A significant piece of what seems to be space debris has been found in a secluded area of the Australian desert, as confirmed by the nation’s space agency on Monday.
The burnt, smoldering object was located in the Pilbara region of Western Australia, according to the Australian Space Agency. While its exact nature and origin remain unclear, officials suspect it is likely a decommissioned rocket component.
The Australian Space Agency stated, “The debris is probably a propellant tank or pressure vessel from a launch vehicle.” This was mentioned in a post on X.
Details regarding the size or weight of the object were not disclosed, but the agency is collaborating with local authorities and other space organizations to investigate and ascertain “the precise nature of the debris and its origin.”
NBC News reached out for additional information, but the agency did not respond immediately.
Workers from a nearby mine stumbled upon the object on Saturday along a remote access road. As reported by Sky News, local officials do not believe the debris poses any risk to public safety. NBC News has yet to verify these details independently. (Sky News is a division of Comcast, the parent organization of NBC News.)
Various government space agencies and private companies frequently incinerate malfunctioning rocket parts or satellites in the atmosphere as a method of disposal. However, some debris can withstand the intense conditions of reentry. Despite this, it’s relatively uncommon for space debris to land on land, and even rarer for it to fall in populated regions, given that much of Earth is ocean.
Recently, however, experts have voiced concerns regarding the escalating issue of space debris, particularly with the increase in orbital launches.
Last summer, a 90-pound piece of space debris was found on a hiking trail in North Carolina and was later identified as part of the service module of SpaceX’s Crew Dragon capsule, which returned four astronauts to Earth from the International Space Station earlier that year.
In March 2024, a 1.6-pound metal fragment crashed through a home in Naples, Florida. Follow-up investigations determined that the debris originated from a cargo pallet that was released from the International Space Station to burn up in the atmosphere.
There are tens of thousands of pieces of space junk, along with millions of smaller fragments, cluttering Earth’s low orbit, the critical area where many telecommunications and GPS satellites operate. These objects can travel at speeds of up to 18,000 miles per hour, jeopardizing spacecraft functionality and endangering astronauts aboard the International Space Station.
Due to these concerns, experts have long cautioned against the overcrowding of space. NASA and other space agencies are investing in research and technology demonstrations aimed at cleaning up substantial amounts of debris in orbit.
The Australian Space Agency reiterated its commitment in a statement to the long-term sustainability of space activities, which includes debris mitigation, and continues to advocate for this issue on the international stage.
Immune-related changes occur in the breast after breastfeeding
Svetlana Repnitskaya/Getty Images
Breastfeeding has long been linked to lowering the risk of breast cancer. However, the precise mechanisms behind this effect remain elusive. Recent studies reveal that women who breastfeed possess a higher presence of specialized immune cells in their breasts that might inhibit malignant immune cells.
The exact reasons remain partially understood, but are believed to involve alterations in breast tissue and hormonal exposure. To investigate further, Shereen Roy and colleagues at the Peter McCallum Cancer Center in Victoria, Australia, examined breast tissue from 260 women from diverse ethnic backgrounds, aged 20 to 70. These women varied in their maternal status and breastfeeding experiences, with none having previously been diagnosed with breast cancer.
“We discovered that breastfeeding mothers have a greater quantity of specialized immune cells known as CD8+ T cells, which can persist in breast tissue for decades after childbirth,” says Roy. “These cells serve as local defenders, poised to combat abnormal cells that may lead to cancer.” In certain instances, these cells remained present for up to 50 years.
The researchers also investigated mice, some of which underwent a complete cycle of pregnancy, lactation, and breast recovery during the weaning of their pups. Their mammary tissue was analyzed 28 days later, by which point the mammary glands had reverted to their pre-pregnancy state. Other mice had their pups taken away shortly after birth, or they were not pregnant at all.
The study revealed that completing a full lactation cycle significantly increased the accumulation of specialized T cells in mammary tissue, a phenomenon not observed in the other mice. When triple-negative breast cancer cells, known for their aggressive nature, were transplanted into the mammary gland tissue, tumors developed much more slowly in mice that had experienced lactation. However, depleting these T cells led to rapid tumor growth.
The researchers also analyzed clinical data from over 1,000 women diagnosed with triple-negative breast cancer post at least one full-term pregnancy. They found that women who breastfed exhibited tumors with a higher density of CD8+ T cells. “This indicates that the body’s immune response against breast cancer is active and ongoing,” notes Roy.
After considering other risk factors linked to breast cancer mortality, such as age, the researchers noted that women who breastfed had substantially longer overall survival. However, the variability in the data made it challenging to determine whether the duration of breastfeeding impacted this outcome.
“These findings have significant implications for understanding why certain women possess a more inherent protection against aggressive breast cancer and how we might develop targeted prevention and treatment strategies in the future,” Roy explains. However, she emphasizes that the choice to breastfeed is personal, not feasible for everyone, and may not always prevent breast cancer development.
Daniel Gray, along with researchers from the Walter and Eliza Hall Medical Research Institute in Victoria, highlighted that one of the study’s strengths was the analysis of multiple groups of women. “This lays the groundwork for future research that may elucidate how CD8+ T cells retain ‘memory’ of breastfeeding,” he comments.
