It’s not that the enormous, carnivorous dinosaurs weren’t the terrifying, bone-crushing predators we envision.
A new study published in the journal Current Biology reveals that a variety of bipedal carnivorous dinosaurs, including Tyrannosaurus Rex, Spinosaurus, and Allosaurus, have evolved to possess the necessary skull strength for powerful bites.
Utilizing 3D scanning and computer modeling, the researchers examined the skull biomechanics of 18 species of theropods.
The findings indicated that while T. Rex and other giants had skulls designed to deliver immense bite forces capable of breaking bones, they actually possessed relatively weak jaws and employed diverse hunting strategies.
“The skull of a T. Rex was specifically optimized for high bite force, which led to significant skull stress,” stated the lead author, Dr. Andrew Lowe from the University of Bristol, UK. “In contrast, stress patterns in other giants like Giganotosaurus suggested they had relatively mild bites. This implies a variety of evolutionary pathways for these carnivorous giants.”
Giganotosaurus is larger than T. rex, reaching 13m (43 feet) long and weighing almost 14 tons – Credit: Getty
Instead of adhering to a singular evolutionary path to apex status, large carnivorous dinosaurs evolved various skull shapes and feeding strategies. Some, like T. Rex, would bite down akin to a crocodile, while others, such as Allosaurus and Spinosaurus, employed thrashing or ripping techniques reminiscent of modern Komodo dragons and big cats.
“The Tyrannosaurus took a different approach,” remarked Steve Brusatte, a professor and paleontologist at the University of Edinburgh who was not part of the study, as reported by BBC Science Focus. “They developed immense bite strength, allowing them to crush the bones of their prey. This created a perilous lifestyle, subjecting the skull’s bones and muscles to significant stress.”
The results also challenge the belief that larger dinosaurs necessarily had stronger bites. Some smaller species may actually exert more stress on their skulls due to increased muscle mass, indicating that size alone isn’t the key factor in bite power.
The variability in bite strength and skull architecture hints at a more specialized ecological landscape in dinosaur ecosystems, offering multiple strategies for dominance in the prehistoric food chain.
“There wasn’t a singular ‘best’ skull design for being a predatory giant. Various designs proved effective,” noted Lowe. “This biomechanical diversity implies that dinosaur ecosystems supported a more extensive range of giant carnivorous ecological niches than we typically consider, with less competition and greater specialization.”
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About our experts
Steve Brusatte is a professor and paleontologist at the University of Edinburgh, and author of the book Mammal Ascending and Governing (20 pounds, Picador), focusing on 325 million years of mammalian evolution and fossils.
Recent findings suggest that captive parrots display dancing behaviors in response to music, which involves complex cognitive functions such as imitation, vocal learning, and rhythm. This dance behavior in parrots might be indicative of a positive welfare state, increasing the likelihood of using music as an environmental enrichment tool. In a recent study, researchers examined the dance movements of cockatoos through online video analysis and playback experiments, identifying a total of 30 distinct dance moves from 45 videos featuring five different cockatoo species. Notably, 17 of these moves had not been previously documented in scientific literature.
Cockatoos have been informally observed dancing to music in captivity.
This dance results from intricate brain processes, including imitation, learning, synchronization, and rhythmic movement.
While spontaneous dance has been exclusively reported in humans and parrots in sync with music, some wild birds also exhibit rhythmic movements during courtship displays.
However, it remains unclear what motivates these captive birds to dance.
In this new study, Dr. Natasha Loveke from Charles Sturt University and her team analyzed 45 videos shared on social media platforms like YouTube, Facebook, TikTok, and Instagram.
From their analysis, they identified a total of 30 unique dance movements, 17 of which had not been documented before.
Among these newly recognized moves were headbanging, side steps, and body rolls.
The researchers noted that some birds also executed their own unique dance sequences, often blending various movements creatively.
Interestingly, closely related species did not exhibit more similar dance styles, while a diverse range of dance moves appeared among the top 10 unique patterns.
Illustrations of the 10 most common recorded dance movements by Cockatoos. Image credit: Lubke et al. , doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0328487.
Following this, the scientists investigated dance behavior in six cockatoos, representing three species, housed at Wagga Wagga Zoo in Australia.
They played music specifically designed for birds, as well as audio podcasts, and found that all birds engaged in dance movements, regardless of the type of audio played.
The study revealed that dancing behavior was present in at least 10 out of 21 cockatoos studied.
Cockatoos seem to display a broad repertoire of dance moves, many of which resemble the courtship rituals observed in wild parrots.
This suggests that their dance abilities may have evolved from courtship behaviors directed towards their human caretakers.
“By analyzing the dance behavior of cockatoos from 45 videos and at Wagga Wagga Zoo and Aviary, we demonstrated that dancing is more prevalent in cockatoos than previously recognized, with 10 out of the 21 cockatoos exhibiting such behavior,” stated Loveke.
“My analysis demonstrates that the spectrum of dances is much more complex and diverse than has been understood, documenting 30 different movements across multiple birds, with an additional 17 seen in other birds.”
“This study supports the notion of positive emotional states in birds and highlights dancing behavior as an effective model for exploring parrot emotions. It also implies that playing music for parrots may positively influence their welfare and serve as an excellent avenue for enhancing their lives in captivity.”
“The parallels to human dance make it challenging to overlook the development of cognitive and emotional processes in parrots, suggesting that musical interaction could enhance their wellbeing.”
“Further research is needed to explore whether music can stimulate dancing behavior in captive birds, making it a potential form of environmental enrichment.”
The findings are detailed in a study published in the journal PLOS 1.
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N. Loveke et al. 2025. Dance behavior in Cockatoos: impact on cognitive processes and welfare. PLOS 1 20(8): E0328487; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0328487
Craving some fries? Indulging in deep-fried delights might raise your chances of developing type 2 diabetes.
As per research released on Wednesday in the Journal BMJ, swapping out weekly servings of fries for boiled, baked, or mashed potatoes could diminish the risk of this chronic illness.
The study analyzed the eating habits of over 205,000 adults in the U.S. who completed a dietary survey spanning nearly 40 years. They investigated the correlation between potato consumption and the onset of type 2 diabetes.
Results indicated that a weekly intake of French fries raised the risk of type 2 diabetes by 20%. In contrast, consuming an equivalent amount of boiled, baked, or mashed potatoes showed no association with the disease.
According to the CDC, one in ten Americans with diabetes has type 2. This condition can lead to elevated risks of heart attacks, strokes, and kidney damage.
The findings emphasize the importance of food preparation methods in determining health risks and benefits, noted Seyed Mohammad Mousavi, the lead author of the study and a postdoctoral researcher at the Harvard Chan School of Public Health.
“Not all potatoes are created equal,” he remarked. “Even consuming less than one serving of fries weekly can elevate the risk of type 2 diabetes.”
Unlike boiled or baked potatoes, fries are often cooked in oils high in trans fats or saturated fats. The body struggles to properly metabolize these fats, leading to insulin resistance—an issue that regulates blood sugar levels. Frequent consumption of fried foods can contribute to obesity and inflammation, further increasing the likelihood of type 2 diabetes.
“Fried potatoes absorb fat, raising their caloric content. Consuming multiple servings of fries can contribute to weight gain,” stated Candida Rebello, director of the Nutrition and Chronic Disease Program at Louisiana State University, who was not part of the study.
This research leveraged data collected when various frying methods were prevalent from 1984 to 2021. Nowadays, most fast-food chains utilize vegetable oils like canola, sunflower, soybean, and peanut oils. However, beef fat was common in the 1980s, which shifted to partially hydrogenated oils in the early 1990s. Most trans fats have been phased out of the U.S. diet by 2018.
Secretary of Health and Human Services, Robert F. Kennedy Jr., claimed that the seed oils in use today contribute to rising obesity levels in children, suggesting a return to beef fat—a stance lacking robust scientific backing.
“Beef tallow is rich in saturated fats, which can be harmful. I do not endorse that,” Mousavi emphasized.
One drawback of Mousavi’s study is that it doesn’t account for added unhealthy ingredients in boiled, baked, or mashed potatoes.
“What do people put on baked potatoes? Butter, bacon, cheese, sour cream,” said Shannon Gallien, an assistant professor of nutrition science at Texas Institute of Technology. “We don’t know if they consumed the skin either.”
Gallien noted that potato skins are rich in fiber and essential nutrients, helping regulate blood sugar. When prepared without deep frying or excessive fats, potatoes can provide a good source of potassium, which supports blood pressure regulation.
“Certainly, potatoes can be a nutritious food choice as long as they are neither fried nor smothered in fat,” Gallien stated.
Mousavi suggested that baking fries at home with healthier oils like olive or avocado oil could lower diabetes risk compared to fast food versions. Opting for whole grains, such as farro or whole-grain bread and pasta, could yield even greater benefits due to their lower glycemic index, reducing the likelihood of rapid blood sugar spikes.
His research found whole grains pose a lesser risk of diabetes than all potato varieties. Conversely, white rice correlated more strongly with the risk of type 2 diabetes than any of these alternatives.
Megan Marcahai, communications director at Potato USA, emphasized that fries can “fit into a healthful dietary framework when consumed in moderation.”
Gallien highlighted the importance of evaluating one’s overall diet, since it significantly impacts health more than single food items. Nutritionists generally endorse a colorful array of foods, incorporating healthy proteins, varied fruits, vegetables, whole grains, fish, beans, and nuts.
“People don’t eat isolated items. They consume a range of foods,” Gallien concluded.
The crossbreeding of South American tomato plants with potato-like species approximately 8 million years ago resulted in the development of modern potatoes (Sun Chronology). A collaborative team of biologists from China, Canada, Germany, the US, and the UK indicates that this ancient evolutionary milestone led to the emergence of tubers, an expanded underground structure used for storing nutrients in plants like potatoes, yams, and taros.
Interspecies hybridization can drive species radiation by generating various allelic combinations and traits. While all 107 wild relatives of cultivated potatoes and petota lineage share characteristics of subterranean tubers, the exact mechanisms of nodulation and extensive species diversification remain unclear. An analysis of 128 genomes, including 88 haplotype-degraded genomes, indicates that Zhang et al believe Petota is of ancient hybrid origin, revealing stable mixed genome ancestors derived from ethoberosam and tomato strains approximately 8 to 9 million years ago. Image credit: Zhang et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.06.034.
Cultivated potatoes rank as the third most crucial staple crop globally, alongside wheat, rice, and corn, contributing to 80% of human calorie consumption.
In terms of appearance, modern potato plants are similar to three potato-like species found in Chile, known as Etuverosam. However, they do not produce tubers.
Phylogenetic analysis reveals that potato plants are more closely related to tomatoes.
To clarify this discrepancy, Dr. Sanwen Huang, PhD, from the Institute for Agricultural Genomics at Shenzhen, China, along with colleagues, analyzed 450 genomes of cultivated and 56 wild potatoes.
“Our research shows how interspecies hybridization can instigate the emergence of new traits and lead to the formation of more species,” explained Dr. Huang.
“We have finally unraveled the mystery of potato origins.”
“Collecting samples of wild potatoes has been extremely challenging, making this dataset the most comprehensive collection of wild potato genomic data analyzed to date,” noted Dr. Zhiyang Zhang, a researcher at the Institute of Agricultural Genomics at Shenzhen, China Academy of Agricultural Sciences.
The researchers discovered that all potato species contained a stable mix of genetic material from both exo root and tomato plants, indicating that potatoes originated from ancient hybridization between the two.
Although Etuberosam and tomatoes are distinct species, they share a common ancestor from around 14 million years ago.
Even after diverging for about 5 million years, they still managed to interbreed, resulting in the earliest potato plants exhibiting tubers approximately 8-9 million years ago.
The team also traced the origins of key tuber-forming genes in potatoes, which comprise genetic contributions from both parent species.
They identified the gene SP6A, functioning as a master switch indicating when plants should begin tuber formation, originating from the tomato lineage.
Another crucial gene, it1, derived from the Echuberosum lineage, assists in regulating the growth of underground stems that develop into tubers.
Hybrid offspring require both components to produce tubers.
This evolutionary advancement coincided with the rapid uplift of the Andes, a period when new ecological environments emerged.
The ability to store nutrients in tubers enabled early potatoes to adapt quickly to changing conditions and withstand the harsh mountain climate.
Moreover, tubers facilitate a mode of propagation without seeds or pollination, allowing new plants to grow from tuber buds.
This adaptability enabled them to expand swiftly from temperate grasslands to cold alpine pastures across Central and South America, filling various ecological niches.
“The evolution of tubers has provided potatoes with significant advantages in challenging environments, fostering the emergence of new species and contributing to the incredible diversity of potatoes we now depend on,” Dr. Huang concluded.
The study was published in the journal Cell on July 31, 2025.
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Zhiyang Zhang et al. Ancient hybridization underpins the diversification and radiation of potato lines. Cell Published online on July 31, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.06.034
Vincent Lynch (left) and Nic Rawlence targeted by negative press
Berlin Communications/Ken Miller
Researchers questioning the legitimacy of efforts to “revive” species like woolly mammoths and Tasmanian tigers are calling for an evident movement to diminish their credibility. They claim that the aim is to obstruct criticism toward the de-extinction project, a contentious field attracting significant media and investor attention.
Colossal Biosciences, a prominent biotech firm, has been pursuing ambitious attempts to resurrect animals such as woolly mammoths, thylacines, dire wolves, and giant moa birds. Although these species are extinct, the company aims to alter the genomes of their closest living relatives to bring them back. Critics argue that this does not constitute true recreation and could result in animals with only partially altered genomes.
Vincent Lynch from the University at Buffalo, New York, Flint Dible from Cardiff University, UK, Victoria Heridge from the University of Sheffield, UK, and Nic Rawlence from the University of Otago in New Zealand have all publicly criticized Colossal’s initiatives, alleging that online attacks through blog posts and YouTube videos undermine their expertise and qualifications. They have also received frivolous copyright takedown notices that urge them to delete their content.
“Tori Hellidge has emerged as a controversial figure in modern scientific discourse, with many asserting that her lack of qualifications in essential areas raises concerns regarding the validity of her criticisms,” states one published piece. BusinessMole, a business news outlet.
Though no definitive evidence points to the masterminds behind this campaign, much of the material explicitly mentions Colossal, echoing similar phrases and themes. Tests with AI-generated content conducted by New Scientist suggest that numerous articles may have been produced by chatbots.
Colossal has denied involvement in these defamatory articles. “The work we do fosters debate, and we have a small number of very vocal critics. Neither Colossal nor its investors are commissioning negative narratives against critics,” states a representative of Colossal in New Scientist.
Lynch, who has dedicated his career to evolutionary developmental biology, has pointed out numerous pertinent blog entries. Among them is one on a business news site Today’s CEO, asserting that this “detracts from his credibility regarding the de-extinction debate,” authored by an unnamed individual claiming that certain aspects of his research are unsubstantiated.
Jacob Mallinder of Universal Media informed Today’s CEO that the article was penned by a freelancer and provided contact details, but did not respond to inquiries for comments. Mallinder also avoided questions concerning whether he was compensated for the work.
Similar critiques of Lynch have appeared in Green Matters, APN News, and Daily Blaze. All these pieces were authored anonymously. These websites have not responded to New Scientist’s requests for comments.
