. This brief orbital period enables astronomers to make numerous observations, facilitating the measurement of orbital changes.
The research team initially gathered data on how much light TrES-1 b blocks from Earth’s viewpoint as it transits in front of its host star, referred to as the transit light curve. Most of the optical data originated from ground-based telescopes, inclusive of contributions from citizen scientists. Additionally, they sourced relevant data from the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite, the Hubble Space Telescope, and the Spitzer Space Telescope. This data allowed them to accurately measure the time it took for TrES-1 b to complete its orbit.
They also discovered that another group of astronomers had employed Spitzer’s infrared array camera. Furthermore, they identified four additional studies from 2004 to 2016 that thoroughly measured how the light from TrES-1 b’s host star was affected by its orbital dynamics, specifically through radial velocity. By combining transit light curves, eclipses, and radial velocity data, astronomers gained a holistic understanding of TrES-1 b, which they then compared with statistical models to interpret its long-term behavior.
The research team sought to fit five distinct models to their observations of TrES-1 b to determine which best represented the data. The first model represented a planet with a constant circular orbit, followed by one with a fixed and slightly elliptical orbit, representing an eccentric orbit. The third model employed a circular orbit that gradually decreases in size, termed decaying orbit. The fourth variant implemented a damped and slightly eccentric orbit, while the final model featured a subtly eccentric orbit that also progresses directionally in relation to the star over time, known as precession.
The researchers concluded that, irrespective of the data subsets used, the most plausible explanation for their findings is that TrES-1 b follows an eccentric precessional orbit. They also noted that the damped trajectory model offered a superior fit compared to the steady trajectory models. This implies that while the changes in the exoplanet’s orbit are evident, the data does not support any hypotheses suggesting no actual alterations in its trajectory.
The researchers further elaborated that the rate at which the exoplanet’s orbit is changing indicates the gravitational influence of another planet within the system. They estimated that this hypothetical planet could be no larger than 25% the size of Jupiter and would have an orbital period of no more than 7 days. However, they noted that there was no direct evidence for such a planet in their data, apart from its inferred impact on TrES-1 b. They did discover another exoplanet in the system, termed TrES-1 c, but its wide eccentric orbit is unlikely to account for the changes observed in TrES-1 b’s orbit.
In conclusion, the researchers asserted that a multifaceted methodology to investigate the orbital timings of exoplanets unveils dynamics that may be overlooked by singular observations and models. They advocated for further studies of the long-term behaviors of exoplanets, necessitating extensive monitoring, more precise radial velocity measurements, and complex simulations of multiple celestial bodies within the gravitational system.
A supermassive black hole has violently consumed a massive star, resulting in a cosmic explosion that shone as brightly as 10 trillion suns, according to a recent study.
This event, referred to as a black hole flare, is believed to be the largest and most remote ever detected.
“This is genuinely a one-in-a-million occurrence,” stated Matthew Graham, a research professor of astronomy at the California Institute of Technology and the lead author of the study published Tuesday in Nature Astronomy.
Graham indicated that based on the explosion’s intensity and duration, a black hole flare is likely the explanation, but further studies will be necessary to validate this conclusion.
While it is common for black holes to devour nearby stars, gas, dust, and other materials, such significant flare events are exceptionally rare, according to Graham.
“This enormous flare is far more energetic than anything we’ve encountered previously,” he remarked, noting that the explosion’s peak luminosity was 30 times that of any black hole flare documented so far.
Its extreme intensity is partly due to the massive size of the celestial objects involved. The star that came too close to the black hole is estimated to possess at least 30 times the mass of the Sun, while the supermassive black hole and its surrounding matter disk are estimated to be 500 million times more massive than the Sun.
Graham mentioned that these powerful explosions have persisted for more than seven years and are likely still ongoing.
The flare was initially detected in 2018 during a comprehensive sky survey using three ground-based telescopes. At the time, it was identified as a “particularly bright object,” but follow-up observations months later yielded little valuable data.