For the first time, astronomers have witnessed the real-time formation of a ring system. This particular ring encircles Chiron, a comet-like entity that orbits the sun between Saturn and Uranus. Each time you observe Chiron, its rings will appear slightly varied.
While Chiron is not the first small celestial body to display rings, it joins the ranks of the asteroid Chariklo and the dwarf planets Haumea and Quaor, which also possess small ring systems. These rings were identified using a technique called stellar occultation, where observations are made as an object passes in front of a distant star, allowing scientists to create a map of how that star’s light is obstructed by the surrounding material.
“Only about 20 objects have been observed through stellar occultations, so having four of them identified with rings represents a robust statistic,” says Bruno Sicardi from the Paris Observatory in France. “Given the countless bodies in existence, it stands to reason that hundreds of ring systems should be out there.” He anticipates that more will be discovered in the years ahead.
Sicardi and his team analyzed the 2023 occultation of a star to decode the structure of the ring surrounding Chiron. While earlier findings hinted at the existence of three rings, the new observations reveal an extra disk of material encircling those rings, extending farther from Chiron’s surface, along with an entirely new ring previously unseen.
“Nature presents us with rings in their developmental stages, which is a fortunate scenario for us. Unlike the rings of Saturn, Uranus, or even Chariklo, which generally stay consistent, we are witnessing something dynamic,” Sicardi remarks.
Rings can form through various processes, and observing their formation can deepen our understanding significantly. As Christian Pereira from the National Astronomical Observatory of Brazil notes, “[This could] unveil the specific conditions that facilitate the formation, persistence, and eventual disappearance of rings, which may ultimately elucidate why such systems are typically found only in the frigid, icy areas of the solar system.”
Study participant measuring reading capacity post-retinal implant
Moorfields Eye Hospital
Individuals experiencing significant vision impairment can regain the ability to read, thanks to a compact wireless chip implanted in one eye along with advanced glasses.
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a prevalent condition that impacts central vision and tends to progress over time. While the precise cause remains unknown, this condition arises from damage to the light-sensitive photoreceptor cells and neurons located in the central retina, leading to difficulties in facial recognition and reading. Available treatments are primarily designed to slow down the progression.
An advanced form of AMD referred to as geographic atrophy typically allows individuals to retain some photoreceptor cells that facilitate peripheral vision, along with sufficient retinal neurons to relay visual information to the brain.
Leveraging this capability, Daniel Palanker and his team at Stanford University in California created the PRIMA device. This system includes a small camera mounted on the glasses, which captures images and projects them through infrared light onto a 2-by-2-millimeter solar-powered wireless chip implanted at the rear of the eye.
The chip then transforms the image data into electrical signals, which the retinal neurons transmit to the brain. Infrared light is employed for this process as it is invisible to the human eye, thereby ensuring it does not interfere with any remaining vision. “This allows patients to utilize both the prosthesis and their peripheral vision simultaneously,” explains Palanker.
To evaluate its efficacy, researchers enlisted 32 participants aged 60 and above, all suffering from geographic atrophy. Their visual acuity in at least one eye was below 20/320—meaning they could see what a person with 20/20 vision could see at 320 feet (97.5 meters) only at 20 feet (6 meters).
The team initially implanted a chip in one of the participant’s eyes. After a waiting period of four to five weeks, the volunteers began using the glasses in their everyday activities. The glasses enabled them to magnify their view up to 12 times and adjust brightness and contrast as needed.
After a year of using the device, 27 of the participants managed to read again and recognize shapes and patterns. They also noted an average improvement of five lines on a standard eye chart compared to their initial findings. Some participants were able to achieve 20/42 vision.
“Witnessing them progress from reading letters to full words brought immense joy to both sides. One patient expressed, ‘I believed my eyes were irreparably damaged, but now they’re revitalizing,'” shares Jose Alan Sahel from the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine.
While stem cell therapy and gene therapy may potentially restore vision lost due to AMD, these approaches are still in early experimental trials. PRIMA stands out as the first artificial eye designed to restore functional vision in individuals with the condition, allowing them to perceive shapes and patterns.
Approximately two-thirds of the volunteers experienced temporary side effects, such as increased intraocular pressure, as a result of the implants; however, this did not hinder their vision improvement.
Comparison of a trial participant’s eye (left) and eye with retinal implant (right)
Science Co., Ltd.
“This research is both exciting and significant,” remarks Francesca Cordeiro from Imperial College London. “It provides hope for delivering vision improvements that have previously seemed more like science fiction.”
The improved visibility experienced by participants is limited to black and white. “Our next objective is to develop software to provide grayscale resolution and enhance facial recognition,” states Palanker. Nevertheless, researchers do not anticipate achieving color vision in the near future.
Palanker also aims to increase PRIMA’s resolution, which is currently constrained by pixel size and the total count that can be included on a chip. Testing a more advanced version in rats is underway. “This current version equates to human vision of 20/80, but electronic zoom can enable vision as sharp as 20/20,” he explains.
Nearly two years ago, during the COP28 climate summit in the heart of the oil-rich United Arab Emirates, nations committed to begin “transitioning our energy systems away from fossil fuels” to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050. However, the global share of energy sourced from fossil fuels has stubbornly remained over 80 percent, consistent with trends from previous decades.