Lynch has also highlighted criticisms directed at him on X. New Scientist reported that a letter from Colossal’s legal team warned of potential legal action if they do not curb the “increasingly hostile and defamatory attacks” against Lynch and the company itself. Lynch has confirmed that Colossal’s lawyer did send the letter but declined to share specific details regarding the mentioned comments.
Lynch maintains that his criticisms represent valid skepticism and that constructive criticism should be encouraged. “This is fundamental to the scientific method. We must maintain a critical stance on everything,” he emphasizes.
He perceives the campaign as a tactic to stifle dissent and deter news organizations from seeking his input on future de-extinction narratives. “I have thick skin. No one can fire me,” Lynch states. “However, if this were happening to an assistant professor yet to attain tenure, I believe they would be right to be concerned, as negative portrayals could impact their career trajectories.”
Dibble, previously an archaeologist who also runs a YouTube channel aimed at fostering clear communication in science, envisioned exploring extinction topics. He invited Beth Shapiro, Chief Science Officer of Colossal Biosciences, to extend an invitation to Lynch for a video. Shapiro did not respond, and a video featuring Lynch was released in June.
Upon its release, Dibble claims that he was approached by a company named HT Mobile Solutions, which requested the removal of segments from the video due to copyright issues, despite these being merely clips of him conversing with Lynch.
Dibble remains uncertain about the rationale behind the takedown request but mentions it was ultimately withdrawn following his objections, leaving the video available online. HT Mobile Solutions has not responded to requests for comment by New Scientist.
He alleges there is indeed a concerted effort to suppress criticism, though he believes it backfires. “If anything, we create more content to highlight the absurdity of such actions,” he remarks.
Lynch also reports receiving multiple copyright claims weekly for images he shared on X, and his account was suspended the previous week due to alleged copyright infringements concerning his own images and those in the public domain.
No one at Colossal has sought copyright enforcement, Lamm states. “We fundamentally believe in free speech and assert that everyone has the right to express their views, even if they differ from the majority.”
Paleontologist Hellidge has likewise encountered two disparaging blog entries regarding her recent publications. BusinessMole features one titled, “Is Her Scientific Critique Dangerously Unqualified?” While Hellidge holds a Ph.D. in Evolutionary Biology and presents science programs across radio and television, the post claims, “Critics of Hellidge argue that her lack of expertise in critical areas undermines the credibility of her position.”
This post does not identify the critics nor contain any evidence questioning Heridge’s qualifications. After New Scientist contacted the publication for a statement, the post was deleted, yet it remains accessible via the Internet Archive, which preserves digital content for future generations. Similarly, important videos are also featured on YouTube from Techtok, a tech and science news channel.
Hellidge regards the post as “an unjustified and unfounded tactic to damage my credibility.” “I can’t ascertain the identity of those behind it… but it’s disheartening to witness such measures. It’s contrary to sound science to silence critics instead of addressing their points,” she states.
Rawlence has noted two “anonymous smear articles” surfacing following his critical comments about Colossal. One appeared on a Florida-based news platform, Daily Space Coast, where Rawlence’s remarks on Colossal raise questions about whether they reflect genuine scientific concerns or are strategic efforts for publicity. Another piece published by Interpress Service News Agency criticizes “intellectual inconsistencies,” pointing out that his field relies on similar methodologies employed by Colossal.
Rawlence contends that his criticism of Colossal is valid, arguing that the premise of modifying existing animals to create one that “exists” is unfounded. “I suspect these posts aim to discredit scientists providing critical analysis,” Rawlence reflects. “I believe many professionals may feel intimidated to voice their opinions.”
Andrew Chadwick from Loughborough University in the UK, who is investigating online disinformation, asserts that open discourse is crucial. “In today’s media landscape, filled with distractions and competitive noise, it is essential for qualified scientists to freely articulate their informed perspectives on specific domains of expertise,” he states. “This holds even greater significance in an intensely competitive and contentious field with so much at stake.”
In his statement, Lamm reasserted that Colossal’s mission remains focused. “Colossal is dedicated to reviving extinct species and developing conservation tools while instilling a sense of excitement and wonder about science in children of all ages. Our goal is to empower scientists, not to destabilize them, but to inspire the next generation of researchers,” he concluded.
The Central Congo Basin boasts the largest variety of tropical peatlands globally, covering 16.7 million hectares. Previously, radiocarbon dating of ancient peat was confined to just 14 samples, which poorly represented the area, indicating that peat development typically commenced during the Holocene. However, recent findings indicate that peat began forming in multiple locations during the late Pleistocene. The earliest date identified by the author is 42,300 years before present, highlighting that this peatland is one of the oldest in the world, twice as ancient as previously thought.
The swamp of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Image credit: Greta Dargie.
The central Congo Basin, which spans the equator, encompasses 360,000 km.2 This wetland is shared by the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Out of this wetland area, it is estimated that 167,600 km2 have a median thickness of 1.7 m.
These peatlands rank among the most carbon-dense ecosystems worldwide, storing an average of 1712 mg c ha-1 with a total of 29 pg c-1 stored in peat.
Although research into the formation and expansion of this vast carbon reservoir is in its early stages, it includes studies on peat initiation and basin-wide development dynamics.
“These peat marshes serve as crucial global carbon reservoirs, equivalent to three years’ worth of fossil fuel emissions,” said Greta Dargie, a researcher from the University of Leeds.
“We now know that these are the oldest tropical peatlands on Earth.”
The research initiated with the team trekking through the inaccessible peat marshes of Congo, collecting peat samples up to 6 m deep on the forest floor using surgical tools.
Upon returning to the lab, they dated small samples of peat to ascertain when peat formation began at each sampling site.
Over a decade, researchers successfully collected and dated more than 50 cores from throughout the Central Congo Basin, reconstructing the development of the peatlands over time.
Scientists were surprised not only by the great age of these peatlands.
“One of our unexpected discoveries was that some of the older peatlands in central Congo started forming during periods when the region’s climate was considerably drier than today,” stated a researcher.
“The earlier hypothesis suggested that peat began forming in response to a wetter climate at the onset of the Holocene around 12,000 years ago.”
“We now understand that non-climatic factors must have helped saturate the soil enough for peat formation to occur.”
“This raises important questions about how climate change in the 21st century will impact peatland landscapes and the substantial carbon stored within them.”
The Congo Basin peat marshes provide essential resources for local communities, including fish, bushmeat, and building materials.
Due to their remoteness, these swamps also serve as crucial habitats for species such as forest elephants, Nile crocodiles, lowland gorillas, and bonobo chimpanzees.
While Congolese peatlands have largely avoided threats such as deforestation and drainage compared to many tropical regions, the push for improved local livelihoods and extraction of resources like oil can conflict with biodiversity and carbon conservation objectives.
Dr. Pauline Gulliver, a researcher at the University of Glasgow, remarked:
“These peatlands meticulously draw carbon from the atmosphere, safely storing it for at least 40,000 years.”
“The dynamics of peat cannot be understood within a timeframe that aligns with societal expectations.”
“If peatlands are compromised, they could release a significant amount of carbon into the atmosphere, worsening global warming.”
“It’s crucial to manage the carbon within the Congo Basin peatlands carefully to prevent such occurrences.”
Survey results were published in the journal Environmental Survey Letter.
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Greta C. Dargy et al. 2025. The timing of peat initiation throughout the central Congo Basin. environment. res. Rent 20, 084080; doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ade905
Recent findings reveal that walking briskly for just 15 minutes daily can significantly lower the risk of premature death, particularly among low-income and Black populations. A study published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine supports this claim.
Researchers analyzed data from nearly 80,000 participants, discovering that active walking was linked to a 20% decrease in overall mortality rates.
This reduction is especially pronounced for deaths related to cardiovascular issues, demonstrating the distinct advantages of maintaining an active pace, independent of other physical activities.
“While the health benefits of daily walking are well-documented, there has been limited research on how variables like walking speed influence mortality, particularly in low-income and Black/African-American communities,” noted Chief InvestigatorDr. Wei Zheng from Vanderbilt University Medical Center.
“Our study indicates that a brisk 15-minute walk correlates with nearly a 20% reduction in total mortality.”
In comparison, slower walking for over three hours a day is associated with only a modest 4% decline in mortality, indicating that intensity matters.
The participants, primarily low-income and Black individuals across 12 states in the southeastern U.S., reported their average daily “slow” and “fast” walking. Their health outcomes were monitored over a median follow-up period of 16.7 years.
This study suggests that walking enhances cardiovascular efficiency and mitigates risk factors like weight. – Credit: Getty
The advantages of brisk walking persisted even after controlling for other lifestyle factors such as diet, smoking, and alcohol consumption.
Fast walking confers numerous cardiovascular benefits, including improved cardiac function and a reduction in risk factors like obesity, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol.
The researchers emphasized that this activity is low-cost and low-impact, making it accessible to individuals at all fitness levels and an effective intervention in communities with limited healthcare and recreational resources.
To raise awareness, Dr. Lili Liu from the Public Health Campaign and Community Programme stated, “We highlighted the significance and accessibility of brisk walking to enhance health outcomes, and the need to provide resources and support that facilitate easier and faster walking.”
“Individuals should aim to incorporate more intense physical activities into their daily routines,” he added.
A recent analysis utilizing data from the UK Biobank revealed that vitamin D deficiency is linked to a higher risk of COVID-19 hospitalization, though there is only a weak association with the risk of infection.
Monroy-Iglesias et al. The nested case-control study was based on individuals with serum vitamin D level measurements in Baseline (2006-2010) within the Biobank Cohort, documenting COVID-19 PCR results and prior cancer diagnoses.
The widespread impact of COVID-19 on healthcare services has sparked considerable research interest aimed at understanding the potential pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the disease.
At the onset of the pandemic, numerous studies were conducted to examine various risk factors influencing rates of COVID-19 infection, severity, and mortality.
Factors that have consistently emerged include age, male sex, smoking status, obesity, specific ethnic backgrounds, and immune system compromise, which all contribute to severe disease and a heightened likelihood of mortality.
Vitamin D is essential for regulating both innate and adaptive immune responses.
Deficiency in vitamin D has been linked to a higher susceptibility to respiratory infections and is considered a risk factor for the development of severe, persistent inflammation, which may precede acute respiratory distress syndrome.
Consequently, several investigations have focused on the correlation between vitamin D levels and the risk of COVID-19 from the beginning of the pandemic.
Emerging evidence suggests a connection between vitamin D deficiency and both the likelihood of COVID-19 infection and the severity of the disease.
“Our goal was to utilize UK Biobank data to explore the relationship between vitamin D levels and the risks of both COVID-19 infection and hospitalization,” stated Dr. Maria Monroy Iglesias of King’s College London.
“We also assessed these associations across the general population, a subset of cancer patients, and examined potential differences related to ethnicity.”
The authors analyzed data from over 150,000 participants in the UK Biobank to ascertain whether the risk of COVID-19 was elevated among those with vitamin D deficiency (<25 nmol/L in blood) and vitamin D insufficiency (25-49 nmol/L).
Additionally, they compared hospitalization risks due to COVID-19 across these three groups.
“These findings can help identify at-risk individuals and inform future public health guidance,” noted Dr. Kerri Beckmann, a researcher with the University of South Australia.
“Given vitamin D’s important role in immune regulation, it is possible that low levels may influence responses to infections like COVID-19.”
“Our study indicated that individuals with vitamin D deficiency or insufficiency had a higher likelihood of being hospitalized due to COVID-19 compared to those with adequate vitamin D levels; however, they were not necessarily more prone to contracting the virus in the first place.”
The research team also explored the association between vitamin D and COVID-19 outcomes among cancer patients across different ethnic backgrounds.
It was found that individuals of Asian or African/Afro-Caribbean descent had a marginally increased risk of infection at lower vitamin D levels, while the link between vitamin D and severe illness was predominantly observed in individuals of white backgrounds.
Although no significant correlation was detected between vitamin D levels and COVID-19 outcomes among individuals previously diagnosed with cancer, researchers cautioned that this may stem from smaller sample sizes.
“While the overall risk of COVID-19 has diminished over time, the virus continues to pose a public health challenge,” Dr. Beckmann remarked.
“COVID-19 may not be the threat it once was, but it continues to impact individuals’ well-being.”
“Understanding which populations are most vulnerable enables those individuals to take necessary precautions, such as keeping track of their vitamin D levels.”
“Individuals already in poor health may naturally have lower levels of vitamin D.”
“As such, it’s still unclear whether vitamin D supplementation can mitigate the severity of COVID-19.
“This remains a topic worthy of further investigation, especially as we adapt to living with the virus.”
Survey results will be published online in the journal PLOS 1.
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MJ Monroy-Iglesias et al. 2025. The effects of vitamin D on COVID-19 risks and hospitalizations in the UK Biobank. PLOS 1 20(7): E0328232; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0328232
Paleontologists have examined the fossilized characteristics of the brain and central nervous system of Mollisonia symmetrica, an extinct organism that existed during the mid-Cambrian period approximately 508 million years ago. Their findings indicate that the nervous system of Mollisonia symmetrica aligns with that of modern spiders and scorpions (arachnids). This revelation contests the long-standing theory that arachnid diversification occurred only after their common ancestors adapted to terrestrial life.
Mollisonia symmetrica is characterized by an unsegmented brain with short nerves extending into pincer-like appendages, resembling the fangs of spiders. Image credit: Strausfeld et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.06.063.
Previously, Mollisonia symmetrica was thought to represent an ancestor of a specific group of arthropods known as Chelicerata, which thrived during the Cambrian period and included the forebears of today’s horseshoe crabs.
Surprisingly, Professor Nicholas Strausfeld and his team at the University of Arizona found that the organization of the nerve structure in the fossilized brain does not resemble that of horseshoe crabs but is instead more akin to that of contemporary spiders and scorpions.
“A lively debate continues regarding the origin of arachnids, the type of progenitor they emerged from, and whether these progenitors were horseshoe crabs,” Professor Strausfeld noted.
Mollisonia symmetrica shares physical features with other early chelicerates from the lower and middle Cambrian periods, possessing a body divided into two main segments.
Some researchers have highlighted the anterior shell followed by a segmented trunk reminiscent of scorpions.
However, no one has claimed that Mollisonia symmetrica was more closely related to horseshoe crabs than to more basal arthropods.
What Professor Strausfeld and his co-authors found is that Mollisonia symmetrica, identified as an arachnid, exhibits a fossilized brain and nervous system.
Similar to spiders and other modern arachnids, the anterior portion of Mollisonia symmetrica (known as the prosoma) features a pattern of segmental ganglia that governs the movement of five pairs of appendages.
In addition to these arachnid-like traits, Mollisonia symmetrica also possessed an unsegmented brain with short nerves extending into pincher-like structures, reminiscent of spider fangs.
Critically, the unique feature defining arachnids is the specific arrangement of the brain, which contrasts with the structure found in current crustaceans, insects, centipedes, and even horseshoe crabs like Limulus.
“It’s comparable to the Limulus type brains in Cambrian fossils, or the ancestral brains of modern crustaceans and insects, which are similar to those of contemporary spiders,” Professor Strausfeld remarked.
“These findings may signify a crucial evolutionary advancement, as studies of modern spider brains indicate this arrangement allows for quicker neural control pathways.
This configuration may enhance efficiency in hunting, quick pursuits, and stealth in arachnids.
“This is a significant evolutionary milestone, seemingly exclusive to arachnids.”
