In a groundbreaking study, researchers uncovered ancient gases and fluids trapped within 1.4 billion-year-old rock salt crystals in northern Ontario, Canada. Their analysis reveals that oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations during the Mesoproterozoic Era (1.8 billion to 800 million years ago) were suppressed to just 3.7% of current levels, while carbon dioxide was found to be ten times pre-industrial levels. These findings indicate a period of climatic stability, suggesting atmospheric oxygen levels temporarily exceeded the needs of early animals long before their emergence.
Examples of primary halite, mixed halite, and secondary halite rock inclusion aggregates. Image credit: Park et al., doi: 10.1073/pnas.2513030122.
Scientists have long recognized that liquid inclusions within rock salt crystals preserve samples of Earth’s primordial atmosphere.
However, accurately measuring these inclusions has presented significant challenges. These inclusions encompass both air bubbles and saline water, with gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide interacting differently in liquids compared to air.
“It’s astonishing to crack open a sample of air that is over a billion years older than the dinosaurs,” said Justin Park, a graduate student at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
“Our carbon dioxide measurements are unprecedented,” stated Morgan Schaller, a professor at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
“For the first time, we can trace this era of Earth’s history with remarkable precision. These are authentic samples of ancient air.”
Measurements indicate that Mesoproterozoic atmospheric oxygen levels sat at 3.7%, mirroring today’s levels. This high oxygen concentration was sufficient to support the existence of complex multicellular life, which would not arise for hundreds of millions of years.
Conversely, carbon dioxide was found to be ten times more abundant than present levels, effectively counterbalancing the “weak young sun” and fostering the climate conditions seen today.
One pivotal question arises: if oxygen levels were adequate for animal life, why did evolution take so long?
“This sample represents a snapshot in geological time,” Park explained.
“It may reflect a brief oxygenation event during this lengthy period, humorously dubbed the ‘billion boring years.'”
“This era in Earth’s history was marked by low oxygen levels, geological stability, and minimal evolutionary change.”
“Despite its moniker, direct observational data from this time is crucial for understanding the emergence of complex life and the evolution of our atmosphere.”
Prior indirect estimates suggested low carbon dioxide levels for this epoch, contradicting evidence of a lack of significant glaciation during the Mesoproterozoic.
The team’s direct measurements of elevated carbon dioxide, alongside temperature estimates from the salt, imply that Mesoproterozoic climate conditions were milder and more akin to today’s climate than previously assumed.
“Algae began to flourish during this period, continuing to play a vital role in global oxygen production today,” Professor Schaller remarked.
“The relatively elevated oxygen levels may directly result from the increasing prevalence and complexity of algae.”
“The insights we gained could represent an exciting moment in what is otherwise regarded as a billion years of monotony.”
The team’s research paper has been published today in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Justin G. Park et al.. 2025. Bringing the Boring Billion to Life: Direct constraints from 1.4 Ga fluid inclusions reveal a favorable climate and oxygen-rich atmosphere. PNAS 122 (52): e2513030122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2513030122
Scientists have discovered an unexpectedly high quantity of pre-solar particles (dust from supernovae predating our solar system) in samples obtained from the near-Earth asteroid (101955) Bennu by NASA’s Osiris-Rex spacecraft.
Characterization of pre-solar spinel hibonite particles collected from the asteroid Bennu. Image credit: Nguyen et al., doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02688-3.
Dr. Anh Nguyen from NASA’s Johnson Space Center and colleagues noted, “Pre-solar stardust particles are typically found in trace amounts within meteorites, interplanetary dust particles, Antarctic meteorites, samples returned from comet 81 P/Wild2 by NASA’s Stardust mission, and those from the carbonaceous asteroid Ryugu collected by JAXA’s Hayabusa2 mission.”
“Their distinct isotopic compositions arise from nucleosynthetic processes in evolved red giant stars, supernovae, and novae.”
“The mineralogy and chemistry of these pre-solar particles can provide insights into condensation conditions and the impacts of secondary alteration, as they are prone to changes and destruction in space, solar nebulae, and planetesimals.”
In their study, researchers examined pre-solar particles found within two different rock types in the samples from Bennu.
The sample had six times the particles compared to any other astronomical material studied, indicating its parent body formed in an area of a protoplanetary disk abundant with the dust from a dying star.
The research also pointed out that while Bennu’s parent asteroid has experienced significant fluid-induced alterations, there are still pockets of less-altered material within the sample, offering clues to its origins.
“These remnants are rich in organic compounds and pre-solar silicate particles, which are generally vulnerable to alteration caused by asteroid water,” Dr. Nguyen remarked.
“It’s remarkable that they were preserved in the Bennu sample, suggesting certain materials escaped alteration in the parent body.”
“Our investigation highlights the variety of pre-solar material that accumulates during parent formation.”
A study detailing the findings was published in the journal on December 2nd, in Nature Astronomy.
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Anh Nguyen et al. Abundant supernova dust and heterogeneous water alteration revealed by stardust of two lithofacies on asteroid Bennu. Nat Astron published online on December 2, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02688-3
In 1986, NASA’s Voyager 2 conducted the sole direct measurement of Uranus’ radiation environment. These findings revealed a well-recognized system characterized by a weak ion emission band and an unexpectedly strong electron emission band. Nevertheless, these observations might not have been taken under standard conditions. A recent study by scientists at the Southwest Research Institute compared Voyager 2’s data with comparable phenomena on Earth. Their findings, in conjunction with a new interpretation of the Voyager 2 flyby, suggest that the interaction of solar wind with Uranus’ magnetosphere may have amplified electromagnetic waves, enabling electrons to reach relativistic speeds. This opens new avenues for exploration at Uranus and emphasizes the necessity for missions orbiting the planet.
Allen et al. The researchers compared the effects on space weather of the high-speed solar wind structures that caused intense solar storms on Earth in 2019 (first panel) (second panel) with conditions observed on Uranus by Voyager 2 in 1986 (third panel), revealing a potential solution to a 39-year-old mystery regarding the extreme radiation belts discovered. Image credit: SwRI.
In 1986, during its unique flyby of Uranus, Voyager 2 recorded unexpectedly high levels of electron emission bands.
These electron emission belts were surprising, based on extrapolations from other planetary systems.
Since then, scientists have puzzled over how Uranus could maintain such a tightly constrained electron emission belt, making it distinct from other planets in the solar system.
Robert Allen and his colleagues from the Southwest Research Institute hypothesize that the observations made by Voyager 2 might closely resemble processes occurring on Earth due to significant solar wind storms.
They propose that a solar wind structure, known as a corotating interaction region, was traversing the Uranus system at that time.
This accounts for the exceptionally high energy levels detected by Voyager 2.
“Science has progressed significantly since Voyager 2’s flyby,” stated Dr. Allen.
“We aimed to analyze the Voyager 2 data in relation to Earth observations gathered in the years that followed.”
A recent study indicates that during Voyager 2’s mission, the Uranian system may have undergone a space weather event that triggered powerful radio frequency waves—the most intense recorded throughout Voyager 2’s journey.
“In 1986, scientists believed these waves would dissipate and scatter the electrons within Uranus’ atmosphere,” Dr. Allen noted.
“However, they have come to understand that under specific conditions, these same waves can accelerate electrons and contribute additional energy to the planetary system.”
“In 2019, Earth experienced a similar event that resulted in a significant acceleration of radiation belt electrons,” said Sarah Vines from the Southwest Research Institute.
“If a comparable mechanism interacted with the Uranus system, it would explain the unexpected additional energy observed by Voyager 2.”
Nonetheless, these revelations also raise numerous questions regarding the fundamental physics and the sequence of events that allow the emission of such powerful waves.
“This underscores the importance of launching a mission focused on Uranus,” Dr. Allen emphasized.
“This discovery also holds significant implications for analogous star systems like Neptune.”
The results are published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.
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RC Allen et al. 2025. Unraveling the mystery of Uranus’ electron radiation belts: Using insights from Earth’s radiation belts to reassess Voyager 2 observations. Geophysical Research Letters 52 (22): e2025GL119311; doi: 10.1029/2025GL119311
NASA’s Perseverance spacecraft has identified thousands of light-toned rock fragments, also known as floating rocks, several of which exhibit spectral characteristics of an aluminum-rich clay mineral known as kaolinite. To understand their origins, planetary scientists utilized data from Perseverance’s SuperCam and Mastcam-Z instruments to analyze the chemistry and reflectance spectra of the floating rocks in relation to deeply weathered paleosols (ancient soils) and hydrothermal kaolin deposits recorded in Earth’s geological archives. The increased levels of aluminum and titanium, along with the reduced amounts of iron and magnesium, differentiate these rocks from hydrothermal deposits, aligning them more closely with the bleached layers of paleosoils formed during periods of significant rainfall in Earth’s past greenhouse climates. Thus, these rocks may signify some of the most aqueous periods in Mars’ history.
Mastcam-Z landscape and multispectral images of light-toned float rocks atop the Jezero Crater Margin Unit near the Hans Amundson Memorial Works (Sol 912). It shows the spectral diversity of this material. Image credit: Broz others., doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02856-3.
“Rocks like these are likely among the most significant outcrops we’ve observed from orbit because their formation is challenging to replicate elsewhere on Mars,” stated Dr. Bryony Hogan, Perseverance’s long-term planner and a researcher at Purdue University.
“Given that these require substantial water, we believe they could be indicative of an ancient, warmer, wetter climate that experienced prolonged periods of rainfall.”
“Tropical environments, such as rainforests, are where kaolinite clays are predominantly found on Earth,” added Adrian Broz, Ph.D., a postdoctoral researcher at Purdue University.
“Thus, when finding kaolinite on Mars, which is desolate and frigid with no surface liquid water, it suggests that there used to be significantly more water than is present today.”
Kaolinite fragments, varying in size from pebbles to larger rocks, contribute to the ongoing discussion about the climate of Mars billions of years ago.
Initial analyses using the SuperCam and Mastcam-Z instruments have involved comparing kaolinite to analogous rocks on Earth.
Debris from Mars could yield crucial insights into not only the planet’s historical environmental conditions but also how it transitioned to its current desolate state.
“Kaolinite carries its own enigmas,” emphasized Dr. Hogan.
“Currently, there are no significant outcrops nearby that could explain the presence of these light-colored rocks, despite their distribution along the mission’s path since Perseverance’s landing in Jezero Crater in February 2021.”
“This crater once housed a lake that was approximately twice the size of Lake Tahoe.”
“While there are compelling indicators of significant water events, the origin of these rocks remains uncertain.”
“It’s possible they were transported into the Jezero lake by rivers that formed the delta regions, or they may have been ejected into Jezero by a meteorite impact. The complete picture is still unclear.”
Satellite imaging has revealed substantial kaolinite outcrops in various regions of Mars.
“However, until we can physically reach these large outcrops with spacecraft, these small rocks are the only tangible evidence we have regarding their formation,” Dr. Hogan noted.
“Currently, the findings in these rocks suggest a historically warmer and wetter environment.”
Mastcam-Z and SuperCam observations of hydrated layers of aluminum-rich floating rock in Jezero Crater, Mars. Image credit: Broz others., doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02856-3.
The researchers compared the Martian kaolinite samples studied by Perseverance to rock samples located near San Diego, California, and in South Africa. The similarities between the rocks from both planets were striking.
On Earth, kaolinite forms in both rainy tropical climates and hydrothermal systems where hot water permeates into rocks.
Nonetheless, this process leaves behind chemical signatures that differ from the effects of cold leaching from rain over extended periods.
Scientists evaluated various hydrothermal leaching scenarios against Martian rocks using datasets from three distinct sites.
Rocks like kaolinite from Mars act as time capsules, potentially preserving billions of years of information regarding environmental conditions throughout Earth’s history.
“All life requires water, so if these Martian rocks signify a rainfall-driven environment, that’s an extraordinary indication of a potentially habitable space where life could have flourished on Mars,” stated Dr. Broz.
The team’s paper has been published in the journal Communication Earth and Environment.
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AP Broz others. 2025. Alteration history of aluminum-rich rocks in Mars’ Jezero Crater. Communication Earth and Environment 6,935; doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02856-3
A collaborative effort by researchers from the U.S. and Japan examined extracts from near-Earth asteroid (101955) Bennu, gathered by NASA’s OSIRIS-REx (Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, and Security Regolith Explorer) spacecraft, and uncovered several bioessential sugars, such as ribose (an RNA sugar) and glucose (a metabolic substrate).
This mosaic image of asteroid Bennu consists of 12 images collected by OSIRIS-REx’s PolyCam instrument on December 2, 2018 from a range of 15 miles (24 km). Image credit: NASA / NASA Goddard Space Flight Center / University of Arizona.
“The OSIRIS-REx mission successfully returned 121.6 g of regolith (unconsolidated granular material) from Bennu to Earth on September 24, 2023, under stringent conditions,” stated Yoshihiro Furukawa, a researcher at Tohoku University, along with his team.
“The samples were preserved in high-purity nitrogen at NASA’s Johnson Space Center.”
“Initial studies revealed that Bennu possesses mineralogical and elemental traits similar to carbonaceous chondrites, is enriched in carbon and nitrogen compared to most meteorites, but resembles ungrouped carbonaceous chondrites, and has undergone extensive aqueous alteration.”
“The analyzed samples from Bennu so far include soluble organic compounds like amino acids, amines, carboxylic acids, aldehydes, nucleobases, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and a diverse array of soluble molecules comprising carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.”
“We utilized this pristine asteroid material to investigate extraterrestrial bioessential sugars.”
The research team made a notable discovery of ribose, which contains five carbon atoms, and glucose, which has six, marking the first time these sugars have been identified in extraterrestrial samples.
While these sugars do not serve as direct evidence of life, their detection—along with previously identified amino acids, nucleobases, and carboxylic acids in Bennu samples—suggests that the fundamental building blocks of biomolecules were widely distributed throughout the solar system.
Furukawa et al. We discovered the essential sugars ribose and glucose in samples from the near-Earth asteroid Bennu collected by NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission. Image credit: NASA / Goddard / University of Arizona / Dan Gallagher.
In Earth life, deoxyribose and ribose serve as critical components of DNA and RNA, respectively.
DNA is the primary vehicle for genetic information within cells. RNA, on the other hand, has various roles, and its presence is vital for life as we know it.
The ribose in RNA forms the sugar-phosphate “backbone” of the molecule, linking together nucleobases that carry genetic information.
“All five nucleobases that constitute DNA and RNA, along with phosphate, have already been identified in the Bennu samples brought back by OSIRIS-REx,” Dr. Furukawa noted.
“The recent discovery of ribose confirms that all elements required to form RNA molecules are present in Bennu.”
“Finding ribose in an asteroid sample is not unexpected.”
“Ribose has previously been found in two meteorites on Earth.”
“What’s significant about the Bennu sample is that researchers did not identify any deoxyribose.”
“If Bennu is indicative of conditions, it suggests that ribose may have been more abundant than deoxyribose in the early solar system environment.”
The researchers theorize that the detected ribose, along with the absence of deoxyribose, bolsters the RNA world hypothesis. This hypothesis posits that the first forms of life relied on RNA as the main molecule for storing information and facilitating the chemical reactions crucial for survival.
“Modern life relies on a complex system organized primarily by three types of functional biopolymers: DNA, RNA, and proteins,” Dr. Furukawa elaborated.
“However, early forms of life may have been simpler. RNA not only stores genetic information but can also catalyze numerous biological reactions, making it a strong candidate for the earliest functional biomacromolecule.”
“Bennu’s samples also contain glucose, a fundamental energy source for life on Earth, providing the first evidence that an essential energy source was present in the early solar system as well.”
a paper detailing these findings was published in this week’s edition of Nature Earth Science.
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Yuya Furukawa et al. Bioessential sugars found in samples from the asteroid Bennu. Nature Earth Science published online on December 2, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41561-025-01838-6
The genome of the vampire squid (Vampirotutis sp.) is among the largest of any animal, containing over 10 billion base pairs.
The vampire squid (Vampirotutis sp.) is among the deep sea’s most enigmatic creatures. Image credit: Steven Haddock/MBARI.
The vampire squid, often referred to as a “living fossil,” inhabits ocean basins worldwide at depths ranging from 500 to 3,000 meters.
This creature is soft-bodied and has a size, shape, and color reminiscent of a football.
It features a dark red body, large blue eyes, and cloak-like webbing connecting its eight arms.
When threatened, the squid can turn itself inside out, displaying rows of menacing “siri.”
In contrast to other squid species that reproduce in a single event later in life, vampire squids exhibit signs of multiple reproductive cycles.