Due to our inability to decarbonize, researchers now believe we have set off Earth’s first “tipping point,” a significant shift in climate that cannot be easily reversed. Current ocean temperatures are alarmingly high, putting coral reefs at risk of widespread death (see page 9).
What obstacles are impeding the energy transition? While there isn’t a straightforward answer, it is often noted that a select few companies, predominantly fossil fuel corporations, are responsible for the majority of emissions. Criticism of such statements is easy, as they deflect responsibility away from consumers who utilize this energy.
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Major tech companies are minimizing earlier promises to achieve net zero “
However, it is reasonable to critique oil and gas firms that tout their ecological initiatives yet fail to follow through. Many of these companies promote their renewable energy investments, but in reality, their contributions to future energy production remain minimal (see page 16).
Regrettably, the situation appears poised to worsen before it improves. Encouraged by the Trump administration, numerous oil and gas companies have vowed to boost production, while significant players in other sectors, like tech, are downplaying their net-zero commitments.
Next month, governments are set to convene once more to deliberate on climate policy at COP30 in Brazil. While military action is unlikely from the United States, UK Prime Minister Keir Starmer has yet to confirm his participation. At this juncture, it’s reasonable to question whether any politicians or business leaders genuinely regard the climate change threat seriously. If they do, they must start demonstrating that urgency through action.
Although modern humans are thought to have driven Neanderthals extinct, it was not simply through conflict or violence. New research indicates that the genetic incompatibility from interbreeding between the two species may have led to increased chances of pregnancy failure in hybrid mothers. This genetic mismatch could also provide insights into some contemporary pregnancy failures.
Studies in genetics reveal that there was ongoing interbreeding between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals around 50,000 to 45,000 years ago. While Neanderthals became extinct approximately 41,000 years ago, remnants of their DNA endure in modern humans of non-African ancestry, accounting for about 1 to 2 percent of their genetic makeup.
Interestingly, no mitochondrial DNA from Neanderthals is found in modern humans. Mitochondrial DNA is inherited exclusively from the mother, as it is carried only in the egg cell, not in sperm.
Patrick Eppenberger and his team at the University of Zurich in Switzerland propose a possible reason for this phenomenon. They suggest that mothers with Neanderthal and Homo sapiens ancestry faced a higher probability of pregnancy loss due to genetic mismatches between their genes and those of the developing fetus.
Variations of the gene Piezo 1, crucial for oxygen transport in the bloodstream, existed among Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. The researchers conducted analyses on DNA from both groups and constructed models of how the PIEZO1 protein interacted based on these differences. They also experimented with human red blood cells in laboratory settings, simulating effects caused by Neanderthal genes.
The findings revealed that the Neanderthal variant V1 of red blood cells exhibited a stronger binding affinity for oxygen compared to the V2 variant of Homo sapiens. The dominance of V1 implies that individuals inheriting both V1 and V2 would have red blood cells highly efficient at oxygen transport.
This suggests that a fetus conceived from a Neanderthal and a Homo sapiens mother could have been healthy, but complications might have arisen in the subsequent generations. A hybrid mother carrying a fetus with two copies of V2 would struggle to deliver sufficient oxygen through the placenta, potentially stunting fetal development and heightening miscarriage risks.
In their study, Eppenberger and colleagues assert that such incompatibilities could have led to lower fertility rates among Neanderthals. They wrote, “Over thousands of years of cohabitation, even minimal gene flow from modern humans into Neanderthal populations may have gradually introduced reproductive disadvantages that intensified over generations.”
This situation was likely less problematic for Homo sapiens, as their population numbers were significantly greater. Even though Neanderthal DNA could likely integrate through paternal lines, V1 variants would be swiftly purged by natural selection. This could clarify why Neanderthal nuclear DNA has persisted in some humans, while their mitochondrial DNA has not.
Researchers also pointed out that, while modern human mitochondrial DNA does not come from Neanderthals, instances of similar mutations in the Piezo 1 gene can still result in unexplained miscarriages today due to gene incompatibilities between mothers and fetuses.
Sally Wassef from the Queensland University of Technology in Brisbane, Australia, remarked that the newfound understanding of second-generation incompatibilities offers valuable insights. “Even minor reproductive disadvantages can lead small populations below their replacement levels, triggering declines and potentially leading to extinction in vulnerable environments,” she notes.
“However, I view this finding as merely one piece of a larger puzzle,” she adds. “While its impacts are subtle, there are likely other ecological and social factors at play.”
Laurits Skov at the University of Copenhagen in Denmark shared that multiple elements likely contributed to the extinction of Neanderthals, including climate change, the emergence of modern humans, small Neanderthal populations, new disease introductions, and genetic incompatibility.
Skov further expressed skepticism about the notion that this disparity in oxygen affinity stems from a singular mutation within the Piezo 1 gene, as proposed by the researchers.
“Further research is essential to accurately evaluate the implications of this mutation and the effects of differing maternal and fetal gene profiles,” he emphasizes, “as well as to determine its potential role in Neanderthal extinction.”
Neanderthals, Ancient Humans, and Cave Art: France
Join New Scientist’s Kate Douglas on a captivating journey through time, exploring significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites in Southern France, from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Access to clean water can be challenging in isolated areas
Kornienko Alexander/Alamy
A hand-cranked bottle could transform the availability of safe drinking water in areas affected by disasters and in off-grid communities.