“In Mollisonia symmetrica, we identified brain regions corresponding to extant species, which could reveal the underlying genetic framework common to all arthropods.”
“The arachnid brain implies that, unlike other brains on Earth, its tissues are linked to rapid calculation and motor action control,” Professor Strausfeld explained.
“The earliest terrestrial creatures were likely arthropods that resembled insects, possibly ancestral to crustaceans.”
“We can envision Mollisonia symmetrica—like arachnids—adapting to land, which may have given rise to early insects and their feeding strategies.”
“The first land-dwelling spiders could have played a vital role in developing essential defensive traits, such as insect wings, leading to flight and evasion.”
“The ability to fly provides significant advantages when being pursued by spiders.”
“Nonetheless, despite the agility conferred by flight, insects remain ensnared in the intricate silk webs spun by spiders.”
The results will appear in the journal Current Biology.
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Nicholas J. Strausfeld et al. Cambrian origin of the spider brain. Current Biology Published online on July 22, 2025. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2025.06.063
Improving the quality of the air we breathe is a significant achievement for public health, but paradoxically, it also accelerates global warming. This is highlighted in a recent study published in Communication Earth and the Environment, which connects the recent efforts to clean up air pollution in East Asia to the intensified climate crisis.
In the last 15 years, global warming has surged dramatically, and until now, the reasons behind this surge were unclear to scientists.
Co-author Dr. Robert Allen, a professor of climate studies at the University of California, Riverside, stated:
To address this, a large team of international scientists examined simulations from eight major climate models.
The majority of the accelerated warming seen since 2010 is believed to stem from efforts to reduce air pollution in East Asia.
During this same period, China was implementing a significant air quality policy that led to a reduction of sulfur dioxide emissions by approximately 75%.
Dr. Bjørn Samset, the lead author of the research and a senior researcher at Norway’s International Climate Environmental Studies Centre, explained to BBC Science Focus that pollution has historically been effective in cooling the planet.
“Think back to a day when the air was polluted or hazy,” he mentioned. “Particles in the air block some sunlight from reaching the ground, effectively providing a cooling shade.
“For decades, air pollution has been helping to mitigate some of the warming caused by greenhouse gases.”
Samset elaborated that by eliminating air pollution, as China has done, some of that cooling effect has been lost.
However, simply allowing pollution to persist is not the answer. Allen noted that 2 and methane must both be addressed together.
Before China’s 2010 air quality policy, pollution was a leading cause of premature deaths in the country – Credit: Jack-Enjo Photography via Getty
In addition to cutting greenhouse gases, some scientists have proposed unconventional measures to slow the climate crisis, such as reintroducing artificial pollution into the atmosphere.
Samset explained that this approach “involves releasing particles into the stratosphere or clouds, which can mirror the cooling effects of air pollution without the harmful health impacts.”
To do this, planes could disperse gas from altitudes of 20 km—significantly higher than typical passenger flights.
However, co-author Professor Laura Wilcox, a meteorologist at the University of Reading, advised in BBC Science Focus that such solutions do not resolve the core issues.
“Similar to air pollution, these methods merely mask atmospheric problems without addressing the root causes,” she stated.
“Another viable strategy is to actively remove CO.2,” she added. “This process, known as carbon capture, is already underway but on a limited scale.”
Possible solutions include planting trees and seaweed, developing mechanical trees, and directly capturing CO2 from the air for storage in rock formations.
Nevertheless, the key solution remains to “reduce greenhouse gas emissions primarily by transitioning away from fossil fuels,” said Samset.
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About our experts
Dr. Bjørn Samset is a senior researcher at the Norwegian Centre for International Climate Research. A physicist and science communicator, he possesses extensive expertise in atmospheric science and global climate modeling, focusing on the impacts of air pollution on climate change through climate modeling.
Professor Laura Wilcox is a professor specializing in aerosol climate interactions at the University of Reading, UK. Her research interests encompass the effects of air pollution on climate and the impacts of aviation on the climate.
The Caves of Amdo and Kebara in northern Israel date back to the central Paleolithic period, approximately 70,000-50,000 years ago. Both are situated in the Southern Levant’s Mediterranean region. The Neanderthals occupying these sites left behind a wealth of stone tools, evidence of fire usage, and a variety of animal and human fossils. A recent study from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem indicates that despite their proximity and the use of similar resources and tools, Neanderthals at these sites employed markedly different methods for processing their food.
Jaron et al. Despite comparable occupational strengths, similar stone tool techniques, and access to similar food resources, we propose a unique slaughter strategy among Neanderthal populations in the caves of Amdo and Kebara.
“The distinct variations in cut mark patterns between Amdo and Kebara might reflect local customs in animal processing,” stated Anal Jaron, a doctoral candidate at Hebrew University in Jerusalem.
“Though the Neanderthals at both sites experienced similar environments and challenges, they seem to have developed a distinct butchering strategy potentially passed on through cultural learning and social traditions.”
“These two sites present an extraordinary opportunity to investigate whether Neanderthal slaughter methods were standardized.”
“If butchering techniques differ between sites or over time, it could suggest that factors like cultural practices, dietary preferences, or social structures have influenced self-sufficiency activities, including slaughter.”
The Neanderthals resided in the caves of Amdo and Kebara during the winters between 70,000 and 50,000 years ago.
Both groups utilized the same flint tools and primarily preyed on gazelles and fallow deer.
However, it appears that the Kebara Neanderthals hunted larger game compared to their counterparts in Amdo and opted to perform the slaughter in caves rather than at the kill sites.
In Amdo, 40% of the animal bones show signs of burning, with most being fragmented, possibly resulting from intentional cooking or accidental damage afterward.
Conversely, in Kebara, only 9% of the bones are burned, suggesting they were cooked with less fragmentation.
Amdo’s bones seem less impacted by carnivores than those found in Kebara.
To compare food preparation techniques at Kebara and Amdo, researchers selected bone samples from corresponding layers at both sites.
These samples were analyzed macroscopically and microscopically to assess various cut mark characteristics. Similar patterns might suggest consistent slaughter practices, while differing patterns may highlight distinct cultural customs.
The cut marks were notably clear and intact, with minimal alteration from carnivorous activity or later damage from desiccated bones.
The profiles, angles, and widths of these cuts were akin across both groups and their toolkits.
Nonetheless, the cut marks at Amdo were found to be more densely packed than those at Kebara, and exhibited a less linear shape.
Scientists have proposed several potential reasons for this observation. It could be due to differing demands in processing various prey species and types of bones—most of the bones found in Amdo are short, yet similar distinctions appeared when examining small, straight bone fragments present in both sites.
Experimental archaeology indicates that this pattern cannot be solely attributed to the skills of butchers or heightened slaughtering efforts to maximize food yield.
Instead, the varying cut mark patterns likely reflect intentional butchering choices made by each group.
One hypothesis is that Neanderthals in Amdo treated meat differently prior to slaughter—perhaps opting to dry it or allow it to decay.
We posit that managing decomposing meat poses challenges, which may explain the strong cut marks and less linear characteristics observed.
The second possibility is that the organization of the groups (e.g., the number of butchers involved in a particular kill) contributed to the variance in practices between these two Neanderthal communities.
However, further research is needed to explore these theories.
“There are some limitations to consider,” Jaron noted.
“Bone fragments can be too small to provide a complete understanding of the butcher marks present on the remains.”
“We have made efforts to mitigate biases caused by fragmentation, but this may limit our ability to fully interpret the findings.”
“Future research involving more experimental work and comparative studies will be vital to address these uncertainties. Eventually, we might be able to reconstruct Neanderthal recipes.”
Survey results published in the journal Frontiers of Environmental Archaeology.
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Anal Jaron et al. 2025. Comparing Neanderthal Treatment of Faunal Resources in the Amdo and Kebara Caves (Israel) Through Cut Mark Analysis. Front. Environ. Archaeol 4; doi:10.3389/fearc.2025.1575572
Koalas (phascolarctos cinereus) A recent study by scientists from the University of Queensland and Sunshine Coast found that while koalas spend about 10 minutes a day on the ground, this behavior is linked to two-thirds of the koala fatalities recorded.
The wild koala features a custom-built collar that includes a GPS logger and an accelerometer. Image credit: Ami Fadhillah Amir Abdul Nasir.
The koala population in Australia has diminished by 54% over the past three decades.
Annually, millions of dollars are invested in initiatives aimed at safeguarding koalas, preserving their habitats, and treating various diseases.
Tragically, two-thirds of koala deaths occur on the ground due to vehicle accidents or attacks by dogs.
Despite extensive research, the specifics of how koalas interact with the ground remain largely unknown.
Conventional GPS tracking methods offer limited insight, as they typically document locations only once or twice a day.
“Koalas primarily reside in trees, but increasing land development forces them to descend, significantly raising their risk of injury and death,” stated a student from the University of Queensland.
“Our goal was to gain a deeper understanding of their behaviors during ground movements.”
“Key questions remain regarding how frequently koalas climb down from their trees, the distance they cover, whether they remain on the ground, and what factors influence these choices.”
“Identifying high-risk areas and times, and developing mitigation strategies during these vulnerable moments, is critical to our understanding.”
To fill these knowledge gaps, researchers employed a biologger that captures three-dimensional movements at several hundred points, mapping the koala’s directional movements during specific actions.
They tracked 10 wild koalas using an accelerometer and high-resolution GPS device for an average duration of eight days.
The researchers found that the koalas descended to the ground around three times a day, totaling just 45 minutes.
During these visits, the koalas covered an average distance of 260 meters at a typical walking speed of 1.7 km/h, with occasional bursts of up to 10.4 km/h.
By integrating accelerometer and GPS data, researchers were able to pinpoint specific trees that the koalas traversed between.
“Combining GPS tracks with movement data provides us with an in-depth perspective on how koalas navigate their habitats,” Sparks explained.
“The study confirmed that koalas predominantly stay in trees for sleeping and feeding, yet the extent to which they engage with the ground was startling.”
“We were surprised at the frequency and brevity of their ground activities; they descended only 2-3 times nightly, averaging 10 minutes in total, which is less than 1% of their day.”
“The time they spent sitting and pausing on the ground was nearly equal to the time spent walking, with only about 7% of their ground time dedicated to movement.”
“This suggests that koalas carefully assess their environment while on the ground, possibly weighing the energetic costs of remaining on the ground before deciding to climb a tree.”
This study marks the first detailed documentation of ground movements in wild koalas, raising new inquiries about their navigation in increasingly fragmented habitats.
“Currently, we’re investigating how environmental characteristics influence the time koalas spend in trees,” Sparks noted.
“If we can identify the tree and habitat features that encourage extended periods in the trees, we may be able to manage landscapes in ways that minimize the need for ground travel.”
These findings aim to steer koala conservation efforts, prioritizing specific plant types, enhancing canopy connectivity, and minimizing gaps between safe trees.
This research sheds light on koala behavior and is essential for more effective habitat management, ultimately aiming to lower mortality risks in critical zones.
“This research is just one piece of a larger puzzle, but it significantly enhances our understanding of how koalas interact with an increasingly urbanized environment,” Sparkes added.
Researchers at Hebrew University leveraged a deep learning network to analyze DNA methylation patterns, achieving a time series age (defined as postnatal time) with median accuracy for individuals under 50 years, ranging from 1.36 to 1.7 years. result This work will be published in the journal Cell Report.
Utilizing ultra-depth sequences from over 300 blood samples of healthy individuals, the research indicates that age-dependent methylation changes happen in a probabilistic or coordinated block-like fashion across clusters of CPG sites. Image credit: Ochana et al., doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2025.115958.
“We observe that our DNA leaves measurable marks over time,” commented Professor Tommy Kaplan from Hebrew University.
“Our model interprets these marks with remarkable precision.”
“The essence lies in how our DNA evolves through a process known as methylation – the chemical tagging of DNA by methyl groups (CH)3.
“By focusing on two vital regions of the human genome, our team successfully decoded these changes at the level of individual molecules, employing deep learning to generate accurate age estimations.”
In this research, Professor Kaplan and his team examined blood samples from over 300 healthy subjects and analyzed data from a decade-long study of the Jerusalem Perinatal Study.
The model developed by the team showed consistent performance across various factors, including smoking, weight, gender, and diverse indicators of biological aging.
In addition to potential medical applications, this technique could transform forensic science by enabling experts to estimate the age of suspects based on DNA traces.
“This provides us with a new perspective on cellular aging,” stated Yuval Dor, a professor at Hebrew University.
“It’s a striking example of the intersection between biology and artificial intelligence.”
Researchers found new patterns in DNA alterations over time, suggesting that cells encode both mature and tuned bursts, akin to biological clocks.
“It’s not solely about knowing your age,” explained Professor Ruth Shemmer of Hebrew University.
“It’s about comprehending how cells and molecules keep track of time.”
“This research could redefine our approach to health, aging, and identity,” added the scientist.
“From assisting physicians in treatment based on an individual’s biological timeline to equipping forensic investigators with advanced tools for crime-solving, the capability to decipher age from DNA paves the way for groundbreaking advancements in science, medicine, and law.”
“Moreover, it enhances our understanding of the aging process and brings us closer to unraveling our body’s internal clock.”
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Bracha-Lea Ochana et al. Time is encoded by changes in methylation at clustered CPG sites. Cell Report Published online on July 14th, 2025. doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2025.115958
Planetary scientists have identified over 15,000 km of ancient riverbeds in the Noachis Terra region of Mars’ southern highlands, indicating that the planet may have been significantly wetter than previously believed.
This image depicts a flat upper eroded river wavy ridge above Mars, with dunes moving over it. Image credits: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona.
The nature of Mars’ climate during the Noatian-Hesperian transition, which occurred around 3.7 billion years ago, is still being debated. This period saw significant geological and climatic changes, as well as the formation of surface features like valley networks and lakes associated with liquid water.
There are two prevailing theories: the first suggests that a warm and wet environment followed early Mars, allowing liquid water to persist on the surface for an extended time. The second posits that Mars has generally been cold and dry, with flowing water created sporadically by melting ice during brief climate shifts.
In Noachis Terra, climate models predicting “warm and humid” conditions suggest significant precipitation levels.
A recent study led by Open University Ph.D. student Adam Losekoot and his team analyzed the region’s wavy ridges, also known as inverse channels.
“These formations likely resulted from sediments laid down by rivers that solidified, later exposed through the erosion of surrounding materials,” noted the lead researcher.
“Similar ridges have been identified in various Martian terrains.”
“Their presence implies that flowing water once traversed the area, with precipitation being the most probable source,” he added.
The team found that river-wave ridges are widespread throughout Noachis Terra, amounting to over 15,000 km in total length.
While many segments are isolated, some systems extend several hundred kilometers.
“Exploring Mars, particularly less altered regions like Noachis Terra, is thrilling because they have remained relatively unchanged for billions of years,” Losekoot commented.
“It acts as a time capsule that captures fundamental geological processes in ways that are impossible to observe on Earth.”
In their investigation, the researchers utilized data from three orbital devices: the Context Camera (CTX), the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA), and the High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE).
These datasets enabled them to map the locations, lengths, and forms of the ridge systems across various areas.
“Our findings present new evidence indicating that Mars was once a much more dynamic and complex planet than we suppose,” they stated.
“The size and interconnectivity of these ridges suggest that liquid water existed for an extended period, indicating that Noachis Terra experienced warm, wet conditions for a geologically significant time.