Consequently, black hole flares were mostly overlooked until 2023, when Graham and his team opted to revisit some intriguing findings from their earlier research. Astronomers have since managed to roughly ascertain the distance to this exceptionally bright object, and the results were astonishing.
“Suddenly, I thought, ‘Wow, this is actually quite far away,'” Graham explained. “And if it’s this far away and this bright, how much energy is it emitting? This is both unusual and intriguing.”
While the exact circumstances of the star’s demise remain unclear, Graham hypothesized that a cosmic collision might have nudged the star from its typical orbit around the black hole, leading to a close encounter.
This finding enhances our understanding of black hole behavior and evolution.
“Our perspective on supermassive black holes and their environments has dramatically transformed over the past five to ten years,” Graham stated. “We once pictured most galaxies in the universe with a supermassive black hole at the center, idly rumbling away. We now recognize it as a much more dynamic setting, and we are just beginning to explore its complexities.”
He noted that while the flares are gradually diminishing over time, they will remain detectable with ground-based telescopes for several more years.
Oats (avena sativa) grain are a traditional food rich in dietary fiber, contributing positively to human health. Recent years have seen a rise in interest in oats as they serve as the foundation for plant-based milk alternatives. Unlike many other cereal crops, oat genomic research is still in its early stages, with limited exploration into structural genomic diversity and gene expression variability. Scientists are currently focused on collecting and annotating the genome. An atlas of gene expression across six tissues at various developmental stages in 33 wild and domesticated oat strains is also being developed.
Oats (avena sativa). Image credit: Christian Wynn.
Oats rank as the seventh most cultivated grain globally, esteemed for their high fiber content and notable health benefits.
In 2022 and 2023, global production exceeded 25 million tons.
Advancements in genetically improved varieties hold the promise of enhanced productivity and sustainability in oat farming; however, much of this potential remains untapped, with the first oat reference sequences released only in recent years.
The complexity of the oat genome adds to the slow progress.
“Pangenomes encapsulate the complete genetic diversity of cultivated plants like oats and are essential for our understanding,” remarked lead author Raz Avni, Ph.D., from the Leibniz Institute for Plant Genetics and Crop Research.
“They comprise genes common to all plants and those unique to specific species, providing a kind of roadmap.”
“The pantranscriptome reveals which genes are active across various tissues, such as leaves, roots, and seeds, and at different developmental stages. It serves as a gene expression atlas.”
“However, deciphering how genetic variations influence traits in individual plants poses a challenge, particularly in oats.”
“The oat genome’s complexity arises from its hexaploid nature, having six sets of chromosomes from three ancestral sources.”
During their study, the authors sequenced and analyzed the genomes of 33 oat lines, including cultivated varieties and related wild types.
They also constructed an oat pan transcriptome by scrutinizing gene expression in six tissues across various developmental stages in 23 of these oat lines.
The research aimed to identify structural changes, such as chromosome inversions and translocations.
“Our pangenome illustrates the extensive genetic diversity present in oats,” stated Dr. Avni.
“This insight aids in identifying key genes associated with yield, adaptation, and health.”
The researchers uncovered intriguing findings during their study.
“For instance, we observed the loss of many genes in one of the three subgenomes,” the team noted.
“Nevertheless, other gene copies seem to compensate for the functions, ensuring the plant’s productivity remains intact.”
“Sequencing the oat pangenome highlights how modern genomic methods can propel foundational research and directly influence health, agriculture, and breeding,” commented lead author Dr. Martin Mascher from Murdoch University’s Leibniz Institute for Plant Genetics and Crop Research.
“We also discovered that structural variations in the genome influence the regulation of flowering time.”
The team’s results are published in the journal Nature.
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R. Avni et al. Pangenome and pantranscriptome of hexaploid oat. Nature, published online October 29, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09676-7
In many contemporary living rooms, large TVs reign supreme; however, researchers suggest that investing in ultra-high-definition models may not be worthwhile.
Scientists from the University of Cambridge and Meta, the parent company of Facebook, discovered that in an average-sized living space, 4K or 8K screens offer no notable benefits compared to a similarly sized 2K screen typically found on computers and laptops. Essentially, there is no visible difference in image sharpness to the human eye.