Xudeng professors at the University of Electronic Science and Technology of China in Chengdu are committed to developing a straightforward approach to eliminate bacterial, viral, and fungal pathogens, as well as parasites from water.
“We often faced the same challenges in decentralized water treatment,” says Deng. “Most point-of-source (POS) solutions need electricity or ample sunlight and are labor-intensive.”
In areas without grid access and during emergencies when standard systems fail, an invention was required to disinfect water using a simple one-minute manual action.
Their method utilizes spherical silica nanoparticles coated with amine-based compounds that acquire a positive charge in water, along with gold nanoparticles that become negatively charged when agitated.
“Imagine a hand-cranked bottle filled with a small quantity of a synthetically made sand-like powder,” Deng explains. “A few turns of the handle induce a gentle shear in the water, activating the nanoparticles.”
As water flows over the gold and amine nanoparticles, it generates an electric charge that produces oxidizing agents known as reactive oxygen species.
“These reactive oxygen species puncture the membranes of microorganisms, rendering the pathogens incapable of survival or reproduction,” Deng states. “When agitation ceases, the powder naturally separates from the water, allowing clean water to flow out of the outlet.”
The research team evaluated the device against 16 highly infectious pathogens known to pose significant public health threats, achieving a reduction rate of 99.9999%. A similar level of reduction was noted for Escherichia coli in just 15 seconds of stirring at 50°C and for cholera bacteria in one minute. In total, it inactivated over 95 percent of all tested microorganisms.
Deng mentioned that the device is still in the proof-of-concept phase, so researchers haven’t yet established how many liters of water it can purify.
“What we do know is that after each cycle, the same set of particles can be collected and reused,” he adds. “Moreover, once charged, this system provides prolonged defense against recontamination for several hours.”
Since the quantity of gold nanoparticles used is minimal, their expense is negligible, with the primary cost attributed to the silica powder and plastic casing.
Chiara Neto from the University of Sydney in Australia expressed her admiration for the scientific advancement and novel applications of nanoparticles in disrupting pathogen cell membranes. “It’s a brilliant and impressive piece of work.”
If you’ve ever stepped outside to find your newly planted flower bed overturned or your vegetable garden ravaged, you can relate to my frustration. From inquisitive foxes to hungry squirrels, garden mammals wreaking havoc on your carefully nurtured plants can challenge the patience of any gardener.
This is why garden centers are filled with all sorts of deterrents, from motion-activated ultrasound devices to intimidating steel traps and even bags of dried lion dung to safeguard your precious plants. But what if a simpler, more affordable, and gentler solution lies within your spice rack: chili powder? Is this popular gardening hack truly effective?
The concept is straightforward. Like humans, garden mammals respond to capsaicin, the spicy component found in chili peppers. When it binds to receptors in your mouth and skin, it elicits the familiar burning sensation, making you steer clear of the treated area.
You may wonder why chili pepper plants are adorned with bright, attractive fruits filled with aromatic compounds, while this unpalatable molecule is part of the mix. That’s because birds lack these specific receptors. They are immune to capsaicin. Researchers suggest that chili pepper plants have evolved to produce capsaicin as a selective deterrent to keep mammals from damaging chili seeds during digestion, while allowing birds, which help disperse the seeds, to consume them without issue.
Capsaicin is so effective that it is added to birdseed to prevent squirrels from consuming it. It also deters rats and mice from raiding poultry feed, having effects on rodents that consume and destroy wildflower seeds and nests of rare ground-nesting birds.
For larger animals such as deer and badgers, the results appear less definitive. A 2005 UK field trial revealed that European badgers favored food without capsaicin but couldn’t entirely avoid it over time, nor did they learn to steer clear of it like they do with other deterrents. Given that badgers are known to dig up and consume wasp and ant nests, it’s not surprising that a little chili pepper doesn’t phase them too much, considering.
Now, regarding the complexities. These trials can be hard to compare due to the varying forms of capsaicin utilized, including pure chili powder, chemical coatings, or purified extracts. Moreover, capsaicin is not water-soluble, meaning it doesn’t wash away easily with rain. However, it biodegrades readily, so multiple applications may be necessary, especially for those with low tolerance to its effects. Recurrent exposure can increase sensitivity.
The bottom line? Chili powder serves as a safe, natural, and cost-effective method to deter mammals from your garden. By employing the hottest types of chili powder and rotating them, you can avoid habituation and apply them as needed, while keeping the rest for culinary uses.
James Wong is a botanist and science writer with a keen focus on food crops, conservation, and the environment. Educated at the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew, London, he hosts over 500 houseplants in his compact apartment. You can follow him on X and Instagram @botanygeek.
Ken Liu’s newest novel, everything we see and feel, explores the enigmatic disappearance of a professional dream weaver named Ellie in a near-future setting, framed as a cyberpunk thriller.
Full disclosure: I typically don’t seek out thrillers or cyberpunk, so I might not be in the book’s target demographic. However, I was drawn to this story since Liu is renowned not only for his writing but also for his exceptional translation of works such as memories of earth’s past Trilogy by Liu Cixin.