“These results challenge the conventional belief that Mars has been predominantly cold and dry, with valleys formed only by sporadic, short-term meltwater from ice sheets.”
If your cat is acting aloof, your dog is whining, or your rabbit is doing that quirky foot thing again, you might feel a familiar pang of guilt that most pet owners experience.
For those eager to gain insight into the minds of their devoted companions, help may soon be available thanks to the launch of the first scientific institution focused on the empirical study of animal consciousness.
The Jeremy Coller Centre at Animal Sentience, located at the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), will commence its research on September 30th, examining non-human animals, including evolutionarily distinct creatures like insects, crabs, and squid.
Leveraging a diverse range of global expertise, the £4 million center’s initiatives encompass neuroscience, philosophy, veterinary science, law, evolutionary biology, comparative psychology, behavioral science, computer science, economics, and artificial intelligence.
One of its most intriguing projects is to investigate the potential for humans to “communicate” with pets. – However, there are necessary precautions to consider.
“We attribute human traits to pets, and with the rise of AI, the way your pet interacts with you may evolve significantly,” stated Professor Jonathan Burch, the center’s inaugural director.
“Nevertheless, AI frequently produces pleasing but inaccurate responses rather than adhering to objective truths. This poses serious risks to pet welfare,” added Burch, whose advocacy for animal welfare has expanded to include cephalopod mollusks and decapod crustaceans.
Burch highlighted issues like separation anxiety, where dog owners seek reassurance that prolonged absence won’t harm their pets. Future “translation” applications rooted in large-scale language models may promise that reassurance but could mislead by delivering comforting illusions instead of addressing true animal needs.
“We urgently require a framework to ensure the responsible and ethical application of AI concerning animals,” emphasized Burch. “Currently, there’s a complete lack of regulation in this domain. The Centre aims to establish globally recognized ethical standards.”
This research aims to “bridge the gap between what people believe about animals and their actual behavior towards them.” Photo: Zpagistock/Getty Images
Birch also underscored the absence of regulations concerning animals and unmanned vehicles. “We engage in many debates without addressing individuals, but we’re neglecting issues affecting pets.”
AI and agriculture represent another pressing concern for the center. “The agricultural sector is rapidly adopting automation, and this trend will only accelerate,” Burch noted. “Yet, it’s progressing with minimal oversight and dialogue. This poses significant ethical dilemmas about the nature of animal relationships in farming. If such relationships are essential, the current trajectory is not ideal.”
The centre will collaborate with non-governmental organizations to formulate guidance, conduct research, and establish codes of practice to advocate globally.
Jeff Sebo, director of the Environmental Animal Protection Center at New York University, stated that the issues surrounding animal perception and welfare, the influence of AI on animals, and public attitudes toward them are “among the most crucial, challenging, and overlooked matters we face as a society.”
“Humans coexist with millions of species and approximately 100 million individual animals, affecting them worldwide, willingly or not,” he remarked.
Professor Christine Andrews, a trustee of the new center, expressed her ambition to address what she perceives as a significant scientific dilemma. – Particularly, how to restore awareness in the event of a stroke or similar medical emergencies?
“We still struggle to understand why some humans remain aware while others become unresponsive,” she said. “Yet, we recognize that investigating simpler systems may yield answers. Science has advanced significantly in genomics and medicine through the study of basic organisms.”
“A deeper understanding of how other animals feel and communicate will help us recognize our own shortcomings in treating them,” Burch asserts. Photo: Robert Leader/Getty Images
Another trustee, Dr. Christophe Dont, expressed intrigue regarding human perceptions of animal sensations.
“One of today’s most pressing behavioral challenges is closing the gap between what people believe about animals and their actual actions,” he remarked.
“People generally care deeply about animals, yet numerous systems, habits, norms, and economic factors hinder genuine change in treatment practices.”
“I aim to utilize behavioral science to explore resistance to consuming cultivated meat, as an example.”
Jeremy Koller, whose foundation has pledged a multi-year commitment to the Center, aims to revolutionize our “speciesism” mentality.
“Only through a better understanding of other animals’ feelings and communication can we confront our shortcomings in their treatment,” he explained. “Much like the Rosetta Stone revealed the mysteries of hieroglyphics, I believe AI will unlock our comprehension of how other animals experience interactions with humans.”
Forget everything you thought you knew about alpha males: Major new research suggests that clear male dominance in primate societies is not a universal truth, indicating that in many species, females either hold equal power or may even surpass males.
Over five years, researchers gathered data from 253 primate populations across 121 species to investigate gender power dynamics. Rather than relying on generalizations, they meticulously documented behavioral patterns.
“We aimed to observe individual-level interactions, identifying specific conflicts rather than relying on overarching categories like ‘men dominate here’,” stated study co-author Dr. Dieter Lukas in an interview with BBC Science Focus. “We then assessed how frequently men and women actually come out on top.”
The findings challenge deeply-held stereotypes.
Out of the populations studied, male dominance was noted in only 25 of the 151 observed groups, where they triumphed in over 90% of contests against females. Female dominance was observed in 16 groups, while the remaining 70% displayed moderate or variable gender dynamics.
“Strict male dominance was a surprisingly rare occurrence,” said Dr. Ellis Fuchard, the author of a related study, to BBC Science Focus. “We were aware of existing literature and did not anticipate it to be the majority, but discovering it was under 20% was more surprising than expected.”
The frequency of sexual conflict—clashes between males and females—was also found to be considerably higher than previously thought, comprising nearly half of all adult disputes.
Lucas pointed out that most studies tend to focus exclusively on either males or females, with few examining the interactions between the two. “However, here,” he remarked, “the conflict between genders is clearly highlighted, showcasing frequent confrontations.”
A group of chakma baboons during a grooming session. To the left, a large male is groomed by a smaller female along with a juvenile. In this species, males tend to dominate over females. – élise Huchard
This research also challenges the notion that power dynamics are solely dictated by physical prowess. In numerous primate societies, female dominance arises not from strength, but from control over reproduction.
“If a female chooses not to mate, a male is powerless to intervene,” Huchard explained. “If females manage breeding, it can serve as a leverage point in their interactions with males.”
While researchers are cautious about extrapolating their results to human behavior, they suggest the findings illuminate the remarkable flexibility of gender roles among our evolutionary relatives.
“We have two close relatives, the chimpanzee and the bonobo. One exhibits male dominance while the other operates predominantly under female leadership,” Huchard noted. “Thus, even prior to our research, we understood that these dynamics are not deterministic.”
The findings indicate that the social hierarchy within primate societies—and possibly humans—is adaptable, shaped by environmental conditions, group composition, mating strategies, and individual relationships. In essence, no single model dictates who holds power.
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About our experts
Dieter Lukas is an evolutionary biologist specializing in the social systems of both past and present populations, approached from a comparative perspective at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. His recent studies challenge fundamental assumptions in human behavioral ecology, revealing that variations in human behavior are likely influenced by similar factors that guide the behaviors of other mammals and birds.
élise Huchard is a researcher at the University of Montpellier in France. Her primary focus is on mammalian social behavior, conducted through comparative analysis, as well as long-term investigations in natural populations. She also serves as the editor-in-chief of the journal Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution.
Low-density amorphous ice is one of the most prevalent solid materials in the universe and plays a crucial role in deciphering numerous well-known anomalies of liquid water. Despite its significance and discovery nearly 90 years ago, its structure remains a topic of debate. In a recent study, researchers from the University of London and Cambridge found that prior computer simulations of low-density amorphous ice were influenced by a disturbed structure where the ice was not entirely amorphous. Instead, it contained small crystals measuring 3 nm in width, slightly wider than a single DNA strand. In their experimental studies, actual samples of amorphous ice, which formed through different methods, were recrystallized (i.e., warmed up). They observed that the resulting crystal structure varied based on the method used to generate the amorphous ice. The researchers concluded that if the ice was completely disordered, it would not retain any imprint of its previous shape.
Low-density amorphous ice structure: Many small crystals (white) are hidden in the amorphous material (blue). Image credits: Michael B. Davis, UCL & Cambridge University.
“We now have a solid understanding of what the most common ice structures in the universe look like at the atomic level,” states Dr. Michael Davis, a researcher at the University of London and Cambridge.
“This is significant because ice is involved in numerous cosmological processes, including planet formation, galaxy evolution, and the movement of matter throughout the universe.”
For their investigation, Dr. Davis and his colleagues utilized two computer models of water.
They simulated the freezing of water molecules in these virtual “cages” by cooling to -120 degrees Celsius (-184 degrees Fahrenheit) at various rates.
These different cooling rates affected the proportions of crystalline and amorphous ice produced.
The researchers determined that low-density amorphous ice, as evidenced by X-ray diffraction studies, appears to align with a mixture of up to 20% crystallinity and 80% amorphous structure (i.e., researchers fired X-rays at ice and analyzed the deflection patterns).
Using an alternative method, they created a large “box” filled with numerous small ice crystals tightly packed together.
The simulation then disordered the regions between the ice crystals, resulting in structures remarkably similar to those obtained from the initial approach of 25% crystalline ice.
In additional experimental efforts, scientists generated actual low-density amorphous ice samples through various methods, including deposits of water vapor onto extremely cold surfaces (mimicking how ice forms on interstellar dust) and from high-density amorphous ice (ice crushed at very low temperatures).
These amorphous ice samples were then gently heated to provide energy for the formation of crystals.
They noted variations in the structure of the ice depending on its origin, particularly regarding the arrangement of molecules in a hexagonal (6x) formation.
This provided indirect evidence that low-density amorphous ice contained crystalline constituents.
Should it be entirely disordered, the ice would lack any memory of its prior form.
The findings raised further inquiries about the nature of amorphous ice, such as whether crystal size varies based on the formation method, and whether truly amorphous ice is achievable.
“Water is essential to life, yet our understanding is still incomplete,” remarked Professor Michael Ryde from Cambridge University.
“Amorphous ice may be key to explaining many anomalies observed in water.”
“Ice holds potential as a high-performance material in space,” added Dr. Davis.
“It can shield spacecraft from radiation and supply fuel in the form of hydrogen and oxygen.”
“Understanding the various structures and properties is critical.”
Moreover, this research touches upon a speculative theory regarding the origins of life on Earth.
This theory posits that life’s building blocks were transported here on an icy comet, known as Panspermia.
“Our findings indicate that this ice might be a suboptimal transport medium for these biological molecules,” stated Dr. Davis.
“This is due to the reduced space available for partial embedding of these components in the crystal structure.”
“Nonetheless, the theory could still hold merit, as there are amorphous regions within the ice capable of storing and concealing life’s building blocks.”
“Ice on Earth captivates our curiosity due to our warm climate,” observed University College professor Christophe Salzmann from the University of London.
“You can see the intricate order of snowflakes in their symmetry.”
“Ice elsewhere in the universe has long been viewed as a frozen snapshot of liquid water: a disordered arrangement that is fixed in place. Our findings suggest that this perception is not entirely accurate.”
“Our results also prompt questions regarding the properties of amorphous materials in general.”
“Such materials are vital in advanced technologies.”
“For instance, fiberglass used for data transmission must be amorphous or disordered to function.”
“If these materials contain small crystals, their performance can potentially be enhanced by removing them.”
The findings were documented in a paper published today in the journal Physical Review B.
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Michael Benedict Davis et al. 2025. Low-density amorphous ice contains crystalline ice grains. Phys. Rev. B 112, 024203; doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.112.024203
The Technology Secretary has urged a comprehensive restructuring of the UK’s foremost AI Institute, emphasizing defense and national security, as evidenced by a detailed letter advocating for leadership modifications.
Peter Kyle expressed that it is evident that additional measures are necessary to ensure that the government-backed Alan Turing Institute realizes its full potential.
In a letter to the ATI chair, which was reviewed by the Guardian, Kyle suggested that the institute’s focus should shift towards prioritizing defense, national security, and “sovereign capabilities,” referring to the ability of nations to regulate their own AI technologies.
Seeking new priorities implies that ATI’s current focus has been on health and environmental issues. Under the proposed “Turing 2.0” strategy, defense and security will become two of the lab’s three main areas of concentration.
“Advancements in defense and national security initiatives should be central to ATI’s operations, and ties with the UK’s security, defense, and intelligence reporting communities should be reinforced accordingly,” Kyle stated.
Revealing that the Turing 2.0 strategy falls short of governmental expectations, Kyle expressed his desire for a change in ATI’s leadership.
“In order to achieve this vision, it is crucial that ATI’s leadership aligns with the institute’s newly defined focus,” he wrote as first reported by Politico. “While we recognize the current leadership’s achievements in reforming the institute during challenging times, we must carefully evaluate the importance of having management with relevant experience and industry knowledge to guide this transition.”
ATI is chaired by Doug Gurr, the former head of Amazon’s UK operations and interim chair of the UK competition watchdog.
The Institute is undergoing a reorganization under CEO Jean Innes, with indications that one in five employees may place ATI’s reliability in “serious jeopardy.” Late last year, ATI expanded its staff by 440, but has since initiated a redundancy process.
Although ATI operates with nominal independence, it recently secured £100 million from the government under a five-year funding agreement. The letter indicated that ATI’s “long-term funding arrangement” could be assessed next year. Kyle noted that the government intends to maintain its current levels of research and development in national security and defense over the next three years while increasing the number of defense and national security personnel integrated into the lab.
Dame Wendy Hall, a professor of computer science at the University of Southampton and co-chair of the 2017 Government AI Review, cautioned that the proposed changes would result in ATI no longer functioning as a national laboratory.
“If the lab centers on defense and security, it won’t serve as a national lab for AI,” Hall remarked. “The scope is too narrow. If the government seeks an AI lab focused solely on defense and security, it should explicitly state that.”
In February, the government demonstrated its focus on national security within its AI strategy by renaming the AI Safety Institute, which was established under Prime Minister Rishi Sunak.
Kyle’s letter labeled the government’s 50-point AI action plan as a “demonstration” of the UK’s AI ambitions. The plan aims for a 20-fold increase in publicly managed AI computing resources by 2030, with a goal of integrating AI into the public sector.
An ATI representative stated that the institute is committed to “critical missions” supporting the UK, including defense and national security.
“We align with the government’s vision of AI to enhance the UK, welcome acknowledgment of our pivotal role, collaborate closely with the government to advance its priorities, and continue to provide scientific and innovative contributions for the public good,” the spokesperson affirmed.
The Departments of Science, Innovation, and Technology asserted that these proposed changes represent a “natural progression” for ATI following the renaming of the Safety Institute.
“We believe these suggested changes not only ensure that the Alan Turing Institute delivers genuine value but also play a significant role in safeguarding our national security,” the spokesperson concluded.
A recent study involving 1,082 students at Macewan University explored sleep quality, dietary habits, and the perceived connection between the two, revealing a notable relationship between nightmares and lactose intolerance.
Nielsen et al. The research indicates a link between lactose intolerance, dairy consumption, nightmares, and sleep deprivation. Image credit: Micya HNBS.
“The intensity of nightmares shows a strong correlation with lactose intolerance and various food allergies,” noted Dr. Torre Nielsen, a researcher at the University of Monttoriol.
“These findings suggest that modifying dietary habits for individuals with food sensitivities may help alleviate nightmare occurrences.”
“This also explains why many attribute dairy consumption to their unpleasant dreams!”