“At a specific viewing distance, adding more pixels makes little difference; the human eye isn’t capable of detecting them, so I consider it a waste,” stated Dr. Maliha Ashraf, the study’s lead author from the University of Cambridge.
In an article published in Nature Communications, Ashraf and colleagues elaborate on measuring the visual resolution limits of the human eye, indicating that 20/20 vision allows detection of 60 pixels per degree (PPD), although many individuals with normal or corrected vision can see better than this.
“Basing display resolution solely on 20/20 vision underestimates what individuals can actually perceive,” Ashraf asserts. “That’s why we conducted direct measurements of the pixels people can identify.”
The research team set up a 27-inch 4K monitor in a mobile cage, allowing it to be adjusted closer or further from viewers. Eighteen participants with normal or corrected vision were shown two images at varying distances in random order. One image featured 1-pixel-wide vertical lines in colors such as black and white, red and green, or yellow and purple, while the other was a plain gray block. Participants were tasked with identifying the image containing the lines.
“If the lines are too thin or the screen resolution is excessive, the pattern appears as merely a gray image,” Ashraf explains. “We measured the points where individuals can barely discern differences. We referred to this as the resolution limit.”
Through their findings, researchers concluded that the human eye can perceive more detail than previously assumed, with a straight-on grayscale image averaging 94 PPD, red and green patterns averaging 89 PPD, and yellow and purple patterns at 53 PPD.
In a separate experiment, 12 participants viewed white text on a black background, or the reverse, from various distances and indicated when the text matched the sharpness of a clearly defined reference version.
“The resolution at which participants ceased to detect differences in text aligned with our observed results in line patterns,” Ashraf noted.
The research team shared a table featuring various screen sizes and viewing distances, along with the nearest standard resolution meeting or slightly exceeding most people’s visual limits.
“This means that if your setup falls within one of these parameters, upgrading to a higher resolution will not yield measurable benefits,” Ashraf remarked.
The team also offers a free online calculator that allows users to input their viewing distance, screen size, and resolution to see if their settings are within or below the human eye’s resolution limit. This helps users assess whether a higher resolution screen would enhance what they can see.
“For instance, if someone owns a 44-inch 4K TV and views it from about 8 feet away, they’re already seeing more detail than they can actually perceive. Upgrading to an 8K version of the same size won’t provide any sharper images,” Ashraf concluded.
On April 8, 2024, a total solar eclipse interrupted the daylight cycles of North American birds as they prepared for spring breeding. Researchers at Indiana University, after analyzing over 10,000 community observations and utilizing artificial intelligence to examine nearly 100,000 bird calls, discovered that bird behavior was significantly impacted by the few minutes of unexpected afternoon darkness. More than half of the bird species altered their biological rhythms, leading many to produce dawn choruses in the aftermath of the eclipse.
Circles indicate individual observations from the SolarBird app submitted on April 8, 2024. Image courtesy of Aguilar et al., doi: 10.1126/science.adx3025.
The daily and seasonal rhythms of birds are closely regulated by variations in light and darkness.
What occurs when these cycles are abruptly disrupted, such as during a total solar eclipse?
Previous research has explored the effects of solar eclipses on animal behavior, yet many studies have only provided scattered or anecdotal insights regarding animal responses.
Indiana University researcher Liz Aguilar and her team viewed the total solar eclipse in April 2024 as a unique research opportunity, offering an unprecedented natural experiment to observe how birds react to sudden light changes.
In preparation for the solar eclipse that would cast nearly four minutes of darkness over large regions of the central and eastern United States, they developed a smartphone app called SolarBird, which allows users to document bird behaviors in real time during the eclipse.
The citizen scientists’ contributions resulted in almost 10,000 observations spanning 5,000 km along the eclipse’s path.
Simultaneously, researchers deployed autonomous recording devices across southern Indiana to capture the calls of about 100,000 birds before, during, and after the totality.
These recordings were analyzed using BirdNet, an AI system capable of identifying species calls and measuring vocal activity.