“Modern cephalopods, including squids, octopuses, and cuttlefish, diverged into two main lineages over 300 million years ago: the 10-armed Decapoda (cuttlefish and cuttlefish) and the eight-armed Octopoda (octopuses and vampire squids),” explained biologist Masaaki Yoshida from Shimane University and his team.
“Despite its name, the vampire squid has eight arms similar to those of an octopus, yet it shares significant genomic characteristics with cuttlefish and cuttlefish.”
“It occupies a unique position between these two lineages, and for the first time, its relationship has been revealed at the chromosomal level through genome analysis.”
“Although classified within the octopus lineage, it retains features of a more ancestral squid-like chromosomal structure, shedding light on the evolutionary history of early cephalopods.”
A recent study sequenced the genome of a vampire squid from specimens gathered in the Western Pacific Ocean.
“With over 11 billion base pairs, the vampire squid’s genome is nearly four times larger than the human genome and represents the largest cephalopod genome analyzed to date,” the researchers noted.
“Despite its vast size, the chromosomes share a surprisingly conserved structure.”
“Thus, Vampirotutis is termed a ‘living fossil of the genome,’ embodying modern-day descendants of ancient lineages that retain essential features from their evolutionary background.”
The study revealed that while modern octopuses have undergone significant chromosome fusions and alterations during evolution, octopuses have managed to preserve some decapod-like karyotypes.
This conserved genome structure provides fresh insights into how cephalopod lineages branched apart.
“Vampire squids exist right on the boundary between octopuses and squids,” commented Dr. Oleg Simakov, a researcher at the University of Vienna.
“The genome unfolds deep evolutionary narratives about how these distinctly different lineages emerged from a shared ancestor.”
By comparing the vampire squid with other sequenced species, including the pelagic octopus Argonauta hians, scientists could trace the trajectory of chromosomal changes throughout evolution.
“The genome sequence of Argonauta hians reveals, for the first time, a ‘bizarre’ pelagic octopus (paper nautilus) where females have secondarily acquired shell-like calcified structures,” the researchers stated.
“The analysis suggests that early coleoids had a squid-like chromosomal organization that subsequently fused and compacted into the modern octopus genome, a process termed mixed fusion.”
“These irreversible rearrangements may have instigated significant morphological innovations, including weapon specialization and the loss of the outer shell.”
“Although the vampire squid is classified among octopuses, it preserves an older genetic lineage than both groups,” added Dr. Emese Todt, a researcher at the University of Vienna.
“This enables us to study the early phases of cephalopod evolution directly.”
“Our research provides the clearest genetic evidence to date indicating that the common ancestor of octopuses and squids was more squid-like than previously recognized.”
“This study underscores that large-scale chromosomal rearrangements, rather than the emergence of new genes, have primarily driven the extraordinary diversity of modern cephalopods.”
The findings are detailed in a study published in the Journal on November 21, 2025 iscience.
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Masaaki Yoshida et al. 2025. The extensive genome of a vampire squid unveils the derived state of modern octopod karyotypes. iscience 28 (11): 113832; doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2025.113832
Few entities in the universe are as intricate as dark matter, an unseen and exotic “matter” believed to account for most of the mass within galaxies.
The hypothesis suggests that aligning our current physical theories with observed universe phenomena necessitates the presence of substantial volumes of invisible matter. Scientists are convinced that this “missing mass” is real due to its gravitational pull, although direct detection has eluded them; they can only infer its presence.
Nearly a century after dark matter was first hypothesized, Japanese astrophysicists claim to have found the first concrete evidence of its existence—gamma rays emanating in a halo-like formation near the heart of the Milky Way.
“Naturally, we’re extremely enthusiastic!” said Tomonori Toya, a professor in the astronomy department at the University of Tokyo, in an email to NBC News. “While the research aimed at detecting dark matter, I thought the chances of success felt akin to hitting the jackpot.”
Toya’s assertion of being the first to identify dark matter is met with skepticism by some experts. Nonetheless, the findings, published on Tuesday in the Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics, shed light on the relentless pursuit of dark matter and the challenges of investigating the unseen in space.
Dark matter is estimated to constitute around 27% of the universe, whereas ordinary matter (like humans, objects, stars, and planets) makes up roughly 5%, according to NASA. The remainder consists of another enigmatic component known as dark energy.
Toya’s research utilized data from NASA’s Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, which is focused on the center of our galaxy. This telescope is adept at capturing a powerful form of electromagnetic radiation called gamma rays.
The idea of dark matter was first proposed by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky in the 1930s when he detected anomalies in the mass and movement of galaxies within the gigantic Coma cluster. The galaxies’ velocities exceeded expectations, implying they were bound together rather than escaping the cluster.
The subsequent theory introduced a truly extraordinary form of matter. Dark matter is undetectable because it does not emit, absorb, or reflect light. However, given its theoretical mass and spatial occupation in the universe, its presence can be inferred from its gravitational effects.
Various models strive to elucidate dark matter, but scientists contend that it comprises exotic particles that exhibit different behaviors compared to familiar matter.
One widely considered theory posits that dark matter consists of hypothetical particles known as WIMPs (weakly interacting massive particles), which have minimal interaction with ordinary matter. However, when two WIMPs collide, they can annihilate and emit potent gamma rays.
In his investigation, Toya identified a gamma-ray emission equating to about one millionth of the brightness of the Milky Way. The gamma rays also appeared spread out in a halo-like formation across extensive sky areas. Should these emissions originate from a single source, it may indicate that black holes, stars, or other cosmic entities, rather than diffuse dark matter, generate the gamma rays.
Gamma-ray intensity map covering roughly 100 degrees toward the galactic center. The gray horizontal line in the central section corresponds to the galactic plane, which was excluded from the analysis to avoid strong astrophysical radiation.Tomonori Toya / University of Tokyo
“To my knowledge, there’s no cosmic phenomena that would cause radiation exhibiting the spherical symmetry and unique energy spectrum observed here,” Toya remarked.
However, certain scientists not associated with the study expressed doubts about the findings.
David Kaplan, a physics and astronomy professor at Johns Hopkins University, emphasized that our understanding of gamma rays is still incomplete, complicating efforts to reliably connect their emissions to dark matter particles.
“We don’t yet know all the forms of matter in the universe capable of generating gamma rays,” Kaplan indicated, adding that these high-energy emissions could also originate from rapidly spinning neutron stars or black holes that consume regular matter and emit energetic jets.
Thus, even when unusual gamma-ray emissions are identified, deriving meaningful interpretations is challenging, noted Eric Charles, a scientist at Stanford University’s SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory.
“There are numerous intricacies we don’t fully grasp, and we observe a plethora of gamma rays across extensive areas of the sky linked with galaxies. It’s particularly difficult to decipher what transpired there,” he explained.
Dillon Braut, an assistant professor at Boston University’s Department of Astronomy and Physics, remarked that the gamma-ray signals and halo-like formations discussed in the study appear in regions of the sky that are “incredibly challenging to model.”
“Therefore, any claims should be treated with utmost caution,” Braut communicated to NBC News via email. “And, naturally, extraordinary claims necessitate extraordinary proof.”
Kaplan labeled the study as “intriguing” and “meriting further investigation,” but remained uncertain if subsequent analyses would substantiate the findings. Nonetheless, he anticipates that future advancements will allow scientists to directly validate dark matter’s existence.
“It would be a monumental shift as it appears poised to dominantly influence the universe,” he stated. “It accounts for the evolution of galaxies and, consequently, stars, planets, us, and is crucial for comprehending the universe’s origin.”
Toya himself acknowledged that further exploration is necessary to authenticate or refute his assertions.
“If accurate, the outcomes would have such significance that the research community would earnestly evaluate their legitimacy,” he noted. “While I have confidence in my findings, I hope other independent scholars can verify these results.”
For many years, researchers have been intrigued by two massive structures hidden deep beneath the Earth’s surface. These anomalies might possess geochemical characteristics that differ from the surrounding mantle, yet their source remains unclear. Geodynamicist Yoshinori Miyazaki from Rutgers University and his team offer an unexpected explanation regarding these anomalies and their significance in influencing Earth’s capacity to sustain life.
This diagram shows a cross-section that reveals the interior of the early Earth, featuring a hot molten layer situated above the core-mantle boundary. Image credit: Yoshinori Miyazaki/Rutgers University.
The two enigmatic structures, referred to as large low-shear velocity regions and ultra-low velocity regions, lie at the boundary between the Earth’s mantle and core, approximately 2,900 km (1,800 miles) beneath the Earth’s exterior.
Large low-shear velocity regions are vast, continent-sized masses of hot and dense rock.
One of these regions is located beneath Africa, while the other is situated beneath the Pacific Ocean.
The ultra-low velocity zone resembles a thin layer of melt that adheres to the core much like a puddle of molten rock.
Both structures significantly slow seismic waves and display unusual compositions.
“These are not random, odd phenomena,” Dr. Miyazaki, co-author of a related paper published in the journal Nature Earth Science, explained.
“They represent traces of Earth’s primordial history.”
“Understanding their existence could help us unravel how our planet formed and what made it habitable.”
“Billions of years in the past, the Earth was covered by an ocean of magma.”
“While scientists anticipated that as the mantle cooled, it would establish distinctive chemical layers—similar to how frozen juice separates into sweet concentrate and watery ice—seismic surveys have shown otherwise. Instead, large low-shear velocity regions and ultra-low velocity zones appear as irregular accumulations at the Earth’s depths.”
“This contradiction sparked our inquiry. When starting with a magma ocean and performing calculations, the outcome does not match the current observations in the Earth’s mantle. A critical factor was missing.”
The researchers propose that over billions of years, elements such as silicon and magnesium may have leached from the core into the mantle, mixing with it and hindering the development of pronounced chemical layers.
This process could clarify the bizarre structure of the large low-shear velocity and ultra-low velocity regions, potentially visibly representing the solidified remnants of a basal magma ocean tainted by core materials.
“What we hypothesized is that this material could be leaking from the core,” Dr. Miyazaki noted.
“Incorporating core components might account for our current observations.”
“This discovery goes beyond merely understanding the chemistry of the deep Earth.”
“Interactions between the core and mantle may have shaped the Earth’s cooling process, volcanic activity, and atmospheric evolution.”
“This could help clarify why Earth possesses oceans and life, while Venus is a frigid hothouse and Mars a frozen wasteland.”
“Earth has water, life, and a relatively stable atmosphere.”
“In contrast, Venus’ atmosphere is over a hundred times thicker than Earth’s and is mainly carbon dioxide, while Mars’ atmosphere is much thinner.”
“While we do not fully comprehend why this is the case, the processes occurring within the planet—its cooling and layer evolution—could be a significant part of the explanation.”
By synthesizing seismic data, mineral physics, and geodynamic modeling, the authors reaffirm that the extensive low-shear velocity regions and ultra-low velocity zones offer crucial insights into Earth’s formative processes.
These structures may also contribute to volcanic hotspots like those in Hawaii and Iceland, thereby connecting deep Earth dynamics to the planet’s surface.
“This study exemplifies how the integration of planetary science, geodynamics, and mineral physics can aid in unraveling some of Earth’s long-standing enigmas,” said co-author Dr. Jie Deng, a researcher at Princeton University.
“The notion that the deep mantle may still retain the chemical memory of ancient core-mantle interactions provides fresh perspectives on Earth’s unique evolution.”
“Every new piece of evidence contributes to piecing together Earth’s early narrative, transforming scattered hints into a more coherent picture of our planet’s development.”
“Despite the limited clues we have, we are gradually forming a significant narrative,” Dr. Miyazaki remarked.
“With this research, our confidence in understanding Earth’s evolution and its distinctiveness can now be bolstered.”
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J. Deng et al. 2025. Heterogeneity in the deep mantle formed through a basal magma ocean contaminated by core materials. Nature Earth Science 18, 1056-1062; doi: 10.1038/s41561-025-01797-y
Researchers have announced a groundbreaking method for detecting traces of past life, which may enhance efforts to find extraterrestrial life on other planets.
Utilizing advanced chemical techniques alongside artificial intelligence, scientists have uncovering signs of ancient life in Earth’s 3.3 billion-year-old rock formations. They are optimistic that a similar methodology could be utilized on samples from icy bodies like Mars or Europa in the future.
A study published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences involved analyzing over 400 samples of ancient sediments, fossils, modern flora, fauna, fungi, and meteorites to rigorously test the new detection model.
The outcome? A system capable of differentiating between remnants of life and non-living materials with more than 90% accuracy.
“This serves as a compelling example of how contemporary technology can illuminate Earth’s oldest narratives and revolutionize our exploration of ancient life on both Earth and beyond,” said Dr. Michael Wong, an astrobiologist and planetary scientist who co-authored the study. “This is a powerful new asset in the field of astrobiology.”
To extract subtle chemical signatures left by ancient organisms, the research team employed pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to break down molecular structures within the samples.
Subsequently, these intricate chemical patterns were analyzed using machine learning models to identify biosignatures that were too degraded for conventional interpretation.
Organic matter extracted from 2.5 billion-year-old rock samples containing fossilized microorganisms, such as this photomicrograph, still holds fragments of biomolecules possibly produced by photosynthesis – Photo credit: Andrew D. Czaja
Co-author Dr. Robert Hazen remarked in BBC Science Focus that this technique signifies a “paradigm shift” in the field, as the algorithm does not rely on detecting specific molecules like DNA or lipids, which could indicate past life.
Instead, it focuses on the distribution of available substances and whether these patterns imply that life may have existed there.
“For the first time, we are examining distribution capabilities,” he explained. “This supports broader analyses when investigating highly degraded samples with minimal information.”
The oldest biosignature identified dates back 3.3 billion years, nearly double the previous record of around 1.7 billion years.
Additionally, researchers uncovered molecular evidence indicating that oxygen-producing photosynthesis occurred at least 2.5 billion years ago, extending the known chemical record of photosynthesis by over 800 million years.
Historically, scientists have traced life back 3.5 billion years through two main types of evidence: ancient rock formations created by microbial communities that formed sticky, layered “mats,” yielding mound-like structures called stromatolites, and observable changes in isotope ratios within the rocks.
however, suitable samples for such analyses remain rare. The new machine learning technique circumvents the requirement for intact fossils or preserved biomolecules, offering a complementary method applicable to a broader array of rocks.
The algorithm also goes beyond a basic survival or non-survival assessment. It can already differentiate between photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic organisms, as well as categorize broad cell groups known as eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
“We analyzed extensive data patterns and found clear distinctions between living and non-living entities,” Hazen noted. This capability could be vital for investigations on Mars, where scientists are uncertain about the biochemical nature of any potential life.
3.5 billion-year-old shale sample used for analysis – Photo credit: Michael L. Wong
If retrieving samples from Mars becomes excessively costly, Hazen envisions a rover equipped with an array of devices that could apply the same machine learning technique directly on the Martian surface. His team recently secured funding from NASA to develop such an instrument package.
In the interim, the team plans to implement the technique on samples from Earth’s Mars-like deserts, aiding the groundwork for future analyses of Martian rock.
“What’s notable is that this approach does not depend on finding recognizable fossils or intact biomolecules,” emphasized co-lead author Dr. Anirudh Prabhu.
“AI has not only expedited our data analysis but also empowered us to interpret messy and degraded chemical data. AI opens new avenues for exploring ancient and extraterrestrial environments, guided by patterns we may never have considered otherwise.”
The authors cautioned that while the model is complementary to existing techniques, it should not yet be viewed as definitive proof of life. However, they believe it could become an essential analytical tool in both earth and planetary science.
“For decades, we’ve sought signs of life in ancient rocks with a limited set of tools,” remarked co-author and paleontologist Professor Andrew Knoll.
“What’s extraordinary about this work is that it enhances our toolkit and introduces entirely new, more profound questions. Machine learning can help unveil biological signals that were, until now, largely undetectable. This represents a significant leap forward in our ability to interpret Earth’s deep-time record of life.”
Tea tree (Camellia sinensis) is among the most vital beverage crops globally. The size of tea buds not only impacts the yield and quality of fresh leaves but also influences the compatibility of various tea types. In a recent study, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences gathered images of apical buds at the one-bud, two-leaf stage from 280 representative tea lines. Their analysis of genetic diversity revealed that the length, width, circumference, and area of tea buds followed a normal distribution. A comparative transcriptome analysis of extreme bud sizes demonstrated a significant negative correlation between the expression levels of four substances. nox genes also showed a relationship with tea bud size, indicating that CsKNOX6 could be a key gene regulating tea bud size negatively.
Tea tree (Camellia sinensis). Image credit: Kim Young Han.
The tea plant stands out as one of the world’s leading beverage crops, cultivated in over 60 countries and consumed by more than 2 billion people globally.