In Liu’s portrayal of the near future, where personal AI is omnipresent, Ellie thrives as she employs AI to craft collaborative dream experiences for a legion of enthusiasts. To her, this work constitutes art, and she’s immensely proud of it.
Then, without forewarning, Ellie awakens one night and leaves her beloved husband. She vanishes, only to be claimed by a gang that asserts they are holding her captive. Did Ellie uncover something perilous during a dream session that jeopardized her safety? Could it be that the gang is simply manipulating AI to fabricate a deepfake of her?
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Ellie utilizes personal AI to orchestrate a communal dream experience for thousands of devoted followers. “
Ellie’s husband Piers, a mild-mannered lawyer with hidden depths, is resolved to win her back. He seeks assistance from a once-renowned hacker known as Julia Z, convinced that Ellie wouldn’t have merely vanished without a word, unless it was to safeguard him.
Together they embark on a quest as Julia and Piers attempt to uncover the truth surrounding the missing Dreamweaver. Meanwhile, various antagonists threaten their safety. While the adventure unfolds, much of the action revolves around detailed portrayals of online activities. I must say, the sequence in which Julia and her AI helper decode the clues about Ellie’s fate is genuinely thrilling.
Julia’s intricate online operations are vividly envisioned, providing a realistic glimpse into how AI might be utilized in the not-so-distant future. I particularly enjoyed how she cleverly employs minor environmental details to solve puzzles or conceal her movements.
The biography accompanying my edition of the novel notes Liu as a consultant on futurism and technology, and his expertise clearly shines through in these sections. Anyone deeply invested in AI will likely appreciate this book.
However, personally, everything we see and feel didn’t resonate with me as I had hoped. The thriller elements lacked the expected excitement; the criminals often felt overly cartoonish. Furthermore, the offline portions of the plot came off as implausible, particularly in the lengthy conclusion.
There may also be an underlying challenge in setting a book so close to present events, making it difficult for general readers to discern what is feasible now. Constantly wondering, “Is this even possible?” can dim the enjoyment of speculative fiction. This might just be my perspective.
Nonetheless, regarding dandelion dynasty, let’s not overlook Liu’s considerable talent. I eagerly anticipate what he will produce next.
The connection may be tenuous, but reading Ken Liu’s book reminded me of this exceptional 1998 film featuring Gene Hackman and Will Smith. It was remarkably prescient in its portrayal of technology-driven surveillance methods, and I found it thoroughly enjoyable.
Emily H. Wilson is a former editor of New Scientist magazine and the author of the Sumerian trilogy set in ancient Mesopotamia. The latest entry in the series, Ninshubar, has been published. You can find her at emilywilson.com or follow her on X @emilyhwilson and Instagram @emilyhwilson1
mRNA vaccines show growing potential to revolutionize healthcare
Joseph Prezioso/AFP via Getty Images
The mRNA COVID-19 vaccination seems to offer an unexpected advantage: it may extend the lives of cancer patients by enhancing immunotherapy effectiveness.
A study analyzing about 1,000 individuals undergoing treatment for advanced skin and lung cancer revealed that those who received an mRNA COVID-19 vaccine within 100 days of starting treatment with an immune checkpoint inhibitor had nearly double the survival time compared to those who did not receive the vaccine during this period. Clinical trials to validate these findings are set to commence by year-end.
“The outcomes were astonishing,” states Elias Sayur, a researcher at the University of Florida. They speculate about the potential to develop an mRNA vaccine that enhances this immune response. “Could we craft a universal mRNA vaccine that activates the immune system across all cancer patients?” he muses. “The possibilities are extensive.”
However, is it advisable for someone just commencing checkpoint inhibitors to get a COVID-19 vaccine to improve treatment efficacy? “I am hesitant to provide clinical recommendations without concrete proof,” Sayur cautions. “Attempting to harness your immune system against cancer also carries risks,” he adds, urging adherence to established vaccine guidelines.
The rationale behind this finding lies in the immune system’s capacity to eliminate many cancers even before they escalate. Yet, some tumors evolve to obstruct this response. They achieve this by manipulating the “off switch” of T cells, which are responsible for destroying cancer cells. A well-known off switch is the protein PD-1 found on T cell surfaces.
PD-1 becomes inactive when it binds to a protein called PD-L1 on certain cell surfaces. This serves as a safety mechanism for cells to signal, “cease the attack, I am benign.”
Numerous cancers hijack PD-L1 by producing it in excessive amounts. Checkpoint inhibitors function by preventing PD-1 and other off switches from becoming activated. These treatments have significantly increased survival rates for conditions like lung cancer and melanoma, earning a Nobel Prize for their developers in 2018.
However, the efficacy of checkpoint inhibitors varies significantly. When an individual’s immune system fails to react to the tumor by dispatching T cells for an attack, these drugs offer limited benefit.
Consequently, combining checkpoint inhibitors with vaccines that bolster the immune system’s tumor combat capabilities could prove to be more effective than either strategy used in isolation. Cancer vaccines are generally tailored to elicit a response to mutated proteins in cancer cells and are often personalized. “We are attempting to discern the unique aspects of their tumors,” Sayur explains. “It demands substantial time, funding, and complexity.”
During cancer vaccine trials, his team observed that the non-specific mRNA vaccine used as a control also exhibited remarkable effectiveness. “It was an absolute surprise,” Sayur remarks.