Findings revealed that 29 out of 52 species detected exhibited significant changes in their singing behavior at various points during the event, although the eclipse’s effects varied among species.
In the moments leading up to the eclipse, 11 species were found to sing more than usual as darkness approached.
During the four minutes of darkness, 12 species reacted—some becoming silent, while others increased their vocal activity.
The most notable responses were observed after the sun re-emerged, with 19 species adjusting their songs to mimic a false dawn chorus.
Notably, barred owls hooted four times more frequently than usual, while robins—renowned for their pre-dawn melodies—hooted six times more than normal.
“These patterns indicate that the solar eclipse temporarily reset the internal clocks of certain birds, causing them to act as if a new day had commenced,” the researchers stated.
Their paper was published in the October 9, 2025 edition of the journal Science.
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Liz A. Aguilar et al. 2025. Total solar eclipses trigger dawn behavior in birds: Insights from acoustic recordings and crowd science. Science 390 (6769): 152-155; doi: 10.1126/science.adx3025
A study by top climate scientists projects that by the end of this century, humanity will undertake significant measures to block sunlight as a desperate effort to safeguard Earth’s population from the escalating impacts of climate change, as reported by New Scientist.
“Solar geoengineering is a troubling concept, yet it is becoming more appealing as global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions fall short,” stated a respondent from Victoria University of Wellington, James Renwick.
According to the study, two-thirds of participants anticipate hazardous interventions will be employed to manage the atmosphere by the year 2100. Alarmingly, 52% believe these actions could be taken by irresponsible entities, including private firms, wealthy individuals, and nation-states, highlighting fears that attempts to cool the climate may proceed without comprehensive global governance to address decision-making or mitigate inherent risks.
“The potential for unintended consequences, political misuse, and abrupt climate impacts remains substantial,” a respondent remarked. Ines Camilloni of the University of Buenos Aires, Argentina, noted these concerns.
New Scientist invited around 800 climate researchers, contributors to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) latest report, to participate in an anonymous online survey concerning solar geoengineering. The 120 respondents represented diverse academic fields from all continents, yielding one of the most extensive insights into the climate science community’s stance on solar geoengineering so far.
Since the 1960s, scientists have been exploring ways to enhance Earth’s albedo—the reflectivity of the planet—for a procedure known as solar geoengineering or solar radiation modification (SRM).
Cooling strategies might include the injection of particles into the upper atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from Earth, known as stratospheric aerosol injection. Another suggestion involves introducing salt particles into low-altitude ocean clouds, referred to as ocean cloud brightening (see “How does solar geoengineering operate?” below).
Solar geoengineering may involve injecting sea salt into ocean clouds.
San Francisco Chronicle/Yalonda M. James/eyevine
68% of respondents indicated that due to the global failure to reduce greenhouse gas emissions over the last decade, the likelihood of deploying such measures has increased. “It reflects a growing realization that we are not addressing climate change effectively,” noted Sean Fitzgerald from the Center for Climate Change Remediation at the University of Cambridge. “What options do we have? We may not prefer them, but if we disapprove of the current situation, we must consider alternatives.”
While consensus exists regarding the potential for solar geoengineering, experts disagree on the triggers for such drastic measures. Just over 20% of respondents believe these measures should be considered should global temperatures be on track to rise more than 2°C above pre-industrial levels, a scenario that is becoming increasingly likely with global warming surpassing the 1.5°C mark. Others argued that waiting for more extreme warming would be wiser, while over half felt current warming levels were insufficient to warrant serious consideration of atmospheric alteration.
Such actions could theoretically help lower global temperatures and provide time for emissions reductions, yet nearly all respondents recognized substantial risks associated with widespread implementation, including diminished motivation to cut emissions, disruption to vital agricultural rainfall patterns, and abrupt warming due to “termination shock” should these interventions cease.
The study further highlighted concerns regarding unilateral climate interventions by nations or individuals, with 81% of respondents agreeing that a new international treaty or framework is necessary to regulate all large-scale deployments, marking a significant consensus across the survey questions.