In premium tea production, leaves are typically harvested based on criteria including one bud, one leaf per bud, and two leaves per bud.
Tea bud size not only significantly impacts the yield and quality of fresh leaves but is also closely linked to the processing potential of tea.
Various tea types have different shapes and specific requirements for bud and leaf size.
Research into the molecular mechanisms governing tea bud and leaf size has historically been sparse, hindering genetic improvement efforts.
Understanding the genetic regulatory frameworks of tea bud size is crucial for enhancing tea plant varieties and boosting yield.
In the study led by Dr. Jiedan Chen, the dimensions—length, width, circumference, and area—of buds were quantified across 280 diverse tea strains.
These traits exhibited continuous variation with high heritability, indicating robust genetic control.
Comparative transcriptome analysis of accessions with extreme bud sizes identified four candidate class I KNOX transcription factors that had significantly elevated expression in cultivars with smaller buds.
Among these, genome-wide association mapping is emphasizing CsKNOX6 as a likely pivotal regulatory gene.
CsKNOX6 is located on chromosome 10, with its sequence indicating nuclear localization, aligning with its role in transcription regulation.
To validate its functionality, researchers modelled CsKNOX6 in the plant Arabidopsis.
Transgenic plants exhibited abnormal shoot development, yielding significantly smaller leaves, with leaf area reduced to just 13% of wild-type levels.
This functional evidence substantiates the conclusion that CsKNOX6 serves as a negative regulator of bud and leaf size.
“Bud size is a critical attribute for both agricultural productivity and the quality of tea in the market,” scientists shared.
“Identifying CsKNOX6 creates direct genetic targets for selective breeding, including marker-driven improvements.”
“Although functional tests in Arabidopsis provide substantial support, future gene editing or transgenic validation in tea plants will be vital to confirm regulatory mechanisms in these perennial woody species.”
“This discovery paves the way for precision breeding strategies that enhance yield, consistency, and suitability of tea varieties.”
Identifying CsKNOX6 opens new possibilities for developing tea varieties with optimized bud sizes for various production goals, including premium hand-picked teas or high-yield mechanical harvesting.
This gene can be integrated into molecular breeding programs via SNP marker selection or gene editing approaches to fine-tune developmental growth.
A paper detailing this discovery was published in the journal horticultural research.
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Shuran Zhang et al. 2025. Integration of digital phenotyping, GWAS, and transcriptome analysis reveals key genes for tea plant bud size (Camellia sinensis). horticultural research 12(6):uhaf051; doi: 10.1093/hr/uhaf051
Recent studies indicate that humans possess the capability to detect objects without physical contact, a skill seen in certain animals.
Chen and colleagues. The first study examined human fingertip sensitivity to tactile signals from buried objects, while the second utilized a robotic arm with a long short-term memory model to detect objects. Image credit: Gemini AI.
Typically, human touch is viewed as a sense limited to direct physical interaction with objects.
However, recent insights into animal sensory mechanisms challenge this perception.
Some species of sandpipers and plovers, for instance, utilize a form of remote touch to locate prey concealed beneath the sand.
Remote touch allows for the detection of objects hidden beneath particles by subtle mechanical signals transmitted through the medium when nearby pressure is applied.
In a groundbreaking study, Dr. Elisabetta Versace from Queen Mary University of London and her team explored whether humans share similar capabilities.
Participants delicately glided their fingers over the sand to locate a hidden cube before making physical contact.
Remarkably, the study outcomes revealed a sensitivity analogous to that found in shorebirds, despite humans lacking the specialized beak structure that facilitates this ability in avians.
Modeling the physical attributes of this phenomenon, researchers concluded that human hands are so sensitive they can perceive buried objects through minute sand displacements.
This sensitivity approaches the theoretical threshold for detecting mechanical “reflections” of granules when the movement of sand is reflected by a stable surface (the concealed object).
When evaluating the performance of humans against robotic tactile sensors trained using long short-term memory (LSTM) algorithms, humans achieved a remarkable accuracy of 70.7% within the anticipated detection range.
Interestingly, the robot could sense objects from slightly greater distances on average but encountered frequent false positives, resulting in an overall accuracy of only 40%.
These findings affirm that humans can genuinely detect objects prior to physical contact, showcasing an extraordinary aspect of our senses typically linked to direct interactions.
Both humans and robots demonstrated performance nearing the maximum sensitivity predicted by physical models of displacement.
This research uncovers that humans can identify objects buried in sand without direct contact, broadening our understanding of the extent of tactile perception.
Additionally, it provides quantitative evidence of tactile abilities previously undocumented in humans.
The study also presents a valuable benchmark for enhancing tactile sensing in assistive technologies and robotic systems.
Emulating human sensory perception, engineers can design robots that incorporate near-human touch sensitivity for practical uses in tasks such as surveying, excavation, and exploration where visual cues are limited.
“This is the first instance of remote contact being examined in humans, reshaping our concept of the perceptual fields of living beings, including humans,” stated Dr. Versace.
“This discovery opens avenues for creating tools and assistive technologies that amplify the human sense of touch,” remarked Dr. Student Chen Zhenchi.
“These insights could lead to the development of advanced robots capable of performing delicate tasks, such as locating untouched archaeological artifacts or navigating sandy or granular terrains like Martian soil or ocean floors.”
“More generally, this research facilitates the development of touch-based systems that enhance safety and effectiveness in exploring hidden and hazardous locations.”
“What makes this study particularly intriguing is the mutual influence between human research and robotic research,” noted Dr. Lorenzo Hamone, a researcher at University College London.
“Human experiments informed the robot’s learning strategy, while the robot’s efficacy offered new interpretations of human data.”
“This serves as a prime example of how psychology, robotics, and artificial intelligence can collaborate, illustrating how interdisciplinary teamwork can ignite both fundamental discoveries and technological advancements.”
Z. Chen and colleagues. Exploring haptics for object localization in granular media: A human-robot study. 2025 IEEE International Conference on Development and Learning; doi: 10.1109/ICDL63968.2025.11204359
Astronomers are particularly interested in understanding how the orbits of planets around other stars evolve. In an idealized model, orbits consist of two uniform spheres revolving around a common center of mass. However, the reality is often more intricate. These deviations from ideal models provide insights into these systems, shedding light on their geometric arrangements in the universe and the potential presence of unseen companion planets.
Recently, a team of astronomers carried out a large-scale survey of Exoplanet TrES-1 b. The researchers selected TrES-1 b to analyze its orbital changes over the last two decades, since its discovery in 2004, because it belongs to the category of exoplanets that are relatively straightforward to observe: hot Jupiters. Hot Jupiters are gas giants similar in size to our solar system’s Jupiter, but they orbit their host stars at much closer distances, sometimes completing a revolution in just a few days. TrES-1 b orbits a star with just under 90% of the mass of our Sun every three days. This brief orbital period enables astronomers to make numerous observations, facilitating the measurement of orbital changes.
The research team initially gathered data on how much light TrES-1 b blocks from Earth’s viewpoint as it transits in front of its host star, referred to as the transit light curve. Most of the optical data originated from ground-based telescopes, inclusive of contributions from citizen scientists. Additionally, they sourced relevant data from the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite, the Hubble Space Telescope, and the Spitzer Space Telescope. This data allowed them to accurately measure the time it took for TrES-1 b to complete its orbit.
They also discovered that another group of astronomers had employed Spitzer’s infrared array camera. Furthermore, they identified four additional studies from 2004 to 2016 that thoroughly measured how the light from TrES-1 b’s host star was affected by its orbital dynamics, specifically through radial velocity. By combining transit light curves, eclipses, and radial velocity data, astronomers gained a holistic understanding of TrES-1 b, which they then compared with statistical models to interpret its long-term behavior.
The research team sought to fit five distinct models to their observations of TrES-1 b to determine which best represented the data. The first model represented a planet with a constant circular orbit, followed by one with a fixed and slightly elliptical orbit, representing an eccentric orbit. The third model employed a circular orbit that gradually decreases in size, termed decaying orbit. The fourth variant implemented a damped and slightly eccentric orbit, while the final model featured a subtly eccentric orbit that also progresses directionally in relation to the star over time, known as precession.
The researchers concluded that, irrespective of the data subsets used, the most plausible explanation for their findings is that TrES-1 b follows an eccentric precessional orbit. They also noted that the damped trajectory model offered a superior fit compared to the steady trajectory models. This implies that while the changes in the exoplanet’s orbit are evident, the data does not support any hypotheses suggesting no actual alterations in its trajectory.
The researchers further elaborated that the rate at which the exoplanet’s orbit is changing indicates the gravitational influence of another planet within the system. They estimated that this hypothetical planet could be no larger than 25% the size of Jupiter and would have an orbital period of no more than 7 days. However, they noted that there was no direct evidence for such a planet in their data, apart from its inferred impact on TrES-1 b. They did discover another exoplanet in the system, termed TrES-1 c, but its wide eccentric orbit is unlikely to account for the changes observed in TrES-1 b’s orbit.
In conclusion, the researchers asserted that a multifaceted methodology to investigate the orbital timings of exoplanets unveils dynamics that may be overlooked by singular observations and models. They advocated for further studies of the long-term behaviors of exoplanets, necessitating extensive monitoring, more precise radial velocity measurements, and complex simulations of multiple celestial bodies within the gravitational system.
A supermassive black hole has violently consumed a massive star, resulting in a cosmic explosion that shone as brightly as 10 trillion suns, according to a recent study.
This event, referred to as a black hole flare, is believed to be the largest and most remote ever detected.
“This is genuinely a one-in-a-million occurrence,” stated Matthew Graham, a research professor of astronomy at the California Institute of Technology and the lead author of the study published Tuesday in Nature Astronomy.
Graham indicated that based on the explosion’s intensity and duration, a black hole flare is likely the explanation, but further studies will be necessary to validate this conclusion.
While it is common for black holes to devour nearby stars, gas, dust, and other materials, such significant flare events are exceptionally rare, according to Graham.
“This enormous flare is far more energetic than anything we’ve encountered previously,” he remarked, noting that the explosion’s peak luminosity was 30 times that of any black hole flare documented so far.
Its extreme intensity is partly due to the massive size of the celestial objects involved. The star that came too close to the black hole is estimated to possess at least 30 times the mass of the Sun, while the supermassive black hole and its surrounding matter disk are estimated to be 500 million times more massive than the Sun.
Graham mentioned that these powerful explosions have persisted for more than seven years and are likely still ongoing.
The flare was initially detected in 2018 during a comprehensive sky survey using three ground-based telescopes. At the time, it was identified as a “particularly bright object,” but follow-up observations months later yielded little valuable data.
Consequently, black hole flares were mostly overlooked until 2023, when Graham and his team opted to revisit some intriguing findings from their earlier research. Astronomers have since managed to roughly ascertain the distance to this exceptionally bright object, and the results were astonishing.
“Suddenly, I thought, ‘Wow, this is actually quite far away,'” Graham explained. “And if it’s this far away and this bright, how much energy is it emitting? This is both unusual and intriguing.”
While the exact circumstances of the star’s demise remain unclear, Graham hypothesized that a cosmic collision might have nudged the star from its typical orbit around the black hole, leading to a close encounter.
This finding enhances our understanding of black hole behavior and evolution.
“Our perspective on supermassive black holes and their environments has dramatically transformed over the past five to ten years,” Graham stated. “We once pictured most galaxies in the universe with a supermassive black hole at the center, idly rumbling away. We now recognize it as a much more dynamic setting, and we are just beginning to explore its complexities.”
He noted that while the flares are gradually diminishing over time, they will remain detectable with ground-based telescopes for several more years.
Oats (avena sativa) grain are a traditional food rich in dietary fiber, contributing positively to human health. Recent years have seen a rise in interest in oats as they serve as the foundation for plant-based milk alternatives. Unlike many other cereal crops, oat genomic research is still in its early stages, with limited exploration into structural genomic diversity and gene expression variability. Scientists are currently focused on collecting and annotating the genome. An atlas of gene expression across six tissues at various developmental stages in 33 wild and domesticated oat strains is also being developed.
Oats (avena sativa). Image credit: Christian Wynn.
Oats rank as the seventh most cultivated grain globally, esteemed for their high fiber content and notable health benefits.
In 2022 and 2023, global production exceeded 25 million tons.
Advancements in genetically improved varieties hold the promise of enhanced productivity and sustainability in oat farming; however, much of this potential remains untapped, with the first oat reference sequences released only in recent years.
The complexity of the oat genome adds to the slow progress.
“Pangenomes encapsulate the complete genetic diversity of cultivated plants like oats and are essential for our understanding,” remarked lead author Raz Avni, Ph.D., from the Leibniz Institute for Plant Genetics and Crop Research.
“They comprise genes common to all plants and those unique to specific species, providing a kind of roadmap.”
“The pantranscriptome reveals which genes are active across various tissues, such as leaves, roots, and seeds, and at different developmental stages. It serves as a gene expression atlas.”
“However, deciphering how genetic variations influence traits in individual plants poses a challenge, particularly in oats.”
“The oat genome’s complexity arises from its hexaploid nature, having six sets of chromosomes from three ancestral sources.”
During their study, the authors sequenced and analyzed the genomes of 33 oat lines, including cultivated varieties and related wild types.
They also constructed an oat pan transcriptome by scrutinizing gene expression in six tissues across various developmental stages in 23 of these oat lines.
The research aimed to identify structural changes, such as chromosome inversions and translocations.
“Our pangenome illustrates the extensive genetic diversity present in oats,” stated Dr. Avni.
“This insight aids in identifying key genes associated with yield, adaptation, and health.”
The researchers uncovered intriguing findings during their study.
“For instance, we observed the loss of many genes in one of the three subgenomes,” the team noted.
“Nevertheless, other gene copies seem to compensate for the functions, ensuring the plant’s productivity remains intact.”
“Sequencing the oat pangenome highlights how modern genomic methods can propel foundational research and directly influence health, agriculture, and breeding,” commented lead author Dr. Martin Mascher from Murdoch University’s Leibniz Institute for Plant Genetics and Crop Research.
“We also discovered that structural variations in the genome influence the regulation of flowering time.”
The team’s results are published in the journal Nature.
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R. Avni et al. Pangenome and pantranscriptome of hexaploid oat. Nature, published online October 29, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09676-7
In many contemporary living rooms, large TVs reign supreme; however, researchers suggest that investing in ultra-high-definition models may not be worthwhile.
Scientists from the University of Cambridge and Meta, the parent company of Facebook, discovered that in an average-sized living space, 4K or 8K screens offer no notable benefits compared to a similarly sized 2K screen typically found on computers and laptops. Essentially, there is no visible difference in image sharpness to the human eye.
“At a specific viewing distance, adding more pixels makes little difference; the human eye isn’t capable of detecting them, so I consider it a waste,” stated Dr. Maliha Ashraf, the study’s lead author from the University of Cambridge.
In an article published in Nature Communications, Ashraf and colleagues elaborate on measuring the visual resolution limits of the human eye, indicating that 20/20 vision allows detection of 60 pixels per degree (PPD), although many individuals with normal or corrected vision can see better than this.
“Basing display resolution solely on 20/20 vision underestimates what individuals can actually perceive,” Ashraf asserts. “That’s why we conducted direct measurements of the pixels people can identify.”
The research team set up a 27-inch 4K monitor in a mobile cage, allowing it to be adjusted closer or further from viewers. Eighteen participants with normal or corrected vision were shown two images at varying distances in random order. One image featured 1-pixel-wide vertical lines in colors such as black and white, red and green, or yellow and purple, while the other was a plain gray block. Participants were tasked with identifying the image containing the lines.
“If the lines are too thin or the screen resolution is excessive, the pattern appears as merely a gray image,” Ashraf explains. “We measured the points where individuals can barely discern differences. We referred to this as the resolution limit.”
Through their findings, researchers concluded that the human eye can perceive more detail than previously assumed, with a straight-on grayscale image averaging 94 PPD, red and green patterns averaging 89 PPD, and yellow and purple patterns at 53 PPD.
In a separate experiment, 12 participants viewed white text on a black background, or the reverse, from various distances and indicated when the text matched the sharpness of a clearly defined reference version.
“The resolution at which participants ceased to detect differences in text aligned with our observed results in line patterns,” Ashraf noted.
The research team shared a table featuring various screen sizes and viewing distances, along with the nearest standard resolution meeting or slightly exceeding most people’s visual limits.
“This means that if your setup falls within one of these parameters, upgrading to a higher resolution will not yield measurable benefits,” Ashraf remarked.
The team also offers a free online calculator that allows users to input their viewing distance, screen size, and resolution to see if their settings are within or below the human eye’s resolution limit. This helps users assess whether a higher resolution screen would enhance what they can see.
