Amazon disclosed that a bug in its automation software was responsible for this week’s extensive AWS outage, which took down services like Signal and smart beds for several hours.
In a detailed summary released on Thursday, AWS explained that a series of cascading failures led to the downtime affecting thousands of sites and applications utilizing its services.
AWS reported that “due to a potential flaw in the service’s automatic DNS, customers faced issues connecting to DynamoDB, the database system where AWS clients store their data.” [domain name system] management system.”
DynamoDB manages hundreds of thousands of DNS records. It’s essential to automate system monitoring to ensure records are frequently updated, manage hardware failures, and efficiently distribute traffic as needed.
According to AWS, the root cause stemmed from an empty DNS record in the Virginia-based US-East-1 datacenter region. This issue required manual intervention for resolution, as it could not be automatically fixed.
AWS announced that it has globally disabled DynamoDB’s DNS Planner and DNS Executor automation while remedying the issues that prompted the failure, as well as implementing additional safeguards.
This outage also affected various other AWS tools.
Platforms like Signal, Snapchat, Roblox, and Duolingo, along with banking sites and services such as Ring Doorbell, were among the 2,000 businesses impacted by the outage, according to Downdetector, which recorded over 8.1 million user reports of problems globally.
Service was restored within hours, but the outage’s repercussions were widespread.
Customers of Eight Sleep—a company providing smart beds that connect to the internet for temperature and tilt control—were unable to adjust their beds or temperatures during the outage due to connectivity issues via their phone app.
The company’s CEO, Matteo Franceschetti, issued an apology. On X, he shared that they rolled out a service update allowing users to control critical bed functions via Bluetooth during such outages.
Dr. Suellet Dreyfuss, a lecturer in computing and information systems at the University of Melbourne, pointed out that this failure highlights the dependency on single points of failure within the internet infrastructure.
“It’s not solely AWS; while they are the largest cloud provider with around 30% of the market, the cloud essentially revolves around just three companies,” she explained.
“The Internet was originally designed to be resilient, allowing multiple routes to work around problems and attacks. However, we have diminished that resilience by relying heavily on a limited number of significant tech companies that not only provide data storage but also manage data services.”
The most renowned mass extinction in Earth’s history occurred approximately 66 million years ago. A swift decline in environmental conditions resulted in the extinction of around 75% of species, including the most famous non-avian dinosaurs, and the eventual restoration of terrestrial ecosystems. The ongoing debate focuses on whether dinosaurs vanished abruptly while they were still diverse and thriving or whether they experienced a prolonged decline by the end of the Cretaceous.
Flynn and colleagues analyzed Alamosaurus fossils found in northwestern New Mexico, revealing that these dinosaurs, while very different, are contemporaneous with those discovered further north in Wyoming and Montana. Image credit: Natalia Jagielska.
The geological formations of northwestern New Mexico hold a concealed chapter of Earth’s history.
Paleontologist Daniel Peppe from Baylor University and his team have uncovered indications of a flourishing dinosaur ecosystem in the Kirtland Formation’s Naashoibito Formation just prior to the asteroid impact.
Utilizing high-precision dating methods, they established that the fossils in these formations range from 66.4 to 66 million years old.
“The Naashoibito dinosaur coexisted with the renowned Hell Creek species of Montana and the Dakotas,” Dr. Peppe remarked.
“They were not in decline; rather, they constituted a vibrant, diverse community.”
The discoveries in New Mexico challenge previous assumptions.
Instead of being uniform and weakened, dinosaur communities across North America were unique and thriving in their respective regions.
Through ecological and biogeographic analysis, the researchers determined that dinosaurs in western North America thrived in distinct biozones shaped by regional temperature variations, rather than geographical barriers like mountains or rivers.
“Our recent study indicates that dinosaurs were not on the brink of mass extinction,” stated Andrew Flynn, a researcher at New Mexico State University.
“They were thriving, but the asteroid impact ultimately led to their demise.”
“This contradicts the long-established notion that a gradual decline in dinosaur diversity precipitated mass extinction, making them more susceptible to extinction.”
“The asteroid impact briefly terminated the age of dinosaurs, but the ecosystem they left laid the groundwork for what followed.”
“Within 300,000 years post-extinction, mammals began to diversify rapidly, branching into new diets, body sizes, and ecological roles.”
“The same temperature-driven patterns that influenced dinosaur communities carried into the Paleocene, illustrating how climate influenced the rebirth of life following catastrophic events.”
“The surviving mammals continued to exhibit distinct northern and southern biological regions.”
“Mammals from the north and south are markedly different from each other, diverging from other mass extinctions, which tend to appear more uniform.”
The initial months of this year marked the highest incidence of weather and climate disasters on record in the United States, as revealed by a recent analysis from the nonprofit Climate Central.
This crucial information may have remained unknown to the general public. Earlier this spring, the Trump administration shut down the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s program that monitored weather patterns. This event resulted in damages exceeding $1 billion. Adam Smith, the researcher who spearheaded the analysis, left NOAA in response to this decision.
Following his departure, Climate Central, a research organization dedicated to studying climate change impacts, employed Smith to revamp a database with records dating back to 1980.
Their latest analysis indicates that 14 individual weather events caused damages exceeding $1 billion in the first half of 2025. The wildfires in Los Angeles during January represented the most expensive natural disaster thus far this year, incurring costs over $61 billion, making it the most destructive wildfire recorded.
These findings illustrate that the financial toll from weather and climate disasters continues to escalate as extreme weather events become more frequent and severe, while populations migrate to areas increasingly vulnerable to wildfires and floods.
The report serves as a testament to the shift towards nonprofit organizations taking over federal initiatives that traditionally monitored and measured the effects of climate change, particularly as the Trump administration moves to scale back climate science funding. President Trump labeled climate change as a “crook’s job,” and the administration has reduced funding for clean energy initiatives while stripping the Environmental Protection Agency of its ability to control greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute to global warming.
Jennifer Brady, a senior data analyst and research manager at Climate Central involved in the project, noted that the staff was profoundly affected by the discontinuation of NOAA’s extensive disaster database, prompting them to take action.
“This has always been one of our most valued datasets. It narrates diverse stories. It articulates the narrative of climate change as well as the implications of where individuals reside and how they live at risk,” Brady stated. “I am ready to take it home.”
Kim Doster, a spokesperson for NOAA, expressed appreciation that the $1 billion disaster product has secured funding from sources other than taxpayers.
“NOAA remains committed to upholding ethical, unbiased research and reallocating resources to products that comply with executive directives aimed at restoring high standards in science,” Doster conveyed via email.
This database has been a source of political contention. House Republicans raised concerns with NOAA officials in 2024 regarding allegations of “deceptive data.” Recently, Senate Democrats proposed legislation to obligate NOAA to publish and update this dataset biannually, claiming it helps lawmakers in disaster funding decisions. However, this bill is currently stalled in committee and faces bleak prospects in the Republican-majority Senate.
Last month, officials from the Trump administration informed NBC News that NOAA terminated the database project due to uncertainty in accurately estimating disaster costs. The official highlighted that the project would incur annual costs of around $300,000, require considerable staff effort, and yield “pure information at best, with no clear objective.”
“This data is frequently utilized to bolster the claim that climate change enhances the frequency, severity, and expense of disasters, neglecting other factors like increased development in flood-prone and weather-sensitive areas as well as the cyclical variations in climate across different regions,” the official remarked at the time.
Despite this, Brady contends that the database has always acknowledged the significance of population shifts and climate change in exacerbating disaster costs.
She noted that Climate Central’s study employs the same methodologies and data sources as the NOAA database, including claims from the National Flood Insurance Program, NOAA storm event data, private insurance claims, and more.
This analysis captures the “direct costs” of disasters, such as damage to infrastructure, buildings, and crops, while omitting other considerations like loss of life, health-related disaster expenses, and economic losses to “natural capital” such as forests and wetlands. All data has been adjusted for inflation.
A recent evaluation of the first half of 2025 suggests that this year is on track to become the deadliest recorded year, despite the absence of hurricanes making landfall in the continental United States.
In the previous year, NOAA reported that $27 billion in disaster costs totaled around $182.7 billion, marking the second-highest total of billion-dollar disasters in the report’s history, following the figures from 2023.
Climate Central is not alone in its efforts to reproduce the work previously undertaken by the federal government as the Trump administration cut back on climate science.
A collective of dismissed NOAA employees established climate.us, a nonprofit successor to climate.gov, the former federal site that offered data and analyses to help the general public grasp climate issues. The site went offline this summer.
Edited by Rebecca Lindsay climate.gov. Before her termination in February, along with other NOAA colleagues who co-founded the nonprofit, Lindsay stated they had raised about $160,000 with plans to host climate.gov, where they will share their archives and begin publishing new articles on climate change in the upcoming weeks.
“We are preserving this information to ensure that when people seek answers about climate status, they can find them,” Lindsey asserted.
Both the American Geophysical Union and the American Meteorological Society have announced intentions to publish a special collection of studies focused on climate change, particularly after the Trump administration informed volunteer scientists working on the National Climate Assessment that their services were no longer required.
The administration dismissed employees from the U.S. Global Change Research Program, responsible for organizing the National Climate Assessment and coordinating climate research initiatives across various federal offices.
Walter Robinson, from the American Weather Society’s publication committee, highlighted that the National Climate Assessment was “effectively stopped” due to the government’s decision, which he described as an “abandonment” of federal duty.
Though the new collection cannot replace comprehensive assessments, it aims to consolidate the latest scientific understanding on climate change impacts within the United States, he added. The research will be featured in numerous scientific journals on an ongoing basis.
“Individuals are stepping up,” Robinson remarked regarding his group’s endeavors. “As scientists, we do our utmost.”
NASA’s Acting Administrator Sean Duffy seems to have drawn the ire of Elon Musk.
Elon Musk, founder and CEO of SpaceX, took to social media on Tuesday to criticize Mr. Duffy’s intelligence and recent actions as the leader of the space agency.
“Sean Dummy is trying to destroy NASA!” Musk stated on X, using a derogatory nickname for the acting administrator. In another post, he remarked: “There’s no way the leader of America’s space program can have a double-digit IQ.”
On Monday, Duffy announced that NASA is considering utilizing a lunar lander from a SpaceX competitor to help return astronauts to the moon before China establishes its presence there.
NASA initially planned to use SpaceX’s next-generation Starship rocket system for the lunar landing.
Musk conducted a poll on Tuesday asking his followers on X: “Should someone whose greatest achievement is climbing trees lead America’s space program?” One option was, “Yes, chimpanzees are good at it!” while the other suggested, “No, he needs More Brains!”
By Tuesday afternoon, the poll had garnered around 110,000 votes.
In 2021, SpaceX secured a $2.9 billion contract to use its Starship rocket to land two astronauts on the moon during NASA’s Artemis III mission, aimed for a 2027 launch.
However, Musk’s company has faced delays in the testing and development of Starship, which experienced several explosions this year.
Meanwhile, political pressure is mounting as the competition with China escalates; the nation is targeting a moon landing by 2030 and has already dispatched two robotic probes and tested a new rocket for manned lunar missions.
Duffy appeared on Fox News and CNBC on Monday, stating that NASA would expand the Artemis III contract, inviting proposals from rival space companies to maintain U.S. competitiveness against China.
“We are not going to wait for a single company,” Duffy reiterated in an appearance on CNBC’s “Squawk Box.” on Monday. “We are focused on moving forward and winning the second space race against China.”
Duffy mentioned his and President Donald Trump’s goal to return astronauts to the moon during Trump’s second term.
He cited Blue Origin, the space launch company founded by Jeff Bezos, as a potential competitor capable of providing unique technology.
This statement appeared to antagonize Musk.
In a subsequent post, Musk questioned the ability of other commercial space firms to meet such stringent deadlines.
“In comparison to other space industries, SpaceX is advancing at remarkable speed,” he asserted. “Moreover, Starship will ultimately execute the full lunar mission. Mark my words.”
In reality, SpaceX is so ahead of its rivals that it is already conducting regular NASA missions to transport astronauts and cargo to the International Space Station.
Reacting to Musk’s remarks, Duffy replied on X: “Love the enthusiasm. The race to the moon is on. Great companies should welcome challenges. Competition among innovators benefits America!”
However, Musk’s tirade on Tuesday took a personal turn, questioning Duffy’s competence to lead NASA. Duffy is temporarily in charge of the agency; a Wall Street Journal report suggested he is positioning himself to continue in that role alongside his responsibilities as transportation secretary.
The report indicated that Duffy is contending against billionaire Jared Isaacman, who may reemerge as a candidate for the NASA leadership position. Trump had retracted Isaacman’s nomination in May, just ahead of an anticipated confirmation vote.This withdrawal followed what the president described as a “thorough review of prior connections.” (Trump did not elaborate, but some Republicans had expressed reservations that Isaacman previously donated to Democrats.)
Musk has shown support for Isaacman, who has made two orbital flights on commercial SpaceX missions.
NASA spokesperson Bethany Stevens informed NBC News that President Trump has asked Duffy to consult with potential administrators, and that the interim administrator “will be glad to assist by evaluating candidates and providing honest feedback.”
“Sean is thankful to the president for this opportunity to lead NASA,” Stevens stated. “At the president’s direction, Sean is committed to ensuring America returns to the moon before China. He has indicated that NASA’s integration into the Cabinet, possibly even the Department of Transportation, might be beneficial, though he has never claimed he wishes to continue in this role.”
The White House did not respond to inquiries for comment.
The timing of Isaacman’s controversy in May coincided with a public feud between Trump and Musk, which escalated before the SpaceX CEO departed the White House on a special public service assignment. Musk’s departure was fraught with tension as he criticized President Trump’s “One Big Beautiful Bill,” labeling it a “huge, outrageous, pig-filled Congressional spending plan” and a “distasteful, ugly bill” that would exacerbate the budget deficit.
The galactic center excess refers to an unexpected intensity of gamma rays emerging from the core of the Milky Way galaxy.
This view displays the entire sky at energies exceeding 1 GeV, derived from five years of data from the LAT instrument on NASA’s Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. The most striking aspect is a luminous band of diffuse light along the center of the map, indicating the central plane of the Milky Way galaxy. Image credit: NASA/DOE/Fermi LAT collaboration.
Gamma rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation characterized by the shortest wavelengths and the highest energy.
The intriguing gamma-ray signal from the Milky Way’s center was initially observed in 2009 by the Large Area Telescope, the primary instrument of NASA’s Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope.
The source of this signal remains under discussion, with main hypotheses involving self-annihilating dark matter and undetected populations of millisecond pulsars.
“When Fermi directed its gaze toward the galaxy’s center, the outcome was unexpected,” remarked Dr. Noam Libeskind, an astrophysicist at the Leibniz Institute for Astrophysics in Potsdam.
“The telescope detected an excessive number of gamma rays, the most energetic form of light in the universe.”
“Astronomers worldwide were baffled, and numerous competing theories emerged to clarify the so-called gamma-ray excess.”
“After extensive discussion, two primary theories surfaced: either these gamma rays stem from millisecond pulsars (highly dense neutron stars rotating thousands of times per second) or from dark matter particles colliding and annihilating. Both theories, however, have their limitations.”
“Nonetheless, our findings strongly support the notion that the gamma-ray excess arises from dark matter annihilation.”
In their study, Dr. Libeskind and his team simulated the formation of the Milky Way galaxy under conditions akin to those in Earth’s neighboring universe.
They discovered that dark matter does not radiate outward from the galaxy’s core but is organized similarly to stars, suggesting that it could also contribute to the excess gamma rays.
“The Milky Way has long been recognized as existing within a spherical region filled with dark matter, often referred to as a dark matter halo,” explained Dr. Mourits Mikkel Mur, an astrophysicist at the Potsdam Leibniz Institute for Astrophysics and the University of Tartu.
“However, the degree to which this halo is aspheric or ellipsoidal remains unclear.”
“We analyzed simulations of the Milky Way and its dark matter halo and found that the flattening of this region sufficiently accounts for the gamma-ray excess due to self-annihilation of dark matter particles.”
“These calculations indicate that the search for dark matter particles capable of self-annihilation should be emphasized, bringing us closer to uncovering the enigmatic properties of these particles.”
A study of the survey results was published in this month’s edition of Physical Review Letters.