These findings reflect a cautious stance, according to Andy Parker from the Degrees Initiative. “This is a global technology. No nation can opt out of a geoengineered world. Similarly, no nation can choose to ignore a warmer world if geoengineering is rejected.”
Growing Interest in Geoengineering
New Scientist decided to undertake this research as interest in solar geoengineering grows amid escalating climate impacts. Hundreds of millions of dollars in funding are flowing into this area, with researchers presenting their findings at scientific forums, building a global research community. Earlier this year, the UK Government allocated £57 million in grants for solar geoengineering research via the Advanced Research and Inventions Agency (ARIA), supporting small-scale field experiments.
This represents a significant pivot for a field traditionally sidelined within climate science. Daniele Visioni has led numerous SRM modeling projects at Cornell University in New York. “This topic has transitioned from being loosely discussed by a small group of scholars to becoming a global issue.”
Just over one-third of the respondents from New Scientist‘s survey asserted that due to humanity’s ongoing struggle to cut emissions, they now support SRM research, albeit not necessarily its implementation. A notable 49% are in favor of conducting small-scale outdoor experiments to better understand the associated risks and benefits.
Accelerated cloud cooling could lead to drought in East Africa.
Fadel Senna/AFP via Getty Images
“There is growing acceptance of the necessity of SRM research,” Parker states, tying it directly to the increased pessimism surrounding climate change outcomes.
“Given that most surveyed experts believe solar radiation management is probable within the next century, we must collect comprehensive real-world data regarding the feasibility and potential impacts of these cooling strategies,” asserts Mark Symes, director of ARIA’s Climate Cooling Program.
However, support is by no means unanimous, with approximately 45% of respondents deeming this a contentious or taboo research area. A third opposed outdoor experimentation with any countermeasures, and 11% refrained from contributing to solar geoengineering studies to protect their professional reputation.
“Many of these climate scientists see that the initial vision of climate science—to heed the warnings of the Earth and reduce emissions—has failed,” according to Visioni.
Much hesitance regarding solar geoengineering stems from the multitude of potentially catastrophic risks associated with large-scale sunlight-reflecting efforts.
Almost all respondents noted that implementation might dampen motivation to reduce emissions as one of the most critical risks. Other significant threats included social and political unrest, severe disruptions to agriculture and food security, harm to delicate ecosystems, and public health crises. “Modifying the entire climate system through SRM is a considerable risk,” cautioned Shreekant Gupta at the Center for Social and Economic Progress in Delhi, India.
However, the ambiguity of “unknown consequences” emerged as the most commonly mentioned risk. One survey participant pointed out that “human efforts to rectify damaged systems have often met with limited success.”
Three primary techniques for solar geoengineering include:
1. Stratospheric aerosol injection This technique involves dispersing tiny liquid particles called aerosols from high-altitude aircraft to reflect sunlight. Over 60% of survey respondents identified this as the method most likely to be adopted.
2. Thinning of cirrus clouds This method utilizes aerosols such as nitric acid to thin cirrus clouds, permitting more heat to escape into space. However, excessive aerosol spraying can thicken clouds and produce the opposite effect. Only a minority of respondents believed this method or land-based strategies for enhancing global albedo could be pursued.
3. Brightening ocean clouds This approach involves spraying minute seawater droplets onto clouds, enhancing their brightness and increasing sunlight reflection. It was trialed in a small experiment in 2024 aimed at protecting the Great Barrier Reef. Approximately 16% of respondents felt this technique would likely be adopted.
“The technology has arrived and is currently unfolding,” stated Susan Lieberman, vice president of international policy at the Wildlife Conservation Society. “There may be instances where genetically modified organisms can be cautiously and ethically tested and introduced into natural environments.”
He remarked that the new framework represents a “transformative advancement” that may enable conservationists to explore innovative solutions to climate change challenges and to assess new methods for disease control.
The IUCN consists of a vast coalition of conservation organizations, governments, and indigenous communities, boasting over 1,400 members from roughly 160 nations, convening once every four years. It stands as the globe’s largest network of environmental organizations and is responsible for the Red List, which monitors endangered species and global biodiversity.