“For instance, if someone owns a 44-inch 4K TV and views it from about 8 feet away, they’re already seeing more detail than they can actually perceive. Upgrading to an 8K version of the same size won’t provide any sharper images,” Ashraf concluded.
On April 8, 2024, a total solar eclipse interrupted the daylight cycles of North American birds as they prepared for spring breeding. Researchers at Indiana University, after analyzing over 10,000 community observations and utilizing artificial intelligence to examine nearly 100,000 bird calls, discovered that bird behavior was significantly impacted by the few minutes of unexpected afternoon darkness. More than half of the bird species altered their biological rhythms, leading many to produce dawn choruses in the aftermath of the eclipse.
Circles indicate individual observations from the SolarBird app submitted on April 8, 2024. Image courtesy of Aguilar et al., doi: 10.1126/science.adx3025.
The daily and seasonal rhythms of birds are closely regulated by variations in light and darkness.
What occurs when these cycles are abruptly disrupted, such as during a total solar eclipse?
Previous research has explored the effects of solar eclipses on animal behavior, yet many studies have only provided scattered or anecdotal insights regarding animal responses.
Indiana University researcher Liz Aguilar and her team viewed the total solar eclipse in April 2024 as a unique research opportunity, offering an unprecedented natural experiment to observe how birds react to sudden light changes.
In preparation for the solar eclipse that would cast nearly four minutes of darkness over large regions of the central and eastern United States, they developed a smartphone app called SolarBird, which allows users to document bird behaviors in real time during the eclipse.
The citizen scientists’ contributions resulted in almost 10,000 observations spanning 5,000 km along the eclipse’s path.
Simultaneously, researchers deployed autonomous recording devices across southern Indiana to capture the calls of about 100,000 birds before, during, and after the totality.
These recordings were analyzed using BirdNet, an AI system capable of identifying species calls and measuring vocal activity.
Findings revealed that 29 out of 52 species detected exhibited significant changes in their singing behavior at various points during the event, although the eclipse’s effects varied among species.
In the moments leading up to the eclipse, 11 species were found to sing more than usual as darkness approached.
During the four minutes of darkness, 12 species reacted—some becoming silent, while others increased their vocal activity.
The most notable responses were observed after the sun re-emerged, with 19 species adjusting their songs to mimic a false dawn chorus.
Notably, barred owls hooted four times more frequently than usual, while robins—renowned for their pre-dawn melodies—hooted six times more than normal.
“These patterns indicate that the solar eclipse temporarily reset the internal clocks of certain birds, causing them to act as if a new day had commenced,” the researchers stated.
Their paper was published in the October 9, 2025 edition of the journal Science.
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Liz A. Aguilar et al. 2025. Total solar eclipses trigger dawn behavior in birds: Insights from acoustic recordings and crowd science. Science 390 (6769): 152-155; doi: 10.1126/science.adx3025
A study by top climate scientists projects that by the end of this century, humanity will undertake significant measures to block sunlight as a desperate effort to safeguard Earth’s population from the escalating impacts of climate change, as reported by New Scientist.
“Solar geoengineering is a troubling concept, yet it is becoming more appealing as global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions fall short,” stated a respondent from Victoria University of Wellington, James Renwick.
According to the study, two-thirds of participants anticipate hazardous interventions will be employed to manage the atmosphere by the year 2100. Alarmingly, 52% believe these actions could be taken by irresponsible entities, including private firms, wealthy individuals, and nation-states, highlighting fears that attempts to cool the climate may proceed without comprehensive global governance to address decision-making or mitigate inherent risks.
“The potential for unintended consequences, political misuse, and abrupt climate impacts remains substantial,” a respondent remarked. Ines Camilloni of the University of Buenos Aires, Argentina, noted these concerns.
New Scientist invited around 800 climate researchers, contributors to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) latest report, to participate in an anonymous online survey concerning solar geoengineering. The 120 respondents represented diverse academic fields from all continents, yielding one of the most extensive insights into the climate science community’s stance on solar geoengineering so far.
Since the 1960s, scientists have been exploring ways to enhance Earth’s albedo—the reflectivity of the planet—for a procedure known as solar geoengineering or solar radiation modification (SRM).
Cooling strategies might include the injection of particles into the upper atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from Earth, known as stratospheric aerosol injection. Another suggestion involves introducing salt particles into low-altitude ocean clouds, referred to as ocean cloud brightening (see “How does solar geoengineering operate?” below).
Solar geoengineering may involve injecting sea salt into ocean clouds.
San Francisco Chronicle/Yalonda M. James/eyevine
68% of respondents indicated that due to the global failure to reduce greenhouse gas emissions over the last decade, the likelihood of deploying such measures has increased. “It reflects a growing realization that we are not addressing climate change effectively,” noted Sean Fitzgerald from the Center for Climate Change Remediation at the University of Cambridge. “What options do we have? We may not prefer them, but if we disapprove of the current situation, we must consider alternatives.”
While consensus exists regarding the potential for solar geoengineering, experts disagree on the triggers for such drastic measures. Just over 20% of respondents believe these measures should be considered should global temperatures be on track to rise more than 2°C above pre-industrial levels, a scenario that is becoming increasingly likely with global warming surpassing the 1.5°C mark. Others argued that waiting for more extreme warming would be wiser, while over half felt current warming levels were insufficient to warrant serious consideration of atmospheric alteration.
Such actions could theoretically help lower global temperatures and provide time for emissions reductions, yet nearly all respondents recognized substantial risks associated with widespread implementation, including diminished motivation to cut emissions, disruption to vital agricultural rainfall patterns, and abrupt warming due to “termination shock” should these interventions cease.
The study further highlighted concerns regarding unilateral climate interventions by nations or individuals, with 81% of respondents agreeing that a new international treaty or framework is necessary to regulate all large-scale deployments, marking a significant consensus across the survey questions.
These findings reflect a cautious stance, according to Andy Parker from the Degrees Initiative. “This is a global technology. No nation can opt out of a geoengineered world. Similarly, no nation can choose to ignore a warmer world if geoengineering is rejected.”
Growing Interest in Geoengineering
New Scientist decided to undertake this research as interest in solar geoengineering grows amid escalating climate impacts. Hundreds of millions of dollars in funding are flowing into this area, with researchers presenting their findings at scientific forums, building a global research community. Earlier this year, the UK Government allocated £57 million in grants for solar geoengineering research via the Advanced Research and Inventions Agency (ARIA), supporting small-scale field experiments.
This represents a significant pivot for a field traditionally sidelined within climate science. Daniele Visioni has led numerous SRM modeling projects at Cornell University in New York. “This topic has transitioned from being loosely discussed by a small group of scholars to becoming a global issue.”
Just over one-third of the respondents from New Scientist‘s survey asserted that due to humanity’s ongoing struggle to cut emissions, they now support SRM research, albeit not necessarily its implementation. A notable 49% are in favor of conducting small-scale outdoor experiments to better understand the associated risks and benefits.
Accelerated cloud cooling could lead to drought in East Africa.
Fadel Senna/AFP via Getty Images
“There is growing acceptance of the necessity of SRM research,” Parker states, tying it directly to the increased pessimism surrounding climate change outcomes.
“Given that most surveyed experts believe solar radiation management is probable within the next century, we must collect comprehensive real-world data regarding the feasibility and potential impacts of these cooling strategies,” asserts Mark Symes, director of ARIA’s Climate Cooling Program.
However, support is by no means unanimous, with approximately 45% of respondents deeming this a contentious or taboo research area. A third opposed outdoor experimentation with any countermeasures, and 11% refrained from contributing to solar geoengineering studies to protect their professional reputation.
“Many of these climate scientists see that the initial vision of climate science—to heed the warnings of the Earth and reduce emissions—has failed,” according to Visioni.
Much hesitance regarding solar geoengineering stems from the multitude of potentially catastrophic risks associated with large-scale sunlight-reflecting efforts.
Almost all respondents noted that implementation might dampen motivation to reduce emissions as one of the most critical risks. Other significant threats included social and political unrest, severe disruptions to agriculture and food security, harm to delicate ecosystems, and public health crises. “Modifying the entire climate system through SRM is a considerable risk,” cautioned Shreekant Gupta at the Center for Social and Economic Progress in Delhi, India.
However, the ambiguity of “unknown consequences” emerged as the most commonly mentioned risk. One survey participant pointed out that “human efforts to rectify damaged systems have often met with limited success.”
Three primary techniques for solar geoengineering include:
1. Stratospheric aerosol injection This technique involves dispersing tiny liquid particles called aerosols from high-altitude aircraft to reflect sunlight. Over 60% of survey respondents identified this as the method most likely to be adopted.
2. Thinning of cirrus clouds This method utilizes aerosols such as nitric acid to thin cirrus clouds, permitting more heat to escape into space. However, excessive aerosol spraying can thicken clouds and produce the opposite effect. Only a minority of respondents believed this method or land-based strategies for enhancing global albedo could be pursued.
3. Brightening ocean clouds This approach involves spraying minute seawater droplets onto clouds, enhancing their brightness and increasing sunlight reflection. It was trialed in a small experiment in 2024 aimed at protecting the Great Barrier Reef. Approximately 16% of respondents felt this technique would likely be adopted.
“The technology has arrived and is currently unfolding,” stated Susan Lieberman, vice president of international policy at the Wildlife Conservation Society. “There may be instances where genetically modified organisms can be cautiously and ethically tested and introduced into natural environments.”
He remarked that the new framework represents a “transformative advancement” that may enable conservationists to explore innovative solutions to climate change challenges and to assess new methods for disease control.
The IUCN consists of a vast coalition of conservation organizations, governments, and indigenous communities, boasting over 1,400 members from roughly 160 nations, convening once every four years. It stands as the globe’s largest network of environmental organizations and is responsible for the Red List, which monitors endangered species and global biodiversity.
This year’s conference took place in Abu Dhabi, where the vote favoring “synthetic biology” established a new framework for assessing genetic engineering initiatives and their potential implementation. This measure mandates that scientists evaluate such projects on an individual basis, maintain transparency regarding the associated risks and benefits, and adhere to precautionary principles relating to genetic engineering. This applies to a spectrum of organisms, including animals, plants, yeast, and bacteria.
Another proposal, which aimed to suspend the release of genetically modified organisms into the environment, failed by a narrow margin of one vote.
Jessica Owley, a professor and director of the environmental law program at the University of Miami, noted that while the IUCN decision lacks legal force, it carries symbolic importance and could influence international policy.
“IUCN is a powerful and recognized entity in the conservation field. Their word holds weight, and governments pay attention. They play a significant role in various treaties,” she commented. “This can be viewed as groundwork for future legal language.”
Organizations advocating for a moratorium on the release of genetically modified organisms into the wild argue that there is insufficient evidence to prove it can be done safely and responsibly.
“We’re disappointed,” stated Dana Perls, senior food and agriculture program manager at the nonprofit Friends of the Earth. “Our focus should be on confined research that doesn’t turn our environment into a live experimental lab.”
As a potential example, she cited: genetically modifying mosquitoes to combat the malaria-causing parasite. The disease claims over 500,000 lives annually, prompting scientists to propose spreading this malaria resistance across broader mosquito populations through a method known as genetic drive.
A recent investigation reveals that women’s running shoes may be limiting their athletic potential.
Published in BMJ Open Sports & Exercise Medicine, the research indicates a “significant gap in running shoe design” that overlooks women’s anatomical differences.
“Most so-called women’s running shoes are not genuinely designed for women,” asserts the study’s lead author, Dr. Chris Napier, an Assistant Professor of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology at Simon Fraser University in British Columbia, Canada, as noted in BBC Science Focus.
“We typically base our models on men’s feet, merely scaling them down and changing the color, a method often described as the ‘shrink and pink’ approach.”
However, Napier emphasized that this method does not “account for the real anatomical distinctions between male and female feet or the way women run.”
Consequently, women’s running shoes may not fit well, potentially hampering performance.
In this study, researchers gathered 21 women to discuss their preferences for running shoes and how their needs might evolve over their lifetimes.
The participants ranged in age from 20 to 70 and had between 6 and 58 years of running experience. Eleven individuals ran recreationally, averaging 30 km (19 miles) weekly, while 10 were competitive runners, averaging 45 km (28 miles) weekly.
Most women expressed a desire for shoes with a broader toe box, a narrower heel, and additional cushioning. Napier noted that this aligns with the general differences in foot shape between men and women.
“Women have distinct lower extremity anatomy, such as wider pelvises and shorter legs relative to body size. This influences running mechanics and the forces exerted on the legs,” says Napier.
Among the participants, mothers reported needing larger shoe sizes, wider fits, and more cushioning and support during and post-pregnancy.
Male and female runners have different shoe needs due to their diverse anatomy, preferences, and life stages – Credit: Alvaro Medina Jurado via Getty
This study is small and qualitative; participants were recruited via posters in stores in Vancouver, Canada, meaning findings may not be universally applicable.
Still, Napier hopes that the research will resonate with female runners.
“During our focus groups, many participants experienced an ‘aha’ moment when they realized their shoe issues were not isolated but a common experience among female runners,” he stated.
Napier also expressed hope that the study acts as a “wake-up call” for the footwear industry.
Footwear manufacturers have invested billions in developing running shoes that prevent injuries, enhance comfort, and improve performance.
Most running shoes are molded to a foot-shaped template based on male anatomy, which is then used across their products.
As a result, “a significant portion of the running community is essentially using shoes that are not intended for them,” Napier explained.
The civilization that thrived in Teotihuacan during the Classic period holds a distinctive position in Mesoamerican history. Today, it continues to represent Mexico’s rich heritage and is among the most frequented archaeological locations in the Americas. However, inquisitive tourists often find that the ethnic and linguistic connections of the Teotihuacanos are still a mystery. While the deciphering of other Mesoamerican writing systems has unveiled significant insights about dynasties and historical occurrences, researchers have yet to extract information about Teotihuacan society from their own written artifacts. The topic of writing in Teotihuacan indeed provokes several intriguing questions. Do the symbols depicted in the images of Teotihuacan represent a form of writing? If they do, what was their purpose? Were they created to be understood irrespective of language? If they indicated a specific language, which one was it? Researchers Magnus Pharaoh Hansen and Christopher Helmke from the University of Copenhagen suggest that Teotihuacan writing shares fundamental characteristics with other Mesoamerican writing systems, including the utilization of logograms based on rebus principles and a technique termed “double spelling.” They contend that it encapsulates a specific, identifiable language: Uto-Aztecan, the direct predecessor of Nahuatl, Chora, and Huichol, and they offer a new interpretation of certain Teotihuacan glyphs.
View of the small pyramid on the east side of the Plaza de la Luna from Piramide del Sol in Teotihuacan. Image credit: Daniel Case / CC BY-SA 3.0.
Teotihuacan is a revered pre-Columbian city established around 100 BC and thrived until 600 AD.
This ancient metropolis, situated in the northeastern area of the Basin of Mexico, expanded over 20 square kilometers and housed up to 125,000 residents while engaging with other Mesoamerican cultures.
The identities of Teotihuacan’s builders and their relationships to subsequent populations remain uncertain. The reasons behind the city’s abandonment also spark debate, with theories ranging from foreign invasion, civil strife, ecological disaster, or a combination of these factors.
“There are numerous distinct cultures in Mexico, some linked to specific archaeological traditions, while others remain ambiguous. Teotihuacan exemplifies such a case,” stated Dr. Pharaoh Hansen.
“The languages they spoke and their links to later cultures are still unknown.”
“One can easily identify the Teotihuacan culture when compared to modern cultures,” added Dr. Helmke.
“For instance, the remains of Teotihuacan suggest that parts of the city were occupied by the more widely recognized Maya civilization.”
The ancient inhabitants of Teotihuacan left a collection of symbols, primarily through wall murals and decorative ceramics.
For years, researchers have debated whether these symbols represent an actual written language.
The authors assert that the inscriptions on Teotihuacan’s walls indeed record a language that is a linguistic precursor to Cora, Huichol, and the Aztec language Nahuatl.
The Aztecs, well-known in Mexican history, were thought to have migrated to central Mexico following the decline of Teotihuacan.
However, researchers claim there are linguistic connections between Teotihuacan and the Aztecs, indicating that Nahuatl-speaking peoples might have settled in the region much earlier and are in fact direct descendants of Teotihuacan’s original population.
To elucidate the linguistic parallels between Teotihuacan’s language and other Mesoamerican tongues, scientists have been working to reconstruct a much older version of Nahuatl.
“Otherwise, it would be akin to interpreting the runes on a famous Danish runestone, like the Jellingstone, using contemporary Danish. That would be an anachronism. We must attempt to read the text with a more temporally appropriate language,” explains Dr. Helmke.