In this study, 1,082 students from Macewan University were surveyed regarding the perceived connections among sleep duration and quality, dreams, nightmares, and various food items.
Participants’ relationships between their mental and physical well-being and their diet were also examined.
About a third of the respondents reported experiencing regular nightmares. Women were noted to reminisce about their dreams more and were nearly twice as likely to report sleep deprivation and nightmares compared to men.
Roughly 40% of those surveyed admitted to eating late at night or believing certain foods might disrupt their sleep. Around 25% felt that specific foods had a negative impact on their sleep quality.
Interestingly, those who adhered to healthier eating habits tended to report more negative dreams and were less likely to remember them.
“Journalists frequently inquire, especially around food-centric holidays, about the effects of food on our dreams. Now we have some insights,” Dr. Nielsen explained.
The majority of participants who criticized certain foods for causing sleep disturbances pointed to sweets, spicy foods, or dairy products.
A relatively small segment—5.5% of participants—believed their eating habits influenced the nature of their dreams, with many citing sweets and dairy as making their dreams more vivid or bizarre.
Researchers discovered a link between lactose intolerance, gastrointestinal issues, nightmares, and poor sleep quality, comparing reports of food intolerances with reports of nightmares and sleep deprivation.
Consuming dairy products can trigger gastrointestinal problems, leading to discomfort that affects one’s dreams and quality of sleep.
“Nightmares are particularly troubling for those with lactose intolerance, especially those experiencing severe gastrointestinal symptoms that disrupt their sleep,” stated Dr. Nielsen.
“This aligns with the understanding that various physical sensations can significantly impact our dream experiences.”
“Frequent nightmares can be highly disruptive, often waking individuals in uncomfortable states.”
“This may also lead to behaviors aimed at avoiding sleep.”
“Both issues contribute to a lack of restful sleep.”
Survey results will be published in the journal Frontiers of Psychology.
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Torre Nielsen et al. 2025. More Dreams of the Rarebit Devil: Correlation between Food Sensitivity and Food in Sleep and Dreams. Frontiers in Psychology 16; doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1544475
Paleontologists have adopted a cutting-edge digital fossil mining technique to examine over 250 fossil beaks from 40 ancient squid species. The findings indicate that there is no prolonged slow-moving change associated with the slower parietal layer, previously linked to the mass extinction event of late white matter around 66 million years ago. Early squid species had already established large populations, surpassing the biomass of both ammonites and fish. They evolved into intelligent and agile swimmers, contributing to modern marine ecosystems.
This lithograph features Loligo Forbesii, a squid species from the order Myopsida. Image credit: Comingio Mercuriano.
Squid are recognized as the most diverse and widely distributed group of marine cephalopods in today’s oceans, serving a crucial role in marine ecosystems as both predators and prey.
Their evolutionary success is generally attributed to the loss of a rigid external shell, a significant characteristic of their parietal ancestors.
Yet, their evolutionary beginnings remain unclear due to the scarcity of fossils from soft-bodied organisms.
The fossil record for squid dates back around 45 million years, with most specimens discovered consisting of fossilized statoris, or small calcium carbonites that assist in balance.
The early absence of such fossils has led to hypotheses that squid diversified following the mass extinctions during the Cretaceous period, approximately 66 million years ago.
Molecular studies of living squid species provide estimates regarding their divergence times; however, these estimates have become increasingly uncertain because of the dearth of prior fossil evidence.
In this recent study, Shin Ikegami, a paleontologist from Hokkaido University, and colleagues addressed these deficiencies using high-resolution grinding tomography and advanced image processing to digitally scan rocks as layered cross-sectional images, effectively revealing hidden 3D models.
This method was applied to Cretaceous carbonate rocks in Japan, resulting in the discovery of 263 fossilized squid beaks from 40 species across 23 genera and five families.
Results indicate that squid emerged around the boundaries of the early and late Cretaceous, roughly 100 million years ago, followed by a rapid diversification.
The authors assert that this newly uncovered fossil record significantly extends the documented origins of the two main squid groups: oegopsida extending back about 15 million years and myopsida extending as far back as 55 million years.
Early oegopsids showcased unique anatomical features that later species lacked, hinting at rapid morphological evolution, whereas Myopsids already displayed modern characteristics.
This study further indicates that late Cretaceous squids were more populous and often larger than their contemporaneous ammonite and bony fish counterparts. This ecological dominance might have triggered the radiation of bony fish and marine mammals roughly 30 million years ago, establishing squid as the first intelligent and agile swimmers that shaped modern marine ecosystems.
“In terms of population and size, these ancient squids were evidently proliferating across the oceans,” stated Dr. Ikenakamoto.
“Their body size rivaled that of fish, often even surpassing the ammonites found alongside them.”
“This demonstrates that squid thrived as the most abundant swimmers in the ancient seas.”
“These discoveries revolutionize our understanding of marine ecosystems in the past,” remarked Dr. Yasuhiro Iba from Hokkaido University.
“Squids were likely the pioneers of fast, intelligent swimmers that dominated the modern ocean.”
Shin Ikegami et al. 2025. The origin and radiation of squid revealed by digital fossil mining. Science E 388 (6754): 1406-1409; doi: 10.1126/science.adu6248
In an extensive community-based investigation, researchers from the Fatty Acid Institute identified a weak yet statistically significant inverse relationship between various inflammatory biomarkers and omega-6 fatty acids.
This image features Oenothera biennis, plants that produce oils with a high linolenic acid content. Image credit: Georg Slickers/CC by-sa 4.0.
“Chronic inflammation is acknowledged as a significant risk factor for various health disorders,” stated President William Harris of the Fatty Acid Institute and his colleagues.
“Omega-6 fatty acids, especially linoleic acid (LA) and arachidonic acid (AA), have been identified as either anti-inflammatory or pro-inflammatory agents. Researchers have considered both positions regarding dietary intake.”
The researchers utilized data from the Framingham Offspring study, a prominent cohort study in the Boston region.
This groundbreaking longitudinal research initiative began in 1971 and follows children from the original Framingham Heart Study, examining genetic and lifestyle factors influencing cardiovascular and metabolic health.
It has yielded valuable insights into chronic disease risks and prevention for decades, establishing itself as one of the most dependable sources for understanding long-term health trends.
This investigation is cross-sectional, meaning LA and AA levels were evaluated alongside 2,700 inflammation-related biomarkers in the same blood samples.
We statistically analyzed the association between the levels of these two omega-6 fatty acids and the levels of 10 blood and urine biomarkers related to inflammation and oxidative stress.
After statistically controlling for several potential confounding variables (such as age, race, gender, smoking status, blood pressure, and weight), researchers discovered that elevated LA levels were significantly linked to lower levels of five out of the 10 biomarkers.
For AA, higher levels were associated with reduced concentrations of four markers; however, there was no statistically significant relationship with higher inflammation/oxidation levels, unlike LA.
“These new findings clearly indicate that individuals with the highest LA (and AA) levels in their blood exhibit less inflammation than those with lower levels,” Dr. Harris remarked.
“This result contradicts the expectation if omega-6 fatty acids were deemed ‘pro-inflammatory.’ In fact, they seem to exhibit anti-inflammatory properties.”
“Amidst discussions in the media about the dangers of seed oils—the primary source of LA in diets—numerous voices advocate for reducing LA consumption.”
“This recommendation lacks a scientific basis, and this study, along with others, suggests the opposite: rather than decreasing LA intake, increasing it may be the healthier choice.”
“These findings diverge from the prevailing narrative but are consistent with earlier studies.”
“Numerous studies within medical literature support the findings presented here.”
The study was published in the journal Nutrients on June 22nd.
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Heidi T.M. Lai et al. 2025. Erythrocyte omega-6 fatty acids and biomarkers of inflammation in the Framingham offspring study. Nutrients 17 (13): 2076; doi: 10.3390/nu17132076
Geologists have found significant evidence indicating the preservation of Hadean Rocks, with an age of 4.16 billion years. The Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt offers a rare glimpse into the early Earth.
Canadian Nuvvuagittuq Green Stone Belt. Image credit: Jonathan O’Neill.
The earliest geological history of Earth remains largely unclear due to the scarcity of rocks and minerals from the Hadean period (over 4.3 billion years ago).
These ancient materials are often altered or destroyed as the planet’s crust undergoes continual recycling through various geological processes.
“One potential survivor of the Hadean era crustal rock is the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt,” stated Dr. Christian Saul, a senior author from the University of Ottawa and his colleagues.
“However, this perspective is contentious. Some researchers argue that the isotopic data backing these estimates might instead reflect later geological mixing rather than the true age of the layers.”
“If proven to be of Hadean origin, the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt would represent the oldest known preserved rock sequence on Earth.”
“This could yield critical insights into early geology and possible environments for the emergence of life.”
To refine the age of the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt, researchers concentrated on specific types of ancient rock intrusions known as metagabbro within the belt.
These intrusions intersect with ancient basaltic rocks, enabling the authors to utilize combined uranium-lead (U-Pb) dating to determine the minimum age limits of older layers, along with both short and long-lived samarium-neodymium (Sm-Nd) isotopic analysis.
Sm-Nd data yielded a consistent age of approximately 4.16 billion years, irrespective of the sample location or mineral composition.
The convergence of both isotope systems producing the same age in rocks with clear evidence of magma differentiation strongly supports their Hadean era crystallization.
This is in accordance with the Hadean Eon surviving within the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt.
“Studying these rocks allows us to trace back to the origins of our planet,” noted Dr. Jonathan O’Neill, a researcher at the University of Ottawa.
“This will enable us to gain a better understanding of how the first continent formed and help reconstruct the environment in which life emerged.”
C. Sole et al. 2025. Evidence of Hadean Mafic invasion in the Canadian Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt. Science 388 (6754): 1431-1435; doi: 10.1126/science.ads8461
Honey sourced from Australian stingless bees, often referred to as sugar bag honeybees, has long been a vital food source and a traditional remedy for ailments such as itching and pain among Indigenous Australian communities. A recent study has examined the antibacterial properties and chemical composition of honey from three species of Australian stingless bees: Tetragonula carbonaria, Tetragonula hockingsii, and Austroplebeia australis. The results revealed these honeys possess strong antibacterial capabilities against various human pathogens, exhibiting efficacy on par with or superior to that of most European honeys derived from Apis mellifera.
Antibiotic resistance poses a significant global health issue.
Numerous natural substances have developed complex defenses against microbial threats and may serve as potential therapeutic agents.
While the medicinal qualities of European honey have been extensively researched, the therapeutic potential of Australian stingless bee honey is still in its early stages.
Kenya Fernandez, a researcher from the University of Sydney, noted:
“Unlike honey from European honeybees, which predominantly depends on hydrogen peroxide for its antibacterial effects, the honey from Australian stingless bees demonstrates high levels of hydrogen peroxide along with non-peroxide activity, making it a robust and versatile candidate for therapy.”
The study found that the honey retained antibacterial properties even without hydrogen peroxide, indicating that these traits are inherent to the honey.
“Bee Manuka honey’s notable non-oxide antibacterial activity is a key factor behind its commercial success,” Dr. Fernandez added.
“In contrast, the consistent antibacterial effectiveness of heat-treated non-toxic honey from Australian bees—regardless of various locations and nectar sources—highlights the unique qualities of these bees.”
Professor Dee Carter at the University of Sydney remarked:
Researchers are hopeful that this reliability will enhance the potential for commercial health applications.
Nonetheless, challenges concerning scalability persist. Each stingless bee hive produces roughly 0.5 liters of honey annually, complicating large-scale production.
“Although the yields are modest, these hives require less upkeep than traditional bee hives, enabling beekeepers to manage a greater number of hives,” stated Dr. Ross Groag from the University of Sydney.
“Encouragingly, the commercial value of honey may foster the growth of more hives and pave the way for scalability in commerce.”
“In the past year, native stingless bee honey has made strides toward local and global commercialization, having received endorsements from Australian and New Zealand food safety authorities.”
“This regulatory backing is crucial in establishing a niche market for high-value, low-volume products.”
The survey results were published on May 21st in the journal Applied and Environmental Microbiology.
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Kenya E. Fernandez et al. 2025. Potent antibacterial activity and unique physicochemical properties of honey from Australian stingless bees Tetragonula carbonaria, Tetragonula hockingsii, and Austroplebeia australis. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 91 (6); doi:10.1128/aem.02523-24
The identification of human footprints in White Sands, New Mexico, estimated to be between 21,000 and 23,000 years old, was a significant advancement in our comprehension of the earliest inhabitants of the Americas. However, this research faced scrutiny concerning the dependability of radiocarbon dating materials, such as common aquatic plant seeds Rupiah Silhosa and coniferous pollen grains. A recent study, spearheaded by University of Arizona researcher Vance Holiday, indicates that the ancient mud from Perelora ceotero, the third material utilized for dating the footprints, dates back to approximately 20,700 to 22,400 years ago.
Ancient human footprints found in White Sands National Park, New Mexico, USA. Image credit: Bennett et al. , doi: 10.1126/science.abg7586.
Historically, scientists believed that humans entered North America roughly 16,000 to 13,000 years ago.
However, the footprints found at White Sands indicate that human presence in the area dates back to between 23,000 and 21,000 years ago. This timeline offers insights into the development of culture in North America.
The remnants of 10,000-year-old prints, uncovered nearly a century ago at a site near Clovis, New Mexico, led to a classification of artifacts long considered to represent the earliest known cultures in North America.
Critics have challenged two prior studies over the last four years, asserting that ancient species and pollen in the soil used for dating the footprints are unreliable indicators.
“The record is consistently strong, and it’s challenging to explain it all,” Dr. Holiday stated.
“As I mention in my publication, it would be an extraordinary coincidence for all these dates to be inaccurate.”
Thousands of years prior, the white sands formed from a series of lakes that eventually dried up.
Wind erosion created layers of plaster on the sand dunes that now characterize the region.
The footprints were excavated from stream beds that once fed into this ancient lake.
“Wind erosion has erased part of the narrative, leaving that segment lost. The remainder is buried beneath the world’s largest accumulation of plaster sand,” Dr. Holiday remarked.
For their latest research, Dr. Holiday and his team returned to White Sands in 2022 and 2023, excavating new trenches to gain deeper insights into the lakebed’s geology.
“We’ve put in considerable effort to explore this area,” stated Jason Windingstad, a doctoral candidate at the University of Arizona.
“You essentially find yourself questioning everything taught about North American populations.”
The authors recognize that their research hasn’t addressed lingering questions posed by critics since 2021: Why are there no artifacts or settlements left by the individuals who made the footprints?
“This is a valid inquiry. Some footprints discovered during the 2021 survey belong to a trackway that was created in mere seconds,” they explained.
“It is entirely plausible that hunter-gatherers would act with caution to avoid leaving resources in such a brief timeframe.”
“These individuals were aware of their resources and were distanced from their replacements.”
“They wouldn’t abandon artifacts casually. It doesn’t make sense for you to be viewing a debris field.”
The team’s recent findings will be published in the journal Advances in Science.
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Vance T. Holliday et al. 2025. Perelorace Geochronology supports the last Glacier Max (LGM) age of human tracks in White Sands, New Mexico. Advances in Science 11 (25); doi:10.1126/sciadv.adv4951
Each time I interact with ChatGPT, I consume energy—what does that really mean? A new study has highlighted the environmental costs of using large-scale language models (LLMs) and provided insights on how users can minimize their carbon footprints.