In July, Sayur and colleagues published findings indicating that mRNA vaccines enhance anti-tumor responses, even when not aimed at cancer-specific proteins, as revealed in studies in mice. Vaccines can initiate an innate immune response that acts like an alarm, energizing the immune system and prompting T cells to move from tumors to lymph nodes, where they rally other immune cells for a focused attack.
Recognizing this potential, Sayur and his team examined the medical records of patients treated at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center.
Out of 884 advanced lung cancer patients receiving checkpoint inhibitors, 180 had received mRNA COVID-19 vaccinations within 100 days of initiating treatment. Those vaccinated survived for approximately 37 months, contrasting with roughly 20 months for those unvaccinated.
Furthermore, among 210 individuals with melanoma that had metastasized, 43 had been vaccinated within 100 days of starting checkpoint inhibitors. They had a survival time of around 30 to 40 months, compared to around 27 months for individuals who were not vaccinated in that time frame. Some vaccinated individuals remained alive at the time of analysis, indicating their survival may extend even longer. The research findings were shared at the European Society of Medical Oncology Congress in Berlin, Germany.
Previous reports have suggested that after receiving an mRNA COVID-19 vaccine, a proportion of tumors exhibited shrinkage, indicating potential anti-tumor effects in certain cases even without checkpoint inhibitors. “It’s certainly a possibility, but further investigations are essential to fully understand,” comments Sayur.
The United States recently declared significant cuts in funding for mRNA vaccine development, despite the substantial benefits they have provided during the pandemic and the vast potential they hold for treatments beyond vaccines.
A group of ornithologists from the National University of Singapore, Bird Tours Asia Ltd., and the University of Queensland has identified a new and enigmatic species of the northern cuckoo, known as Hiero cock. Borneo is a substantial island that is divided among the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, the Indonesian state of Kalimantan, and the Sultanate of Brunei.
Breeding range map of Hierokokbokki from Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, Hiero cock sp. from Borneo, and Hierococcus sparbeliodes. Image credit: Ayuwat Jearwattanakanok / Robert O. Hutchinson / James A. Eaton.
This genus was first recognized in 1845 and currently comprises nine scientifically acknowledged species.
Commonly referred to as hawk cuckoos, they reside in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia.
“Within the genus A. Hiero cock, the two species maintain strong pair bonds in tropical and subtropical Asia,” stated the lead author, Dr. Frank Reindt from the National University of Singapore and collaborators.
“These hawk-cuckoos inhabit forests that stretch from the Himalayas to China and Southeast Asia.”
“Hierococcus sparbelioides is a more prevalent taxon, extensively breeding across tropical, subtropical, and even temperate mountainous areas of the Asian continent, migrating southward during winter.”
“Hierokokbokki has a range typical of montane forests in Sundaland.”
“Historically, the species boundaries of Hiero cock have largely depended on variations in plumage,” the researchers mentioned.
“Nonetheless, there are only minor differences in the plumage between these two species.”
“Since the 1990s, the taxonomy of numerous tropical and subtropical bird groupings has transformed, driven by a growing understanding of the role of bioacoustic traits in defining species.”
“Species limits for many tropical and subtropical Asian bird complexes have been revisited based on bioacoustic data.”
In a fresh study, Dr. Reindt and co-authors studied the interactions between Hierococcus sparbelioides and Hierokokbokki, unearthing evidence for a newly identified species.
Utilizing an integrated approach that included bioacoustic, plumage, and morphometric data, they analyzed 107 audio recordings of the two species sourced from an online audio library.
They also evaluated differences in plumage and morphometric features by using various museum specimens.
Their findings indicated a previously unnamed population of Hierokokbokki that resides on Borneo, distinguishable primarily by its unique three-syllable main call.
Considering the significant role of vocalizations in cuckoo classification, this population was formally described as a new species: Hierococcyx tiganada.
“The new species from Borneo closely resembles its sibling species, Hierokokbokki, native to Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia,” the researchers noted.
“Though visually alike, adults of the new species exhibit a slightly grayer mantle, particularly on the upper mantle near the crown, leading to a more subtle contrast between the gray crown and the brownish back relative to Hierokokbokki.”
“The most distinguishing characteristic of these two species lies in the structure of their vocalizations: the new species consistently produces a three-syllable call, while Hierokokbokki produces a two-syllable call.”
“The differences between the new species and Hierococcus sparbelioides reflect the same features that set it apart from Hierokokbokki,” they elaborated.
“Hierococcus sparbelioides also has two-syllable vocalizations.”
“Adult Hierococcus sparbelioides are generally larger, with less dark gray shading near the eyes, a more brownish mantle that contrasts less with the crown, and a pronounced dark red stripe visible against the whitish background of the upper thorax (contrastingly, the new species exhibits a solid red-purple color without stripes).
According to the scientists, Hierococcyx tiganada inhabits mountainous rainforests above 1,000 meters elevation.
“Despite the troubling conservation status of many Southeast Asian avian species reliant on rainforest habitats, the researchers concluded that Hierococcyx tiganada is likely not threatened.”
“Borneo’s lowland rainforests have experienced substantial degradation over the last three decades; however, many montane forests in central Borneo have endured as they remain remote and inaccessible to logging and other extractive practices.”