_____
Mikel Mur the Moor et al. 2025. Excess forms of dark matter in Fermi LAT galactic center Milky Way simulations. Physics. Pastore Rhett 135, 161005; doi: 10.1103/g9qz-h8wd
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) release nearly five times more greenhouse gas emissions than reported statistics suggest. I found a report detailing this issue.
These vehicles can operate on electric batteries as well as internal combustion engines and have been promoted by European manufacturers as a means to travel longer distances while lowering emissions—offering an alternative to fully electric cars.
Research indicates that PHEVs emit just 19% less CO2. An analysis from the nonprofit organization Transport and Environment was released on Thursday, showing laboratory tests estimated 75% less pollution.
Researchers examined data from fuel consumption meters in 800,000 vehicles registered in Europe between 2021 and 2023, discovering that the real carbon dioxide emissions from PHEVs in 2023 were 4.9 times greater than those from standardized lab tests, an increase from 3.5 times in 2021.
“While official emissions are declining, actual emissions are on the rise,” remarked Sofia Navas Goelke, a researcher at the Institute for Transport and Environment and co-author of the report. “This widening gap is becoming a significant issue. Consequently, PHEVs are now polluting nearly as much as traditional petrol vehicles.”
The researchers identified that much of this disparity stems from an overestimation of the “utility factor” (the proportion of miles driven in electric mode compared to total miles), finding that only 27% of driving was done in electric mode, versus the official estimate of 84%. The analysis noted that the European Commission proposed two amendments to the utility coefficient ratio, which lessened the gap but didn’t eliminate it entirely.
Even when operating in electric mode, pollution levels were found to be significantly higher than official figures suggest. Researchers indicated this was due to the electric motor being insufficient for sole operation, with the engine burning fossil fuels for almost one-third of the distance traveled in electric mode.
Patrick Plotz, head of energy economics at the Fraunhofer Institute for System Innovation, who did not participate in the study, described it as a “very useful contribution” to ongoing discussions, as some in the automotive industry have claimed there’s insufficient data to accurately gauge real emissions.
“Without a doubt, the disparity between official and actual fuel consumption and CO2 emissions for PHEVs is substantial,” Plotz remarked. “Their emissions are much higher than those of gasoline or diesel cars,” referring to the study on the topic. “Any policy adjustments regarding PHEVs should be thoughtfully considered in the context of this data.”
Hybrid vehicles have re-entered political discourse as automakers urge the EU to ease carbon emission targets. The push to ban new internal combustion engine vehicles by 2035 is facing strong lobbying from the auto sector, along with resistance from member states with significant automotive industries.
“There should be no significant reductions in 2035,” stated German Chancellor Friedrich Merz following a summit with Germany’s struggling automotive sector, committing to “do everything possible in 2035.” Other senior German leaders have cited plug-in hybrids as an example of “flexibility” that could be integrated into the legislation.
Researchers calculated that the undervaluation of PHEV emissions artificially facilitated compliance with the EU’s average vehicle CO2 regulations, enabling four major car manufacturers to evade over €5 billion (around £4.3 billion) in fines between 2021 and 2023. The study indicated that PHEV drivers are likely to incur approximately €500 more in annual running costs than expectations based on lab tests.
“The exaggerated claims made by manufacturers regarding their plug-in hybrid vehicles are clearly misleading,” observed Colin Walker, a transportation analyst at Energy and Climate Intelligence.
“Consumers are misled into thinking that by choosing a PHEV, they are aiding the environment and saving money,” he pointed out. “In reality, PHEVs are only marginally more efficient than regular petrol and diesel vehicles concerning fuel and CO2 consumption, resulting in higher operation costs.”
Astronomers leveraged data from the Radio Astron satellite to generate radio images of two supermassive black holes located at the core of a distant quasar, OJ287. The secondary black hole follows a 12-year orbit around the primary black hole.
The RadioAstron will map two supermassive black holes at the center of galaxy OJ 287, located about 5 billion light-years away in the constellation Cancer. The middle component corresponds to a primary black hole, while the next higher component indicates a secondary black hole, and the highest component represents the knot of its jet. The apparent elongation of the individual components is not real but rather reflects the beam’s shape. Image credit: Valtonen et al., doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae057e.
Quasars are exceptionally luminous galactic nuclei whose brightness arises when a supermassive black hole at the galaxy’s center consumes surrounding cosmic gas and dust.
Previously, astronomers have successfully captured images of a black hole at the center of the Milky Way and another in the nearby galaxy known as Messier 87.
“Quasar OJ 287 is so luminous that even amateur astronomers using commercial telescopes can observe it,” remarked Dr. Mauri Valtonen, an astronomer from the University of Turku.
“What sets OJ 287 apart is that it is believed to have two black holes that orbit each other every 12 years, creating a distinct pattern of light fluctuations over the same interval.”
“The earliest observations of OJ 287 date back to the 19th century, captured through old photographs.”
“At that time, the concept of black holes, not to mention quasars, was unimaginable.”
“OJ 287 was inadvertently captured in photographs while astronomers were focused on other celestial objects.”
In 1982, Dr. Valtonen observed that the brightness of the object varied regularly over a 12-year cycle.
He continued his research as a university scholar and proposed that these brightness variations could be due to two black holes orbiting one another.
Numerous astronomers have been closely monitoring quasars to validate this theory and to gain a comprehensive understanding of the orbital motion of the black holes.
The mystery regarding this orbit was finally clarified four years ago by astronomer Lankeswar Dey from the University of Turku.
The only remaining question was whether both black holes could be detected simultaneously.
The solution came from NASA’s TESS satellite, which identified light emission from both black holes.
However, the images captured under normal light lacked the resolution to distinguish the black holes as separate entities, so they were still represented merely as single points.
What was necessary were images with a resolution 100,000 times greater than that attainable by standard radio telescopes.
In this research, Valtonen and his collaborators compared initial theoretical models with radio images.
The two black holes were precisely positioned in the images where they were anticipated to be.
This finding successfully addressed a question that had lingered for four decades: the existence of black hole pairs.
“For the first time, we were able to create images revealing two black holes in orbit around each other,” noted Dr. Valtonen.
“In the image, the black hole is marked by the powerful jets of particles it emits.”
“While the black hole itself is entirely black, it can be identified by the jets of particles and the luminous gas surrounding it.”
Researchers also discovered a completely new type of jet emanating from black holes.
The jet from the secondary black hole of OJ 287 is twisted, resembling the jet from a spinning garden hose.
“This is due to the smaller black hole moving more swiftly around the primary black hole, causing its jet to be deflected according to its current trajectory,” the authors explained.
Their paper was published in the Astrophysical Journal.
_____
Mauri J. Valtonen et al. 2025. Secondary jet identified in RadioAstron images of OJ 287. APJ 992, 110; doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae057e
Approximately 4.3 billion years ago, during the early formation of our solar system, a massive asteroid collided with the far side of the moon, resulting in the creation of the South Pole-Aitken Basin—an enormous crater. This feature, the largest on the moon, spans over 1,200 miles in length and 1,000 miles in width. Its rectangular shape is attributed to a glancing impact rather than a direct hit. Challenging previous beliefs that the basin was formed by an asteroid coming from the south, recent research indicates that the narrowing shape of the basin towards the south suggests an impact from the north.
The South Pole-Aitken Impact Basin on the far side of the Moon was formed by a southward impact. Image credit: Jeff Andrews-Hanna / University of Arizona / NASA / National Astronomical Observatory of Japan.
“The downstream edge of the basin should have a thick layer of material that was excavated from the moon’s interior by the impact, while the upper edge should not,” explained Dr. Jeffrey Andrews-Hanna, a planetary scientist at the University of Arizona.
“This suggests that the Artemis mission will target the downrange rim of the basin, an ideal site to examine the moon’s largest and oldest impact basins, where most of the ejecta, consisting of material from deep within the moon, are likely to be gathered.”
Historically, it has been believed that early moons were molten due to the energy released during their formation, resulting in a magma ocean that enveloped the entire moon.
As this magma ocean solidified, heavy minerals settled to create the Moon’s mantle, while lighter minerals floated upwards to form the Earth’s crust.
Nevertheless, certain elements were not incorporated into the solid mantle and crust, but instead became concentrated in the last liquid remnants of the magma ocean.
These “residual” elements, including potassium, rare earth elements, and phosphorus, are collectively known as KREEP.
Dr. Andrews-Hanna and his team noted that these elements appear to be especially abundant on the moon’s near side.
“If you’ve ever frozen a can of soda, you might have noticed that high fructose corn syrup doesn’t freeze all the way through and instead accumulates at the bottom of the liquid,” remarked Dr. Andrews-Hanna.
“We believe a similar phenomenon occurred on the moon with KREEP.”
“Over millions of years, as it cooled, the magma ocean crystallized into the crust and mantle.”
“Eventually, only a small amount of liquid remained trapped between the mantle and the crust, which is this KREEP-rich material.”
“The abundance of KREEP’s heat-producing elements somehow concentrated on the moon’s near side, causing it to heat up and initiate intense volcanic activity, thus creating the dark volcanic plains visible from Earth.”
“However, the process by which this KREEP-rich material became concentrated on the near side and how it evolved remains an enigma.”
“The moon’s crust is considerably thicker on the far side compared to the near side that faces Earth, a discrepancy that continues to puzzle scientists.”
“This asymmetry influences various aspects of the moon’s development, including the final stages of the magma ocean.”
“Our hypothesis posits that as the far side’s crust thickened, the underlying magma ocean was forced outward, akin to squeezing toothpaste from a tube, causing most of it to accumulate on the near side.”
A recent investigation of the Antarctic Aitken Basin has uncovered unexpected asymmetries supporting this scenario. The western ejecta blanket is rich in radioactive thorium, while the eastern side is not.
This indicates that the rift left by the impact formed a conduit through the moon’s crust, near the boundary separating the “normal” crust from the underlying layers that contain the final remnants of the KREEP-rich magma ocean.
“Our research shows that the distribution and composition of these materials align with predictions derived from modeling the later stages of magma ocean evolution,” stated Dr. Andrews-Hanna.
“The last remnants of the Moon’s magma ocean have reached the near side, where the concentration of radioactive elements is at its peak.”
“However, prior to this, there may have been a thin, patchy layer of magma ocean beneath parts of the far side, explaining the presence of radioactive ejecta on one flank of the Antarctic Aitken Basin.”
For further information, refer to the study published in the journal Nature.
_____
JC Andrews-Hanna et al. 2025. The southern impact excavated a magma ocean in the Moon’s South Pole Aitken Basin. Nature 646, 297-302; doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09582-y
During its closest encounter with Mars on October 3, 2025, comet 3I/ATLAS was situated 30 million km from the ESA’s ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO).
The image of interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS was taken on October 3, 2025, by the CaSSIS instrument aboard the ESA’s Trace Gas Orbiter. Image credit: ESA/TGO/CaSSIS.
TGO acquired new images of 3I/ATLAS utilizing the Color and Stereo Surface Imaging System (CaSSIS).
“This observation posed significant challenges for this instrument,” noted Dr. Nick Thomas, Principal Investigator of ESA’s CaSSIS instrument.
“3I/ATLAS appears as a slightly blurred white dot that descends toward the center of the image.”
“This point represents the nucleus of the comet, which comprises an icy, rocky core surrounded by a coma.”
“Due to the distance, CaSSIS couldn’t differentiate between a nuclear and a coma state.”
“The CaSSIS camera has an angular resolution of 11.36 microradians (equivalent to 2.34 arc seconds) per pixel,” explained Professor Avi Loeb from Harvard University.
“At a minimum distance of approximately 30 million km from 3I/ATLAS, this resolution translates to 340 km.”
“This pixel size is one to two orders of magnitude larger than the anticipated core diameters of 3I/ATLAS, which range from a minimum of 5 km to a maximum of 46 km.”
“Some of the expansion can be observed in CaSSIS images,” he mentioned.
“The passage of 3I/ATLAS across the Martian sky will be viewed by the Mars rover from an angle nearly perpendicular to the 3I/ATLAS-Sun axis, allowing for a side view of the glow surrounding 3I/ATLAS.”
“The width of the luminous glow around 3I/ATLAS in the CaSSIS image is approximately twice that of a bright star appearing as a background point source in the same image.”
“This span corresponds to a scale of 680 km, which is an order of magnitude smaller than the width seen in Hubble images.”
“Thus, it’s evident that CaSSIS only captures the brightest regions surrounding the core of 3I/ATLAS and cannot detect the low surface brightness envelope visible in Hubble images.”
From November 2 to 25, 2025, ESA’s Jupiter Icy Satellites probe will observe 3I/ATLAS with a range of instruments. Image credit: ESA.
“Our Mars rovers continue to contribute significantly to Mars science, and it’s always thrilling to see them respond to unforeseen scenarios like this,” remarked Dr. Colin Wilson, ESA’s Mars Express and ExoMars project scientist.
“We eagerly await the insights the data will reveal following further analysis.”
Next month, ESA researchers are set to observe 3I/ATLAS with the Jupiter Icy Satellite Orbiter (JUICE).
While JUICE will be located further from 3I/ATLAS than last week’s Mars rover, the rover will detect the comet shortly after its closest approach to the Sun, indicating heightened activity.
“Observation data for JUICE is anticipated to be received by February 2026,” they noted.
Dogs have a passion for toys, but is it possible for them to become overly attached? A recent study suggests that their playful nature can take a darker turn, leading to an obsession with their toys.
This study was published in Nature Scientific Reports. Researchers found that certain dogs exhibited behaviors similar to those seen in behavioral addictions, akin to gambling and gaming.
The term “ball junkie” is often used in dog training circles, implying addiction. However, the study participants pointed out that it hasn’t been established whether the criteria for addiction apply to dogs, as Professor Stefanie Reimer from Vetmeduni Vienna noted in BBC Science Focus, “Being highly motivated or overly focused on toys doesn’t necessarily equate to addiction.”
The research team conducted a series of tests involving 105 toy-obsessed dogs to observe their interactions with toys.
Ultimately, 33 dogs displayed behaviors indicative of addiction. They fixated on the toys and sought to access them when they were placed in boxes or on high shelves, even when food was offered or when their owners engaged them in social activities like tug-of-war.
“Two dogs managed to destroy boxes containing toys, highlighting their intense motivation,” said the study’s lead, Alija Mazzini from the University of Bern, in BBC Science Focus. “This reaction exceeded our expectations and clearly demonstrated the lengths some dogs would go to reach their desired objects.”
Marinoa goes to great lengths to retrieve his toys, even destroying the box in the process.
Some dogs struggled to relax after their toys were removed, pacing the room in search for them, and their heart rate remained elevated even after 15 minutes.
An important finding was that when allowed to play with toys, there was no notable difference in mood between dogs displaying addiction-like behavior and other dogs.
“While most dogs enjoy playing with toys, only a few show excessive fixation,” Mazzini explained. “This behavioral pattern resembles that of people engaged in potentially addictive activities like gaming and gambling without experiencing negative consequences, yet developing a genuine addiction.”
Playing Tug of War strengthens social bonds and provides an ideal way to engage with your dog – Credit: Getty
However, this doesn’t mean you should rush to eliminate all of your dog’s toys.
“While many dog owners use balls and other toys during playtime, only a small percentage of dogs develop addictive behaviors,” Reimer noted. “From a practical perspective, toy play serves as a great reinforcement for dogs. For one of my dogs, the ball represents the ultimate reward, though I didn’t encourage this behavior.
“Still, I strongly recommend emphasizing collaborative play. So, while I’m not suggesting you should avoid playing ball with your dog, do so judiciously.”
Here’s a rewritten version of your content while keeping the HTML tags intact:
Recent global assessments of the food system reveal that fewer than 1% of individuals consume diets beneficial to both the planet and human health.
Nevertheless, adopting a healthier dietary approach could prevent up to 15 million premature deaths annually and could decrease global greenhouse gas emissions by as much as 20%.
The findings are part of a 2025 Report by the Eat-Lancet Committee, which consolidates insights from nutritionists, climate experts, economists, physicians, social scientists, and agricultural scholars from over 35 countries.
The research team evaluated the effects of current food systems on human health and the environment, concluding that food production poses risks to five crucial Earth systems that are essential for human survival.
These five critical threats include climate change, land degradation, water scarcity, nitrogen and phosphorus pollution, and human-induced contaminants like pesticides and microplastics.