Examples of logograms that make up the Teotihuacan written language. Image credit: Christophe Helmke, University of Copenhagen.
The script of Teotihuacan presents significant challenges for decipherment due to multiple factors.
One challenge is that the logograms may possess a direct semantic meaning; for instance, an image depicting a coyote directly translates to “coyote.”
In other instances, symbols must be interpreted in a rebus format, wherein the sounds represented by the depicted objects are combined to form words; however, such words are often conceptual and difficult to express as single figurative logograms.
This complexity underscores the necessity for a solid understanding of both the Teotihuacan writing system and the Uto-Aztecan language that researchers believe is encoded in the inscriptions.
To unlock the Teotihuacan linguistic riddle, one must be aware of how words were pronounced at that time.
This is why the researchers are focusing on various aspects concurrently. They are reconstructing the Uto-Aztecan language, a formidable challenge in its own right, while applying this ancient language to interpret the Teotihuacan texts.
“In Teotihuacan, pottery with inscriptions continues to be unearthed, and we anticipate that many more wall paintings will be discovered in the future,” remarked Dr. Pharaoh Hansen.
“The scarcity of additional text clearly hampers our study.”
“It would be beneficial to find the same symbol used similarly in varied contexts.”
“This would further substantiate our hypothesis, but for now, we are limited to the documentation available to us.”
Dr. Pharaoh Hansen and Dr. Helmke are enthusiastic about their recent advancements.
“Prior to our work, no one had applied a linguistically appropriate approach to deciphering this written form,” stated Dr. Pharaoh Hansen.
“Moreover, no one had successfully established that a particular logogram could hold phonetic significance applicable in contexts beyond its primary meaning.”
“Through this process, we have developed a method that can serve as a foundation for others to broaden their comprehension of the texts.”
The team’s study has been published in the journal Current Anthropology.
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Magnus Pharaoh Hansen and Christoph Helmke. 2025. Language of Teotihuacan. Current Anthropology 66(5); doi: 10.1086/737863
The recently identified mineral, Phalic Hydroxysullate, sheds light on the environmental conditions and history of Mars, hinting at potential past volcanic, ash, or hydrothermal activities.
A distinct spectral unit on the Juventue Plateau on Mars. Image credit: Bishop et al, doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-61801-2.
The compact reconnaissance imaging spectrometer (CRISM) on NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has gathered hyperspectral data, enabling the mapping of numerous minerals that enhance our understanding of Mars’ ancient geochemical history.
Various sulfate minerals have been identified both from orbit and during landing missions, utilizing spectral parameters, X-ray diffraction, and elemental composition to compare with minerals found on Earth.
In 2010, a unique spectral band was detected in the CRISM data from Mars, specifically on the plateau near Juvento Chasma and within the eroded impact crater Arum Chaos.
This spectral band did not match any known minerals, presenting challenges in mineral identification for over 15 years.
Initial laboratory studies suggested that dehydrated iron sulfate could be the source of this unidentified material.
“The data obtained from spectrometers can’t be utilized in that manner,” explains Dr. Mario Parent, a researcher at the University of Massachusetts Amherst.
“Data adjustments are necessary to account for atmospheric effects.”
“The sunlight reflecting off the minerals and CRISM passes through the Martian atmosphere twice,” he continues. “There are scattering molecules and gases that absorb light.” For instance, Mars has a high concentration of carbon dioxide, which can distort the data.
By employing a deep learning artificial intelligence method, researchers can map both known and unknown minerals, automatically identifying anomalies in individual image pixels.
This technique has revealed additional locations with similar spectral bands and clarified other spectral features.
With refined properties, researchers were able to replicate the minerals in the lab and identify the enigmatic compound as hydroxysulfate.
“Materials formed in laboratory conditions may represent new minerals due to their unique crystal structure and thermal durability,” states Dr. Janice Bishop, a researcher at the SETI Institute and NASA’s Ames Research Center.
“However, it is imperative to find them on Earth to officially classify them as new minerals.”
Hydroxyacids are formed at elevated temperatures (50-100 degrees Celsius) in the presence of oxygen and water under acidic conditions.
“When will we observe this material once we develop a mineral attribution and obtain the necessary indicators of a specific material?” Dr. Parente questions.
Scientists deduced that it formed in Arum Chaos due to geothermal heat, while the same minerals likely originated in Juvento from volcanic activity involving ash or lava.
They speculate this may have occurred during the Amazonian era, which is estimated to be under 3 billion years ago.
“Factors such as temperature, pressure, and pH are critical indicators of what the paleoclimate was like,” states Dr. Parente.
“The existence of this mineral adds depth to our understanding of Martian processes.”
“Some regions of Mars have been chemically and thermally altered more recently than previously thought, providing new insights into the planet’s dynamic surface and its potential to support life.”
Study published in the journal Nature Communications.
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Jl Bishop et al. 2025. The properties of iron hydroxythrusa acid on Mars and the implications of the geochemical environment that supports its formation. Nat commun 16, 7020; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-61801-2
Researchers have brought ancient microorganisms back to life from permafrost cores dating back up to 40,000 years, extracted from four sites within the permafrost research tunnel near Fairbanks, Alaska. They found that as underground permafrost melts, microbial activity begins with a slow “awakening”, but significant transformations in the microbial community occur within six months.
Archaeal abundance in whole samples collected from a permafrost research tunnel near Fairbanks, Alaska. Image credits: Caro et al., doi: 10.1029/2025jg008759.
Currently, permafrost across the globe is melting at an alarming pace due to climate change driven by human activities.
Scientists are concerned that this could initiate a dangerous feedback loop. When permafrost thaws, the microorganisms within the soil begin to decompose organic matter and release it into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and methane, both potent greenhouse gases.
“This is one of the biggest uncertainties in climate response,” stated Professor Sebastian Copp from the University of Colorado at Boulder.
“How does the thawing of this frozen ground, which contains significant amounts of stored carbon, impact the ecology and climate change rate in these areas?”
To investigate these uncertainties, researchers visited the US Army Corps of Engineers’ permafrost tunnels, a distinctive research setting.
The facility has been extended over 107 meters (350 feet) and continues toward the frozen ground below central Alaska.
Scientists have gathered permafrost samples ranging from thousands to tens of thousands of years old from the tunnel walls.
The samples were then treated with water and incubated at temperatures of 4°C and 12°C (39°F and 54°F).
“We aimed to replicate scenarios that would occur during Alaska’s summers under projected future climatic conditions that allow these temperatures to penetrate deeper into permafrost,” explained Dr. Tristan Caro, a postdoctoral researcher at Caltech.
The researchers utilized water containing unusually heavy hydrogen atoms, referred to as deuterium, to track how microorganisms absorbed water and used hydrogen to construct lipid membranes surrounding all living cells.
In the initial months, these colonies grew slowly, with some even replacing only one cell for every 100,000 daily.
In laboratory settings, most bacterial colonies can be entirely replenished in a matter of hours.
However, by the six-month mark, everything had transformed. Some bacterial colonies even developed visible biofilms.
“These microorganisms likely pose no threat to human health, but they were kept in sealed environments nonetheless,” remarked Dr. Karo.
“The colonies don’t seem to wake up quickly in warmer temperatures.”
“These findings may provide insights regarding thawing permafrost in real-world conditions. It appears that after a warm period, microorganisms can take several months to start emitting significant quantities of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.”
“This means that a longer Arctic summer increases risks for the planet.”
“While a single hot day might occur during an Alaskan summer, the primary concern is the prolonged summer season, with warm temperatures extending into autumn and spring.”
“Many questions remain unresolved about these microorganisms, such as whether ancient organisms exhibit similar behavior in different global locations.”
“There is an abundance of permafrost worldwide. In Alaska, Siberia, and other northern cold regions, our sampling covered only a small fraction of that.”
The findings were published on September 23rd in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences.
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Takaro et al. 2025. Microbial resuscitation and growth rates in deep permafrost: Lipid-stable isotope probing results from the permafrost research tunnel in Fox, Alaska. JGR Biogeosciences 130 (9): e2025jg008759; doi: 10.1029/2025jg008759
With emissions continuing to rise, how can we foster hope for the future?
Qilai Shen/Bloomberg via Getty Images
In the media, the climate crisis can often seem overwhelming with daily warnings about environmental degradation and extreme weather events. However, how do climate scientists cope with the relentless reality of a shifting planet? What lessons can they share regarding the intense emotions that climate change provokes? Is there a way to leverage these feelings constructively?
New Scientist Recently, I spoke with New York-based climate scientist Kate Marvel and Tim Renton, a climate scientist at the University of Exeter, UK. Both have dedicated years to modeling the interactions of our planet in response to rising greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere. Each has authored recent works that provide insights on how to engage with and address climate emergencies.
At first glance, their books may appear quite distinct. Humanity by Marvel comprises a series of essays delving into the emotional responses elicited by climate change. In contrast, Renton’s work, A Positive Turning Point, emphasizes actionable strategies and solutions. It argues compellingly that with appropriate social, economic, and technological interventions, a significant shift toward a cleaner world is achievable.
Nonetheless, both books center around accepting our feelings about climate change, enabling us to reshape our thoughts and actions. During our discussion, Renton and Marvel emphasized why we should embrace anger, fear, pride, and hope regarding our future on this planet.
Rowan Hooper: Kate, your book discusses nine emotional perspectives on our changing planet. Would you mind starting with anger?
Kate Marvel: The chapter on anger was one of the most straightforward for me to write. I aimed to explore the historical context of climate change discovery, particularly how it intertwines with the actions of those who misrepresent it.
For example, there’s a research team striving to show that the majority of excess carbon dioxide in our atmosphere originates from fossil fuel sources, conducting innovative experiments to confirm this. They’ve deployed large ships to gather sea measurements and ultimately they’ve constructed a climate model with highly accurate predictions. Interestingly, the story traces back to an oil company, which fills me with anger. They were aware of the truths that many are just beginning to confront.
RH: Can this anger drive positive action?
KM: That’s my hope. It can be easy to fall into a negative spiral fueled solely by anger. Social media often exacerbates this outrage, but that sort of unproductive rage doesn’t lead to meaningful change.
RH: Your book also addresses emotions such as wonder, guilt, fear, sadness, surprise, pride, hope, and love. Can you share your approach to navigating these emotions?
KM: It was important for me to convey that there isn’t a singular way to feel about climate change. I often grew frustrated by narratives that insinuate you must adhere to one emotion—such as fear or anger. Living on Earth means acknowledging conflicting feelings; you care deeply about what unfolds here because your loved ones do as well.
Tim Renton examines “tipping points” within ecosystems that could impact the broader climate scenario.
University of Exeter
RH: Tim, what strategies do you use to handle the emotions tied to climate change research?
Tim Renton: My focus has been on climate tipping points that could have serious implications, some of which are already beginning to manifest. For instance, up to five billion people globally depend on tropical coral reefs that are currently threatened.
Having studied this for nearly 20 years, I’ve had to cultivate a mental framework that grapples with complex systems while seeking evidence that fosters my optimism. It’s about finding plausible pathways toward necessary changes without falling into naive hope.
RH: Is it vital to strike a balance between realism and hope?
TL: Yes, that’s what I consider conditional optimism. I remain hopeful that as people read, they might join me on this journey. History shows us that meaningful inspiration comes from a handful of committed individuals.
Madeleine Cuff: Tim, much of your work revolves around the notion of tipping points. For those unfamiliar, can you explain what that entails?
TL: A tipping point refers to a moment when minor alterations result in significant impacts on systemic states and destinies. In the context of climate change, this includes major ice sheets, ocean circulations, and key biospheric aspects that can transition between stable states. For instance, the Amazon rainforest could shift into a degraded forest or savanna.
MC: What does a positive turning point look like?
TL: Drawing from various fields over decades, I’ve seen that social changes can reach a tipping point. Social protests can appear to ignite a revolution, and technological advancements can also lead to significant shifts. There’s a point when a new technology can effectively replace an existing one.
RH: A clear example is the rise of electric vehicles and the decreasing costs of solar energy. How do these contribute to a positive turning point?
TL: We need to focus on actions that facilitate positive tipping points. We must accelerate the decarbonization process significantly. Fortunately, everyone plays a role in this transition.
At the most basic level, adopting new behaviors like reducing meat consumption or embracing technologies such as electric vehicles and solar power is crucial. Most individuals have investment funds, so it is essential to scrutinize where these funds are allocated.
The narrative surrounding positive turning points often begins with passionate social activists and innovators who envision new technologies or those eager to create change.
In her research, Kate Marvel seeks to enhance our understanding of the planet’s changing climate.
Roy Rochlin/Getty Images
MC: Kate, while we’ve touched on the negative emotions related to climate change, what about the positive feelings? How can they spur constructive actions?
KM: I began my book with a chapter on Wonder. When you take a step back to consider our planet and how much we understand it, it’s quite astonishing. This awe can forge connections and initiate conversations.
Typically, when I introduce myself as a climate scientist, people tend to disengage. But framing discussions around wonder can invite curiosity—for instance, asking, “Did you know that Earth’s water is likely older than our planet?” This fosters engagement. Utilizing a spectrum of emotions can be an effective communication strategy.
Research indicates that positively experienced emotions can be motivating. Pride in our achievements and the fulfillment of instigating change are significant. Social science data consistently points to love—love for family, friends, and community—as a powerful motivator for climate action. We all recognize the strength of such feelings.
My chapter on hope explores our complicated relationship with it. When asked if I hope for solutions to climate change, I compare it to asking if I hope to clean my bathroom; it’s not really a question of hope but a question of action we already know how to undertake.
As Tim rightly notes, many solutions are already at hand. We are making progress but need to increase the momentum to reach that critical turning point.
RH: We must confront our emotions, right? This might explain why so many struggle to engage with the issue—it can feel too immense to face.
KM: Absolutely. I ponder this daily, yet remain confounded by its complexity. The problem stems from global industrial activity, with CO2 and other greenhouse gases diffusing through the atmosphere and impacting life globally.
It’s daunting to distill such a vast issue into something easily digestible. The significance of what this entails and the actions required can span a lifetime of work.
Many Americans express concern about climate change and wish for governmental action. However, polls often reveal that individuals believe others are less concerned. One of the most impactful actions an individual can take regarding climate change is to discuss it openly. By talking about it, we begin to realize we are not alone.
RH: What do you hope readers will take away from your book?
KM: I want readers to explore how they can resonate with their communities through shared experiences and narratives.
TL: My goal is for readers to feel empowered to act on what might seem like a daunting and insurmountable situation, instilling a sense of agency instead.
This is an edited version of the original interview conducted for New Scientist’s The World, The Universe, Us Podcasts.
What actionable steps can we take regarding climate change? Tune in to Matt’s explanation on how to transform despair into action on October 18th at NewsCientist.com/nslmag
This water flow took place on ancient asteroids over a billion years after their formation, likely due to the heat generated by melting ice, which caused rock fractures that facilitated water movement. JAXA’s Hayabusa-2 Spacecraft.
This image of the asteroid was taken on June 26, 2018, by JAXA’s Hayabusa-2 Spacecraft optical navigation camera – telescopic (ONC-T). Image credits: JAXA / University of Tokyo / Kochi University / Ricchiho University / Nagoya University / Chiba University of Technology / Nishimura University / Aizu University / AIST.
Ryugu is a CG-type asteroid close to Earth and part of the Polana family of impact asteroids.
The diamond-shaped body, also known as 1999 JU3, was identified by astronomers in May 1999 during asteroid studies near Lincoln.
Its diameter measures about 900 m (0.56 miles), and it orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.96-1.41 Astronomical Units (AU) every 474 days.
“We have a relatively good understanding of how the solar system was formed, though many gaps remain,” said Shiyoshijima, a researcher at the University of Tokyo.
“One gap in our knowledge is how Earth acquired its water.”
“It has long been known that carbonaceous asteroids, originating from ice and dust in the outer solar system, have contributed water to Earth.”
“We discovered that Ryugu preserves an unaltered record of water activity, indicating that liquid water moved through the rock much later than previously anticipated,” added Dr. Ikemoto.
“This shifts our understanding of the long-term fate of water on asteroids. The water has remained for an extended period and hasn’t been depleted as quickly as we thought.”
In this study, the authors examined the isotopes of lutetium (Lu) and hafnium (HF), with the radioactive decay from lutetium-176 to hafnium-176 serving as a sort of clock to gauge geological processes.
The expected presence of these isotopes in the studied sample was hypothesized to correlate with the asteroid’s age in a predictable manner.
However, the ratio of Hafnium-176 to Lutetium-176 was significantly unexpected.
This strongly suggests to researchers that the liquid effectively washed away lutetium from the rocks containing it.