“Hierococcyx tiganada is relatively well-documented with three known locations in Sabah and an additional site in Sarawak.”
“Records from Kalimantan are notably sparse, and the species does not seem to inhabit the Meratus Mountains of South Kalimantan.”
“Nonetheless, this species likely exists widely across extensive mountainous regions of northern Borneo, often near the borders of Kalimantan, Sarawak, and Sabah; the scarcity of records may indicate insufficient observational coverage beyond established birdwatching locales.”
Hierococcyx tiganada is the first Hiero cock species described in the 20th/21st century.
“This discovery underscores the profound significance of bioacoustic research in biodiversity exploration and further amplifies Borneo’s biogeographical significance,” the authors concluded.
Certain problems remain insurmountable for quantum computers.
Jaroslav Kushta/Getty Images
Researchers have uncovered a “nightmare scenario” computation tied to a rare form of quantum material that remains unsolvable, even with the most advanced quantum computers.
In contrast to the simpler task of determining the phase of standard matter, such as identifying whether water is in a solid or liquid state, the quantum equivalent can prove exceedingly challenging. Thomas Schuster and his team at the California Institute of Technology have demonstrated that identifying the quantum phase of matter can be notably difficult, even for quantum machines.
They mathematically examined a scenario in which a quantum computer receives a set of measurements regarding the quantum state of an object and must determine its phase. Schuster mentioned that this is not necessarily an impossible task, but his team has shown that a considerable number of quantum phases of matter—such as the complex interactions between liquid water and ice, including unusual “topological” phases that exhibit strange electrical currents—might necessitate quantum computers to perform computations over extremely protracted periods. This situation mirrors a worst-case scenario in laboratory settings, where instruments may need to operate for billions or even trillions of years to discern the characteristics of a sample.
This doesn’t imply that quantum computers are rendered obsolete for this analysis. As Schuster noted, these phases are unlikely to manifest in actual experiments involving materials or quantum systems, serving more as an indicator of our current limitations in understanding quantum computers than posing an immediate practical concern. “They’re like nightmare scenarios. It would be quite unfortunate if such a case arose. It probably won’t happen, but we need to improve our comprehension,” he stated.
Bill Fefferman from the University of Chicago raised intriguing questions regarding the overall capabilities of computers. “This might illuminate the broader limits of computation: while substantial speed improvements have been realized for specific tasks, there will inevitably be challenges that remain too daunting, even for efficient quantum computers,” he asserted.
Mathematically, he explained, this new research merges concepts from quantum information science employed in quantum cryptography with foundational principles from materials physics, potentially aiding progress in both domains.
Looking ahead, the researchers aspire to broaden their analysis to encompass more energetic or excited quantum phases of matter, which are recognized as challenging for wider calculations.
An astronomer utilizing the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA) has discovered double deuterated water (D2O), commonly known as “heavy water,” in the protoplanetary disk surrounding the protostar V883 Orionis, situated 1,300 light-years away in the Orion constellation. This finding indicates that some of the water found in comets—and even on Earth—might predate the stars themselves, offering transformative insights into the history of water in our solar system.
This artist’s impression illustrates the evolution of heavy water molecules, previously detected in giant molecular clouds, planet-forming disks, and comets, before ultimately reaching Earth. Image credit: NSF / AUI / NRAO of NSF / P. Vosteen / B. Saxton.
Investigating the primordial material from the protoplanetary disk that gave rise to our solar system suggests that water may have been transported to Earth via comet or asteroid impacts.
However, it remains uncertain whether the water ice present on these celestial objects formed primarily during the protoplanetary disk phase or if it is considerably older, originating from parent molecular clouds.
“This detection clearly demonstrates that the water found in the planet-forming disk around V883 Orionis predates the central star and must have formed during the early phases of star and planet formation,” stated Dr. Margot Rehmker, an astronomer at the University of Milan.
“This marks a significant leap in our understanding of the journey of water throughout planet formation and how this water potentially reached the solar system, including Earth, through similar mechanisms.”
The chemical fingerprinting of heavy water indicates that these molecules have withstood the turbulent processes of star and planet formation, traversing billions of kilometers through the cosmos and ending up in planetary systems like ours.
Rather than being completely destroyed and reformed within the disk, a significant portion of this water is inherited from the earliest, most frigid stages of star formation, serving as a cosmic remnant that may still exist on Earth today.
“Until now, it was uncertain whether most of the water in comets and planets was newly formed in young disks such as Orionis V883 or whether it was ‘pure’ from ancient interstellar clouds,” remarked Dr. John Tobin, an astronomer at the NSF National Radio Astronomy Observatory.
“The detection of heavy water using sensitive isotopic isomer ratios (D2oh2O) validates that this water is an ancient relic, forming a crucial link between clouds, disks, comets, and planets.”
“This finding is the first direct evidence that water can traverse through stars unaltered and intact, moving from clouds to the materials that constitute planetary systems.”
The team’s paper is published in this week’s edition of Nature Astronomy.
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M. Riemker et al. Primitive ice within a planet-forming disk identified by heavy water. Nat Astron published online October 15, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02663-y
A thin crystalline film of table sugar, or sucrose, captured using a polarized light microscope.