However, transforming the food system to ensure healthy diets for everyone could restore these systems to a safe state and enhance human well-being.
“If everyone adopts a healthy diet, by 2050, 100 billion people could sustain themselves on 7% less land than what is currently utilized,” stated Dr. Fabrice Declerck, EAT’s Chief Science Officer, in an interview with BBC Science Focus. “This has never happened in the history of food production. We have very few resources needed to feed more individuals.”
Justice was a significant aspect of the report, emphasizing the need for equitable wages for food workers and fairer access to food resources – Credit: Anuchasiribisanwan via Getty
Scientists have estimated that 6.9 billion individuals consume excessive amounts of food, particularly meat, dairy, sugar, and ultra-processed items, while 3.7 billion struggle to find access to nutritious food.
As a result, the report advocates for adherence to a planetary health diet (PhD), which emphasizes fruits, vegetables, nuts, legumes, and whole grains.
In a PhD, half of your plate should consist of vegetables, fruits, and nuts, while 30% should be dedicated to whole grains. The remaining portion should be a protein source, with a focus on legumes like beans and lentils.
Meat, fish, and dairy are optional within the PhD framework, with established limits, but the diet allows for flexibility. For instance, one can remain within guidelines even with a weekly intake of up to 200g of beef.
Declerck notes that the diet is adaptable to individual tastes, encouraging people to incorporate their cultural preferences.
“In fact, I believe traditional diets often more accurately reflect health,” he mentioned.
The planet’s healthy food guidelines aim to enhance human health while also benefiting the environment, as stated in the report – Credit: Carl Hendon
Currently, only 1% of individuals meet the report’s dietary suggestions. Declerck emphasized that scientists are not ready to pinpoint the locations of these individuals, given the numerous variations among countries.
“But these individuals reside in societies where they can access healthy diets and earn a livable wage,” he added.
Declerck further remarked that the best examples of healthy eating are often found in middle-income countries, particularly within the Mediterranean basin, the Indian subcontinent, and Southeast Asia.
For middle-income nations, the challenge lies in avoiding a shift toward a Western diet while maintaining cultural dietary traditions.
Amidst concerns regarding the climate crisis, Declerck stated that the report presents a “surprising” opportunity to enhance both human health and environmental well-being simultaneously.
“We encourage individuals to consume a wider variety of foods, celebrate their own cultural contributions, explore diverse culinary traditions, and enjoy the richness of food diversity,” he asserted. “This is beneficial not only for your personal health but also contributes significantly to the health of our planet as a whole,” Declerck concluded.
The research’s co-author, Professor Johann Lockstrom, co-chair of the committee and director of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, stated: “The evidence is irrefutable. It is not only feasible to transform the food system, but it is crucial for ensuring a safe, fair, and sustainable future for all.”
Justice formed another key component of the report, highlighting the fact that the wealthiest 30% of the population accounts for over 70% of food-related environmental impacts.
“Those of us who are unhealthy and walk blocking others’ rights to a secure environment must take action,” the report emphasized.
The findings call for immediate measures to reform the global food system for the benefit of human health, justice, and environmental sustainability.
Approximately 12,000 years ago, during the Pleistocene-Chlorocene transition, humans navigated a network of seasonal waters in Northern Arabia, marking significant locations with camels, ibex, wild equids, gazelles, and monumental rock carvings of Auloc, as well as establishing access routes.
Jebel Arnaan rock art panel. Image credit: Mariaguanine.
As part of the Green Arabia Project, archaeologist Michael Petraglia from Griffith University and his team have uncovered over 60 rock art panels featuring 176 sculptures in three previously unexplored locations.
The sculptures predominantly illustrate camels, ibex, equids, gazelles, and aurochs, comprising 130 life-size and naturalistic figures, with heights exceeding 3 meters and 2 meters.
This sculptural activity occurred between 12,800 and 11,400 years ago, a time when seasonal water bodies re-emerged following a period of severe aridity.
These water sources, identified through sediment analysis, facilitated early human migration into the interior desert and offered rare survival opportunities.
“These large-scale sculptures are not just rock art; they likely represent assertions of existence, access, and cultural identity,” noted Dr. Maria Guanine, an archaeologist at the Max Planck Institute.
“Rock art signifies water sources and movement routes, potentially indicating territorial rights and intergenerational memory,” added Dr. Seri Shipton, an archaeologist at the University of London.
In contrast to previously known sites where sculptures were hidden in crevices, the Jebel Mleiha and Jebel Arnaan panels were carved on the face of a towering 39-meter cliff, making them visually dominant.
One panel required ancient artists to ascend narrow ledges to create their work, emphasizing the effort and significance attributed to the imagery.
Various artifacts, including Levantine-style Erkiam, Hellwan stone points, green pigments, and dental beads, indicate extensive connections to pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN) populations in the Levant.
Nevertheless, the size, content, and arrangement of these Arabian sculptures distinguish them from others.
“This unique form of symbolic representation reflects a distinct cultural identity evolved to thrive in harsh, arid environments,” stated Dr. Faisal Al Ghibrien, a heritage researcher at the Saudi Ministry of Culture.
“The project’s interdisciplinary approach aims to bridge significant gaps in the Northern Arabian archaeological record between the last Glacial Maximum and the Holocene, shedding light on the resilience and innovation of early desert communities,” remarked Dr. Petraglia.
The team’s paper has been published in the journal Nature Communications.
____
M. Guanine et al. 2025. Monumental rock art indicates that humans thrived in the Arabian desert during the Pleistocene and Holocene transitions. Nature Communications 16, 8249; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-63417-y
The Yunxian 2 skull, although deformed, has been reconstructed to resemble an early Denisovan.
Gary Todd (CC0)
Our species’ origins may extend further back than previously believed, and the same could hold true for both our extinct Neanderthal and Denisovan relatives. A recent analysis of fossil remains suggests that the common ancestors of these groups emerged over a million years ago.
“If these ancient divergences are accurate, we might be overlooking significant details about the early history of these lineages,” states Chris Stringer from the Natural History Museum in London.
This finding could clarify the search for “ancestor X,” the lineage from which modern humans, Neanderthals, and the population that produced the Denisovans descended. It also may imply that the Denisovans were our closest relatives, potentially even closer than Neanderthals—a point that remains debated.
Stringer and his research team, which includes Xijun Ni from the Institute for Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology in Beijing, revisited the Yunxian fossil collection located in central China.
Two partial skulls were unearthed on a terrace above the Han River in 1989 and 1990; reported in 1992. Both skulls were crushed during their discovery, although the YUNXIAN 2 specimen sustained less damage.
Using advanced techniques, Stringer, Ni, and their colleagues reconstructed the Yunxian 2 skull. These methods include CT scans that digitally separate individual bone fragments from the surrounding sediment. “The skull is elongated and has a prominent brow ridge,” Stringer notes. “Additionally, it features a slight beak-like nose, small third molars, and larger teeth.”
The Yunxian 2 skull dates back between 940,000 and 1.1 million years. Specimens of this age are often classified as Homo erectus, which appeared around 2 million years ago in Africa before dispersing to South Asia and Indonesia approximately 108,000 years ago. However, Stringer asserts that Yunxian 2 doesn’t conform to this profile; many of its features are characteristic of later specimens, including Neanderthals.
To better understand the Yunxian 2, the research team compared it with 56 other fossils of the same group. They constructed a family tree based on the morphology, grouping related fossils together. This analysis revealed three significant lineages, encompassing most fossils from the past million years.
One lineage consists of modern humans (Homo sapiens), another includes Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) who lived in Europe and Asia for several hundred thousand years before disappearing around 40,000 years ago, and the third represents the Denisovans from East Asia.
Denisovans were first identified in 2010 through DNA from a bone fragment, and it took 15 years to connect this lineage with larger fossils. Stringer was involved in interpreting the Harbin skull from China, which was identified as Denisovan in June based on molecular evidence. Yunxian 2 appears to fall into the early Denisovan category, much like several other Asian fossils.
This discovery provides important links among these fossils in the Denisovan lineage, according to geneticist Aylwyn Scally at Cambridge University: “This allows us to form better hypotheses about the Denisovans’ whereabouts, lifestyle, and species characteristics.”
Recognizing that Yunxian 2 is a Denisovan reshapes our recent understanding of human evolution in two significant ways. First, it appears to alter the timeline of the emergence of these three groups. Traditional genetic narratives suggest that the common ancestor, “ancestor X,” diverged into two branches. However, the reconstruction indicates that Neanderthals separated first about 1.38 million years ago, before the divergence of modern humans and Denisovans around 1.32 million years ago.
If validated, this hypothesis posits that Denisovans were indeed more closely related to us than Neanderthals, challenging established genetic theories. Nonetheless, Scally expresses caution, noting the complexities of inter-group histories: “In reality, straightforward phylogenetic trees don’t provide a complete picture.” The research relies more on “entangled networks” than traditional models. Furthermore, Scally suggests that genetics may provide clearer insights into these relationships than morphology, especially with only partial skeletal evidence available.
The second significant change is that all three groups appear to have emerged much earlier than previously thought. Genetic evidence generally indicates that modern humans split from their Neanderthal and Denisovan relatives around 500,000-700,000 years ago. However, Yunxian 2 suggests that the Denisovan lineage was already distinct one million years ago.
Scally adds that there may not be a single definitive date for these splits; instead, they likely occurred over extended periods with intermittent separations and reunions. In this case, Stringer and his colleagues may be correct that divergence began over a million years ago, stretching across hundreds of thousands of years.
This extended timeline raises new questions. The oldest known fossils of modern humans date to around 300,000 years ago. So where are the earlier ancestors from millions of years ago? “We either lack those fossils, or they’re present but unrecognized,” Stringer comments.
We also know little about “ancestor X”—its appearance and habitat remain a mystery. “Ten years ago, I would have stated that the likely origin of most of these groups was Africa,” Stringer reflects. “It now seems plausible that their forebears lived outside Africa, potentially in regions of Western Asia. This suggests that ancient sapiens ancestors likely migrated to Africa, evolving there for a large portion of that million-year timeline.”
Stringer highlights the scarcity of known fossils from Western Asia dating back a million years, noting that even India has limited evidence. Only one human fossil from that period exists. “There are numerous regions where our fossil record is strikingly thin,” he asserts.
A significant source of information is the Yunxian site. In 2022, a third skull was uncovered that seems to be in better condition, although it has yet to be analyzed.
Neanderthals, Ancient Humans, Cave Art: France
Join New Scientist’s Kate Douglas on an enthralling journey through time as she delves into significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
In March 2021, a 25-year-old American citizen arrived at Chicago’s Midway Airport and was detained by US Border Patrol agents. According to a recent report, the individual underwent a cheek swab for DNA collection. This person was later identified by state authorities, and their DNA was entered into the FBI’s genetic database, all without any criminal charges being filed.
This 25-year-old is among roughly 2,000 US citizens whose DNA was gathered and forwarded to the FBI by the Department of Homeland Security between 2020 and 2024, as reported by Georgetown’s Privacy and Technology Center. The report highlights that even some 14-year-old US citizens had their DNA collected by Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officials.
“We have witnessed a significant breach of privacy,” stated Stevie Gloverson, director of research and advocacy at Georgetown’s Privacy Center. “We contend that the absence of oversight on DHS’s collection powers renders this program unconstitutional and a violation of the Fourth Amendment.”
When immigration officials collect DNA to share it with the FBI, it is stored in the Combined DNA Index System (Codis), which is utilized nationwide by various law enforcement agencies to identify crime suspects. A 2024 report also revealed that CBP collects DNA data from the Privacy and Technology Center in Georgetown. Additionally, the data indicates that DNA was collected and shared from immigrant children, with initial estimates suggesting that approximately 133,000 teens and children have had their sensitive genetic information uploaded to this federal criminal database for permanent retention.
The recent CBP document specifically outlines the number of US citizens from whom genetic samples were collected at various entry points, including significant airports. The agency gathered data on the ages of individuals whose DNA was obtained by border agents as well as any charges associated with them. Like the 25-year-old, around 40 US citizens had their DNA collected and forwarded to the FBI, including six minors.
Under current regulations, CBP is authorized to gather DNA from all individuals, regardless of citizenship status or criminal background.
However, the law does not permit Border Patrol agents to collect DNA samples from US citizens merely for being detained. Yet, recent disclosures indicate that CBP lacks a system to verify whether there is a legal basis for collecting personal DNA.
In some atypical instances, US citizens had DNA collected for minor infractions like “failure to declare” items. In at least two documented cases, citizens were subjected to DNA swabbing, with CBP agents merely noting the accusation as “immigration officer testing.”
“This is data from CBP’s own management,” Gloverson pointed out. “What the documentation reveals is alarming. Afterward, CBP agents are isolating US citizens and swabbing their mouths without justification.”
No formal federal charges have been filed in approximately 865 of the roughly 2,000 cases of US citizens whose DNA was collected by CBP, indicating, according to Gloverson, that no legal cases have been presented before an independent authority, such as a judge.
“Many of these individuals do not go before a judge to assess the legality of their detention and arrest,” she remarked.
DNA records can disclose highly sensitive information, such as genetic relationships and lineage, regardless of an individual’s citizenship status. Information found in the criminal database, utilized for criminal investigations, could subject individuals to scrutiny that may not otherwise occur, Gloverson warned.
“If you believe your citizenship guards you against authoritarian measures, this situation is clear evidence that it does not,” she concluded.
The prominent, yellowish bulge at the core of NGC 2775 is populated with older stars, encircled by tightly wound spiral arms adorned with areas of dark dust and young blue stars.
This Hubble image captures NGC 2775, a galaxy located approximately 67 million light years away in the Cancer constellation. Image credits: NASA/ESA/Hubble/F. Belfiore/J. Lee/Phangs-HST team.
NGC 2775 is situated about 67 million light years from the northern constellation of Cancer.
This galaxy was discovered on December 19, 1783, by British astronomer William Herschel, who was originally from Germany.
NGC 2775 is a principal member of the Galaxy’s Anti-Rahydra Cloud and part of a small group of galaxies known as the NGC 2775 group.
Also referred to as Caldwell 48, Leda 25861, or UGC 4820, NGC 2775 has a diameter of approximately 80,000 light years.
“NGC 2775 has an unusually smooth center that is devoid of gases, resembling an elliptical galaxy,” noted Hubble astronomers in a statement.
“It contains dusty rings with clusters of patchy stars, similar to spiral galaxies.
“Observing NGC 2775 from a single perspective makes it challenging to ascertain its true nature.”
“While some researchers classify NGC 2775 as a spiral galaxy due to its star and dust patterns resembling feathered rings, others categorize it as a lenticular galaxy.”
“Lenticular galaxies exhibit characteristics of both spiral and elliptical types.”
“The exact appearance of a lenticular galaxy remains uncertain, as they can form in various ways.”
“Some lenticular galaxies may have originated as spiral galaxies that fused with one another or may have lost their star-forming gas and prominent spiral arms.”
“They might also have accumulated gas in their surrounding discs, leading them to appear more oval-shaped.”
Astronomers suggest that NGC 2775 may have merged with other galaxies in the past.
“In the Hubble image, NGC 2775 features a hydrogen gas tail extending nearly 100,000 light years around the galaxy,” the researchers indicated.
“This faint tail could represent the remnants of one or more galaxies that ventured too close to NGC 2775 before being absorbed.”
“If NGC 2775 has indeed merged with other galaxies previously, it could help to explain the unusual appearance of the galaxy as we observe it today.”
“Hubble’s images of NGC 2775 were released earlier in 2020,” they added.
“The updated version includes observations of specific wavelengths of red light emitted by hydrogen gas clouds surrounding the young giant star.”
Stephen Pinker’s latest book offers a thorough exploration of his evolving persona. It features insightful discussions on significant psychological concepts, while also revealing his perspectives on contemporary issues.
Pinker, a Harvard University Psychologist and author known for his contributions to popular science, has penned thought-provoking works such as Words and Rules. His research-driven approach is commendable, although some of his broader assertions, such as those made in Better Angels of Our Nature, which claims a longstanding reduction in violence, have sparked debate.
While books like the latter have enjoyed commercial success, they have also faced criticism for their oversights. For instance, in Better Angels of Our Nature, Pinker grappled with the stark realities of violence in the 20th century—two world wars, the Holocaust, and more. Critics argue that his selective use of statistics downplayed these events in favor of a narrative that praises progress.