“We anticipated that Ryugu’s chemical signatures would align with certain meteorites currently under examination on Earth,” Dr. Iizuka stated.
“However, the results were strikingly different, necessitating the careful elimination of other possible explanations, ultimately concluding that the Lu-HF system was hindered by a delayed liquid flow.”
“The most probable triggers involved the parent body of Ryugu’s larger asteroid, which disrupted the rocks, melting the embedded ice and allowing liquid water to permeate the body.”
“It was truly surprising! This impact event could be the catalyst for the parent body disruption.”
One of the crucial implications is that carbon-rich asteroids may be a significant source of water for Earth, supplying far more than previously estimated.
Ryugu’s parent body seems to have retained ice for over a billion years. This suggests that similar bodies impacting the young Earth could have delivered 2-3 times more water than standard models predict, significantly influencing the planet’s early oceans and atmosphere.
“The notion that a Ryugu-like object has preserved ice for such an extended time is remarkable,” Dr. Ikemoto remarked.
“It implies that Earth’s components were far wetter than we had imagined.”
“This prompts a reevaluation of the initial conditions for the planetary water system.”
“It’s still early to draw definitive conclusions, but my team and others may build on this research to clarify various aspects, including how our planet became habitable.”
The findings will be published in the journal Nature.
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T. Iizuka et al. Late fluid flow of primitive asteroids revealed by Lu-HF isotopes of Lu. Nature. Published online on September 10th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09483-0
Wildfire smoke contributes to tens of thousands of annual deaths, inflicting greater harm on American residents by mid-century than other climate change-related threats, including extreme heat.
This assertion comes from a new research paper that presents extensive modeling of the increasing health impacts of wildfire smoke on public health in the U.S.
The study, published in Nature magazine on Thursday, reveals an average annual contribution of wildfire smoke, leading to over 41,400 excess deaths—more than twice what previous research had suggested.
By mid-century, the study’s authors project an additional increase of 26,500 to 30,000 deaths as human-driven climate change exacerbates wildfire risks.
Marshall Burke, an environmental and social sciences professor at Stanford University and one of the study’s authors, states:
Economically quantified, Burke mentions that their findings surpassed other financial damages associated with climate change identified in previous studies, including agricultural losses, heat-related fatalities, and energy expenses.
Numerous studies indicate that wildfire smoke exposure results in severe health issues. Tiny smoke particles can infiltrate the lungs and enter the bloodstream, raising the risk of asthma, lung cancer, and other chronic respiratory conditions. Wildfire smoke is also associated with premature births and miscarriages.
This research paints a stark picture of a country increasingly filled with smoke. Fires in the western U.S. and Canada release smoke into the atmosphere, spreading across regions and undermining decades of efforts to curb industrial air pollution through clean air regulations.
Dr. Joel Kaufman, a professor at the University of Washington School of Medicine, commented on the study, noting, “This poses a new threat that can be directly linked to climate change. That’s the crucial point here.”
As the study suggests, wildfire smoke-related deaths could rise by 64% to more than 73%, varying by emission rates.
“Regardless of mitigation efforts, we are likely to experience more smoke by 2050,” Burke added, though emphasizing that emission reduction efforts will have long-term benefits.
Kaufman noted that over the past five to ten years, accumulating evidence indicates that wildfire smoke is at least as detrimental as other forms of air pollution.
“We previously assumed wood burning was less harmful,” Kaufman explained. “These findings indicate that wildfire smoke could be more toxic,” particularly when wildfires consume structures, vehicles, and other human-made materials.
Kaufman highlighted that earlier this year, the Los Angeles fire started from a burning area, but much of it involved homes and plastics, which created “another toxic mixture.” The new research does not differentiate the sources of future wildfire smoke.
The implications of this research could influence public policy.
Dr. John Balmes, a spokesperson for the American Lung Association and a professor at the University of California San Francisco School of Medicine, expressed that this new study could serve as a “counterargument” against such actions.
The proposal to withdraw these findings is currently undergoing a lengthy regulatory process that is open to public commentary. Balmes mentioned that he referenced the study in a letter opposing the EPA’s proposed changes.
“It reinforces our claims regarding wildfires tied to climate change and their associated public health consequences,” Balmes stated.
The White House did not respond to requests for comments. The EPA stated that the administration is “committed to reducing the risks of catastrophic wildfires,” prioritizing strategies such as prescribed burns, fuel treatment, and debris cleanup to prevent these events.
“The EPA welcomes all public feedback on its proposal to rescind the 2009 danger findings until September 22, 2025, and looks forward to hearing diverse perspectives on this matter,” a spokesperson noted in an email.
In a novel study, researchers estimated the annual excess deaths attributed to wildfire smoke by comparing three models: one that assesses climate change’s impact on fire activity, another predicting changes in fire activity and smoke dispersion, and a third quantifying health outcomes from prolonged smoke exposure.
Researchers used data from 2011-2020 as a baseline to forecast future conditions under various climate scenarios, utilizing datasets that included all U.S. deaths within that period, both satellite and ground-level data on smoke dispersion, and global climate models.
The study assumes that people will take similar protective measures against smoke exposure as they do today.
This study has its limitations, as it primarily relies on a set of models to draw national conclusions. It does not track individual deaths linked to smoke exposure or catalog their health effects.
Results from this study were published alongside another study in Nature that employed a similar methodology and adopted a global perspective. Separate research teams estimate that premature deaths due to wildfire smoke could reach about 1.4 million annually by century’s end—approximately six times the current figure.
fA few years ago, just before the first Covid lockdown, I wrote an article exploring a rather niche query. Most gamers press down on the controller, gazing at the characters on their screens as they look up. However, controlling avatars like pilots represents a significant minority who handle their characters as if they were piloting, returning to control the plane and ascend. In many modern games, this necessitates diving into settings to adjust the default controls. Why has this practice persisted?
I figured some hardcore gamers might find this topic intriguing. To my surprise, the article resonated with over a million readers, drawing the attention of Dr. Jennifer Corbett (cited in the original piece) and Dr. Jap Munneke.
At that time, the two were investigating vision science and cognitive neuroscience, but the lockdown meant they could no longer conduct lab experiments with volunteers. The issue of controller inversion presented an ideal chance to analyze the neuroscience behind human-computer interactions using remote participants. They reached out to gamers who contributed insights into the motivations behind their controller preferences, garnering hundreds of responses.
Microsoft Flight Simulator… Many believed that being a pilot would affect control retention. Photo: Microsoft
Interestingly, it wasn’t just gamers who were engaged. “Machinists, equipment operators, pilots, designers, and surgeons — individuals from diverse fields reached out,” Corbett noted. “The variety of responses signaled a wealth of scientific literature to examine for structuring optimal research. The feedback from readers prompted us to refine how users customize their controllers.”
This month, the duo released their findings in a paper titled “Why Axis Inversion? Optimizing the Interaction Between Users, Interfaces and Visual Displays in a 3D Environment.” Why do some people choose to invert their controls? It’s a complex issue.
The study commenced with participants completing a survey detailing their background and gaming experiences. “Numerous individuals indicated that their preference for flipping controls stemmed from their early experiences with flight simulators or the first console games they played,” Corbett explained. “Many reported changing their preferences over time, prompting us to include an entirely new section in our research based on this input.”
Mental rotation… Subjects engaging in the controller inversion study. Photo: Jen Corbett
However, Corbett and Munneke, currently based at MIT, were convinced that critical cognitive aspects of inversion could only be assessed through behavioral reactions. They developed a sequence of four experiments, in which participants were monitored via Zoom. Corbett elaborated, “They had to mentally rotate random shapes, adopt the perspective of the ‘avatar’ in the scenario, judge the tilt of an object against a differing background, and navigate the typical ‘Simon effect’ when responding to targets while using a machine. These varied tasks clarified whether an individual tends to invert.”
The outcomes of the cognitive evaluations revealed that many assumptions surrounding controller preferences were indeed incorrect. “There was no discernible reason provided by participants [for inverting controls],” Corbett stated. “It was linked to their actual inversion habits. The quicker participants were, the less inclined they were to invert. Conversely, those who identified as occasional invertors were significantly slower in these tasks.” Does this imply that non-inverters excel at gaming?
In essence, gamers believe they are inverters or non-inverters based on their initial exposure to game controls. Many flight simulators from the 1980s may have conditioned players to instinctively turn themselves around. Conversely, gamers raised in the 2000s might assume they are inherently non-inverted, given that non-reverse controls became the norm. Yet cognitive testing suggests otherwise. Depending on how your brain perceives 3D objects, you may be predisposed to either invert or not.
Consequently, Corbett suggests that trying out a controller configuration you’re not accustomed to might enhance your gaming skills. “Non-inverters should experiment with inverting. Inverters should consider giving non-inversion a fair shot,” she suggests. “You might want to commit to it for a few hours. People have learned one way, but that doesn’t necessarily mean they can’t excel with the alternative. A parallel can be drawn with left-handed children who are compelled to write with their right hand, potentially leading to long-term handwriting difficulties and learning challenges.”
Through their research, Corbett and Munneke established that complex, often subconscious cognitive processes govern how individuals utilize controllers, affecting not just gaming hardware but also human-computer interfaces across various fields, from aviation to surgical technology. They crafted a framework for assessing how to optimally tailor controls for individuals, now detailed in their published research.
Learning curves… Corbett and Munneke’s research can also influence surgical practices. Photo: Oksana Krasiuk/Alamy
“This research has significant potential for optimizing inverted settings to enhance human-machine collaboration,” Corbett stated. “Many technologies blend human capabilities with AI and various machines to amplify performance. It allows individuals to tailor a specific configuration for tasks—whether aiming for a target or avoiding a mistake—such as in laparoscopic surgery.”
What began as a casual, almost nerdy inquiry has evolved into a published cognitive research document. One scientific publication has already referenced it, and interview requests have surged from podcasts and YouTube channels. What’s my takeaway? “The most remarkable discoveries for gamers [who don’t invert],” Corbett remarked:
Polar water is generated during the Martian season, which occurs due to the planet’s axis being tilted at an angle of 25.2 degrees, as explained by Dr. Kevin Olsen from Oxford and his colleagues at Latmos, CNRS, CNRS, Space Research Institute, Open University, and NASA.
This perspective view of Mars’ Arctic Ice Cap showcases its unique dark troughs arranged in a spiral pattern. The image is derived from observations made by ESA’s Mars Express, utilizing elevation data from NASA’s Mars Global Surveyor’s Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter. Image credit: ESA/DLR/FU Berlin/NASA/MGS/MOLA Science team.
“The polar vortex’s atmosphere, extending from near the surface to around 30 km high, experiences extremely low temperatures, approximately 40 degrees Celsius lower than the surrounding area,” stated Dr. Olsen.
“In such frigid conditions, most of the water vapor in the atmosphere freezes and accumulates in the ice cap, resulting in ozone formation within the vortex.”
Normally, ozone is destroyed by reacting with molecules generated when ultraviolet radiation decomposes water vapor.
However, once all water vapor is depleted, there are no reactive molecules left for ozone, allowing it to accumulate in the vortex.
“Ozone plays a crucial role for Mars. It is a reactive form of oxygen that indicates the pace of chemical reactions occurring in the atmosphere,” Olsen noted.
“By investigating the levels of ozone and their variances, we gain insight into how the atmosphere evolves over time and whether Mars once had a protective ozone layer similar to Earth.”
Slated for launch in 2028, ESA’s Rosalind Franklin Rover aims to uncover evidence of life that may have existed on Mars.
The possibility that Mars had a protective ozone layer, safeguarding its surface against harmful ultraviolet radiation from space, enhances the likelihood of ancient life-sustaining conditions on the planet billions of years ago.
Polar vortices are produced during the Martian season as a consequence of the axial tilt of 25.2 degrees.
Similar to Earth, an atmospheric vortex forms above Mars’ North Pole at the end of summer and persists through spring.
On Earth, polar vortices can destabilize, losing their structure and shifting southward, often bringing cold weather to mid-latitudes.
A similar phenomenon can occur with Mars’ polar water vortex, which provides an opportunity to explore its internal dynamics.
“Studying the Northern Pole’s winter on Mars presents challenges due to the absence of sunlight, akin to conditions on Earth,” Dr. Olsen explained.
“By analyzing the vortex, one can differentiate between observations made inside and outside it, providing insight into ongoing phenomena.”
The atmospheric chemical suite aboard ESA’s trace gas orbiter examines Mars’ atmosphere by capturing sunlight filtered through the planet’s limb while the sun is positioned behind it.
The specific wavelengths of absorbed sunlight reveal which molecules are present in the atmosphere and their altitudes above the surface.
Nonetheless, this method is ineffective during the complete winter darkness on Mars when the sun does not illuminate the Arctic region.
The only chance to observe the vortex is during moments when its circular shape is lost, but additional data is required to pinpoint when and where this occurs.
To enhance their research, the scientists utilized NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter’s Mars Climate Sounder instrument, measuring temperature variations to gauge the vortex’s extent.
“We sought sudden drops in temperature, which indicate entry into the vortex,” Dr. Olsen noted.
“By comparing ACS observations with data from Mars’ climate sounders, we observed significant atmospheric differences within the vortex compared to the surrounding air.”
“This presents a fascinating opportunity to deepen our understanding of Mars’ atmospheric chemistry and how polar night conditions shift as ozone accumulates.”
Mummies are commonly linked with Egypt and date back around 4,500 years. However, researchers have discovered mummies that are significantly older on the opposite side of the globe.
“We found several archaeological sites in southern China and Southeast Asia, where human burials dated between 4,000 and 14,000 years have been identified,” said Professor Peter Bellwood, co-author of the study, during a phone interview on Tuesday.
Research, as mentioned in a study published on Monday in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, analyzed 54 Neolithic burials from 11 archaeological sites in southern China and Southeast Asia. The findings include numerous samples from the autonomous regions of Guangzhou, as well as from Vietnam, the Philippines, Laos, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
Human remains were often found in crouched or squatting positions, frequently showing signs of burning. Researchers confirmed that many of these bodies had been preserved for a considerable time prior to burial during the mummification process.
Burials of partially skeletal bodies were frequently observed in pre-Neolithic sites in southern China and Southeast Asia. Hirofumi Matsumura
Bellwood, an archaeology professor at the Australian National University of Canberra, noted:
Before this discovery, the oldest known mummies were located in modern Peru and Chile, rather than in Egypt.
The modern radical smoke-dried mummies of mites bred in Jayawijaya, Indonesia, are very similar to the burials of many Neolites recorded in southern China and Southeast Asia. Hirofumi Matsumura
These discoveries have also garnered attention from leading experts in ancient Egyptian studies.
“The term has been adopted by various groups to refer to other preserved bodies, leading to a broader understanding of the concept,” stated Salima Ikram, a professor of Egyptology at the American University of Cairo who was not affiliated with the study.
“What’s positive is that the underlying ideas are similar, as these cultures aimed to preserve themselves,” she added.
The project began in 2017 with a casual conversation between the two lead authors and subsequently grew to include 24 experts.
“Over the years, we’ve gradually assembled various pieces of evidence,” said Hsiao-Chun Hung, the study’s lead author, in an email. “It’s akin to a detective’s work, where I find small clues, piece them together, and become increasingly confident in my hypothesis.”
The magnetosphere of Saturn is filled with trapped plasma and energy-charged particles that consistently bombard the surface of Enceladus. This plasma mainly consists of charged particles, including water group ions created from high-energy electrons interacting with materials from the plumes. Instruments on NASA’s Cassini spacecraft reveal that on Saturn’s inner icy moons, such as Mimas and Tethys, cold plasma irradiation results in darker reflection spectra and produces blue-tinted features on their surfaces. In contrast, the consequences of plasma bombardment on Enceladus remain largely unexplored and challenging to assess.
Saturn’s Moon Enceladus and Plume. Image credits: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SSI/Kevin M. Gill.
“The discovery of complex organic molecules in Enceladus’s environment is crucial for evaluating lunar habitability, indicating that radiation-driven chemistry on the surface and within plumes can yield these molecules.”
The Enceladus plume was first identified in 2005 by NASA’s Cassini spacecraft.
These plumes emerge from a long fracture known as the “Tiger Stripes” located in Enceladus’s Antarctic region.
Originating from a subsurface ocean, the water’s energy to create plumes and heat the ocean arises from gravitational tidal forces exerted by the massive Saturn, which deforms Enceladus’s interior.
Cassini flew through the plume, “sampling” the molecules present, which were found to be rich in salts and a variety of organic compounds.
These findings have captivated astrobiologists since organic compounds found dissolved in underground oceans could lead to prebiotic molecules, the building blocks of life.