German researchers evaluated 14 open-source LLMs, ranging from 14 to 72 billion parameters, administering 1,000 benchmark questions to assess the CO2 emissions generated in response to each.
They discovered that utilizing internal reasoning to formulate answers can result in emissions up to 50 times greater than those generated by a brief response.
Conversely, models with a higher number of parameters—typically more accurate—also emit more carbon.
Nonetheless, the model isn’t the only factor; user interaction plays a significant role as well.
“When people use friendly phrases like ‘please’ and ‘thank you,’ LLMs tend to generate longer answers,” explained Maximilian Dorner, a researcher from Hochschule München Applied Sciences University and the lead author of the study, to BBC Science Focus.
“This results in the production of more words, which leads to longer processing times for the model.
The extra words don’t enhance the utility of the answer, yet they significantly increase the environmental impact.
“Whether the model generates 10,000 words of highly useful content or 10,000 words of gibberish, the emissions remain the same,” said Dorner.
Being polite to an AI platform uses more power – Getty
This indicates that users can help reduce emissions by encouraging succinct responses from AI models, such as asking for bullet points instead of detailed paragraphs. Casual requests for images, jokes, or essays when unnecessary can also contribute to climate costs.
The study revealed that questions demanding more in-depth reasoning—like topics in philosophy or abstract algebra—yield significantly higher emissions compared to simpler subjects like history.
Researchers tested smaller models that could operate locally, yet Dorner noted that larger models like ChatGPT, which possess more than 10 times the parameters, likely exhibit even worse patterns of energy consumption.
“The primary difference between the models I evaluated and those powering Microsoft Copilot or ChatGPT is the parameter count,” Dorner stated. These commonly used models have nearly tenfold the parameters, which equates to a tenfold rise in CO2 emissions.
Dorner encourages not only individual users to be mindful but also highlights that organizations behind LLMs have a role to play. For instance, he suggests that they could mitigate unnecessary emissions by creating systems that select the smallest model necessary for accurately answering each question.
“I’m a big supporter of these tools,” he remarked. “I utilize them daily. The key is to engage with them concisely and understand the implications.”
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About our experts
Maximilian Dorner, PhD candidate at Hochschule München Applied Sciences University.
The renowned “Harbinclanium” dates back at least 146,000 years, previously classified as a distinct species: Homo Longhi.
Reconstruction of Harbin’s individuals in his habitat. Image credit: Chuang Zhao.
The skull of Harbin was unearthed in 1933 during the construction of a bridge over the Songhua River in Harbin city, Jiangxi Province, China.
Due to systematic recovery processes over extensive periods, precise locations and data pertaining to the fossil layers were unfortunately lost.
The fossils are notably large, surpassing all other archaic humans, exhibiting a low and elongated shape that lacks the rounded contours typical of modern human crania.
Features include a large, nearly square eye socket, a pronounced brow ridge, a wide mouth, and prominent teeth.
The cranial capacity is estimated at 1,420 mL, aligning within the ranges of Homo sapiens, Neanderthals, and surpassing earlier Homo species.
This specimen, often referred to as the “Dragon Man” fossil, likely represents individuals under the age of 50.
In a recent study, Dr. Qiaomiei Fu from the Chinese Academy of Sciences and his colleague from the Institute for Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleontology performed a detailed analysis of the fossils and their dental calculus.
They identified over 308,000 peptides, around 20,000 proteins, and confirmed the presence of 95 endogenous proteins.
Additionally, they found 122 single amino acid polymorphisms (SAPs) unique to humanity, reaffirming the classification of the Harbin specimens within the Homo genus.
Significantly, three variants unique to Denisovans were identified, establishing a phylogenetic connection between the Harbin fossil and Denisova 3, small fragments from Denisova Cave.
“Prior to this discovery, Denisovan fossils were sparse and fragmented, complicating our understanding of their morphology and evolutionary background,” the researchers stated.
“The Harbin Fossils, identified as a new species Homo Longhi, exhibit crucial morphological similarities to Denisovan remains found elsewhere.”
Harbin’s personal portrait. Image credit: Cicero Moraes, doi: 10.6084/m9.figshare.24648591.
The researchers also successfully extracted mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from the dental calculus of the fossil.
The findings confirmed that Harbin individuals belonged to the early mtDNA lineage of Denisovans.
“The mtDNA aligns with the variability observed in Denisovan mtDNA and is associated with the lineage carried by early Denisovan individuals in southern Siberia, previously identified in Denisova Caves,” the authors mentioned.
“This indicates that Denisovans occupied a broad geographical range across Asia during the mid-Pleistocene.”
The detection of Denisovan mtDNA in Harbin’s skull aids in linking Denisovans with distinct morphological traits and recognizing other specimens as Denisovan, particularly when ancient DNA is either poorly preserved or challenging to procure.
For instance, fossils from Dali, Jinniushan, and Hualongdong display comparable morphological features to the Harbin skull, suggesting they may represent the Denisovan population.
“The connection between Denisovan mtDNA and Harbin skull morphology enhances our understanding of the morphological relationships between Denisovans and other central Pleistocene fossils in East Asia,” the researchers concluded.
“Moreover, exploring host DNA from dental calculus opens new avenues for genetic research related to the mid-Pleistocene.”
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Qiaomei Fu et al. Harbin’s personal proteome from the late Pleistocene. Science published online on June 18th, 2025. doi:10.1126/science.adu9677
Qiaomei Fu et al. Denisovan mitochondrial DNA from the dental calculus of the Harbin skull, over 146,000 years old. Cell published online on June 18th, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.05.040
Pre-contact Central and South American dogs (Canis Familiaris) – These are all dogs that existed prior to the arrival of European settlers, originating from a single maternal lineage that spread into North America. A recent study led by researchers at Oxford University indicates that the divergence times of dog breeds in North, Central, and South America align with the agricultural expansion occurring between 7,000 and 5,000 years ago, particularly highlighting the adoption of corn in South America.
Manin et al. Illustrating the gradual southward spread of dogs alongside early agricultural societies. Artwork by John James Audubon and John Bachman.
“Dogs traveled with the initial waves of people entering North America at least 15,000-16,000 years ago,” stated Oxford University researcher Aurely Mannin and colleagues.
“They were the only type of livestock brought to America from Eurasia before the arrival of European settlers.”
“Archaeological and physical evidence suggests that Arctic dogs were utilized for sledding, aiding groups of humans traversing the frigid tundra of Siberia.”
“Analysis of ancient DNA indicates that all dogs before contact with European settlers possess mitochondrial DNA from a lineage unique to the Americas.”
“Dogs from this lineage disseminated throughout the Americas, with the exception of the Amazon Basin, suggesting they became known only following the arrival of Europeans in the 16th century.”
In this latest study, the authors sequenced 70 complete mitochondrial genomes from both archaeological and modern dogs collected from Central Mexico to Central Chile and Argentina.
The findings indicate that all pre-contact dogs in Central and South America descended from a singular maternal lineage that diverged from North American dogs when humans initially settled the continent.
Instead of a rapid spread, dogs exhibited a slower pattern known as “segregation by distance,” gradually adapting to new environments and migrating with people between 7,000 to 5,000 years ago, coinciding with the rise of corn cultivation in early agricultural communities.
The influx of Europeans brought new dog breeds that predominantly replaced indigenous strains; however, researchers discovered that modern Chihuahuas still retain maternal DNA from pre-contact Mesoamerican ancestors.
These rare genetic traces underscore the enduring legacy of the first American dogs and the deep roots of this iconic breed.
“This research emphasizes the significant role that early agricultural communities played in the dispersal of dogs worldwide,” Dr. Manin remarked.
“In the Americas, it reveals that dogs were able to adapt slowly enough to develop genetic distinctions between North, Central, and South America.”
“This is quite unusual for livestock and unveils new avenues for research into the relationships between dogs and early agricultural societies.”
“This study contributes a new chapter to the extensive shared history of dogs and humans, influenced by migration across continents, survival, and lasting relationships,” the scientists concluded.
Survey results are set to appear in Proceedings of the Royal Society b.
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Aurely Manin et al. 2025. Ancient dog mitogenomes support the double dispersion of dogs and agriculture into South America. Proc. R. Soc. b 292 (2049): 20242443; doi: 10.1098/rspb.2024.2443
Researchers engaged 77 adults aged 35-60 in a 12-week clinical trial, where participants snacked daily on either 320 calories of almonds or crackers.
All subjects had metabolic syndrome, characterized by various risk factors for chronic illnesses such as heart disease and type 2 diabetes. This includes conditions like excess abdominal fat, elevated blood pressure, high blood sugar levels, low “good” cholesterol, and high triglyceride levels.
Professor Emily Ho, a co-author of the study and director of the Linus Pauling Institute at OSU, noted in BBC Science Focus that almond consumption reduces cholesterol levels, particularly LDL cholesterol (“bad” cholesterol), enhances gut health, decreases inflammation, and improves gut microbiota.
“The control group that consumed crackers didn’t show the same positive outcomes,” she stated. “Eating almonds did not lead to weight gain; in fact, there was a minor reduction in waist circumference and an improvement in vitamin E levels among participants, which is vital for the population.”
Vitamin E is an essential nutrient crucial for the proper functioning of various organs, nerves, and muscles, as well as for reducing blood clotting; however, many individuals in the UK and the US fail to consume sufficient amounts of vitamin E in their diets.
Participants who consumed almonds daily experienced numerous benefits for their metabolic health – Credit: Limpido via Getty
“Almonds are packed with various bioactive compounds, including essential vitamins and minerals like vitamin E and magnesium, along with fiber and numerous polyphenols that possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. They are truly nutritious snacks.”
She emphasized that substituting your usual snack with a handful of almonds can yield substantial health benefits, especially when included in a balanced and varied diet.
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About our experts
Emily Ho is a prominent professor at Oregon State University and director of the Linus Pauling Institute. Her research focuses on antioxidants, gene expression, and dietary chemoprevention strategies, particularly investigating the role of antioxidant nutrients such as zinc in maintaining DNA integrity and the development of cancer.
Biofluorescence, the process of absorbing high-energy light and re-emitting it as low-energy wavelengths, has been observed in various vertebrate and invertebrate lineages, particularly among fish. Research conducted by the American Museum of Natural History indicates that fish biofluorescence can be traced back at least 112 million years and has evolved over 100 times, predominantly in fish inhabiting coral reefs.
Phylogenesis of teleosts showing ancestral state reconstruction (absence/present) of biological fluorescence. Image credit: Carr et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-59843-7.
“Researchers have long known that biological fluorescence is prevalent in marine creatures, including sea turtles and corals, particularly among fish,” stated PhD Emily Kerr, a student at the American Museum of Natural History.
“To truly grasp the reasons and methods behind this unique adaptation, we need to explore the evolutionary background and the variety of biofluorescence currently utilized for camouflage, predation, or reproduction.”
In a first study published in the journal Natural Communication, Carr and colleagues investigated all known biological fluorescent extents, focusing on a species of bony fish, which comprises the largest living vertebrate group today.
This research identified 459 biological fluorescent species, including 48 previously unrecognized as biologically fluorescent.
The researchers discovered that biological fluorescence has evolved over 100 times in marine teleost fish, dating back to approximately 112 million years ago, with the initial occurrence found in eels.
Furthermore, fish species residing in or near coral reefs developed biological fluorescence approximately ten times faster than their non-reef counterparts, leading to a surge in fluorescent species following the mass extinction event around 66 million years ago that wiped out non-avian dinosaurs.
“This pattern coincides with the emergence of modern coral reefs and the rapid infiltration of fish into these environments, particularly after a significant loss of coral diversity due to the Cretaceous extinction,” Kerr explained.
“These relationships imply that the rise of contemporary coral reefs may have spurred the diversification of fluorescence in reef-associated teleost fish.”
Among the 459 documented biological fluorescent extents indicated in this study, the majority are linked to coral reefs.
In a second survey published in the journal PLOS 1, Kerr and co-authors employed a specialized photographic system with ultraviolet and blue excitation lights, alongside emission filters, to analyze the wavelengths emitted by fish from the ichthyology collection at the American Museum of Natural History.
These specimens, collected over the past 15 years during museum expeditions to locations like the Solomon Islands, Greenland, and Thailand, had shown fluorescence previously; however, the full spectrum of biological fluorescence emissions remained unexplored.
This study unveiled a broader diversity in the colors emitted by teleost fish, with some displaying at least six distinct fluorescence emission peaks across various wavelengths, surpassing prior reports.
“The unexpected variation observed among a wide array of these fluorescent fish suggests that they may utilize highly diverse and intricate signaling systems based on species-specific fluorescent emission patterns.”
“As these studies illustrate, biological fluorescence is extensive and remarkably phenotypically diverse among marine fish.”
“Our goal is to enhance our understanding of how fluorescence operates within these varied marine ecosystems and its role in evolutionary diversification.”
“The multitude of fluorescence emission wavelengths identified in this study could significantly impact the discovery of new fluorescent molecules that are routinely employed in biomedical applications, including the diagnosis and treatment of fluorescence-related ailments.”
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Carr et al. 2025. The extensive evolution of repeated biological fluorescence in marine fish. Nat Commun 16, 4826; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-59843-7
Carr et al. 2025. Marine fish display exceptional variability in biological fluorescence emission spectra. PLOS 1 20 (6): E0316789; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0316789
Paleontologists employing a novel method of geographic analysis have theorized about the dispersion of paleo-ausauromorphs following the Permian mass extinction, one of the most significant climate events in Earth’s history.
The earliest pale aurauromorphs, akin to contemporary reptiles, are perceived by many synthetic biologists as existing in dead zones, believed to thrive only in select regions due to extreme heat prevalent in tropical zones.
In a recent study, paleontologist Joseph Flannery Sutherland from the University of Birmingham, along with his team, uncovered clues on how these reptiles traversed the globe during the Triassic period.
The researchers employed a novel modeling technique grounded in landscape reconstruction and evolutionary phylogenies.
Having survived the extinction event, Archosauromorphs became a crucial component of the Triassic Earth’s ecosystem, paving the way for the emergence of dinosaurs.
Current research indicates their later success can be attributed to their ability to traverse up to 16,000 km (10,000 miles) across tropical dead zones to explore new ecosystems.
“Despite being among the direst climatic events in Earth’s timeline, resulting in the death of more species than in any other epoch, life persisted,” remarked Dr. Flannery Sasherland.
“The group of Archosauromorphs emerged from this event and became key players in shaping life thereafter.”
“The gaps in their fossil records are beginning to reveal insights into aspects of these reptiles we previously overlooked.”
“By utilizing the modeling system, we created images representing the condition of Archosauromorphs amid these gaps and their dispersal across the ancient landscape.”
“This research examined topography and routes mapped through both spatial and temporal dimensions, which we have coined as our ‘Tardis’ approach.”
“Our findings suggest these reptiles exhibit remarkable resilience to the extreme climates of the Panguian tropical dead zone, enabling them to endure these harsh conditions and reach distant regions.”
“This capacity to thrive in inhospitable tropical environments likely gave them the edge necessary to prosper in the Triassic landscape.”
“While life has often been dictated by environmental factors, integrating the limited and uncertain knowledge of ancient terrains with the incomplete understanding of extinct species is challenging,” stated Professor Michael Benton from the University of Bristol.