Approaching Pinker’s latest work, I wondered which version of him would emerge: the reflective psychologist or the brash commentator? Both traits surface throughout the text. The theme focuses on “common knowledge,” highlighting the idea that when a critical mass is aware of an issue, change is possible. Pinker draws parallels to Hans Christian Andersen’s tale of the Emperor’s New Clothes, illustrating how a child’s honest observation can lead to collective acknowledgment and action.
“
It parallels writing about the criminal justice system by solely focusing on instances of judicial errors. “
Pinker emphasizes that widespread awareness can empower the oppressed to challenge authoritarian regimes. However, the hidden fear of isolation can deter individuals from joining protests, even when they recognize the regime’s brutality.
In the Emperor’s New Clothes, the child speaks truths known to all
Chronicle/Alamy
Pinker elaborates on this theme in the initial seven chapters, utilizing examples from game theory and psychology. His writing style is engaging and adept, effectively navigating through complex logical puzzles, even integrating comics and notable dialogues.
Occasionally, he digresses. For instance, he refers to the early publication of logic puzzles as a peculiar “political innocuous sin” of the 1950s. However, these instances are minor distractions.
In Chapter 8, which discusses the psychological underpinnings of “cancel culture,” the narrative falters. Pinker argues that cancel culture serves as a censorship mechanism, driven by the aim to prevent certain ideas from becoming widely acknowledged. He posits that while holding prejudicial views about an ethnic group may be personally acceptable, public acknowledgment could foster discrimination, prompting efforts to silence such views.
While Pinker offers insights into the motivations behind cancel culture, his analysis falls short due to the poor quality of the debate surrounding it. Many of his examples stem from left-wing perspectives, while right-wing cases remain overlooked. His discussion of the Chick-fil-A controversy—a response to arguments against the 2003 Iraq invasion—illustrates this bias. He neglects to address instances where individuals face cancelation due to genuine harm they caused, echoing the earlier quote about judicial narratives that focus solely on miscarriages of justice.
The final chapter attempts to guide readers on whether to keep certain beliefs private or share them publicly, concluding that context matters. Thank goodness he retains an interest in psychological studies. It’s disappointing that he veers off course at times.
Michael Marshall is a writer based in Devon, UK
New Scientist Book Club
If you enjoy reading, join our welcoming community of book enthusiasts. Every six weeks, we explore exciting new titles, providing members with free access to excerpts, author articles, and video interviews.
Collection of Stone Tools from Milovice IV Archaeological Site
Martin Novak
The discovered series of stone tools in the Czech Republic appears to belong to hunter-gatherers who roamed the area roughly 30,000 years ago. Among the 29 artifacts, which include blades and points used for hunting, skinning, and cutting wood, researchers gain rare insights into the daily lives of ancient hunters, as noted by Dominik Chlachula from the Chekoa Academy of Sciences in Brno.
The investigation began in 2009 when a village road collapsed in the Pavlovskövurky Mountains, revealing an old cellar. By 2021, archaeologists uncovered a deeper site known as Mirovice IV, which yielded charcoal dating back approximately 29,550-30,550 years. Here, researchers found horse and reindeer bones, along with a collection of stone tools that seemed to have been preserved in leather pouches over time, although the material has since decayed.
The tools exhibited significant wear, according to Chlachula. Most blades showed signs of extensive cutting, while several had holes near the handle. Some points displayed fractures or microscopic damage, indicating their use as spear or arrow tips.
Certain pieces appear to have been repurposed from older tools, hinting at the scarcity of quality stones or indicating that hunters aimed to conserve their resources, he adds.
Further examinations revealed that around two-thirds of the tools were made from glacial sediment stones originating from at least 130 kilometers away in the north, a considerable distance, particularly when traversing winding routes. The remaining tools seemed to come from western Slovakia, roughly 100 kilometers southeast. It’s still uncertain whether the owner procured the stones directly or through trade networks.
Many of the artifacts were too damaged to be usable, Chlachula explains. Nevertheless, hunters may have chosen to keep them for their sentimental value.
Neanderthals, Ancient Humans, Cave Art: France
Join new scientist Kate Douglas as she embarks on an enchanting voyage through time, exploring significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Recent studies indicate that dinosaurs acted as ecosystem engineers, fostering habitat openness during the late Cretaceous period. Their extinction around 66 million years ago likely triggered a significant reorganization of ecosystem structures, profoundly affecting rivers. The emergence of dense forests helped stabilize sediments and created a wide, meandering river surrounding the water.
Dinosaurs functioned as ecosystem engineers, regulating forest growth. Their abrupt extinction resulted in extensive ecological shifts, as illustrated in these artistic renderings. Image credit: Julius Csotonyi.
“When considering how life and the environment evolve over time, it’s typically viewed as climate-driven, causing specific effects on living beings. Alternatively, geographic shifts, like rising mountains, also have a notable impact,” explained Luke Weaver, a paleontologist at the University of Michigan.
“It’s uncommon for life to play a crucial role in altering climate and landscape; the influence isn’t solely one-directional.”
The extinction of dinosaurs followed the impact of a massive asteroid on the Yucatan Peninsula approximately 66 million years ago.
Researchers investigating asteroid evidence discovered that the geological layer above the fallout fragments differed significantly from the underlying rock.
Dr. Weaver and his team began examining this abrupt geological transformation within the Williston Basin, which encompasses the Bighorn Basin across eastern Montana, western North Dakota, and northern Wyoming.
“During my review of previous research, I focused on the Fort Union Formation,” Dr. Weaver mentioned.
“This formation, laid down post-dinosaur extinction, appears to consist of layered rocks in various hues.
“Initially thought to be pond sediments resulting from sea level rise, these formations presented an intriguing contrast to the layer beneath, characterized by poorly developed soils that recall features found along flood plains.”
Researchers then hypothesized a link between these geological alterations and the mass extinction event of dinosaurs, commonly referred to as the end-Cretaceous mass extinction.
They further explored the environments represented by the diverse rock formations.
“Our findings indicated that the striped layers were not sediment from ponds,” Dr. Weaver stated.
“Instead, these are point bar deposits, or sediments from the inner curves of large river meanders.”
“Rather than reflecting a tranquil setting, what we uncovered was a highly dynamic environment within those meandering flows.”
Substantial river sediments are framed by layers primarily comprising lignite, a low-grade coal formed from organic material.
Researchers suggested these formed due to less frequent river activity, attributable to the stabilizing effects of dense forests.
“By stabilizing rivers, these forests curtailed the supply of clay, silt, and sand deep into the floodplain, resulting in an accumulation of mainly organic debris,” Dr. Weaver explained.
What evidence will ascertain whether changes occurred right after the mass extinction?
Fine layers rich in iridium are typically found only from cosmic events.
However, the asteroid impact introduced a mix of elements that settled in thin layers across the globe.
This iridium-rich sediment layer, which defines the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, contains about three orders of magnitude more iridium than standard sediments and is recognized as an iridium anomaly.
The researchers subsequently focused on areas of the Bighorn Basin where the boundary was absent.
By analyzing geological shifts between the dinosaur-rich layers and those containing early mammals, they sampled narrow bands of red clay about 1 cm wide.
“These iridium anomalies were perfectly situated at the interface between the two differing geological layers,” Dr. Weaver noted.
“This discovery led us to believe that this phenomenon wasn’t isolated to the Williston Basin; it likely applies across many regions in western North America.”
However, questions linger regarding the reasons for the substantial geological transformations observed before and after the dinosaurs’ extinction.
Later, the team came upon discussions regarding how modern animals, such as elephants, impact their ecosystems.
“This was the moment of clarity that connected all the dots,” Dr. Weaver remarked.
“Dinosaurs were enormous; they must have substantially influenced the vegetation.”
Paleontologists have posited that dinosaurs played a crucial role in facilitating forest growth, trapping sediments, and shaping river structures.
“For me, the most thrilling aspect of our research is the evidence that dinosaurs may have directly influenced their ecosystems,” said Dr. Courtney Splain, a researcher at the University of Florida.
“Notably, the impacts of their extinction may be observed not merely through the disappearance of fossils in the geological record, but also through evident changes in the sediment itself.”
Survey results were published this week in the journal Communication Earth and the Environment.
____
ln weaver et al. 2025. Dinosaur extinction can explain the change in continental facies at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary. Commune Earth Environment 6, 712; doi:10.1038/s43247-025-02673-8
Recent Observations of the M87* Black Hole by the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) – Eight Ground-Based Radio Telescopes (ALMA, APEX, Iram 30 m Telescope, James Clerk Maxwell Telescope, Lage Millimeter Telescope Alfonso Serrano, Submillimeter Array Telescope) – Unveil a dynamic environment with varying polarization patterns near black holes.
The EHT images show that the magnetic field of M87* spiraled in one direction in 2017, settled in 2018, and reversed direction in 2021. Image credit: EHT collaboration.
Messier 87 is a vast elliptical galaxy situated approximately 53 million light-years away in the Virgo constellation.
This galaxy, also known as M87, houses the M87*, an ultra-massive black hole with a mass exceeding 6 billion solar masses.
In 2017, the EHT Collaboration detected a helical polarization pattern, indicating large-scale twisted magnetic structures, confirming long-held hypotheses about black hole interactions and their surrounding environments.
However, by 2018, the polarization nearly vanished. In 2021, a faint remnant began to spiral in the opposite direction.
Astrophysicists are now grappling with the pivotal question: Why?
“Black holes hold mysteries tightly, yet we continue to seek answers from their grasp,” stated Professor Avery Broderick, an astrophysicist at the University of Waterloo and the Perimeter Institute.
“Our team at Waterloo is reconstructing images from EHT data and determining what we can confidently assert—distinguishing between realistic findings and potential instrumental artifacts.”
“We are at the forefront of deciphering how EHT images, particularly their evolution, can unveil astrophysical dramas unfolding in the most extreme gravitational conditions.”
Each year, EHT collaborations revisit M87*, capturing fleeting moments that reveal its ongoing evolution, providing deeper insights into its well-guarded secrets.
“What’s intriguing is that the ring sizes have remained consistent over the years, validating the shadows of black holes predicted by Einstein’s theory, while the polarization patterns change dramatically,” remarked Dr. Paul Thierde, an astronomer at the Harvard & Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
“This indicates that the magnetized plasma swirling near the event horizon is not static but dynamic and complex, challenging theoretical models.”
The stability of M87*’s shadow serves as evidence that “black holes have no hair,” implying that a black hole is a simple geometric entity defined exclusively by mass, spin, or charge.
“This simplicity makes it an intriguing object of study within gravity, allowing for precise predictions. Other astrophysical phenomena seem secondary,” elaborated Professor Broderick.
“However, the surrounding environment can exhibit ‘hair,’ with magnetic fields being notable examples.”
“We have long understood what types of magnetic structures could exist, but now we believe there’s a rich diversity of configurations that can change rapidly, similar to human hairstyles.”
“These findings illustrate how EHT is maturing into a full-fledged scientific observatory that not only produces unprecedented images but also fosters a continuous and coherent understanding of black hole physics.”
“Each new observational campaign broadens our understanding, from the dynamics of plasma and magnetic fields to the role of black holes in the evolution of cosmic structures.”
“This is a concrete demonstration of the extraordinary scientific potential of this infrastructure.”
The survey results will be published in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.
____
Kazunori Akiyama et al. (Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration). 2025. 2017-2021 Horizon scale variation of M87* from EHT observations. A&A in press; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202555855
Research utilizing ancient DNA has shed light on the complex evolutionary ties and ecological responses of elephants and their relatives. In a recent study, scientists sequenced the mitochondrial genomes of various mastodons, including five specimens from Nova Scotia and the East Coast—one dating back approximately 500,000 years—as well as a unique specimen of Pacific Mastodon from Chulatin, Oregon, and a partial mitochondrial genome from North Ontario. Their findings indicate that Pacific mastodons belong to distinct and deep mitochondrial lineages, indicating this species’ range extended into western Canada and potentially even Mexico. Additionally, the authors discovered evidence of at least three separate expansions into the northeastern coastal region and identified two new groups of mastodons with clear, geographically coinciding specimens.
Adult Mastodon (Mammuthus sp.) consumes spruce branches, set against a backdrop that suggests periodic continental migrations related to climate change. During the Middle and Late Pleistocene, at least two types of mastodons roamed North America: the American mastodon, spanning from the East Coast to central regions, and the Pacific mastodon, found from central Alberta to central California. Image credit: Kathryn Kilukki.
Recent classifications have been updated to potentially recognize at least two distinct species: American mastodon and Pacific mastodon (Mammut pacificus), with ongoing debates regarding their division.
Genetic analyses confirmed that Pacific mastodons are ancient and belong to separate genetic lineages that extend further than previously thought.
Notably, Alberta emerged as a “hotspot” where Pacific and American mastodons may have gathered, expanding northward and hybridizing.
Samples collected from the East Coast and northern Ontario revealed two genetically distinct groups, referred to as mastodon clades, cohabiting the same geographic area.
Surprisingly, the eastern species exhibit significant diversity, reflecting at least three distinct waves of migration. This pattern is driven by repeated climatic warming events that opened new areas for glacial retreat and northward movement.
As temperatures decreased and glaciers expanded, mastodons were either forced southward or faced local extinction.
“The data reframes our understanding of the modern regions known as Alberta and the North, highlighting their role as migratory corridors for surrounding fauna,” the researchers noted.
Moreover, a unique and genetically distinct lineage of Mexican mastodon was identified, possibly representing a deeper evolutionary branch of the Pacific mastodon or even a brand-new third species.
During the Ice Age, the mastodon was among the largest terrestrial animals on the planet, traversing a range from Beringia (now Alaska and Yukon) through Nova Scotia and south to Central Mexico.
These creatures primarily foraged in wetlands, consuming shrubs and branches, and inhabited environments quite different from those of their well-known distant relatives, the woolly mammoths.
“This study marks significant milestones, including advancements in our understanding of the Pacific Mastodon,” stated Emil Kalpinski, a researcher at Harvard Medical School.
“It also raises numerous intriguing questions: How did these distant mastodon species interact within Alberta?”
“Did they compete for resources or, as our lab’s earlier research indicated for mammoths, engage in breeding?”
“These revelations, in conjunction with findings from our 2020 study, enrich our understanding of how mastodons migrated and diversified across North America, aiding contemporary conservation efforts in preparing for ongoing climate change and migratory species in the North,” the researchers concluded.
Their paper was published on September 12, 2025, in the journal Advances in Science.
____
Emil Kalpinski et al. 2025. Repeated climate-driven dispersion and speciation in peripheral populations of Pleistocene mastodon. Advances in Science 11 (37); doi:10.1126/sciadv.adw2240
The latter part of the first millennium in Central and Eastern Europe witnessed profound cultural and political changes. This transformative era is typically linked to the emergence of the Slavs, supported by textual documentation and corresponding archaeological findings. However, there remains no agreement on whether this archaeological horizon spread through transition, a process termed “slabization,” or a mix of both. Notably, the prevalent cremation practices observed during the initial phases of slab settlements lack sufficient genetic data. In a recent investigation, scientists sequenced the genomes of 555 ancient individuals, including 359 samples from the Slavic context dating back to the 7th century AD. The new findings reveal significant population movements in Eastern Europe between the 6th and 8th centuries, which replaced over 80% of the local gene pools in areas such as East Germany, Poland, and Croatia.
The seal of Yaroslav, the grand prince of Kiev from 1019 to 1054, and the father of Anna Yaroslav, the Queen of France. Image credit: Sheremetievs Museum.
The term “Slavs” first emerged to describe a nation in Constantinople during the 6th century and later gained recognition in the West.
Written records initially appeared north of the Lowward Now River and subsequently shifted to regions north of the Carpathian Basin, the Balkans, and the Eastern Alps.
Many areas were under the influence of the Avar Khaganate along the central Danube from around 567 AD to 800 AD.
Evidence indicates the presence of slab cultures in several regions of Eastern and Southeastern Europe during the 7th century.
Slavic settlements, previously inhabited by Roman, Germanic, and other pre-Slavic communities, transitioned to a simpler lifestyle, often represented archaeologically by small pithouse settlements, cremation burials, handmade and unembellished pottery, and a modest low-metal material culture associated with the Pragukorchak group.