However, new insights suggest that radiation from Saturn’s powerful magnetosphere could also contribute to the formation of these organic compounds on Enceladus’s icy surface, prompting questions about their astrobiological significance.
In their research, Dr. Richards and colleagues replicated the ice composition on the surface and along the striped walls of Enceladus’s tiger.
This ice comprises water, carbon dioxide, methane, and ammonia, which were cooled to -200 degrees Celsius.
The researchers then bombarded the ice with ions to mimic the radiation environment surrounding Enceladus.
The interaction of ions with ice components generated various molecular species, including carbon monoxide, cyanate, and ammonium.
It also produced precursor molecules for amino acids, which could support metabolic reactions, aid in cell repair, and facilitate the formation of proteins that transport nutrients in living organisms.
Some of these compounds have been previously identified on Enceladus’s surface, while others were detected in feathers.
“Molecules deemed prebiotic do not necessarily originate from subterranean oceans but can instead form in situ via radiation exposure,” noted Dr. Richards.
“This does not dismiss the potential for the Enceladus seas to be habitable, but it emphasizes the need for caution when interpreting the plume’s composition.”
“Distinguishing between ocean-derived organic matter and molecules formed through radiation interactions with the surface and tiger stripes is extremely complex.”
“Additional data from future missions will be essential, including proposals for the Enceladus mission currently under review as part of the ESA’s Navigation 2050 recommendations for the science program.”
Grace Richards et al. 2025. Water group ion irradiation studies of Enceladus surface analogues. EPSC Abstract 18:EPSC-DPS2025-264; doi:10.5194/epsc-dps2025-264
Can scientists transfer animal brains to computers? The answer hinges on how we define “transfer” and “brain.” If we’re a bit flexible in our interpretation, it’s essentially already taking place.
Caenorhabditis elegans are minuscule worms found in soil and decaying plant matter. As multicellular eukaryotes, they technically qualify as animals.
This tiny worm never surpasses 1mm (0.03 inches) in length and is one of the most well-known organisms on Earth.
We have sequenced its genome and mapped all development, encompassing approximately 2,000 cells, including 300 neurons. The variations in this worm are minimal, but what differences do exist have been mapped.
Thus, scientists could model the entire brain on a computer, reproducing not just identical reflex behaviors as found in nature, but even training them to perform new tasks, such as balancing virtual poles (and yes, that’s true).
However, even if we liberally interpret our definitions, this scenario doesn’t entirely hold up.
The C. elegans brain was not uploaded in the conventional sense. Instead, it was replicated using data gathered from years of experiments involving thousands of these worms. There hasn’t been a method to accurately record and transfer the thoughts and memories of an individual creature to a computer.
Caenorhabditis elegans are tiny worms that thrive in soil and decaying vegetation – Image credit: Science Photo Library
Many believe brain uploads represent the future of humanity, viewing it as an “inevitable consequence” of advancements in neuroscience and artificial intelligence (AI), potentially leading to the ultimate solution to death.
Nevertheless, several significant challenges must be addressed before this can become a reality.
As our conscious minds are intricately constructed from the cells and chemicals within our skulls and nervous systems, we must find a way to fully interpret our brain states in exquisite detail.
Next, we need to create a software model that can accurately mimic brain behavior at the molecular, or perhaps even atomic, level.
Over a decade ago, scientists demonstrated that it was feasible to identify neurons and their connectivity in meticulously prepared mouse brains. These brains were stained, sliced to 70 nanometers thick, and then reconstructed into a 3D format using a computer. As expected, the mouse did not survive.
Many believe that brain uploads are the future of humanity – Image credit: Aramie
This serves as an example of a destructive scan. The methods many suggest as necessary for recording a brain in sufficient detail may lead to its destruction.
As medical imaging technology achieves higher resolutions, some speculate that we could one day scan all cell states non-destructively. However, such scans must be instantaneous; otherwise, parts of your brain could be considering new things before the scan finishes.
Could this be achievable with a recently deceased brain? Scientists indicate that it might be essential to scan the brain while it’s actively functioning to ensure all cells accurately model the intended behavior.
Today’s computers are remarkable, yet even the most optimistic futurists predict we may need a century before we can simulate at the atomic scale required.
Moreover, there’s a final profound question. If you can upload your brain non-destructively in 500 years…what happens next? You would exist in a virtual world as computer software, while the original version of you continues to think in your biological form, likely with a slight headache from the scan.
But if you are still alive, did you genuinely trick death? Clearly not. Instead, you’ve allowed for the creation of virtual duplicates that could be used according to their will. That’s a disconcerting thought.
This article answers the question posed by Darcie Walsh from Preston: “Can scientists upload animal brains to a computer?”
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A peculiar fossil skull discovered in a Greek cave over six decades ago may finally reveal some of its mysteries. Recent analysis indicates that at least 300,000 years ago, the early Homo sapiens coexisted with the first Neanderthals in Africa and Europe.
Unearthed in northern Greece in 1960, the Petrarona skull has long puzzled paleontologists, who are challenged to place it within the human lineage.
The fossil includes traits from Neanderthals and Homo erectus, yet it was found completely isolated, lacking artifacts or animal bones that could provide context for dating.
“The moment I examined and measured it, I realized it wasn’t a Neanderthal or Homo erectus,” stated Professor Chris Stringer, a paleontologist and co-researcher at the Museum of Natural History in London, in an interview with BBC Science Focus. “It was something unique.”
Stringer has long believed that the specimen belonged to our relative, Homo heidelbergensis, a robust human species that existed hundreds of thousands of years ago across Africa, Europe, and possibly Asia.
However, without a reliable date for the skull, understanding its place in the human narrative remained difficult.
A recent study utilized uranium series dating on the fossil’s calcite coating.
Calcite, one of the most common mineral forms of calcium carbonate, forms as water seeps into the pores and cavities, resulting in new mineral structures. This uranium series dating method estimates fossil ages by analyzing the calcite and measuring the decay level of uranium within it.
The findings suggest an age of approximately 286,000 years. Nevertheless, the methodology raises questions about the skull’s actual age.
“If fossil calcite forms swiftly after deposition in the cave, an age of around 288,000 to 290,000 years is plausible for the fossil,” Stringer noted.
“However, if the fossil was in the cave before the calcite developed, that age is a minimum estimate.”
The Petrarona skull, partially coated with calcite, is now estimated to be nearly 300,000 years old – Credit: Chris Stringer
Despite this caution, the timeline for Petrarona now closely aligns with another well-known Homo heidelbergensis skull from Kabwe, Zambia, which dates back about 300,000 years.
“Morphologically, they are similar and seem to be converging in their dating,” Stringer remarked.
This discovery underscores the idea that Homo heidelbergensis had a broad geographic presence and an extensive time span, overlapping rather than directly giving rise to other human species.
In simpler terms, contrary to earlier beliefs, they are not the common ancestors of modern humans and Neanderthals; Homo heidelbergensis was likely our contemporary for at least some time.
Stringer emphasized that this enriches our understanding of human evolution.
Researchers from the Wellcome Sanger Institute and the Spanish Institute of Biology have mapped the female genome of the Atlas Blue Butterfly (Polyommatus atlantica), revealing 227 pairs of autosomes and four sex chromosomes, marking it as the organism with the highest chromosome count among all multicellular animals globally.
Atlas Blue Butterfly (Polyommatus atlantica). Image credit: Roger Villa.
The Atlas Blue Butterfly is native to the mountainous regions of Morocco and Northeast Algeria.
Previously suspected to have the highest chromosome count in the Animal Kingdom, this is the first instance where scientists have successfully sequenced the butterfly’s genome to confirm this assumption.
Variations in chromosome numbers are believed to facilitate the formation of new species and assist in adaptation to changing environments.
The Atlas Blue Butterfly belongs to a group of closely related species that have evolved rapidly over a short geological timeframe.
“The genome is crucial for understanding how organisms develop and what the future may hold,” stated Professor Mark Blaxter from the Wellcome Sanger Institute.
“To narrate the stories of our planet, we must explore various tales and observe their interactions.”
“Insights gained from one genome can also enrich our understanding of others.”
“For instance, chromosomal rearrangements are also present in human cancer cells, and investigating these patterns in the Atlas Blue Butterfly could lead to methods for mitigating cancer cell growth in the future.”
In their research, Professor Blaxter and his team discovered that chromosomal structure was altered due to less tightly packed DNA.
This indicates that while the amount of genetic information remained similar, it was organized into smaller segments.
Except for the sex chromosomes, all chromosomes were found to be fragmented, leading researchers to estimate a dynamic range of 24 to 229 chromosomes emerging over approximately 3 million years, a brief period in evolutionary terms.
Generally, such drastic chromosomal modifications are considered detrimental; however, the Atlas Blue Butterfly has thrived for millions of years.
Its population faces threats primarily from climate change and human environmental impact.
This study opens numerous avenues for future exploration.
Chromosomal division is thought to enhance genetic diversity by allowing for increased genomic mixing or possibly offering other unforeseen advantages.
While this may enable butterflies to adapt quickly, possessing numerous chromosomes can also introduce complications, potentially making them more susceptible to extinction in the long run.
Further studies comparing other butterfly species will clarify whether genes are lost or retained, offering greater insights into butterfly biology and evolution.
“Observing chromosomal degradation at this level is uncommon, yet evident in butterflies of other species, hinting at a significant need for exploration in this area,” noted Dr. Roger Villa, a researcher at the Evolutionary Biology Institute in Spain.
“Moreover, chromosomes hold the secrets of species, and examining how these changes influence butterfly behavior could help us form a comprehensive understanding of species emergence.”
“When we embarked on studying butterfly evolution, we realized that sequencing the extraordinary Atlas Blue Butterfly was essential,” remarked Dr. Charlotte Wright from the Wellcome Sanger Institute.
“This research emphasizes the collaborative spirit of scientific inquiry.”
“By examining how the chromosomes of the Atlas Blue Butterfly have split over time in specific environments, we can begin to uncover the potential benefits of this phenomenon, how it influences adaptability, and whether there are lessons in the DNA that could aid our future conservation efforts.”
The findings have been published in this week’s edition of Current Biology.
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Charlotte J. Wright et al. Chromosomal evolutionary constraints revealed by the 229 chromosome pairs of the Atlas Blue Butterfly. Current Biology, published online on September 10th, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.08.032
Rocky, Earth-sized planets in our Milky Way may be surrounded by atmospheres, with new research indicating a strong possibility of liquid water on their surfaces, supporting the potential for life.
Two separate papers, to be released on Monday in the Astrophysical Journal Letters, focus on the TRAPPIST-1 system, which contains seven rocky planets orbiting a single star. Both studies present initial findings from NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope, suggesting that one planet, TRAPPIST-1e, could possess a nitrogen-rich atmosphere, although further research is necessary to confirm this.
These findings represent significant progress in the search for extraterrestrial life both within our solar system and beyond.
Recently, NASA revealed that rock samples from Mars may harbor evidence of ancient microorganisms. Presently, Mars has a thin atmosphere made primarily of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and argon, but billions of years ago, it likely possessed a much thicker atmosphere that allowed liquid water to exist on its surface.
For quite some time, scientists have maintained that water is a crucial element for life.
For a planet or moon to retain water in liquid form, it must have an atmosphere that prevents instant evaporation into space. This makes the search for exoplanet atmospheres one of the most exciting and promising areas of astronomical research.
“Ultimately, our goal is to identify planets that can support life,” stated Ryan McDonald, an exoplanet astronomer at St Andrews University, Scotland, and co-author of both studies. “To do this, we first need to identify whether these planets have atmospheres.”
The TRAPPIST-1 system is located 40 light-years from Earth and has been extensively studied since its discovery in 2016, as some of its planets may have conditions suitable for extraterrestrial life.
Specifically, TRAPPIST-1e is thought to reside in the so-called “habitable zone,” where liquid water could be present on the surface—not too close to the star to be scorching hot and not too far to freeze.
In a recent study, astronomers utilized NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope to observe four “transits” of TRAPPIST-1e, which occur when the planet passes in front of its star. While the telescope did not directly detect the planet’s atmosphere, it measured how light passing through the atmosphere was absorbed, if one is present.
Like a prism, light can be split into different color bands across the spectrum, and variations in how particular colors are filtered or absorbed can help identify the presence of specific atoms or gas molecules.
For instance, if a specific color is absorbed, it may indicate a high concentration of carbon dioxide, while other color changes could suggest the presence of hydrogen, oxygen, methane, or nitrogen.
“If no color variation is present, the planet is likely just a barren rock,” McDonald noted. “Barren rocks won’t show any color changes in response to light.”
During the four transits, researchers found no signs of a hydrogen-rich atmosphere surrounding TRAPPIST-1e, nor did they observe any indications of a carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere. However, observations from the Webb telescope suggest a potential nitrogen-rich atmosphere.
“This is an exciting development that will significantly narrow down the prospects for a more Earth-like atmosphere,” remarked Caroline Piaulett Graeb, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Chicago who was not involved in the new research.
Earth’s atmosphere is composed of a significant amount of nitrogen gas. Titan, one of Saturn’s moons, has an atmosphere primarily made of nitrogen and is believed by NASA to harbor a vast underground sea. Although it may be habitable, the methane-rich environment of the moon differs greatly from conditions on Earth.
Piaulet-Ghorayeb, the lead author of a study published last month in the Astrophysical Journal, focused on another planet in the TRAPPIST-1 system, TRAPPIST-1d. This planet is also located within the habitable zone, but the study found no evidence of common Earth-like molecules such as water, carbon dioxide, or methane.
Studying these distant worlds poses significant challenges.
The TRAPPIST-1 star is small and exceptionally active, producing considerable background noise that complicates researchers’ efforts. McDonald and his team dedicated over a year to analyzing data from the Webb telescope in order to isolate and identify chemical signatures from TRAPPIST-1e and its star.
To confirm the presence of an atmosphere, McDonald and his colleagues plan to observe TRAPPIST-1e during an additional 15 transits over the coming years.
They are also looking into three other planets, TRAPPIST-1f, TRAPPIST-1g, and TRAPPIST-1h, which are located further out in the system.
This research aims to bring scientists closer to answering some of the most persistent questions regarding exoplanets and the existence of life.
“We have not yet reliably confirmed the atmosphere of rocky planets outside our solar system, but it opens the door to studying temperate planets,” said Piaulett-Ghorayeb. “However, there is still much to explore.”
Researchers at the Southwest Research Institute have completed a study outlining how the proposed spacecraft could fly by interstellar comets, offering valuable insights into properties of these bodies throughout the solar system. Leveraging recent findings from interstellar comet 3i/Atlas, they explored mission concepts and concluded that the proposed spacecraft could potentially intercept and observe 3i/Atlas.
Hubble captured this image of 3i/Atlas when it was 446 million km (277 million miles) from Earth on July 21, 2025. Image credits: NASA/ESA/David Jewitt, UCLA/Joseph Depasquale, Stsci.
In 2017, interstellar object 1i/’oumuamua became the first interstellar comet identified within the solar system.
Following that, the second interstellar comet, 2i/Borisov, was discovered in 2019, and recently, 3i/Atlas was identified this year.
“These novel types of objects present the first true opportunity for humanity to closely examine bodies formed in other star systems,” said Dr. Alan Stern, a planetary scientist at the Southwest Research Institute.
“Flybys of interstellar comets could yield unparalleled insight into their composition, structure, and characteristics, significantly enhancing our understanding of the solid body formation process in diverse star systems.”
Scientists estimate that numerous interstellar objects from distant origins cross Earth’s orbit each year, with up to 10,000 potentially entering Neptune’s orbit in certain seasons.
Dr. Stern and colleagues tackled unique design challenges while defining the costs and payload requirements for interstellar comet missions.
The hyperbolic trajectories and high velocities of these bodies present challenges for current avoidance methods, but this study indicated that Flybee reconnaissance is both feasible and cost-effective.
“The trajectory of 3i/Atlas falls within the intermittent range of missions we designed, and the scientific observations taken during such flybys would be groundbreaking,” stated Dr. Matthew Freeman from the Southwest Institute.
“The proposed mission would involve a rapid, frontal flyby, allowing us to gather substantial valuable data while also serving as a blueprint for future missions to other interstellar comets.”
The research establishes a significant scientific objective for its mission targeting interstellar comets.
Understanding the physical characteristics of a body sheds light on its formation and evolution.
Investigating the composition of interstellar comets may aid in explaining their origins and how evolutionary forces have shaped them since their inception.
Another objective is to thoroughly examine the coma of an object, the escaping atmosphere emanating from its center.
To devise mission orbital options, researchers created software to generate representative synthetic populations of interstellar comets, calculating the minimum energy trajectories from Earth to each comet’s pathway.