This year’s conference took place in Abu Dhabi, where the vote favoring “synthetic biology” established a new framework for assessing genetic engineering initiatives and their potential implementation. This measure mandates that scientists evaluate such projects on an individual basis, maintain transparency regarding the associated risks and benefits, and adhere to precautionary principles relating to genetic engineering. This applies to a spectrum of organisms, including animals, plants, yeast, and bacteria.
Another proposal, which aimed to suspend the release of genetically modified organisms into the environment, failed by a narrow margin of one vote.
Jessica Owley, a professor and director of the environmental law program at the University of Miami, noted that while the IUCN decision lacks legal force, it carries symbolic importance and could influence international policy.
“IUCN is a powerful and recognized entity in the conservation field. Their word holds weight, and governments pay attention. They play a significant role in various treaties,” she commented. “This can be viewed as groundwork for future legal language.”
Organizations advocating for a moratorium on the release of genetically modified organisms into the wild argue that there is insufficient evidence to prove it can be done safely and responsibly.
“We’re disappointed,” stated Dana Perls, senior food and agriculture program manager at the nonprofit Friends of the Earth. “Our focus should be on confined research that doesn’t turn our environment into a live experimental lab.”
As a potential example, she cited: genetically modifying mosquitoes to combat the malaria-causing parasite. The disease claims over 500,000 lives annually, prompting scientists to propose spreading this malaria resistance across broader mosquito populations through a method known as genetic drive.
A recent investigation reveals that women’s running shoes may be limiting their athletic potential.
Published in BMJ Open Sports & Exercise Medicine, the research indicates a “significant gap in running shoe design” that overlooks women’s anatomical differences.
“Most so-called women’s running shoes are not genuinely designed for women,” asserts the study’s lead author, Dr. Chris Napier, an Assistant Professor of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology at Simon Fraser University in British Columbia, Canada, as noted in BBC Science Focus.
“We typically base our models on men’s feet, merely scaling them down and changing the color, a method often described as the ‘shrink and pink’ approach.”
However, Napier emphasized that this method does not “account for the real anatomical distinctions between male and female feet or the way women run.”
Consequently, women’s running shoes may not fit well, potentially hampering performance.
In this study, researchers gathered 21 women to discuss their preferences for running shoes and how their needs might evolve over their lifetimes.
The participants ranged in age from 20 to 70 and had between 6 and 58 years of running experience. Eleven individuals ran recreationally, averaging 30 km (19 miles) weekly, while 10 were competitive runners, averaging 45 km (28 miles) weekly.
Most women expressed a desire for shoes with a broader toe box, a narrower heel, and additional cushioning. Napier noted that this aligns with the general differences in foot shape between men and women.
“Women have distinct lower extremity anatomy, such as wider pelvises and shorter legs relative to body size. This influences running mechanics and the forces exerted on the legs,” says Napier.
Among the participants, mothers reported needing larger shoe sizes, wider fits, and more cushioning and support during and post-pregnancy.
Male and female runners have different shoe needs due to their diverse anatomy, preferences, and life stages – Credit: Alvaro Medina Jurado via Getty
This study is small and qualitative; participants were recruited via posters in stores in Vancouver, Canada, meaning findings may not be universally applicable.
Still, Napier hopes that the research will resonate with female runners.
“During our focus groups, many participants experienced an ‘aha’ moment when they realized their shoe issues were not isolated but a common experience among female runners,” he stated.
Napier also expressed hope that the study acts as a “wake-up call” for the footwear industry.
Footwear manufacturers have invested billions in developing running shoes that prevent injuries, enhance comfort, and improve performance.
Most running shoes are molded to a foot-shaped template based on male anatomy, which is then used across their products.
As a result, “a significant portion of the running community is essentially using shoes that are not intended for them,” Napier explained.