Later, more sophisticated social structures and control emerged within the contact zone of the Byzantine-Christian West.
The Transformation of Europe by the Slavs
The first comprehensive ancient DNA analysis of medieval Slavic groups reveals that the rise of the Slavs was fundamentally a narrative of migration.
Their genetic signature points to origins in an area spanning southern Belarus to central Ukraine, aligning with longstanding linguistic and archaeological theories.
“Although direct evidence from the early Slavic core regions is still limited, our genetic findings provide initial substantial insights into the formation of Slavic ancestors, suggesting origins that may lie between the Donets and Don rivers.”
In this study, Dr. Gretzinger and colleagues gathered genome-wide data from 555 distinct ancient individuals from 26 sites throughout Central and Eastern Europe. They combined this with previously published data, creating comprehensive sampling networks for three regions.
New findings indicate that starting in the 6th century AD, large-scale migrations spread Eastern European ancestry throughout a vast area of central and eastern Europe, thus altering the genetic make-up of regions such as East Germany and Poland.
However, this expansion did not conform to a model of conquest or empire. Rather than obliterating existing military and structural hierarchies, newcomers founded new communities centered around extended families and patriarchal kinships.
This pattern was not uniform across all areas.
In eastern Germany, the changes were significant. Large, multi-generational lineages formed the backbone of society, and kinship networks became more broadly structured compared to the smaller nuclear families observed in earlier migration phases.
In contrast, areas such as Croatia experienced much less disruption in existing social patterns with the arrival of Eastern European groups.
Here, social structures often retained characteristics from previous periods, resulting in communities where new traditions harmonized with existing ones.
The regional diversity in social frameworks highlights that the spread of the Slavic group was not a one-size-fits-all process, but rather a dynamic adaptation to local contexts and histories.
“The expansion of the Slavs does not occur as a single event; it demonstrates that it is not a monolithic phenomenon, but each instance blends adaptation and integration according to its circumstances.”
Historical Overview of European Slabs: The timeline lists major historical events related to Central European Slabs. This map illustrates historical proof of the appearance of the slab (Sklavenoi – Slavvi – Winedi). The italic count indicates the date of the proven event, with each report date being in the bracket. Image credit: Gretzinger et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09437-6.
East Germany
The genetic data reveals a particularly significant narrative in East Germany.
Following the decline of the Kingdom of Thuringia, more than 85% of the region’s ancestry can be traced back to new arrivals from the east.
This reflects a shift from an earlier period of diverse populations, as epitomized by the Brucken site.
With the rise of the Slavs, this diversity gave way to a population composition resembling that of modern Slavic-speaking groups in Eastern Europe.
These new communities were structured around large extended families and patriarchal lineages, with women of marriageable age often moving to form new households elsewhere, leaving their native villages.
Notably, the genetic heritage of these initial Eastern European settlers is still present among the Sorbs, the Slavic-speaking minority in East Germany.
Amidst centuries of cultural and linguistic changes, Sorbs maintain genetic profiles closely related to early medieval Slavic populations that settled in the region over a millennium ago.
Poland
In Poland, research notably challenges previous assumptions regarding long-standing population continuity.
Genetic findings indicate that early inhabitants of the region, beginning in the 6th and 7th centuries AD—especially descendants of a population closely tied to Northern Europe and Scandinavia—were nearly completely replaced by newcomers from the East, closely related to modern Poles, Ukrainians, and Belarusians.
While overwhelming population shifts occurred, genetic evidence also reveals small traces of intermingling with local populations.
These insights underscore both the magnitude of population change and the intricate dynamics shaping the ancestry of present-day Central and Eastern European languages.
Croatia
In Northern Balkans, the patterns observed differ markedly from those in northern immigrant regions, narrating a tale of both transformation and continuity.
Ancient DNA analyses from Croatia and surrounding areas illustrate a significant influx of ancestors from Eastern Europe, yet without total genetic replacement.
Instead, Eastern European immigrants integrated with diverse local populations to form hybrid communities.
Genetic studies show that in modern Balkan populations, the proportion of Eastern European ancestry varies significantly, often reaching around half or less of the current genetic mix.
In this context, Slavic migration wasn’t characterized by conquest but was a gradual process of intermarriage and adaptation, leading to the rich cultural, linguistic, and genetic diversity that defines the Balkans today.
A New Chapter in European History
In most instances, when early Slavic groups are referenced in archaeological and historical contexts, their genetic markers are consistent, indicating a shared ancestral origin, though regional variations reflect the extent of blending with local populations.
In the north, early Germanic communities mostly left, providing space for Slavic integration.
In the south, Eastern European migrants merged with established societies.
This patchwork integration elucidates the remarkable diversity present in the cultures, languages, and genetics of contemporary Central and Eastern European societies.
“The spread of the Slavs was likely the last significant demographic event to irreversibly reshape both the genetic and linguistic landscapes of Europe,” remarked Dr. Johannes Kraus, director of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
The findings were published in the journal on September 3rd Nature.
____
J. Gretzinger et al. Ancient DNA connects large-scale migration with the spread of the Slavs. Nature, published online on September 3, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09437-6
This article is adapted from the original release by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
“There are two fundamental causes of dissatisfaction with climate policy: economy and culture.”
Alex Ramsay/Alamy
I have previously discussed protests in my UK hometown. The local council proposed increasing parking fees to reduce driving in contaminated areas. Ultimately, the council faced opposition and raised fees far less than they initially planned.
This scenario illustrates “green backlash,” a term referring to the rising opposition against environmental policies in affluent nations. Such resistance is often tied to a surge in support for right-wing populist parties, like Reform UK. The effectiveness of this can be seen in how Reform leads recent polls among UK voters as the next general election approaches.
This trend poses a challenge for the environment. Without government action, achieving significant progress on climate change becomes unlikely, but such initiatives can inadvertently empower anti-environment parties. Research indicates that the presence of right-wing populists in Europe slows down policies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and advancing renewable energy.
Recent studies published in Nature Climate Change suggest that there are strategies to counteract green backlash. Led by Valentina Bosetti at Bocconi University in Milan, researchers analyzed existing literature on green backlash to better understand its causes and potential remedies.
The findings reveal two primary sources of concern regarding climate policies: economic and cultural. Economic concerns arise from the financial burden of policies, such as increased parking fees in urban centers. Cultural concerns include a widespread mistrust of politicians and scientific authorities. Together, these factors significantly undermine support for parties promoting environmental policies, often driving voters toward opposing right-wing parties.
A notable case study that embodies both concerns occurred in Ontario, Canada. In 2009, the provincial government curtailed community input and halted the development of new wind power projects following protests from over 50 activist groups. Despite wind power’s popularity in Ontario, this localized backlash seemed to influence elections. In October 2011, the ruling Ontario Liberals lost their majority, particularly in districts with existing or proposed wind farms. Similar resistance to wind power has also occurred in Sweden and Germany.
“
Researchers discovered that opposition to wind power diminishes when subsidies are offered. “
The shift towards encouraging electric vehicles has also faced backlash from those affected, particularly within the traditional automotive sector. In the 2016 US elections, Donald Trump garnered an average of 3 percentage points in counties with auto parts manufacturers. Researcher interviews with workers revealed that fears surrounding the EV transition influenced their support for Trump.
This paints a rather somber picture: governments attempting to implement positive environmental changes encounter resistance, which could lead to policy rollbacks or electoral losses. Often, they are supplanted by parties that neither pursue such policies nor recognize their urgency.
However, it’s important to note that while cultural factors may alienate some towards right-wing populism, they do not create a majority. Economic grievances, however, are addressable. For instance, Bosetti found that opposition to wind power significantly decreases when government subsidies are available and when local job creation hinges on such projects. Safeguarding jobs and upskilling workers may mitigate fears of unemployment and skill obsolescence, she suggests. It could be that straightforward.
Furthermore, there is considerable yet often underestimated support for policies that promote environmentally friendly practices. US researchers recently surveyed adults about their views on issues like reducing food waste, consuming less beef, installing home solar systems, adopting EVs, purchasing carbon offsets, and other climate-friendly behaviors. Most people expressed support for them. However, a significant gap exists between participants’ perceptions of overall support for these initiatives and the reality. Politicians often convey a distorted message; don’t let the appeal of green policies falter simply because of misinterpretations.
In York, the upcoming local election in 2027 is anticipated to focus on parking fees as a critical issue, with concerns about green backlash influencing voter decisions.
Graham’s Week
What I’m reading
Pillars of the Earth by Ken Follett.
What I’m watching
Revisiting the BBC adaptation of Dracula on Netflix in preparation for my upcoming trip to Transylvania.
What I’m working on
An article for the Christmas issue. Honesty is key.
Graham Lawton is a staff writer at New Scientist and author of Don’t Complain: The Incredible Science of Everyday Illnesses. Follow him on Twitter @grahamlawton.
Danish research institutions have accused Snapchat of enabling “an overwhelming number of drug dealers,” thereby making it easier for minors to access substances like cocaine, opioids, and MDMA.
The platform claims to be actively employing technology to eliminate profiles engaged in drug sales. However, a study by Digitalt Ansvar, a Danish organization advocating for responsible digital development, revealed that usernames did not effectively limit drug-related language. The organization also criticized Snapchat for not adequately addressing reports of profiles that openly promote drug sales.
Investigators utilized a simulated 13-year-old profile and found numerous individuals selling drugs on Snapchat with usernames containing terms like “cola,” “weed,” and “molly.” After reporting 40 such accounts to Snapchat, only 10 were removed, while the remaining 30 were dismissed.
Snapchat claims that 75% of reported accounts are “actively disabled,” yet the platform has now acted on all reports.
The research highlighted that, despite prior criticisms, Snapchat’s recommendation system endorses and promotes profiles of individuals engaged in illegal drug sales, even reaching children who have not previously interacted with any drug-related content.
Within hours, the test profile for the 13-year-old was suggested to add a friend associated with a drug trafficking profile.
“We are eager to see future improvements,” remarked Hesby Holm Ask, CEO of Digitalt Ansvar.
“Snapchat claims to filter profiles that actively utilize the platform for drug sales, yet our findings indicate otherwise. Snapchat permissively allows the presence of drug-related profiles and fails to adequately address either implicit or explicit drug-related language in usernames.”
He further emphasized that not moderating profiles with such clear drug-related usernames implies that “children and young individuals can easily access illicit substances on Snapchat.” He stated, “The technology exists; what is lacking is the will. Snapchat could effortlessly filter out such usernames.”
According to Snapchat, by 2023, 90% of Scandinavians aged 13-24 were users of the platform. Digitalt Ansvar has accused Snapchat of violating EU digital service regulations concerning child safety and has called for action from authorities.
A Snapchat representative stated: “We have a zero-tolerance policy for drug sales on Snapchat. Although the accounts flagged in the study were not all reported via the app, over 75% were already disabled by our team before this report was noted.
“We are committed to combating the misuse of our platform by drug dealers, investing significantly in resources to achieve this goal. We employ rigorous detection methods to identify and disable these accounts, collaborate with law enforcement to prosecute dealers, and educate the community about drug risks. Our dedication to maintaining a hostile environment for drug dealers is unwavering.”
NASA’s diligent rover has been investigating and sampling igneous fields and sedimentary rocks within the Ezero Crater, providing insights into the geological processes and intriguing characteristics of early Mars, while also searching for potential biological signatures. Upon entering Neretvavalis, on the western edge of Jezero Crater, the rover examined the distinct mudstone and con rock outcrops of the Bright Angel formation. A new paper published in the journal Nature details extensive geological, petrological, and geochemical studies of these rocks.
The impression of this artist shows how Mars looked about 4 billion years ago. Image credit: M. Kornmesser/ESO.
“Upon the rover’s arrival at the Bright Angel formation and while analyzing the local rocks’ composition, our team was notably surprised by their distinctiveness compared to previous findings,” stated Dr. Michael Tice, a geoscientist and astrobiologist at Texas A&M University.
“These findings offer evidence of chemical cycling that organisms on Earth can utilize to harness energy.”
“As we delved deeper, we observed phenomena that could easily be attributed to early Martian life, yet remain challenging to rationalize purely through geological processes.”
“Living organisms conduct chemistry that is naturally prevalent, provided there’s sufficient time and suitable conditions.”
“To optimize our understanding, the chemistry leading to these rocks necessitates either elevated temperatures or biological involvement, and we find no signs of high temperatures here.”
“Nonetheless, these results warrant experimentation and eventually lab studies of the samples collected to completely rule out non-biological explanations.”
The Bright Angel layer comprises mudstone (fine-grained sedimentary rocks composed of silt and clay) and water-laid sedimentary rocks featuring layered beds indicative of a lively environment with flowing rivers and stagnant water.
Employing various instruments from Perseverance, such as Sherloc and PIXL spectrometers, scientists identified organic molecules and small mineral arrangements likely formed through chemical processes related to redox reactions and electron transfers. On Earth, these processes are frequently driven by biological activities.
The most notable characteristics include small nodules and “reaction fronts” – referred to as “poppy seeds” and “leopard spots” by the rover team – consisting of iron phosphate (likely vivianite) and iron sulfide (probably greygeite).
These minerals typically arise in cold, water-laden settings and are frequently associated with microbial metabolism.
“The structural arrangement suggests that they formed through the redox cycling of iron and sulfur along with associated minerals,” Dr. Tice commented.
“On Earth, such formations often occur in sediments where microorganisms consume organic material and ‘breathe’ rust and sulfate. “
“Their existence on Mars provokes an intriguing question: Could a similar process have occurred there?”
The artist’s concept depicts the perseverance of NASA’s Mars Rover on the surface of the red planet. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech.
The Sherloc instrument identified a Raman spectral feature known as the G-band, indicating the presence of organic carbon, in certain Bright Angel rocks.
The most substantial signal originated from a location called Apollo Temple, which exhibited high concentrations of both Vivianite and Greygeite.
“The concurrent presence of this organic matter and redox-sensitive minerals is quite compelling,” Dr. Tice noted.
“This implies that organic molecules might have facilitated the chemical reactions responsible for forming these minerals.”
“It’s crucial to recognize that ‘organic’ doesn’t invariably imply life creation.”
“This suggests the presence of numerous carbon-carbon bonds.”
“Alternative processes can yield organic compounds without biological involvement. The organic compounds identified here could have been synthesized either by or as a result of biological activity.”
“If they originated from an organism, decomposition through chemical reactions, radiation, or heat would have been required to yield the G-band we observe today.”
This research outlines two potential scenarios: Firstly, these reactions might be abiotic (driven by geochemical mechanisms) while microorganisms, similar to those on Earth, could have influenced these reactions.
Interestingly, although some features of the nodules and reaction fronts can be produced by non-biological reactions between organic matter and iron, established geochemical processes that can generate sulfur-related features tend to require relatively high temperatures.
“Every observation we’ve made regarding these rocks indicates that they haven’t been subjected to heat capable of producing leopard spots and poppy seeds,” Dr. Tice remarked.
“If that’s accurate, we must genuinely contemplate the possibility that such formations were created by bacteria-like life forms existing in the Martian lake sediments over 300 million years ago.”
Views of Perseverance path through Neretva Vallis and the formation of Bright Angels. Image credit: Hurowitz et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09413-0.
The research team underscores that while the evidence is not definitive proof of past life, the findings align with NASA’s criteria for potential biosignatures. This characteristic paves the way for further inquiries to ascertain the biological or non-biological origins.
Perseverance has collected core samples from a Bright Angel layer named Sapphire Canyon, which are currently housed in sealed tubes onboard the rover.
This sample is prioritized for future return to Earth in a prospective mission.
“Once we return this sample to Earth, we can investigate it using far more sensitive instruments than those we can deploy on Mars,” Dr. Tice explained.
“We could analyze the isotopic composition of organic materials, fine mineralogy, and conduct searches for microfossils if they exist.”
“More tests can also help determine the maximum temperatures these rocks were subjected to, and whether high-temperature geochemical processes are the most plausible explanations for any potential biological signatures.”
“The similarities between processes on Mars and Earth are indeed remarkable. However, there’s one crucial distinction.”
“It’s fascinating to note that life employs some of the same processes on both planets around the same epochs.”
“We observe signs of microorganisms in Earth’s rocks of similar ages where iron and sulfur interact with organic matter in comparable ways, but we don’t encounter the exact features seen in Mars’ ancient stones.”