Software analyses have indicated that low-energy rendezvous trajectories are achievable, often requiring fewer resources during launch and flight compared to other solar system missions.
Scientists utilized the software to determine the trajectory the proposed spacecraft may have taken from Earth to intercept 3i/Atlas.
They found that the mission could potentially have reached 3i/Atlas.
“It’s incredibly promising regarding the emergence of 3i/Atlas,” noted Dr. Mark Tapley, an orbital mechanics expert at the Southwest Research Institute.
“We have demonstrated that there’s no need to launch any existing technology or mission frameworks that NASA has already employed to engage these interstellar comets.”
The decommissioning of Palmer has played a significant role in contributing to sea level rise, particularly as certain regions of Antarctica face limited access, raising concerns among scientists regarding potential ice sheet collapses.
In a statement to NBC News, the National Science Foundation (NSF) announced plans to streamline resources by consolidating McMurdo, Amunsense Cott South Paul, and Palmer Station, with the goal of maintaining three research stations operating throughout the year in Antarctica.
A spokesperson for the U.S. Antarctic Program (USAP) mentioned that they aim to “maintain an active and influential presence in Antarctica while facilitating cutting-edge research in biology and glaciology.”
The NSF was the first to propose the termination of the lease this spring, following the Trump administration’s proposed budget cuts of 55%. Scientists expressed their disappointment that Congress initiated the process of abolishing the ship before finalizing its budget.
“Oceanologist Karos Moffat, an associate professor at the University of Delaware, discussed the budgets that have made advancements in both Senate and House appropriations committees.
The NSF is exploring alternative vessels to take on some of Palmer’s responsibilities and plans to return the vessel to its owner, Edison Chowest, a marine transport company based in Louisiana.
In 2024, the NSF finalized the charter of another Antarctic vessel, RV Laurence M. Gould, which has been upgraded to operate in sea ice, rather than utilizing icebreakers. This reduces the options available for enhancing research in polar oceanography and supporting Palmer Station, an annual base on the Antarctic Peninsula that previously depended on two ships.
The NSF mentioned on Friday that there are “alternatives” available to support and resupply Palmer Station, including commercial options.
Measuring 308 feet, the Palmer, named after a 19th-century seal captain, commenced its service in 1992, exploring various regions of Antarctica. The vessel accommodates approximately 22 crew members and can host around 45 scientists.
No other U.S. research vessels can fulfill all the missions that this polar icebreaker is designed for. The vessel is crucial for studying Antarctic ecology, the Southern Ocean carbon cycle, and monitoring the rate at which ice shelves recede and melt, ultimately influencing sea level rise.
Julia S. Werner of the University of Houston, second from the right, friend of Nathaniel B. Palmer.Courtesy Julia S. Werner
While satellites offer valuable data on the dynamics of ice sheet growth and reduction, the primary research on these changes relies on subsurface measurements.
Without such data, U.S. scientists will lack critical insights into the major ice sheets of the Southern Ocean, which are key to predicting future flooding risks in U.S. coastal cities. For instance, researchers highlight that other U.S. vessels are not suitable for safely accessing the notorious Swaitonga glacier, often referred to as the “end of the Apocalyptic Glacier.”
Researchers frequently describe the West Ku as a cork for a bottle that could rapidly drain the West Antarctic ice sheet, serving as a protective barrier against its collapse into the Amundsen Sea. This could result in a sea level rise exceeding 10 feet over a span of hundreds of thousands of years.
By the year 2100, the likelihood of such a collapse could elevate sea levels significantly beyond the 1-3 feet previously anticipated, as indicated in recent reports by the Intergovernmental Panel.
This disintegration could also alter ocean circulation patterns, affecting how quickly the ocean absorbs carbon, which remains an active area of research. Several studies suggest that current Earth temperatures may have surpassed the threshold for collapse, although further investigation is necessary.
Current shifts in mass and stability are influenced by factors occurring hundreds or thousands of feet beneath the water’s surface, necessitating optimal access through robotic instruments.
“To grasp the drastic changes occurring, it’s essential to be at the edge of the ice where it interacts with the ocean,” Werner explained. “And that’s precisely what this boat allows us to do.”
Scientists typically travel to Palmer every two years, using the data collected over the course of a month or more to advance their laboratory research.
The information gathered aboard the vessel is invaluable, enabling scientists to study ice comprehensively for over a decade, adding vital icebreakers to the U.S. science fleet and alleviating the longstanding backlog of researchers seeking fieldwork opportunities at Palmer.
As we grow older, our cognitive learning and memory capabilities decline—recent studies have identified the proteins responsible for this phenomenon.
Researchers at UC San Francisco have pinpointed the culprit: an iron-associated protein called FTL1. Its detrimental effects hinder cognitive awareness throughout the aging process, and understanding this may allow us to target it in treating neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s.
“It’s essentially a reversal of the challenges,” said Saul Vilda, PhD, Associate Director and Senior Author of the Papers at UCSF Bakar Aging Research Institute; Natural aging. “It’s about more than just slowing or preventing symptoms.”
The hippocampus, a brain region essential for learning and memory, is particularly susceptible to the effects of aging. Researchers observed an increase in neuronal FTL1 in the hippocampus of older mice, correlating with cognitive decline and reduced intercellular connections.
The hippocampus, shown here, is vital for the formation of new memories (credit: Getty Images)
In an experiment, scientists artificially increased FTL1 levels in young mice, leading to brain and behavior changes reminiscent of older mice. Elevated FTL1 levels hinder synaptic connections, ultimately resulting in poorer memory performance.
Interestingly, their motor skills and anxiety levels remained stable, indicating that the cognitive impairments were specifically linked to memory and synaptic functions.
When researchers reduced FTL1 levels in the hippocampus of older mice, they noted improved neuronal connections and enhanced performance in memory tests, effectively reversing some signs of aging.
The FTL1 protein is involved in iron storage and metabolism, regulating long-term levels in the brain. As we age, alterations in iron metabolism lead to increased FTL1 in neurons.
By reversing aspects of cognitive aging in mice, this discovery could pave the way for treatments that counteract the effects of FTL1 in the brain, potentially restoring cognitive function in older adults.
“Identifying elements that seem to promote aging while keeping your brain youthful is crucial for overall health and activity as you age. FTL1 appears to be an anti-aging champion,” stated Andrew Steel in BBC Science Focus.
“This is an intriguing preliminary study, but as this research was conducted on mice, we must observe whether the same effects occur in humans.”
“We were astonished by its unusual characteristics and how it differs from other dinosaurs, or even all known living or extinct animals,” stated Richard Butler, co-leader of the project and paleontologist at the University of Birmingham in the UK.
The chance to examine the fossils of Spicomelas was to “sway the spine,” Butler remarked.
It wasn’t only the project participants who were captivated.
“This is genuinely one of the most bizarre and unique dinosaurs I have ever encountered,” said Steve Brusatte, a vertebrate paleontologist at the University of Edinburgh, who was not part of the research.
“With spikes jutting out across its body, it resembles a kind of reptilian porcupine,” he mentioned on Thursday. “If you were a carnivorous dinosaur from the Jurassic period, you would definitely want to steer clear of this creature.”
Brusatte continued: “This exemplifies how much there is still to uncover. Prior to the discovery of these fossils, there was no indication that such a remarkable animal existed.”
Maidment, another co-leader of the study, emphasized the need for further research in Africa, noting that countries such as Morocco are untapped reservoirs for dinosaur exploration.
“It’s vastly underrepresented compared to other continents,” said a representative from the National Museum of History in London.
Maidment mentioned that the Spicomellus project, which commenced in 2018, encountered numerous challenges, including the Covid-19 pandemic.
The UK team was set to travel and collaborate with their Moroccan counterparts when British Prime Minister Boris Johnson declared the lockdown, resulting in a postponement of plans until 2022.
In spite of these obstacles, research initiatives have marked significant progress in Moroccan science.
“This research has significantly advanced Moroccan science. I have never encountered a dinosaur like this before. There’s still so much more to discover in this area.”
During the Mesozoic era, from 252 to 66 million years ago, analyses of the oxygen isotope composition in dinosaur teeth revealed that the atmosphere contained significantly more carbon dioxide than it does today, with global plant photosynthesis levels roughly double those of the present.
Fossil teeth of Camarasaurus from the Morrison Formation in the US. Image credit: sauriermuseum aathal.
A study conducted by Göttingen University and researcher Dr. Dingsu Feng examined the dental enamel of dinosaurs that roamed North America, Africa, and Europe during the Late Jurassic and Late Cretaceous periods.
“Enamel is one of the most stable biological materials,” they explained.
“It captures different oxygen isotopes based on the air dinosaurs inhaled with each breath.”
“The isotope ratios of oxygen reflect fluctuations in atmospheric carbon dioxide and plant photosynthesis.”
“This connection allows us to infer insights about the climate and vegetation of the dinosaur era.”
“During the late Jurassic, about 150 million years ago, the air contained four times more carbon dioxide than before industrialization, prior to significant human emissions of greenhouse gases.”
“In the late Cretaceous, around 730 to 66 million years ago, carbon dioxide levels were three times higher than today.”
Teeth from two dinosaur species, the Tyrannosaurus Rex and Kaatedocus siberi, showed an exceptionally unique oxygen isotope composition.
This phenomenon is indicative of carbon dioxide spikes linked to major geological events like volcanic eruptions—such as the massive eruption of the Deccan Traps in India at the close of the Cretaceous period.
The heightened photosynthetic activity of plants at that time on both land and water is likely associated with elevated carbon dioxide levels and higher average annual temperatures.
This research marks a milestone in paleoclimatology. Historically, soil and marine proxy carbonates have served as the primary tools for reconstructing past climates.
Marine proxies, which are indicators of sediment fossils and chemical signatures, help scientists comprehend ancient marine environmental conditions, yet these methods often involve uncertainties.
“Our approach offers a fresh perspective on the planet’s history,” Dr. Fenn remarked.
“It paves the way to use fossilized tooth enamel for probing the composition of Earth’s atmosphere and plant productivity during that era.”
“Understanding these factors is crucial for grasping long-term climate dynamics.”
“Dinosaurs may well become new climate scientists, as their teeth have recorded climate data for over 150 million years. At last, we have received their message.”
Study published on August 4, 2025, in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Dingsu Feng et al. 2025. Mesozoic Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations reconstructed from the enamel of dinosaur teeth. PNAS 122 (33): E2504324122; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2504324122
First identified in 1997 and officially classified as a distinct species in 1999, the Indonesian coelacanth (Latimeria menadoensis) is one of only two extant species of coelacanths. This deep-sea fish closely resembles its ancient Cretaceous ancestors.
A deep diver approximately 1 meter behind the Indonesian coelacanth (Latimeria menadoensis) was found at a depth of 144 m in Northern Mark, Indonesia. Image credit: Alexis Chappuis.
Coelacanths belong to the group of fish known as Sarcopterygians and are characterized by their distinctive coastal dwelling.
Long believed extinct for 65 million years, coelacanths were serendipitously rediscovered in 1938 off the coast of South Africa by museum curators and local fishermen.
These fascinating fish possess unique features, including paired fins and lobed fins that resemble highly modified swim bladders.
Together with lungfish, they are among the closest living relatives to tetrapods, exhibiting several morphological traits not present in more distantly related vertebrates, like ray-finned fish.
The coelacanth first appeared in the early Devonian period, gradually diversifying during the Devonian and Carboniferous periods, with peak diversity observed in the early Triassic.
During the Cretaceous, they were classified into two families: the Latimeridae, which has survived as two species in the genus Latimeria, and the now-extinct Mawsoniidae.
Upon the discovery of the first living specimen, its resemblance to many fossilized forms from the Cretaceous period led to it being labeled a “living fossil,” indicating minimal evolutionary change over millions of years.
The two extant species are the coelacanth of the West Indian Ocean (Latimeria chalumnae) found near the Comoros Islands, and the coelacanth in the waters around Sulawesi, Indonesia.
The latter species is far better documented than its African counterpart, making its deep-reef habitat challenging to access for scientific observation, which has primarily relied on submersibles or remotely operated vehicles (ROVs).
Left profile of the Indonesian coelacanth (Latimeria menadoensis), showcasing a unique pattern of white dots. Image credit: Alexis Chappuis.
The Indonesian coelacanth is a rarely documented medium-deep sea fish (non-tetrapod sarcopterygian), originally endemic to the Sulawesi region, primarily identified through bycatch in eastern Indonesia.
“Very few observations of this species have been made in situ, primarily using submersibles and ROVs.”
“The first direct in situ observations were reported following recent reconnaissance dives that explored the suspected habitat of the Indonesian coelacanth at depths exceeding 150 meters.”
Researchers encountered the Indonesian coelacanth in October 2024 during a deep dive in the Marc Archipelago, situated between Sulawesi and Western New Guinea.
“It is premature to assess the population of this newly identified Malukan coelacanth,” they stated.
“Since the Marc Archipelago connects Sulawesi and Western New Guinea, it suggests that the species is not confined to a single location.”
“Our recent findings, along with studies conducted in the mesophotic coral ecosystems of the Marc Archipelago since 2022, not only confirm the existence of Latimeria but also indicate a broader, more suitable habitat for coelacanths.”
“We hope this discovery will motivate local and national authorities to enhance conservation efforts in this biodiversity-rich region.
The research team’s paper was published online on April 23, 2025, in the journal Scientific Reports.
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A. Chapuis et al. 2025. The first record of a living coelacanth from Northern Mark, Indonesia. Sci Rep 15, 14074; doi:10.1038/s41598-025-90287-7
Researchers have raised concerns about a novel type of acid rain that is becoming increasingly prevalent, complicating efforts to mitigate its impact; I did it poses a hazard to all forms of life on Earth.
Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) — a type of persistent “forever chemical” — is now found in rain and snow globally, in concentrations significantly higher than in past decades.
While the exact implications of TFA for human health and the environment remain unclear, some scientists are suggesting that these chemicals I did it may present an existential risk.
“Recent findings indicate that TFA can interfere with critical Earth system processes, such as mammalian embryo development and diminished soil respiration,” stated Professor Hans Peter Alp, a chemist at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, in BBC Science Focus.
Professor Alp’s latest research categorized TFA as a planetary threat comparable to global warming and ozone depletion.
“We are uncertain about the long-term consequences,” he continued. “Due to the global accumulation of TFA, any long-term effects may manifest on a worldwide scale.”
“Moreover, when TFA impacts the environment, it does not break down naturally, making intervention too late. Existing technologies for TFA removal are prohibitively expensive and only applicable in limited scenarios.”
The ARP paper emphasized the necessity of taking proactive measures to curb the rapid buildup of TFA before it is officially deemed an emergency threat.
“In the heating and cooling sectors, this means we must avoid gases that lead to TFA formation,” Alp added.
“Another necessary step is to phase out pesticides and pharmaceuticals that produce TFA during degradation.”
Some nations have already begun taking action. Denmark is leading the charge, having banned 23 pesticide products in July 2025 due to their association with TFA contamination.
TFA is merely one of countless forever chemicals. Other PFAs are linked to health issues such as reproductive problems, fetal deformities, and various cancers – Credit: Chris Macrolin via Getty
TFA belongs to a category of “Forever Chemicals,” more formally known as polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAs), which are notably resistant to degradation.
Among these persistent chemicals, TFA is one of the smallest. It can infiltrate the environment from sources such as refrigerants, aerosols, pesticides, air conditioning units, landfills, and sewage systems. When larger PFAs degrade, they often convert into TFA.
Because of its small size, TFA readily dissolves in water. This property contributes to its prevalence as a persistent chemical, as it is rapidly increasing not only in rain but also in rivers, lakes, groundwater, oceans, vegetation, food, and urine.
The ARP indicated that finding TFA in “previously untouched water resources” could be alarming. This is particularly troubling as TFA is considered nearly impossible to remove from drinking water.
Some scientists suggest that TFA may not pose significant risks to humans because it does not linger or accumulate in our bodies but is quickly excreted through urine.
However, the ARP maintains that new evidence shows an increasing presence of TFA in humans, animals, and ecosystems.
“We observe that TFA can penetrate cells, becoming integral components of lipids, proteins, and cellular structures. This may explain noticed alterations in microbial activity within soil,” stated ARP.
Researchers, including Alp, are exploring methods to eliminate TFA from the environment, such as cultivating crops that can absorb TFA.
Nonetheless, Alp emphasizes that further research is essential to assess the true level of threat posed by TFA. In the meantime, he urges that “the foremost priority is to curtail emissions before irreversible global consequences unfold.”
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About our experts
Professor Hans Peter Alp is a chemist at the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute and a professor at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. His research focuses on how pollutants behave in environments that include microplastics, everlasting chemicals, metals, and more.
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