The civilization that thrived in Teotihuacan during the Classic period holds a distinctive position in Mesoamerican history. Today, it continues to represent Mexico’s rich heritage and is among the most frequented archaeological locations in the Americas. However, inquisitive tourists often find that the ethnic and linguistic connections of the Teotihuacanos are still a mystery. While the deciphering of other Mesoamerican writing systems has unveiled significant insights about dynasties and historical occurrences, researchers have yet to extract information about Teotihuacan society from their own written artifacts. The topic of writing in Teotihuacan indeed provokes several intriguing questions. Do the symbols depicted in the images of Teotihuacan represent a form of writing? If they do, what was their purpose? Were they created to be understood irrespective of language? If they indicated a specific language, which one was it? Researchers Magnus Pharaoh Hansen and Christopher Helmke from the University of Copenhagen suggest that Teotihuacan writing shares fundamental characteristics with other Mesoamerican writing systems, including the utilization of logograms based on rebus principles and a technique termed “double spelling.” They contend that it encapsulates a specific, identifiable language: Uto-Aztecan, the direct predecessor of Nahuatl, Chora, and Huichol, and they offer a new interpretation of certain Teotihuacan glyphs.
View of the small pyramid on the east side of the Plaza de la Luna from Piramide del Sol in Teotihuacan. Image credit: Daniel Case / CC BY-SA 3.0.
Teotihuacan is a revered pre-Columbian city established around 100 BC and thrived until 600 AD.
This ancient metropolis, situated in the northeastern area of the Basin of Mexico, expanded over 20 square kilometers and housed up to 125,000 residents while engaging with other Mesoamerican cultures.
The identities of Teotihuacan’s builders and their relationships to subsequent populations remain uncertain. The reasons behind the city’s abandonment also spark debate, with theories ranging from foreign invasion, civil strife, ecological disaster, or a combination of these factors.
“There are numerous distinct cultures in Mexico, some linked to specific archaeological traditions, while others remain ambiguous. Teotihuacan exemplifies such a case,” stated Dr. Pharaoh Hansen.
“The languages they spoke and their links to later cultures are still unknown.”
“One can easily identify the Teotihuacan culture when compared to modern cultures,” added Dr. Helmke.
“For instance, the remains of Teotihuacan suggest that parts of the city were occupied by the more widely recognized Maya civilization.”
The ancient inhabitants of Teotihuacan left a collection of symbols, primarily through wall murals and decorative ceramics.
For years, researchers have debated whether these symbols represent an actual written language.
The authors assert that the inscriptions on Teotihuacan’s walls indeed record a language that is a linguistic precursor to Cora, Huichol, and the Aztec language Nahuatl.
The Aztecs, well-known in Mexican history, were thought to have migrated to central Mexico following the decline of Teotihuacan.
However, researchers claim there are linguistic connections between Teotihuacan and the Aztecs, indicating that Nahuatl-speaking peoples might have settled in the region much earlier and are in fact direct descendants of Teotihuacan’s original population.
To elucidate the linguistic parallels between Teotihuacan’s language and other Mesoamerican tongues, scientists have been working to reconstruct a much older version of Nahuatl.
“Otherwise, it would be akin to interpreting the runes on a famous Danish runestone, like the Jellingstone, using contemporary Danish. That would be an anachronism. We must attempt to read the text with a more temporally appropriate language,” explains Dr. Helmke.
Examples of logograms that make up the Teotihuacan written language. Image credit: Christophe Helmke, University of Copenhagen.
The script of Teotihuacan presents significant challenges for decipherment due to multiple factors.
One challenge is that the logograms may possess a direct semantic meaning; for instance, an image depicting a coyote directly translates to “coyote.”
In other instances, symbols must be interpreted in a rebus format, wherein the sounds represented by the depicted objects are combined to form words; however, such words are often conceptual and difficult to express as single figurative logograms.
This complexity underscores the necessity for a solid understanding of both the Teotihuacan writing system and the Uto-Aztecan language that researchers believe is encoded in the inscriptions.
To unlock the Teotihuacan linguistic riddle, one must be aware of how words were pronounced at that time.
This is why the researchers are focusing on various aspects concurrently. They are reconstructing the Uto-Aztecan language, a formidable challenge in its own right, while applying this ancient language to interpret the Teotihuacan texts.