Due to tectonic activities, the majority of Earth’s rocks have been altered significantly, making it unique and spectacular to witness this phenomenon on another planet.”
____
Ja Hurowitz et al. 2025. Redox-driven minerals and organic associations at Jezero Crater, Mars. Nature 645, 332-340; doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09413-0
This article is based on a press release provided by Texas A&M University.
Researchers from the University of California, Berkeley and Stanford University have investigated the brain circuits that regulate the release of growth hormone during sleep. Their findings reveal new feedback mechanisms that keep growth hormone levels finely tuned. This discovery could lead to advancements in treating individuals with sleep disorders associated with metabolic issues like diabetes, as well as degenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s.
Sleep is known to promote tissue growth and regulate metabolism by partially promoting growth hormone (GH) release, but the underlying circuit mechanism is unknown. Ding et al. show how GH release, which is enhanced in both rapid eye movement (REM) and non-REM (NREM) sleep, is regulated by sleep-wake-dependent activities of distinct hypothalamic neurons that express GH release hormone (GHRH) and somatostatin (SST). Arcuate nuclei SST neurons inhibit GH release by targeting nearby GHRH neurons that stimulate GH release, while periencephalic SST neurons project onto the median ridge to inhibit GH release. GH release is associated with significant surges of both GHRH and SST activity during REM sleep, while NREM sleep sees moderate increases in GHRH and reductions in SST activity. Furthermore, Ding et al. identified negative feedback pathways where GH increases the excitability of locus ceruleus neurons, leading to increased arousal. Image credit: Ding et al, doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.05.039.
“We have gained significant insights into this area,” said Xinlu Ding, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of California, Berkeley.
“We directly recorded the neural activity of mice to understand the underlying processes.”
“Our findings provide a foundational circuit to explore various treatment options moving forward.”
Neurons that manage growth hormone release during the sleep-wake cycle—specifically growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) neurons and two types of somatostatin neurons—are located deep within the hypothalamus, an ancient brain region present in all mammals.
Once released, growth hormone enhances the activity of locus coeruleus neurons, a brainstem region involved in arousal, attention, cognition, and curiosity.
Dysregulation of locus coeruleus neurons is linked to numerous psychiatric and neurological disorders.
“Understanding the neural circuits involved in growth hormone release could ultimately lead to new hormone therapies aimed at enhancing sleep quality and restoring normal growth hormone levels,” explained Daniel Silverman from the University of California, Berkeley.
“Several experimental gene therapies have been developed that target specific cell types.”
“This circuit could serve as a new approach to modulate the excitability of the locus coeruleus, which has not been effectively targeted before.”
The researchers investigated neuroendocrine circuits by implanting electrodes into the mouse brain and measuring activity changes triggered by light stimulation of hypothalamic neurons.
Mice have short sleep bouts (lasting several minutes at a time) throughout day and night, providing ample opportunities to study fluctuations in growth hormone during the sleep-wake cycle.
Utilizing advanced circuit mapping techniques, researchers found that the two peptide hormones (GHRH and somatostatin) regulating growth hormone release operate differently during REM and non-REM sleep.
Both somatostatin and GHRH promote growth hormone release during REM sleep; however, somatostatin decreases and GHRH sees only moderate increases during non-REM sleep, which still results in growth hormone release.
Growth hormone release regulates locus coeruleus activity through a feedback mechanism, creating a homeostatic balance.
During sleep, growth hormone accumulates at a gradual pace, stimulating the locus coeruleus and fostering arousal, according to the new findings.
However, excessive activation of the locus coeruleus can paradoxically lead to drowsiness.
“This indicates that sleep and growth hormone form a delicate balance. Insufficient sleep diminishes growth hormone release, while excessive growth hormone may drive the brain toward wakefulness,” Dr. Silverman noted.
“Sleep facilitates growth hormone release, which in turn regulates arousal. This equilibrium is crucial for growth, repair, and metabolic health.”
Growth hormone functions partially through the locus coeruleus, influencing overall brain alertness during wakefulness, emphasizing the importance of maintaining proper balance for cognitive function and attention.
“Growth hormone is pivotal not only for muscle and bone development and reducing fat tissue, but it also offers cognitive benefits and can elevate overall arousal levels upon waking,” stated Dr. Ding.
The rising acidity of the Earth’s oceans is leading to the corrosion and deterioration of shark teeth.
As apex predators, shark teeth serve as essential tools, but recent studies reveal that climate change is adversely affecting their strength and durability.
“They are highly specialized instruments designed for slicing through flesh without withstanding ocean acidity,” explained Maximilian Baum from Heinrich Heine University (HHU) in Düsseldorf. “Our findings underscore how even the most finely tuned weapons in nature are not immune to vulnerability.”
Sharks continuously regenerate their teeth, yet the deteriorating conditions of our oceans can compromise them more swiftly than they can heal.
With the oceans increasingly absorbing carbon dioxide due to climate change, their acidity levels are rising.
Currently, ocean water sits at a pH of 8.1, but it could drop to as low as 7.3 by 2300.
This research is part of the undergraduate project Frontier, where Baum sought to assess the impact of these changes on marine organisms.
By acquiring hundreds of black-tip reef shark teeth from an aquarium housing the study’s subjects, Baum was able to conduct his experiments.
Approximately 50 intact teeth were then placed in tanks with varying pH levels and left there for 8 weeks.
Upon evaluation at the conclusion of the study, it was evident that teeth exposed to acidic water exhibited considerably greater damage compared to those in 8.1 pH conditions.
Microscopic view of teeth held in water at pH 7.3 for 8 weeks – Credit: Steffen Köhler
“We noted visible surface defects such as cracks and holes, heightened root corrosion, and structural degradation,” remarked Professor Sebastian Fraun, who supervised the project at HHU.
The acidic conditions also rendered the tooth surfaces rough and uneven. While this may enhance the shark’s cutting efficiency, it simultaneously compromised the structural integrity of the teeth, increasing their likelihood of breaking.
“Maintaining a marine pH close to the current average of 8.1 is crucial for preserving the physical strength of this predatory tool,” Baum noted. “This highlights the broad impacts climate change has across the food web and entire ecosystems.”
About Our Experts
Maximilian Baum | I am a student at the Faculty of Biology at Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf.
Professor Sebastian Fraun | He is the head of the Institute for Zoology and Biology Interactions at Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf.
The initial bodies that formed in the solar system gathered materials from stars, presolar molecular clouds, and protozoan debris. Asteroids that have not experienced planetary differentiation retain evidence of these significant materials. Nevertheless, geological processes such as hydrothermal changes can significantly modify their composition and chemistry. In a recent study, researchers scrutinized the elemental and isotopic composition of samples from the asteroid Bennu, uncovering the origin and nature of the materials associated with its parent body.
This mosaic image of the asteroid Bennu consists of 12 images collected on December 2, 2018 by a 15-mile (24 km) Polycam instrument at Osiris-Rex. Image credit: NASA/NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center/University of Arizona.
“Our analysis shows that Bennu’s elemental composition closely resembles that of the sun,” stated LLNL scientist Greg Brennecka.
“This indicates that the materials obtained from Bennu provide a valuable reference to the initial arrangement of the entire solar system.”
“Notably, Bennu has remained largely untouched by intense heat, which would alter some of its original ingredients.”
Researchers continue to investigate how planets form, and determining the initial composition of the solar system is akin to gathering a recipe for a cake.
“With that recipe, we gain insight into how all these elements interacted to create the solar system and, ultimately, the Earth and its living beings,” Dr. Brennecca remarked.
“If we aim to understand our origins, the composition of our solar system serves as a fundamental starting point.”
Outer view of the Osiris-Rex sample collector. Sample material for the asteroid can be seen in the center right. Image credits: NASA/Erika Blumenfeld/Joseph Aebersold.
The Osiris-Rex mission by NASA has introduced new possibilities by returning pristine samples to Earth while avoiding contamination from our planet.
LLNL scientist Quinn Shollenberger commented:
“We cannot tackle the significant question of ‘origins’ without a sample on Earth.”
“One of our objectives is to ascertain which elements of the periodic table and their percentages contributed to the solar system’s inception. Bennu can help us uncover this,” noted LLNL scientist Jan Render.
To achieve these findings, researchers ground the asteroid material into fine powders and dissolved them in acid.
This mixture was then analyzed with a series of mass spectrometers to determine the concentrations of most elements within the periodic table.
From these results, scientists have sorted the samples by elements and successfully analyzed the isotopic ratios of several.
“I work at a National Laboratory that boasts remarkable analytical capabilities with state-of-the-art equipment,” shared LLNL scientist Josh Winpenny.
“It is quite rare to have all these functions consolidated in one place, allowing us to make optimal use of these valuable materials.”
“NASA’s Johnson Space Center researcher Dr. Anne Nuguen stated:
“We discovered stardust grains with compositions predating our solar system, organic materials likely formed in interstellar space, and high-temperature minerals that originated close to the sun.”
“All these components were transported over to the region that formed Bennu’s precursor asteroids.”
Survey results published in the journal Natural Astronomy.
____
JJ Burns et al. Diversity and origin of materials accumulated by Bennu’s pro-asteroids. Nat Astron Published online on August 22, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41550-025-02631-6
Astronomers utilizing a visible broadband imager at NSF’s Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope captured an extraordinary coronal loop strand during the attenuation phase of the X1.3 class flare on August 8, 2024. This discovery heralds a significant advancement in determining the fundamental scale of solar coronal loops, advancing flare modeling into a groundbreaking territory.
High-resolution image of flares from the Inouye Solar Telescope, taken at 8:12 UT on August 2024. The image shows approximately four earth diamonds on each side. Labels for various related regions of the image are added to clarify: flare ribbons (bright regions of energy emissions in the dense low solar atmosphere) and arcades of coronal loops (arcs of magnetic field lines that transport energy from the corona to the flare ribbons). Image credit: NSF/NSO/AURA.
Coronal loops are plasma arches that follow solar magnetic field lines and often precede solar flares, which release massive amounts of energy tied to some of these lines.
This energy burst ignites solar storms that can impact Earth’s vital infrastructure.
Inouye astronomers observe sunlight at the H-Alpha wavelength (656.28 nm) to reveal specific solar features that remain hidden in other forms of solar observation.
“A lot of effort has gone into understanding this domain,” noted Dr. Cole Tamburi, an astronomer from the University of Colorado, Boulder.
“These flares represent some of the most energetic occurrences in our stars, and we were fortunate to capture this under ideal observational conditions.”
Dr. Tamburi and his team concentrated on the thin magnetic field loops resembling razors, woven over the flared ribbons.
On average, the loops measured around 48 km in width, although some results were limited by the telescope’s resolution.
“Before Inouye, I could only envision what this scale might look like,” remarked Dr. Tamburi.
“Now we can witness it in reality. These are the tiniest coronal loops observed on the sun.”
Inouye’s Visible Broadband Imager (VBI) tuned to the H-Alpha filter can resolve features down to 24 km.
This resolution is more than twice as sharp as that of the next best solar telescope, making this discovery possible.
“It’s one thing to theorize about a telescope’s capabilities,” commented Dr. Maria Kazachenko, PhD, from the University of Colorado Boulder.
“It’s invigorating to see those theories validated in practice.”
Initially, the research plan involved investigating the dynamics of chromospheric spectral lines using Inouye’s Visible Spectrometer (VISP). However, VBI data uncovered an unexpected treasure: an intricate coronal structure that can directly enhance flare models built with complex radiative hydrodynamic codes.
“We set out to find one thing and stumbled upon something even more intriguing,” Dr. Kazachenko stated.
The prevailing theory suggested that coronal loops could range from 10 to 100 km in width, but verifying this observationally had been challenging.
“We are finally gaining insight into the spatial scales we have long speculated about,” Dr. Tamburi explained.
“This paves the way for examining not just size, but shape, evolution, and even the scales where magnetic reconnection—the engine behind flares—occurs.”
Perhaps the most exciting implication is that these loops might be fundamental structures, core components of flare architecture.
“In that scenario, we wouldn’t just be mapping out clusters of loops; for the first time, we’re analyzing individual loops,” Dr. Tamburi added.
“It’s akin to observing a forest and suddenly recognizing all the trees.”
The image itself is stunning. A radiant arcade crowned with dark, thread-like loops, vibrant flared ribbons marked with strikingly sharp contours—ascending triangular patterns near the center and arc-shaped formations at the top.
“Even casual observers will soon recognize its complexity,” Dr. Tamburi remarked.
“This represents a landmark moment in solar science.”
“We are finally observing the sun at a scale that makes sense.”
The team’s paper will be published in Astrophysics Journal Letters.
____
Cole A. Tumburi et al. 2025. Revealing unprecedented microstructure in coronal flare loops using DKIST. apjl in press; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ADF95E
Astronomers have identified a new moon nestled among the 28 others near Uranus.
NASA, ESA, CSA, STSCI, M. ELMOU
A recently discovered, faint moon orbits Uranus, bringing its total count to 29. Several of the other moons of this gas giant bear names from the works of William Shakespeare, and there are discussions among scientists about which character will inspire the new moon’s name.
The moon was uncovered by a team led by Maryame El Moutamid from the Southwest Research Institute in Colorado, utilizing 10 long-exposure infrared images captured by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) on February 2 this year.
For now, the moon is temporarily designated as S/2025 U 1. However, it is likely to receive a name aligned with the tradition of naming Uranus’ moons after characters from Shakespeare’s plays, a convention established since the discovery of Titania and Oberon, the planet’s first two moons, in 1787.
All proposed names for newly discovered moons must receive approval from the International Astronomical Union (IAU), the authoritative body responsible for assigning names and designations to celestial objects. Mark Showalter from the Seti Institute, who is part of the research team and an avid theater enthusiast, mentioned that while there hasn’t been any discussion on candidates yet, it’s certainly an intriguing proposition.
Showalter described the challenge of detecting such a small, dim moon, comparing it to “trying to see a fly while staring directly at the headlights of a car.” He expressed admiration for the James Webb telescope’s sensitivity, which far exceeds that of any telescope that has come before it.
There is optimism for more moons to be discovered around Uranus, as Showalter remarked, “We certainly haven’t completed our observations.” He believes it’s reasonable to propose that additional satellites exist, particularly those that may influence the ring system.
El Moutamid pointed out that the clarity of Uranus’ rings suggests there could be more undiscovered moons associated with their formation. “Perhaps there are more waiting to be identified,” she added. Some could be uncovered by the JWST, while others may be detected by a proposed Uranus orbiter and probe mission targeted for 2044. “There likely are many very small moons that remain invisible due to the limitations of current observational methods,” she said.
The S/2025 U1 is estimated to measure around 10 km in diameter, rendering it too small to be captured by cameras on the Voyager 2 probe, which launched in 1977 and passed Uranus in 1986, coming within around 81,500 kilometers. To date, it remains the closest encounter with Uranus by any spacecraft from Earth.
The new moon resides at the inner edge of Uranus’ rings, situated approximately 56,250 kilometers from the center of the planet’s equatorial plane, fitting between the orbits of the moons Ophelia and Bianca.
NASA oversees the JWST’s “General Observer” program, which allows researchers worldwide to propose observation targets that require one of the telescope’s advanced sensors. El Moutamid dedicated time to studying Uranus’ rings using the JWST’s Nircam Instrument (a high-resolution infrared sensor), which ultimately led to the discovery of this new moon.
If you think we’ve already asked, do you know precisely what Déjà Vu is? If you’re among the wise, you’ll say it’s a peculiar sensation that you’ve experienced something before.
However, many neuroscientists argue that this definition lacks a touch of the enigmatic. Experts like Dr. Akira O’Connor, a Senior Psychology Lecturer at St Andrews University, indicates that Déjà Vu (French for ‘already seen’) is not just a friendly notion but also a metacognitive perception where these feelings can be misleading.
“Déjà Vu essentially represents a conflict between the perception of familiarity and the realization that something feels incorrectly familiar. This deception makes Déjà Vu unique compared to other memory occurrences,” he explains.
“Most healthy individuals recognize a sense of familiarity but do not tend to alter their behavior, even when they know something feels logically off.”
So, what occurs in the brain during Déjà Vu? And why do some individuals experience this phenomenon more frequently than others? Dive into the complete guide below for more insight.