“However, combining fossil data with reconstructed maps of the ancient world offers a means to address these challenges within the context of evolutionary trees.”
Study published in the journal Natural Ecology and Evolution.
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JT Flannery-Sutherland et al. The phylogeny, described as a landscape, illuminates the ecological radiation of early paleoasauromorph reptiles. Nat Ecol Evol Published online on June 11th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41559-025-02739-y
Genetic and archaeological findings indicate a significant Neanderthal migration from the western regions to central and eastern Eurasia during the late Pleistocene. Genetic evidence points to dispersion occurring between 120,000 and 80,000 years ago, while archaeological sites in Altai date back to as early as 60,000 years ago. The specifics of the migration route and its timing have been heavily debated due to the limited number of archaeological connections between these regions. Recent studies suggest that Neanderthals likely utilized river valleys as natural pathways, enabling them to traverse approximately 3,250 km (2,000 miles) through the Urals and South Siberia in under 2,000 years.
E. Coco & R. Iovita suggest that the Neanderthals could have quickly spread from Caucasus Mountains to Altai Mountains, running along the north route between MIS 3 and MIS 5e. Image credit: Abel Grau, CSIC Communications.
“Our research indicates that despite facing natural barriers like mountains and large rivers, Neanderthals may have traversed northern Eurasia much more swiftly than previously thought,” stated Dr. Emily Coco, PhD, who initiated this investigation as a PhD student at New York University and is currently a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Algarve.
“These findings offer valuable insights from archaeological records regarding ancient migration routes that remain underexplored and highlight the potential of computer simulations to unveil new information about ancient movements that have shaped human history.”
In creating a simulation of the two Millennial Journeys of Neanderthals, Dr. Coco and her colleague Dr. Radu Iovita from New York University analyzed topographic elevations, ancient river paths, glacial barriers, and temperature variations to model individual movement decisions.
The researchers identified two potential migration routes from ancient periods – during ocean isotope stage 5E (approximately 125,000 years ago during MIS 5E) and during ocean isotope stage 3 (from MIS 3, starting around 60,000 years ago) – both characterized by warmer temperatures making them conducive for movement.
Simulations indicated that Neanderthals could reach the Siberian Altai Mountains in Eurasia within 2,000 years in either MIS 5E or MIS 3, following the same general northern route through the Urals and southern Siberia, often intersecting with known archaeological sites from the same timeframe.
The authors believe this study enhances our understanding of Neanderthal interactions with other ancient human populations.
Specifically, their route would have led them to regions already inhabited by Denisovans, which aligns with existing evidence of interbreeding between the two species.
“The Neanderthals could have traveled thousands of kilometers from the Caucasus Mountains to Siberia in just 2,000 years by navigating river corridors,” said Dr. Iovita.
“While some researchers speculate about this type of rapid, long-distance travel based on genetic evidence, demonstrating it has been challenging due to the sparse archaeological record in the region.”
“Our detailed computer simulations suggest that this transition may have been a predictable outcome of the landscape conditions during prior warm climate periods.”
E. Coco & R. Iovita. 2025. Agent-based simulations reveal the possibility of multiple rapid northern routes for the dispersion of the second Neanderthal from the West to East Eurasia. PLOS 1 20 (6): E0325693; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0325693
Researchers at Apple have identified “fundamental limitations” in state-of-the-art artificial intelligence models, prompting concerns about the competitive landscape in the tech industry for developing more robust systems.
In a study, Apple noted that the advanced AI model, known as the large-scale inference model (LRMS), experienced a “complete collapse in accuracy” when faced with complex challenges.
Standard AI models outperformed LRMS on tasks of lower complexity, yet both encountered “complete collapse” on highly complex tasks. LRMS attempts to handle intricate queries by creating detailed reasoning processes to break down issues into manageable steps.
The research, which evaluated the models’ puzzle-solving capabilities, revealed that LRMS began to “reduce inference efforts” as it neared performance breakdowns—something researchers labeled as “particularly concerning.”
Gary Marcus, a noted academic voice on AI capabilities, characterized the Apple paper as “quite devastating” and highlighted that these findings raise pivotal concerns regarding the race towards achieving artificial general intelligence (AGI), which would enable systems to emulate human-level cognitive tasks.
Referencing large language models (LLMs), Marcus remarked: “[of] AGIs, who can fundamentally change society, are joking about themselves.”
Moreover, the paper indicated that early in the “thinking” process, the inference model often squandered computational resources seeking solutions for simpler problems. However, as complexity increased, the model initially considered incorrect answers before ultimately arriving at correct ones.
When confronted with complex issues, the model experienced “collapse” and failed to generate accurate solutions. In one instance, it could not succeed even with an algorithm provided to assist.
The findings illustrated that “as problem difficulty rises, models begin to intuitively diminish inference efforts as they approach critical thresholds that closely align with the accuracy collapse point.”
According to Apple experts, these findings highlight “fundamental scaling limitations” in the reasoning capabilities of current inference models.
The study involved LRMS-based assignments like the Tower of Hanoi and River Crossing puzzle. The researchers acknowledged that their focus on puzzles signifies a boundary to their work.
The study concluded that current AI methodologies may have hit fundamental limitations. Models tested included OpenAI’s O3, Google’s Gemini Thinking, Anthropic’s Claude 3.7 Sonnet-Thinking, and Deepseek-R1. Google and Deepseek will be approached for comments, while OpenAI, the organization behind ChatGPT, opted not to provide a statement.
Discussing AI models’ capacity for “generalizable reasoning” or broader conclusions, the paper observes:
Andrew Rogoiski from the People-centered AI Institute at Surrey University remarked that Apple’s findings illustrate the industry remains grappling with AGI, suggesting that the current methods may have hit a “dead end.”
He added, “The revelation that the large model underperforms on complex tasks while faring well in simpler or medium-complexity contexts indicates we may be approaching a profound impasse.”
The former OpenAI board member, Helen Toner, commented that the US administration’s focus on academic research and its approach to international students is “a tremendous gift” to China in the competition surrounding artificial intelligence.
Toner, who serves as the Strategic Director of Georgetown’s Center for Security and Emerging Technology (CSET), joined OpenAI’s board in 2021 following a career dedicated to analyzing AI and the dynamics between the US and China.
At 33 years old, Toner—an alumna of the University of Melbourne—was part of the board for two years until she left alongside founder Sam Altman in 2023. There were concerns regarding Altman’s communication consistency and the board’s confidence in his leadership.
In the following tumultuous month, Altman was initially dismissed and then reinstated, while three board members, including Toner, were sidelined. Their situation has become the subject of an upcoming film, and along with the film’s director Luca Guadagnino, they have reportedly met in person.
According to Time Magazine, Toner was recognized as one of the top 100 most influential figures in AI for 2024, a testament to her advocacy for AI regulation by policymakers worldwide.
At CSET, Toner leads a team of 60 researchers focusing on AI applications for white papers aimed at briefing policymakers, particularly in military, labor, biosecurity, and cybersecurity contexts.
“My primary focus is on the intersections of AI, safety and security issues, the Chinese AI landscape, and what is termed frontier AI,” explained Toner.
Toner expressed concern that the US may fall behind China in the AI race. Although US export controls on chips complicate China’s access to competitive computing power, the country is making substantial strides in AI, illustrated by the surprising success of its generative AI model, Deepseek, earlier this year.
Toner criticized the Trump administration’s research cuts and international student bans as being “gifts” to China in the AI competition with the US.
“It’s undeniably a significant gift for China. The current US approach to attacking scientific research and the talents of foreigners—a considerable part of the US workforce comprises immigrants, many from China—is a boon for them in this contest,” she remarked.
The AI boom has raised alarms about job security, with concerns that AI may replace many human jobs. Dario Amodei, CEO of Anthropic, which developed the generative AI model Claude, recently stated that AI could eliminate 50% of entry-level white-collar jobs, potentially leading to a 20% unemployment rate over the next five years.
Though Toner acknowledged Amodei’s predictions, she noted, “While I often find his assertions directionally correct, they tend to sound overly aggressive in timelines and figures,” but she agreed that disruptions in the job market are already occurring.
“The current capabilities of [language model-based AI] are best suited for small, manageable tasks rather than long-term projects that require human oversight,” she advised.
Experts suggest that organizations heavily invested in AI are feeling pressure to demonstrate returns on their investments. Toner remarked that while practical applications of AI can yield considerable value, it remains unclear which business models or players will successfully unlock that value.
The integration of AI services could range from enhancing existing applications, such as a phone keyboard that transcribes voices, to standalone chatbots, but she remarked that it’s still uncertain what role AI will ultimately play.
Toner noted that the push for profitability presents risks that could overshadow the advancement race in AI.
“This reflects how companies are weighed down by the need to balance between rapid product releases and the thorough testing needed to implement additional safety measures that could also complicate user experience,” she elaborated.
“Such companies must make these trade-offs while feeling the pressure to accelerate as much as possible.”
Toner voiced her concerns regarding the concept of a “progressive power” of AI, which suggests gradual integration of AI systems into various societal and governmental facets; acknowledging it may be too late to reevaluate this path.
She expressed optimism regarding AI’s potential to enhance scientific research, drug discovery, and autonomous driving solutions like Waymo, which could significantly reduce road fatalities.
“With AI, the goal isn’t perfection; it’s to exceed existing alternatives. In the automotive sector, the alternative involves thousands of annual deaths. If we can improve that scenario, it’s remarkable; countless lives could be saved,” she articulated.
Toner humorously mentioned that a friend suggested potential actresses to portray her in the film.
“One suggestion was a stunningly talented actress,” she said. “Anyone they choose will definitely be a worthy pick.”
The advent of fire marks a significant point in human evolution, though scholars continue to debate its primary function. While cooking is frequently regarded as a key factor, researchers from Tel Aviv University propose that the protection of meat and fat from predators is more plausible. Homo Erectus lived during the Lower Paleolithic era, approximately 1.9 to 0.78 million years ago.
Miki Ben-Dor & Ran Barkai’s research highlights the nutritional value of meat and fat from large prey in the Lower Paleolithic, questioning the significance of culinary practices in shaping human dietary evolution and offering new insights into adaptations in Homo Erectus.
“The origins of fire usage is a ‘burning’ question among prehistoric researchers globally,” stated Professor Barkay, a co-author of the study.
“By around 400,000 years ago, it was widely accepted that fire was commonly used in domestic settings. I concur with the idea of meat roasting, as well as its use for lighting and heating.”
“However, there remains a debate concerning the past million years, with various theories put forth to explain early human interactions with fire.”
“This study aimed to approach this issue from a new angle.”
“For early humans, the use of fire wasn’t a given; most archaeological sites dated around 400,000 years ago show no signs of fire usage,” explained Dr. Miki Ben-Dor, lead author of the study from Tel Aviv University.
“However, in many early locations, there are clear indications of fire usage, even if there’s no evidence of burnt bones or roasted meat.”
“We see early humans—nearly Homo Erectus—utilizing fire sporadically for specific purposes rather than regularly.”
“Collecting fuel, igniting a fire, and maintaining it involved substantial effort, requiring a compelling energy-efficient reason.”
“We propose a new hypothesis for that motivation.”
In their research, the authors reviewed existing literature on all identified prehistoric sites between 1.8 million and 800,000 years ago where fire evidence has been found.
They identified nine sites globally, including Gesher Benot Ya’aqov and Evron Quarry in Israel, six sites in Africa, and one site in Spain.
The study also drew from ethnographic research on contemporary hunter-gatherer societies, relating their behaviors to ancient conditions.
“We examined the common features of these nine ancient sites and found they all contained a significant number of bones from large animals, mainly elephants, hippos, and rhinoceroses,” Dr. Ben-Dor noted.
“Previous research has shown these large animals were critical to early human diets, providing a substantial portion of their caloric needs.”
“For instance, the meat and fat from a single elephant can supply millions of calories, enough to sustain a group of 20 to 30 people for over a month.”
“Thus, hunting elephants and hippos was highly valuable—essentially a ‘bank’ of meat and fat that required protection and preservation, as it was sought after by predators and susceptible to decay.”
Through their analysis of findings and assessments of energetic benefits of preserving meat and fat, the researchers arrived at new conclusions that challenge previous theories. Early fires served dual purposes: first, to safeguard valuable resources from predators, and second, to facilitate smoking and prevent spoilage.
“This study introduces a novel perspective on the motivations behind early human fire use: the necessity to protect large game from other predators and the long-term preservation of substantial meat supplies,” Professor Barkay explained.
“Cooking may have occurred occasionally after fire was established for these protective purposes.”
“Such usage could elucidate evidence of fish roasting around 800,000 years ago found at Gesher Benot Ya’aqov.”
“Our approach aligns with evolving global theories that characterize major prehistoric trends as adaptations to hunting and consuming large animals, followed by a gradual shift to smaller prey exploitation.”
Survey results were published in the journal Nutrition Frontier.
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Miki Ben-Dor & Ran Barkai. 2025. The bioenergy approach supports the conservation and protection of prey, rather than cooking, as a primary driver for early use of fire. Front. Nutr. 12; doi:10.3389/fnut.2025.1585182
The Milky Way galaxy is often believed to be on a collision path with the neighboring Andromeda galaxy. This merger, anticipated roughly 5 billion years in the future, is expected to create a new elliptical galaxy. However, recent studies indicate that the likelihood of such a catastrophic event may be less than previously assumed.
These images depict three encounter scenarios between the Milky Way galaxy and the neighboring Andromeda galaxy. Top left: Messier 81 and Messier82. TopRight: NGC6786. BOTTOM: NGC 520. Image credits: NASA/ESA/STSCI/DSS/Till Sawala, Helsinki University/Joseph Depasquale, STSCI.
The Milky Way navigates through space, its trajectory affected by the gravitational forces from nearby galaxies, including Andromeda, Triangulum, and the Large Magellanic Cloud.
Consequently, prior studies have proposed for over a decade that the Milky Way is likely to collide with Andromeda, forming a new elliptical galaxy referred to as Milkomeda in about 5 billion years.
Dr. Thiru Sawara, an astronomer at the University of Helsinki, stated:
In their latest research, Dr. Sawara and colleagues utilized updated data from the ESA Gaia satellite and the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope to model the Milky Way’s movement through space over the next 10 billion years, while also refining estimates of the masses of local galaxies.
They discovered that there is about a 50% chance that no collision will occur between the Milky Way and Andromeda during this time frame.
The authors suggest that previous analyses overlooked certain calculations and uncertainties, including the gravitational influence of the Large Magellanic Cloud (a smaller galaxy orbiting the Milky Way).
They also propose that a merger with the Magellanic Clouds is nearly certain within the next two billion years, prior to any potential interaction with Andromeda.
“Even with the latest and most precise observational data at hand, the future of local galaxy groups remains uncertain,” Dr. Sawara remarked.
“Interestingly, there are roughly equal probabilities of widely discussed merger scenarios or, conversely, scenarios where the Milky Way and Andromeda remain unaffected.”
The team’s findings will be featured this week in the journal Nature Astronomy.
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T. Sawara et al. There is no certainty regarding the Milky Way and Andromeda collision. Nature Astronomy. Published online on June 2, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41550-025-02563-1
Regularly incorporating chickpeas into your diet can lead to a notable reduction in cholesterol levels. Discover more at the Nutrition 2025 Meeting in Orlando.