“In Teotihuacan, pottery with inscriptions continues to be unearthed, and we anticipate that many more wall paintings will be discovered in the future,” remarked Dr. Pharaoh Hansen.
“The scarcity of additional text clearly hampers our study.”
“It would be beneficial to find the same symbol used similarly in varied contexts.”
“This would further substantiate our hypothesis, but for now, we are limited to the documentation available to us.”
Dr. Pharaoh Hansen and Dr. Helmke are enthusiastic about their recent advancements.
“Prior to our work, no one had applied a linguistically appropriate approach to deciphering this written form,” stated Dr. Pharaoh Hansen.
“Moreover, no one had successfully established that a particular logogram could hold phonetic significance applicable in contexts beyond its primary meaning.”
“Through this process, we have developed a method that can serve as a foundation for others to broaden their comprehension of the texts.”
The team’s study has been published in the journal Current Anthropology.
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Magnus Pharaoh Hansen and Christoph Helmke. 2025. Language of Teotihuacan. Current Anthropology 66(5); doi: 10.1086/737863
The recently identified mineral, Phalic Hydroxysullate, sheds light on the environmental conditions and history of Mars, hinting at potential past volcanic, ash, or hydrothermal activities.
A distinct spectral unit on the Juventue Plateau on Mars. Image credit: Bishop et al, doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-61801-2.
The compact reconnaissance imaging spectrometer (CRISM) on NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has gathered hyperspectral data, enabling the mapping of numerous minerals that enhance our understanding of Mars’ ancient geochemical history.
Various sulfate minerals have been identified both from orbit and during landing missions, utilizing spectral parameters, X-ray diffraction, and elemental composition to compare with minerals found on Earth.
In 2010, a unique spectral band was detected in the CRISM data from Mars, specifically on the plateau near Juvento Chasma and within the eroded impact crater Arum Chaos.
This spectral band did not match any known minerals, presenting challenges in mineral identification for over 15 years.
Initial laboratory studies suggested that dehydrated iron sulfate could be the source of this unidentified material.
“The data obtained from spectrometers can’t be utilized in that manner,” explains Dr. Mario Parent, a researcher at the University of Massachusetts Amherst.
“Data adjustments are necessary to account for atmospheric effects.”
“The sunlight reflecting off the minerals and CRISM passes through the Martian atmosphere twice,” he continues. “There are scattering molecules and gases that absorb light.” For instance, Mars has a high concentration of carbon dioxide, which can distort the data.
By employing a deep learning artificial intelligence method, researchers can map both known and unknown minerals, automatically identifying anomalies in individual image pixels.
This technique has revealed additional locations with similar spectral bands and clarified other spectral features.
With refined properties, researchers were able to replicate the minerals in the lab and identify the enigmatic compound as hydroxysulfate.
“Materials formed in laboratory conditions may represent new minerals due to their unique crystal structure and thermal durability,” states Dr. Janice Bishop, a researcher at the SETI Institute and NASA’s Ames Research Center.
“However, it is imperative to find them on Earth to officially classify them as new minerals.”
Hydroxyacids are formed at elevated temperatures (50-100 degrees Celsius) in the presence of oxygen and water under acidic conditions.
“When will we observe this material once we develop a mineral attribution and obtain the necessary indicators of a specific material?” Dr. Parente questions.
Scientists deduced that it formed in Arum Chaos due to geothermal heat, while the same minerals likely originated in Juvento from volcanic activity involving ash or lava.
They speculate this may have occurred during the Amazonian era, which is estimated to be under 3 billion years ago.
“Factors such as temperature, pressure, and pH are critical indicators of what the paleoclimate was like,” states Dr. Parente.
“The existence of this mineral adds depth to our understanding of Martian processes.”
“Some regions of Mars have been chemically and thermally altered more recently than previously thought, providing new insights into the planet’s dynamic surface and its potential to support life.”
Study published in the journal Nature Communications.
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Jl Bishop et al. 2025. The properties of iron hydroxythrusa acid on Mars and the implications of the geochemical environment that supports its formation. Nat commun 16, 7020; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-61801-2
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