However, neuroscientists have determined that this memory illusion does not signify an unhealthy brain. Far from a memory error, it is more about the brain’s functions. According to O’Connor, Déjà Vu surfaces when the frontal lobe attempts to rectify inaccurate memories.
“For most individuals, experiencing Déjà Vu is likely a positive sign that the brain regions responsible for factual checks are functioning effectively and preventing misremembering events.
“In healthy individuals, such false memories can emerge daily due to the complexity of memory involving millions and billions of neurons. It’s quite intricate,” he states.
Regrettably, there isn’t a universally accepted model that clarifies what transpires in the brain during Déjà Vu. Nevertheless, most leading theories converge on the idea that Déjà Vu arises when a brain area (like the temporal lobe) provides the frontal region with signals that past experiences are being replayed.
“Afterward, the decision-making region at the front checks if this signal aligns with reality. It’s essentially asking, ‘Have I been here before?'”
“If you have actually been in that location before, you might strive to recall more memories. Otherwise, the realization of Déjà Vu kicks in.”
Why Do Some Individuals Experience Déjà Vu More Frequently?
O’Connor estimates that the average healthy person feels Déjà Vu around once a month, but certain factors can heighten the chances of feeling this sensation.
First, your level of fatigue and stress plays a significant role. “When your brain is exhausted, it hasn’t had the chance to recover and regulate itself. Consequently, your neurons may be slightly misaligned, making you more prone to experiencing Déjà Vu,” he explains.
“Dopamine is what we label as an excitatory neurotransmitter. When discussing brain areas that signal familiarity, there’s a dopaminergic influence on those neurons, indicating dopamine’s involvement,” O’Connor adds.
“This might explain why recreational drugs, which affect dopaminergic activity, frequently lead to experiences of Déjà Vu.”
There are additional factors as well. Have you ever wondered why your Déjà Vu experiences have diminished? According to rigorous scientific studies, it could be because you’re inadvertently a step ahead.
“Unfortunately, like many memory phenomena, it is a natural consequence of aging, and you might not be capable of noticing the discrepancies,” O’Connor clarifies.
“It’s intriguing to observe that younger individuals frequently experience more Déjà Vu. Older adults are generally expected to have more memory issues; however, this generally results from them having heightened excitatory activity in their brains.
“When I embarked on my research into Déjà Vu nearly 20 years ago, I experienced it regularly, but now it’s much less frequent!”
Is Déjà Vu Ever Unhealthy?
Now that we know Déjà Vu is a healthy cognitive mechanism—far from dangerous—what if you find yourself experiencing it constantly? What could it mean if all new encounters feel familiar?
Interestingly, this can happen to some individuals. “In Finland, there are intriguing cases of individuals who have taken a combination of flu medications known to overly stimulate certain dopamine neurons.
“They found it particularly fascinating and continued taking those medications for a while.
However, not everyone can afford to step back from this existential déjà vu. Those who suffer from ‘Déjà vécu’ (French for ‘already experienced’) have an ongoing sensation of having already undergone their current situation. Essentially, nothing feels novel to them.
“What’s particularly captivating about individuals with Déjà vécu is that they often lose their ability to fact-check these feelings. Many cease watching television because they feel they’ve already seen every episode,” O’Connor observes.
“It sounds fascinating and innovative, but it’s genuinely distressing because it can often occur in individuals with dementia and may signal worsening degeneration.”
Explore More About Memory Science:
Déjà Vu: Jamais Vu is another curious phenomenon of similarity. It refers to the inability to recognize familiar scenarios logically. Though often linked with amnesia, it goes beyond mere memory lapses.
“This isn’t a typical form of forgetfulness,” O’Connor elaborates. “When you recognize a task at hand but are puzzled because you can’t identify something familiar. The crucial aspect is the perception element. You recognize that feeling as being fundamentally incorrect.”
“It occurs more frequently than Déjà Vu, yet likewise tends to happen when individuals are fatigued and is more common among younger people than older adults.”
Some laboratory experiments appear to induce Jamais Vu in participants. For instance, one study from the University of Leeds instructed 93 participants to write down the word ‘door’ as many times as possible within two minutes.
What’s particularly intriguing about this study is that it can be replicated anywhere. So, if you have two minutes and a pen handy, we encourage you to repeat after us: door, door, door, door, door…
About Our Expert – Dr. Akira O’Connor
Akira O’Connor is a senior lecturer at the School of Psychology and Neuroscience at St. Andrews University. His primary focus is on how memories influence decision-making and how we perceive them.
NASA has unveiled a stunning new image captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, showcasing the nearby Spiral Galaxy NGC 2835.
This Hubble image depicts NGC 2835, a spiral galaxy approximately 35 million light years away in the Hydra constellation. Image credit: NASA/ESA/Hubble/R. Chandar/J. Lee/Phangs-HST team.
NGC 2835 is a mid-spiral galaxy located about 35 million light years from Earth, situated in the southern Hydra constellation.
Commonly referred to as ESO 564-35, Leda 26259, and UGCA 157, this galaxy spans roughly 65,000 light years, which is just over half the size of our Milky Way.
Wilhelm Tempel, a German astronomer, discovered NGC 2835 on April 13, 1884.
This galaxy holds significance as the most prominent member of the NGC 2835 group, a small cluster that includes ESO 497-035 and ESO 565-001.
Notably, NGC 2835 harbors a supermassive black hole, estimated to have a mass between 3 to 10 million solar masses.
“The last Hubble image of this galaxy was published in 2020,” remarked Hubble astronomers in a statement.
“Is there any difference between today’s image of NGC 2835 and the earlier version?”
“Overall, NGC 2835 appears quite similar in both images, with the spiral arm showcasing young blue stars surrounding the oval core populated by older stars.”
“The new image stands out because it incorporates fresh data from Hubble, capturing red light at a specific wavelength known as H-Alpha.”
“The bright regions highlighted by H-alpha are visible along the spiral arm of NGC 2835, where a vibrant pink nebula gives an impression of blooming flowers.”
“H-Alpha light indicates the presence of various types of nebulae, each occurring at different phases of stellar evolution.”
“While massive, young stars create nebulae known as H II regions, a significant source of H-alpha light, dying stars can leave behind supernova remnants or planetary nebulae that can also be identified by H-alpha emissions.”
“Our goal is to identify over 50,000 nebulae using Hubble’s advanced equipment to explore 19 nearby galaxies.”
“These observations aid in understanding how stars influence their birth environments through intense starlight and stellar winds.”
Stromatolites are rock-like structures formed by bacteria in shallow water
Lkonya/Shutterstock
Microorganisms in the remote bays of Western Australia are interconnected through tiny tubes, suggesting early stages of complex life evolution.
In Shark Bay, known by the Indigenous name Gathaagudu, microbes create slimy, multi-layered assemblages called microbial mats. This challenging environment, buffeted by tidal shifts and temperature fluctuations, has fostered bacterial communities alongside another single-celled organism known as Archaea, which have thrived here for tens of thousands of years. These microorganisms often coexist symbiotically, forming layered sedimentary structures known as stromatolites.
“The mats develop under hypersaline conditions with elevated UV levels. It withstands cyclones. Despite facing numerous threats, they persist,” comments Brendan Burns from the University of New South Wales in Sydney.
He posits that these contemporary microbial communities may resemble those that existed billions of years ago when complex life first emerged. This evolution might have been driven by a mutual dependence between bacteria and Archaea, leading to the formation of more complex cells known as eukaryotes.
Burns and his team returned some of these microbial mat communities to the lab to cultivate the organisms in high-salinity, low-oxygen conditions.
They successfully cultured only one type of bacterium, stromatodesulfovibrio nilemahensis, and a newly identified archaeon named Nearachaeum marumarumayae, a member of the Asgard Archaea group. These archaeal bacteria, named after the gods’ abode in Norse mythology, are regarded as the closest relatives to the eukaryotic cells that comprise the bodies of animals, plants, and humans.
According to team members, “These organisms seem to directly interact and share nutrients,” states Iain Duggin of the Sydney Institute of Technology. Although there is no direct evidence yet, the complete genomic sequence obtained allows for speculation regarding the metabolic processes of both organisms.
The genomic analysis indicated that bacteria synthesize amino acids and vitamins, while the Archaea produce hydrogen and various compounds, such as acetic and sulfuric acids. Both sets of products are unique, indicating a dependency on each other.
The researchers also observed indications of direct interaction between the two species. “We have observed what we refer to as nanotubes,” notes Duggin. “These microscopic tubes, seemingly produced by bacteria, establish direct connections to the surface of the Asgard cells.”
3D reconstruction based on electron microscope images showing cell membranes of Archaeon (blue) and bacteria (green), with nanotubes (pink) between them
Dr. Matthew D. Johnson, Bindusmita Paul, Durin C. Shepherd et al.
In addition to their interactions, the Archaeon cells generate vesicle chains that resemble SAC-like structures utilized for transporting molecules along extracellular fibers. Duggin notes that these nano-sized vesicles appear to engage with the nanotubes formed by the bacteria.
“While nanotubes may be too slender for conduits, they facilitate a type of multicellular binding that enhances resource sharing,” asserts Duggin.
The researchers identified a protein similar to human muscle proteins, a genomic sequence coding for a previously unknown protein, and a protein consisting of about 5,500 amino acids, which is substantial for ancient species. “While I can’t claim it’s directly connected to human muscle proteins, it suggests that their evolutionary origins may trace back much further,” says team member Kate Mischey from the University of New South Wales.
“What fascinates me most are the direct connections formed by nanotubes between bacteria and archaea,” comments purilópez-garcía from Parisa Clay University, France. “Such interactions have not been documented in prior cultures.”
However, discerning the exact behaviors of bacteria and Archaea is challenging, remarks Buzz Baum from the MRC Institute of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK. “It’s a complex relationship of conflict and cooperation,” he notes. “They interact, share, and sometimes clash, demonstrating a nuanced understanding of each other’s presence.”
Duggin believes the prevalent dynamic is more cooperative than combative. “These organisms coexisted in our culture for over four years, suggesting a level of harmony rather than contention,” he adds.
Burns and his colleagues propose that their findings may reflect an early stage in the evolution of eukaryotic cells within microbial mats. Roland Hatzenpichler at Montana State University aligns with this perspective.
“The study’s outcomes indicate that the newly identified Asgard Archaea engage directly with sulfate-reducing bacteria,” he remarks.
However, Lopez Garcia cautions that these interactions may not date back beyond 2 billion years. “While these archaeal and bacterial forms are modern, the microbial environments they inhabit may provide insights into ancient ecosystems,” he explains.
According to Hatzenpichler, we may be on the verge of better understanding the similarities between recent microorganisms and the cells they collaborate with to form primitive nucleated cells. “We’re now in an advantageous position to uncover deeper truths,” he concludes.
It’s not that the enormous, carnivorous dinosaurs weren’t the terrifying, bone-crushing predators we envision.
A new study published in the journal Current Biology reveals that a variety of bipedal carnivorous dinosaurs, including Tyrannosaurus Rex, Spinosaurus, and Allosaurus, have evolved to possess the necessary skull strength for powerful bites.
Utilizing 3D scanning and computer modeling, the researchers examined the skull biomechanics of 18 species of theropods.
The findings indicated that while T. Rex and other giants had skulls designed to deliver immense bite forces capable of breaking bones, they actually possessed relatively weak jaws and employed diverse hunting strategies.
“The skull of a T. Rex was specifically optimized for high bite force, which led to significant skull stress,” stated the lead author, Dr. Andrew Lowe from the University of Bristol, UK. “In contrast, stress patterns in other giants like Giganotosaurus suggested they had relatively mild bites. This implies a variety of evolutionary pathways for these carnivorous giants.”
Giganotosaurus is larger than T. rex, reaching 13m (43 feet) long and weighing almost 14 tons – Credit: Getty
Instead of adhering to a singular evolutionary path to apex status, large carnivorous dinosaurs evolved various skull shapes and feeding strategies. Some, like T. Rex, would bite down akin to a crocodile, while others, such as Allosaurus and Spinosaurus, employed thrashing or ripping techniques reminiscent of modern Komodo dragons and big cats.
“The Tyrannosaurus took a different approach,” remarked Steve Brusatte, a professor and paleontologist at the University of Edinburgh who was not part of the study, as reported by BBC Science Focus. “They developed immense bite strength, allowing them to crush the bones of their prey. This created a perilous lifestyle, subjecting the skull’s bones and muscles to significant stress.”
The results also challenge the belief that larger dinosaurs necessarily had stronger bites. Some smaller species may actually exert more stress on their skulls due to increased muscle mass, indicating that size alone isn’t the key factor in bite power.
The variability in bite strength and skull architecture hints at a more specialized ecological landscape in dinosaur ecosystems, offering multiple strategies for dominance in the prehistoric food chain.
“There wasn’t a singular ‘best’ skull design for being a predatory giant. Various designs proved effective,” noted Lowe. “This biomechanical diversity implies that dinosaur ecosystems supported a more extensive range of giant carnivorous ecological niches than we typically consider, with less competition and greater specialization.”
Read more:
About our experts
Steve Brusatte is a professor and paleontologist at the University of Edinburgh, and author of the book Mammal Ascending and Governing (20 pounds, Picador), focusing on 325 million years of mammalian evolution and fossils.
Recent analysis of new images from the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope reveals that the nucleus of 3i/Atlas measures between 320 m (1,000 ft) and 5.6 km (3.5 miles).
Hubble captured this image of 3i/Atlas, which was located 446 million km (277 million miles) from Earth on July 21, 2025. Image credits: NASA/ESA/David Jewitt, UCLA/Joseph Depasquale, Stsci.
3i/Atlas was discovered on July 1, 2025, by the Asteroid Land Impact Trastor Alt System (ATLAS) funded by NASA.
Its orbit is the most dynamically extreme among recorded solar system objects.
New observations from Hubble have provided astronomers with a more precise estimation of the comet’s solid icy nucleus size.
“The maximum diameter of the nucleus is 5.6 km, but it averages around 320 m,” stated David Jewitt, an astronomer from UCLA, along with his colleagues.
“Hubble’s images offer tighter constraints on the nucleus’s size compared to earlier ground-based measurements, although the solid core of the comet is not currently visible directly even with Hubble.”
“Data from other NASA missions, like Webb, TESS, Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory, and WM Keck Observatory, will further enhance our understanding of comets, including their chemical composition.”
Hubble also detected indications of dust plumes ejected from the sun-warmed side of the comet, along with dust tails drifting away from the nucleus.
The new findings indicate a dust loss velocity that aligns with the first comet observed at roughly 480 million km (300 million miles) from the Sun.
This behavior closely resembles the characteristics of a previously seen sun-bound comet observed within our solar system.
A notable difference is that this interstellar visitor originates from planetary systems beyond our Milky Way galaxy.
3i/Atlas speeds through the solar system at an astonishing rate of 209,000 km (130,000 miles) per hour, marking the highest speed ever recorded for visitors to our solar system.
This remarkable velocity indicates that comets have been traversing interstellar space for billions of years.
The gravitational pull from countless stars and nebulae has contributed to its increased speed.
The longer 3i/Atlas journeys through space, the faster it moves.
“No one knows the origin of this comet; it’s like catching a glimpse of a bullet for a thousandth of a second,” Dr. Jewitt observed.
“You can’t accurately trace that back to determine where you commenced your path.”
“This latest interstellar traveler represents a previously undetected group of objects, enriching the narrative that has gradually unfolded.”
“This achievement is now possible due to the powerful Sky Survey capability we previously lacked. We’ve reached a new milestone.”
Although they are about half the size of male gorillas, female gorillas can surpass their male counterparts in competitions for status and resources. A recent study highlights this intriguing finding.
This discovery upends the long-held belief that gorilla society is primarily patriarchal, emphasizing male dominance over females, and sheds light on the origins of human gender relations.
Researchers from the German Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology and the University of Torque in Finland examined 25 years of data gathered from observations of gorilla behaviors across four distinct groups.
Wild mountain gorillas have often been viewed as a prime example of strict male dominance in primate societies, largely due to the size disparity between males and females.
It is true that gorilla society has a hierarchical structure, with one alpha male reigning at the top, while other gorillas vie for status beneath him.
However, this new research suggests that gorilla hierarchies may be much more gender-equitable than previously thought.