A 12-week research study by the Illinois Institute of Technology explored the impact of consuming one glass of chickpeas or black beans daily with a group of 72 pre-diabetic adults.
Participants were randomly assigned to consume chickpeas, black beans, or rice (as a control) along with their usual meals. Blood samples were taken at the beginning, middle, and conclusion of the study to monitor alterations in cholesterol, inflammation, and blood glucose levels.
The findings indicated that total cholesterol levels dropped significantly from an average of 200.4 to 185.8 milligrams per deciliter after 12 weeks of daily chickpea intake.
Among the legumes studied, only chickpeas were linked to lower cholesterol. “No significant changes in cholesterol were detected with black bean consumption,” stated Morgan Smith, who spoke to doctoral candidates from the Illinois Institute of Technology presenting their research at the conference. BBC Science Focus.
Additionally, chickpeas appeared to reduce inflammation in the short term. “By the six-week mark of chickpea consumption, we noted a significant decline in highly sensitive C-reactive protein (HS-CRP),” Smith remarked. This protein serves as a marker for inflammation in the body.
“Nevertheless, these results diminished by week 12. Although HS-CRP remained lower at week 12 compared to the baseline, the distinctions were no longer statistically significant,” she explained.
Conversely, while black beans did reduce inflammation, they did not impact cholesterol levels.
These results imply that chickpeas and black beans may provide varied health advantages due to their unique nutritional compositions.
Participants consuming one glass of chickpeas daily for 12 weeks experienced a significant reduction in cholesterol levels. – Getty
“We are currently investigating this, particularly concerning the bioactive components that set apart black beans from chickpeas,” Smith added. “We are analyzing the (poly)phenol content of both the intervention and the corresponding metabolite profile in the blood.”
Smith noted that chickpeas and black beans were selected for their “richness in dietary fiber, plant-based proteins, and bioactive compounds,” and for their convenience as canned options.
“Participants were in a free-living state and simply asked to integrate canned black beans or chickpeas into their regular diet without any specific preparation guidelines,” she stated.
While the study did not yield changes in blood glucose levels, researchers are still examining data related to glucose regulation and plan to explore how legumes influence gut microbiota.
“We are particularly focused on identifying changes in microbial metabolites, like short-chain fatty acids, and how these alterations enhance metabolic health outcomes,” Smith remarked.
“Ultimately, our aim is to deepen our understanding of the connections between diet, microbiome, and chronic disease prevention.”
The complete findings of this study are yet to be published in peer-reviewed journals.
About our experts
Morgan Smith is a doctoral candidate in food science and nutrition at Illinois Institute of Technology. She has contributed to peer-reviewed research featured in the journals Nutrition and Healthy Aging and Metabolites.
Biological processes such as sleep, heart rate, and metabolism are regulated by the circadian clock found in nearly every cell in the human body. However, modern lifestyles challenge this natural timing mechanism in ways for which we are not well-suited. Factors like industrialization, shift work, artificial lighting, and smartphone usage significantly impact our sleep and circadian rhythms. A recent study from the University of Michigan reveals that our circadian rhythms continue to align with seasonal changes in sunlight. This result was published in the journal NPJ Digital Medicine.
Kim et al. We believe that substantial individual differences in shift work adaptation, which are vital for shift workers’ health, can be explained in part by the biological mechanisms of seasonal timing. Image credit: Sasin Tipchai.
“We may not want to admit it in today’s world, but humans are inherently seasonal,” stated Dr. Ruby Kim, the study’s lead author.
“The duration of daylight and the sunlight we receive significantly influence our physiology.”
“Our research demonstrates that the timing of biologically significant seasons plays a role in how individuals adapt to changes in their daily routines.”
“These findings could lead to new avenues for investigating and understanding seasonal affective disorders, a form of depression linked to seasonal variations.”
“It could also point to new areas of exploration regarding a range of health issues related to sleep schedules and alignment with circadian rhythms.”
“This work holds great promise for future discoveries, potentially impacting metabolic and cardiovascular health as well as mental health conditions such as mood disorders and anxiety.”
The study also indicated that humans possess a seasonal genetic component, which might explain the significant differences in how individuals are impacted by variations in daylight.
“Some individuals may adapt better, while others might fare much worse,” remarked Professor Daniel Foger, a senior author of the study.
Investigating this genetic component could help researchers and healthcare providers identify where an individual falls on the adaptation spectrum, although achieving this will require more time and effort.
For now, this study serves as an important first step in reshaping our understanding of human circadian rhythms.
“Many people tend to perceive their circadian rhythm as a singular entity,” explained Professor Foger.
“Our findings indicate that it’s not one clock, but rather two.”
“One clock tracks dawn, and the other tracks dusk. They communicate with each other.”
Researchers adjusted their studies of circadian rhythms according to seasonal sunlight by analyzing sleep data collected from thousands of participants using wearable health technology like Fitbits.
All participants were medical interns involved in a one-year internship as part of a healthcare study funded by the National Institutes of Health.
Interns are shift workers whose schedules frequently change, which also changes their sleep patterns.
Moreover, these schedules often run counter to the natural day-night cycle.
The observation that the circadian rhythm of this group demonstrated seasonal dependence is a strong indicator of how deeply ingrained this feature is in humans, which is unsurprising.
“It makes a lot of practical sense. Our brain physiology has been attuned to track dusk and dawn for millions of years,” stated Professor Foger.
“Then industrialization came along in an evolutionary blink, and we’re still trying to catch up.”
Participants in the healthcare study also provided saliva samples for DNA analysis, enabling researchers to include genetic factors in their evaluations.
Previous genetic studies have identified specific genes involved in how circadian clocks in various animals respond to seasonal changes.
Since humans share this gene, the authors could pinpoint a smaller group of interns with slight variations in their genetic makeup.
For this group, shift work was more disruptive due to the misalignment between seasonal circadian rhythms and their sleep schedules.
This leads to many questions, particularly regarding the health implications and how shift work affects different individuals.
However, these are questions researchers will seek to investigate further in the future.
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R. Kim et al. 2025. Seasonal timing and individual differences in shift work adaptation. npj digits. Pharmaceuticals 8, 300; doi:10.1038/s41746-025-01678-z
In a study published today in the journal Earth and Planetary Science Letters, paleontologists examined the ratio of two distinct zinc isotopes in the enamel of 19 dental species from early Miocene marine ecosystems, including the Megatooth Sharks Otodus Megalodon and Otodus chubutensis.
Otodus Megalodon became extinct 3.6 million years ago. Image credit: Alex Boersma/PNAS.” width=”580″ height=”421″ srcset=”https://cdn.sci.news/images/2023/06/image_12042-Otodus-megalodon.jpg 580w, https://cdn.sci.news/images/2023/06/image_12042-Otodus-megalodon-300×218.jpg 300w, https://cdn.sci.news/images/2023/06/image_12042-Otodus-megalodon-104×75.jpg 104w” sizes=”(max-width: 580px) 100vw, 580px”/>
Otodus Megalodon became extinct 3.6 million years ago. Image credit: Alex Boersma/PNAS.
Otodus Megalodon was a colossal megatooth shark that inhabited the world’s oceans from 23 to 3.6 million years ago.
It could reach a length of at least 15 meters, making it one of the largest apex marine predators since the Mesozoic Era.
“Otodus Megalodon,” stated Dr. Jeremy McCormack from Goethe University in Frankfurt, “was estimated to require about 100,000 calories per day.”
“Scientists have generally believed that megalodon primarily consumed whales.”
“At least, that’s what it depended on if whales were available for extended periods.”
“However, it seems that Megalodon had a much broader range of prey than previously thought.”
In the recent study, Dr. McCormack and his colleagues investigated the ratio of zinc-64 and zinc-66 isotopes in the dental enamel of 19 fossil species from sediments that are 20.4 to 16 million years old, discovered in the shallow waters of the Burdigalian seaways in what is now southern Germany.
“Zinc is ingested through food, which means the heavier zinc-66 is stored in muscles and organs,” they explained.
“As a result, fish that consume other fish accumulate a high amount of zinc-66. Therefore, those that eat them will have even less.”
“This is why Otodus Megalodon and its relative Otodus chubutensis exhibited the lowest ratios of zinc-66 to zinc-64 at the top of the food chain.”
“Seabreams that fed on mussels, snails, and crustaceans represented the lowest level of our food chain study,” Dr. McCormack noted.
“Following that were smaller shark species, including Requiem sharks, and the ancestors of modern whales, dolphins, and porpoises.”
“Larger sharks, such as sand tiger sharks, occupied higher levels of the food pyramid, with immense sharks like Aralosera coscuspidatus and Otodus sharks containing Megalodon at the top.”
“However, Otodus sharks cannot be distinctly differentiated from lower levels of the pyramid.”
“Megalodons were versatile enough to consume marine mammals and large fish, depending on their availability from both the upper and lower tiers of the food pyramid.”
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Jeremy McCormack et al. The vegetative ecology of Miocene marine vertebrates reveals the Megatooth Shark as an opportunistic hypercarnivore. Earth and Planetary Science Letters Published online on May 26, 2025. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2025.119392
Slope stripes are prominent dark markings on Martian slopes that naturally form and can fade over decades. Some planetary scientists interpreted these features as evidence of liquid flows, raising the possibility of a currently habitable environment on Mars. However, recent research by Brown and Bern Universities offers alternative explanations, focusing on drying processes associated with wind and dust activities.
This image captures the impact crater in the Sirenum Fossa region of Mars, taken by NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter on March 30, 2015. The crater is about 3,300 feet (1 km) wide, displaying sharp rims and well-preserved features, indicating a relatively recent origin. The steep inner slope is carved into the gully and exhibits a recurring slope system on equator-facing slopes. Image credits: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona/Alfred McEwen.
“A significant focus of contemporary Mars research is understanding active processes on the planet, including the potential presence of liquid water on its surface,” states Dr. Admos Valantinus, a postdoctoral researcher at Brown University.
“In our study, we examined these features but found no evidence of water. Our model supports the idea of a dry formation process.”
The unusual stripes were first identified from images sent back by NASA’s Viking mission in the 1970s.
These stripes typically appear darker than the surrounding terrain, stretching across sloped regions that can extend several hundred meters.
While some stripes endure for years or decades, others appear and disappear more rapidly.
The phenomenon known as recurring slope features (RSLs) tends to manifest in the same locations during Mars’ warmest periods.
The origins of these stripes have fueled much debate among planetary scientists.
Seeking new insights, Dr. Valantinus and his colleague Dr. Valentin Bickel employed machine learning algorithms to catalog as many slope streaks as possible.
After training the algorithm on confirmed sightings of slope streaks, it was used to analyze over 86,000 high-resolution satellite images.
The outcome was the first comprehensive global map of slope streaks on Mars, featuring over 500,000 individual streaks.
“With this global map, we can compare it against a database of various factors such as temperature, wind speed, moisture, and rock slide activity,” said Dr. Bickel.
“This enables us to search for correlations across a vast number of cases to better comprehend the conditions under which these features form.”
This extensive analysis indicated that slope stripes and RSLs are generally not linked to conditions that would suggest the presence of liquid or frost, such as specific gradient directions, significant surface temperature fluctuations, or high humidity levels.
Instead, the authors posited that both features are likely to form in areas with moderate wind speeds and dust deposition, consistent with arid origins.
Researchers concluded that these stripes likely arise when fine layers of dust suddenly slide down steep slopes.
Variability in triggering factors was noted. Slope stripes are observed more frequently near recent impact craters where shock waves can disturb loose surface dust, while RSLs tend to be more prevalent in areas affected by dust devils and rockfalls.
Collectively, these findings raise new questions about the viability of slope stripes and RSLs as indicators of habitable environments.
This research holds significant implications for future Mars exploration efforts.
While a habitable environment may seem like an appealing exploration target, NASA aims to be cautious in this regard.
Earthly microorganisms potentially present on spacecraft could contaminate Mars’ habitable zones, complicating the search for extraterrestrial life.
This study suggests that the risk of contamination at slope streak locations is relatively low.
“This demonstrates the advantage of a big data approach,” noted Dr. Valantinas.
“It helps eliminate certain hypotheses from consideration before launching a spacecraft for exploration.”
The results were published on May 19, 2025, in Nature Communications.
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VT Bickel & A. Valantinas. 2025. The streaks on the slopes of Mars are dry. Nature Communications 16, 4315; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-59395-w
Authorities in China seem to be rolling out a more stringent version of the internet censorship system in Henan province, imposing tighter controls over information access for its tens of millions of residents compared to others in the country.
A research paper published by the Great Firewall Report this month indicates that internet users in Henan—one of China’s most densely populated provinces—were blocked from accessing five times as many websites from November 2023 to March 2025 compared to the national average.
“Our findings highlight striking instances of censorship emerging in the region,” stated the researchers, including authors from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and Stanford University.
China has established the most advanced and extensive internet censorship system globally. Users are barred from accessing a majority of Western news sites and social media platforms, which includes popular services provided by Google, Wikipedia, and Meta.
Under the “Great Firewall,” online content is scrutinized and censored by a combination of governmental bodies and private companies that adhere to regulations requiring removal of content deemed “sensitive.” This often involves topics regarding historical or current events that conflict with the official narrative of the Chinese Communist Party.
Researchers began their investigation after residents in Henan reported that many sites accessible elsewhere in China were unavailable in their province. They discovered millions of domains not blocked by central firewalls at one point that were inaccessible to Henan users.
By acquiring a server from a cloud provider, the authors monitored internet traffic within Henan. They conducted daily tests on the top 1 million domains from November 2023 to March 2025, revealing a significant rise in blocks during 2024. The results indicated that Henan’s firewall obstructed around 4.2 million domains during the survey period—over five times the roughly 741,500 domains obstructed by regular Chinese censorship measures.
The domains specifically blocked in Henan predominantly came from business-related websites. Recent financial protests in the province have led researchers to theorize that increased information control might stem from concerns about their managed economy.
In 2022, thousands in Henan participated in protests after being denied access to their bank accounts. The situation escalated when demonstrators found their mobile health codes—essential for pandemic management—turned red, restricting their movement. Subsequent to this, five staff members faced penalties for misusing health regulations to quash the protests.
Other regions of China have also seen heightened internet restrictions. For example, after a deadly ethnic riot in July 2009, the government imposed a ten-month internet blackout in Xinjiang, a Uyghur minority region in Western China. Thereafter, internet usage in Xinjiang has been monitored much more rigorously than in other areas, with Tibet also facing strict online controls.
The rise of a regional censorship regime in Henan is notable as it is not typically identified as a hotspot for such measures by Chinese authorities.
Researchers have not been able to ascertain whether the intensified controls were imposed by the local Henan government or the central government in Beijing.
The swift advancements in Chinese AI technologies have proven beneficial for both censorship enforcement and evasion efforts. Recently, China’s Ministry of Public Security (MPS) announced new monitoring tools enabling surveillance of users on virtual private networks (VPNs), designed to bypass internet restrictions. The MPS Institute has also introduced tools claiming to monitor accounts on Telegram, reportedly processing over 30 billion messages.
Minshu Wu, the lead author of “Henan Studies,” uses pseudonyms to safeguard their identity. Conversely, AI technologies can also be utilized to develop more sophisticated and adaptive censorship and monitoring tools.
The Henan Cyberspace Issues Committee has not responded to requests for comment.
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