“Female gorillas frequently outperform males,” stated author Reed Dr. Nikos Smitt, a researcher at Max Planck and Turku, in an interview with BBC Science Focus. “This is crucial for understanding power dynamics; it’s not solely about size and strength.”
Indeed, 88% of female gorillas exhibited superior performance compared to at least one adult male in groups with multiple males, particularly against those who were young or old.
Additionally, when female gorillas faced off against males other than the alpha, they won more than a quarter of the time, even when significantly outmatched in size.
According to Dr. Martha Robbins, Director of the Bwindi Mountain Gorilla Research Project, this success is likely linked to the relationships between these high-ranking females and their alpha males. BBC Science Focus reported her insights: “Gorillas are aware of their group’s social status and dynamics. Though non-alpha males are typically larger and stronger, they often choose to hold back to avoid confrontations with alpha males. It’s advantageous for them to be compliant in a group setting.”
This image illustrates the size differences between women with toddlers in the non-invasive national park of Bwindi, Uganda, and male mountain gorillas – Credit: Marthalobins
Researchers have also found that the stakes in these conflicts often involve priority access to food, another finding that challenges previous assumptions.
Earlier studies suggested that female gorillas exclusively competed for food among themselves, with males primarily competing with females. However, this research reveals that both genders vie for food resources.
These observations could reshape our understanding of gender dynamics within human societies.
The researchers noted that male dominance over female counterparts is not a straightforward outcome of evolution, but rather reflects “human’s flexible social and mating frameworks.”
Furthermore, they argue that this is supported by observations among our close relatives, such as bonobos and chimpanzees, where males are larger than females, yet females hold more dominance.
As a result, scientists suggest that humans are unlikely to inherit patriarchal structures from their primate ancestors.
Read more:
About Our Experts
Dr. Nikos Smitt is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Torque in Finland and associated with the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany. His research delves into the evolution of social structures and mating systems, as well as the dynamics of conflict and cooperation.
Dr. Martha Robbins serves as the director of the Bwindi Mountain Gorilla Research Project and leads the Primate Behavior and Evolution group at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany. Her research is centered on the evolution of social behavior.
Donald Trump praised Apple for its pledge to boost its investment in U.S. manufacturing by an additional $100 billion over the next four years.
Apple’s commitment to increasing its domestic investments comes as it seeks to circumvent the tariffs threatened by Trump. During a May revenue call, CEO Tim Cook cautioned that tariffs could lead to losses of up to $900 million in that fiscal quarter alone.
Cook mentioned that many components of the iPhone, such as glass, semiconductors, and Face ID modules, are already produced domestically. However, he noted that final assembly will remain overseas for the time being. Previously, he stated that this new investment would involve collaboration with ten companies across the U.S. that manufacture components for Apple products.
Apple previously announced a plan to invest $500 million domestically, which has now increased to $600 million. The company also intends to hire 20,000 workers in the U.S. over the next four years.
Recently, Trump has vocally criticized tech companies, with Cook pursuing a strategy to shift iPhone production to India to evade tariffs imposed by the Republican administration on China. On the same day the White House made its announcement, Trump raised U.S. tariffs on India from 25% to 50%.
While in Qatar earlier this year, Trump mentioned a “slight problem” with Apple during a conversation with Cook, indicating he didn’t want production to move to India.
India has incurred the president’s ire lately as he ordered an additional 25% tariff on the country, citing its use of Russian oil. This new import tax, set to be implemented over 21 days, could elevate total tariffs on Indian goods to 50%.
According to Reuters, Apple tried to preempt Indian tariffs in April by exporting as many as 1.5 million iPhones from the country to the U.S.
The iPhone is composed of parts sourced from multiple countries, with final assembly primarily taking place in China, making the company particularly vulnerable to Trump’s tariffs. A shift of production to the U.S. could significantly increase costs, as many analysts regard American-made iPhones as a pipe dream while Apple navigates the uncertain waters of Trump’s trade war.
Apple’s announcement of increased investment aims to enhance supply chains and advanced manufacturing capabilities within the United States.
This latest pledge from Apple comes shortly after the company signed a $500 million contract with MP Materials, which operates the only rare earth mine in the U.S. This deal allows MP Materials to expand its Texas facility and utilize recycled materials to manufacture magnets vital for the iPhone.
During the recent investor call, Cook highlighted the various components produced in the U.S., such as glass displays and facial recognition modules, and indicated that there are plans to scale up production for additional components within the country.
“We’re doing more here, with about 1.9 billion chips now being produced in the U.S. We’re making progress,” Cook stated last week without going into further details.
Despite investors’ concerns regarding impending tariffs and a slowdown in adopting artificial intelligence, Apple’s latest revenue report indicates strong iPhone sales, surpassing Wall Street expectations year over year. Following news of Trump’s announcement, Apple’s stock, which had dropped significantly earlier this year, jumped over 5% on Wednesday.
The glow within the cluster is the soft luminosity of stars that have been stripped from their galaxy amidst the layers of galaxy clusters.
Abell 3667 is depicted in this Decam image. Image credits: CTIO/NOIRLAB/NSF/AURA/ANTHONY ENGLERT, Brown University/TA Rector, Noirlab/M. Zamani & D of University of Alaska Anchorage & NSF. De Martin, NSF’s Noirlab.
Galaxy clusters comprise thousands of galaxies, varying widely in age, shape, and size.
Typically, they have a mass about 10 billion times that of the Sun.
Historically, galactic clusters were regarded as the largest structures in the universe, spanning hundreds of millions of light-years and including numerous galactic clusters and groups, until superclusters were discovered in the 1980s.
Nonetheless, galaxy clusters still hold the title of the largest gravitationally bound structure in the universe.
“The study of galaxy clusters not only informs us about the formation of the universe, but it also places constraints on the characteristics of dark matter,” stated Brown University astronomer Anthony Englat and his team.
One significant clue astronomers seek to grasp the history of galactic clusters is the light within the cluster. This faint glow is emitted by stars that have been stripped from their original galaxy due to the immense gravitational forces of the forming galaxy cluster.
These stars provide evidence of past galactic interactions, although most current telescopes and cameras face challenges in detecting them.
The subtle intra-cluster light from the galaxy cluster Abel 3667 shines vividly in new images created from a total of 28 hours of observation at 570 megapixels using the Dark Energy Camera (Decam) at NSF’s M. Blanco 4-M Telescope, a program of NSF’s Noirlab at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory.
“Abell 3667 is located over 700 million light-years away from us,” the astronomer mentioned.
“Most of the faint light sources in this image are distant galaxies, not foreground stars from our own Milky Way.”
“In Abell 3667, two small galaxy clusters are currently merging, as evidenced by the luminous bridge (yellow) of stars extending toward the center of this image.”
“This bridge is formed from material stripped off from the merging galaxies, forming one massive conglomerate known as the brightest cluster galaxy.”
“Not only does this sparkling sky encompass distant galaxies, but it also highlights faint foreground features due to the prolonged exposure.”
“The Milky Way’s hair follicles, or integrated flux nebula, consist of faint clouds of interstellar dust that appear as soft bluish chains crossing the image.”
“These structures are patches of dust that are illuminated by the light of the stars within our own galaxy.”
“They present as diffuse, filamentous formations that can span extensive areas of the sky.”
Survey results will be published in the Astrophysics Journal Letter.
____
Anthony M. Engrat et al. 2025. Announcing optical bridges in Abel 3667 in-cluster light: LSST precursor data. apjl 989, L2; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ade8f1
NASA, ESA, Jennifer Lotz, Matt Mountain, Anton M. Koekemoer, HFF Team (STScI)
In the vast expanse of the universe, galaxies that exhibit peculiar contours are surprisingly filled with ancient stars. This offers astronomers an initial peek into a unique type of stellar body that emerged soon after the universe’s inception.
Although the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has allowed scientists to revisit regions of the early universe, pinpointing the first stars remains elusive. These primordial stars, termed Population III stars, are primarily colossal hydrogen spheres believed to have formed in the universe’s infancy. As the very first stars, they left behind an environment largely devoid of heavier elements following their demise.
While there have been theories hinting at the existence of such stars, definitively proving their existence in the early universe has been challenging, as galaxies appeared to have become tainted with heavier elements merely a few hundred million years post-Big Bang.
Recently, Morihara Highlands from the California Institute of Technology and his team found a galaxy almost entirely composed of hydrogen, indicating the presence of Population III stars. However, this galaxy emerged later than expected, approximately a billion years after the universe began.
Dubbed Amore6, it was initially identified within the Abell 2744 galaxy cluster. Upon measuring the light from Amore6 using the JWST, Morishita and his colleagues noted the complete absence of common oxygen ions. This suggests that the galaxy harbors less than 0.2% of the oxygen present in our sun, indicating a lack of contamination by heavier elements.
As the universe evolves, the likelihood of encountering such pristine galaxies diminishes. In images captured by the JWST, Amore6 appears somewhat isolated, which Morishita posits could be a factor in its untouched state. “This seclusion might mean that this galaxy has not yet encountered sufficient gas to trigger star formation, implying that it could evolve slowly,” he mentions.
“If these findings are validated, it would be truly astonishing, as we did not anticipate discovering such an untarnished galactic environment later in the universe’s development,” says Fabio Pacucci of the Harvard Smithsonian Astrophysics Center in Massachusetts.
This discovery has implications for observing “direct collapse” black holes. Unlike the conventional pathway of collapsed stars, these black holes form from massive clouds of untainted gas. While astronomers had predicted their existence, they have never actually formed as it was believed that primitive gas was only available for a limited period, up to 100 million years after the Big Bang. However, if this untainted gas can persist for an extended duration, the potential for observing such phenomena increases, Pacucci argues.
World Capital of Astronomy: Chile
Explore the astronomical marvels of Chile. Visit some of the world’s most advanced observatories and gaze at the star-filled sky beneath some of the clearest conditions on Earth.
Nectakarizids are enigmatic Paleozoic creatures with a debatable classification. These beings evolved for aquatic life, boasting fins, camera-like eyes on stalks, and paired tentacles. Earlier theories proposed they belonged to a unique crustacean-like phylum, notochord, cephalopods, or even radioyoloons. However, new fossil discoveries from North Greenland indicate that Nectocalids are actually the early relatives of Arrow worms, also known as Chaetognaths. This discovery suggests that these relatively simplistic marine arrow worms had ancestors that played a significant predatory role within much more intricate anatomical structures and food webs.
Reconstructing the life of Nektognathus evasmithae. Image credit: Bob Nichols.
“About 15 years ago, a study based on the notable Burgess Shale fossil suggested that Nectochalidosis is a type of cephalopod,” said Jacob Vincer, a paleontologist at the University of Bristol.
“This argument seemed illogical to me as it contradicts much of what I understand about the taxonomy of these organisms.
In the recent research, Dr. Vinther and his team described Nektognathus evasmithae, a newly identified Nectocalid from the Sirius Passett Lagerstätte, dating back 519 million years in North Greenland.
By examining 25 fossil specimens of Nektognathus evasmithae, they successfully positioned the Nectocalid within the Tree of Life.
“We found that remnants of the nervous system manifested as paired mineralized structures, providing insight into these animals’ position in the evolutionary tree,” Dr. Winter remarked.
Nektognathus evasmithae holotype. Image credit: Vinther et al., doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adu6990.
Recently, paleontologists found a fossil from Sirius Passett, which belongs to a different branch of the evolutionary tree—a small group of swimming organisms known as arrow bugs and Chaetognaths.
“These fossils exhibit distinctive traits that set them apart from arrow worms, particularly the abdominal ganglia,” explains Dr. Tae Yoon Park, a paleontologist at the Korean Institute of Polar Research.
The abdominal ganglia consist of large nerve clusters situated above the abdomen in living arrow bugs, typical for this type of creature.
The distinctive anatomical features, coupled with unique preservation conditions, indicate that they may be replaced by phosphate minerals during the decomposition process.
“We now have a compelling piece of evidence to resolve the Nectkalido debate,” Dr. Park stated.
“Nectocaridids share numerous features with other fossils that are also part of the arrow worm lineage.”
“Many of these characteristics may superficially resemble squid and demonstrate a simple adaptation of invertebrates to a more dynamic swimming lifestyle, paralleling how whales and ancient marine reptiles evolved similar traits for their aquatic lifestyles.”
“Nectakalids possess complex camera-like eyes akin to ours,” Dr. Vincer elaborated.
“Contemporary arrow worms have a limited ability to form images, primarily detecting movement in well-lit environments.”
“Thus, the ancestors of arrow worms were indeed sophisticated predators, much like squids that appeared around 400 million years later.”
“Consequently, we can illustrate how arrow worms have a more significant role in the food chain than previously thought.”
“Our fossils are notably larger than the average living arrow worm and likely feature various adaptations for swimming, such as eyes and elongated antennae.
“To further substantiate the carnivorous nature of Nectkalizids, we discovered several specimens containing the remains of a swimming arthropod known as Isoxys in their gastrointestinal tract.
This study was published this week in the journal Advances in Science.
____
Jacob Winter et al. 2025. Fossilized abdominal ganglia reveal the affinity of Chaetognaths for Cambrian calizids. Advances in science 11 (30); doi:10.1126/sciadv.adu6990
Improving the quality of the air we breathe is a significant achievement for public health, but paradoxically, it also accelerates global warming. This is highlighted in a recent study published in Communication Earth and the Environment, which connects the recent efforts to clean up air pollution in East Asia to the intensified climate crisis.
In the last 15 years, global warming has surged dramatically, and until now, the reasons behind this surge were unclear to scientists.
Co-author Dr. Robert Allen, a professor of climate studies at the University of California, Riverside, stated:
To address this, a large team of international scientists examined simulations from eight major climate models.
The majority of the accelerated warming seen since 2010 is believed to stem from efforts to reduce air pollution in East Asia.
During this same period, China was implementing a significant air quality policy that led to a reduction of sulfur dioxide emissions by approximately 75%.
Dr. Bjørn Samset, the lead author of the research and a senior researcher at Norway’s International Climate Environmental Studies Centre, explained to BBC Science Focus that pollution has historically been effective in cooling the planet.
“Think back to a day when the air was polluted or hazy,” he mentioned. “Particles in the air block some sunlight from reaching the ground, effectively providing a cooling shade.
“For decades, air pollution has been helping to mitigate some of the warming caused by greenhouse gases.”
Samset elaborated that by eliminating air pollution, as China has done, some of that cooling effect has been lost.
However, simply allowing pollution to persist is not the answer. Allen noted that 2 and methane must both be addressed together.
Before China’s 2010 air quality policy, pollution was a leading cause of premature deaths in the country – Credit: Jack-Enjo Photography via Getty
In addition to cutting greenhouse gases, some scientists have proposed unconventional measures to slow the climate crisis, such as reintroducing artificial pollution into the atmosphere.
Samset explained that this approach “involves releasing particles into the stratosphere or clouds, which can mirror the cooling effects of air pollution without the harmful health impacts.”
To do this, planes could disperse gas from altitudes of 20 km—significantly higher than typical passenger flights.
However, co-author Professor Laura Wilcox, a meteorologist at the University of Reading, advised in BBC Science Focus that such solutions do not resolve the core issues.
“Similar to air pollution, these methods merely mask atmospheric problems without addressing the root causes,” she stated.
“Another viable strategy is to actively remove CO.2,” she added. “This process, known as carbon capture, is already underway but on a limited scale.”
Possible solutions include planting trees and seaweed, developing mechanical trees, and directly capturing CO2 from the air for storage in rock formations.
Nevertheless, the key solution remains to “reduce greenhouse gas emissions primarily by transitioning away from fossil fuels,” said Samset.
read more:
About our experts
Dr. Bjørn Samset is a senior researcher at the Norwegian Centre for International Climate Research. A physicist and science communicator, he possesses extensive expertise in atmospheric science and global climate modeling, focusing on the impacts of air pollution on climate change through climate modeling.
Professor Laura Wilcox is a professor specializing in aerosol climate interactions at the University of Reading, UK. Her research interests encompass the effects of air pollution on climate and the impacts of aviation on the climate.
This website uses cookies so that we can provide you with the best user experience possible. Cookie information is stored in your browser and performs functions such as recognising you when you return to our website and helping our team to understand which sections of the website you find most interesting and useful.
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Strictly Necessary Cookie should be enabled at all times so that we can save your preferences for cookie settings.