Carl Gough/Science Photo Library
Researchers have developed a novel method to probe dark matter utilizing expansive crystals of sucrose, or table sugar, yet their findings thus far yield nothing more than a bittersweet outcome.
Dark matter is believed to exist due to its elusive gravitational pull on galaxies; however, despite decades of exploration for potential dark matter particles, little evidence has surfaced. Historically, many searches focused on weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs), considered leading candidates for dark matter. Yet, even the most meticulous searches have proven fruitless.
Conventional WIMP detectors aim to identify light flashes produced by interactions between dark matter particles and regular matter, assuming that these particles are relatively sizable, around 2 to 10,000 times the mass of a proton. Although this explanation is the most straightforward, the possibility exists that WIMPs are lighter, albeit creating challenges with the theory.
Recently, Federica Petricca and her team at the Max Planck Institute for Physics in Munich, Germany, have sought these lighter WIMPs utilizing a detector constructed from sugar crystals chilled to extremely low temperatures.
Very light WIMPs are expected to predominantly interact with extremely light atoms like hydrogen; however, utilizing pure hydrogen as a detector is challenging due to its low density, which diminishes interaction probabilities. On the other hand, sucrose comprises 22 hydrogen atoms in each molecule, leading to a significantly higher density than pure hydrogen.
Petricca and her colleagues initially cultivated sucrose crystals from a concentrated sugar solution over the span of a week before reducing the temperature of the crystals to 7 thousandths of a degree above absolute zero. They monitored potential dark matter interactions by employing highly sensitive thermometers to detect minimal heat increases and photon sensors to register flashes of light.
Following 19 hours of experimentation, the sugar crystals did emit light at levels comparable to interactions with larger particles; however, they did not capture the weaker signals that might indicate the presence of WIMPs.
Scientists assert that sugar crystals offer surprising sensitivity for detecting potential dark matter interactions. Carlos Blanco of Penn State notes that researchers may be able to identify subtle recoils from lightweight WIMPs. However, it remains uncertain if this experiment can effectively exclude other potential sources of crystal formation, like radioactive carbon-14, commonly present in various sugars.
CERN and Mont Blanc: Dark Matter and Frozen Matter in Switzerland and France
Get ready to be inspired by CERN, the heart of particle physics in Europe, situated near the lovely Swiss city of Geneva, where researchers manage the well-known Large Hadron Collider.
Artificial sweeteners might support gut microbiome health
Robert K. Chin/Alamy
Using low-calorie sweeteners instead of sugar may stimulate beneficial gut bacteria and aid in weight loss maintenance. This conclusion emerges from one of the longest studies on sweeteners, suggesting these alternatives might not be as detrimental as some previous reports indicate.
Several recent analyses have cast doubt on the health benefits of various low-calorie sweeteners. Although they are widely favored by those wishing to shed pounds, research indicates they may increase hunger, elevate blood sugar, and heighten the risk of heart-related illnesses. In 2023, the World Health Organization issued recommendations against using low-calorie sweeteners for weight management.
Nonetheless, there is a deficit of extensive research on sweeteners, particularly within the framework of a healthy diet. To investigate further, Ellen Black from Maastricht University in the Netherlands monitored their effects in individuals who substituted them for sugar. She and her team enlisted 341 overweight or obese adults in Europe and provided them with a low-calorie regimen for two months, resulting in an average weight loss of 10 kilograms.
Participants then adapted to a balanced diet with less than 10% of their caloric intake from sugar. During this weight maintenance phase, 171 participants were advised to completely forgo sweeteners, while the rest were motivated to swap sugary foods and beverages for lower-calorie sweetener options. Each participant had the option to use at least 16 different sweeteners, with no limit on their usage.
After 10 months, the group utilizing low-calorie sweeteners managed an average of 1.6 kilograms more weight loss compared to the sugar group. They also exhibited a higher presence of gut bacteria that produce short-chain fatty acids—beneficial compounds previously linked to blood sugar regulation, heart health support, and weight loss maintenance.
“This indicates that replacing sugar with non-caloric sweeteners in the diet may aid in weight maintenance,” says Braak. The outcomes of this study may vary from earlier research due to its extended duration and the examination of sweeteners alongside a healthy diet, she notes. Furthermore, prior studies often focused on just a few low-calorie sweeteners, many of which were not concurrently consumed.
Regarding the differences in gut bacteria, our grasp of the microbiome is still developing, according to Elan Elinav at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel. Thus, it remains challenging to decipher how the changes observed in the sweetener-consuming group will influence their health. He added that it is uncertain whether these transformations stemmed from weight loss, the intake of low-calorie sweeteners, or a combination of both.
“The technology has arrived and is currently unfolding,” stated Susan Lieberman, vice president of international policy at the Wildlife Conservation Society. “There may be instances where genetically modified organisms can be cautiously and ethically tested and introduced into natural environments.”
He remarked that the new framework represents a “transformative advancement” that may enable conservationists to explore innovative solutions to climate change challenges and to assess new methods for disease control.
The IUCN consists of a vast coalition of conservation organizations, governments, and indigenous communities, boasting over 1,400 members from roughly 160 nations, convening once every four years. It stands as the globe’s largest network of environmental organizations and is responsible for the Red List, which monitors endangered species and global biodiversity.
This year’s conference took place in Abu Dhabi, where the vote favoring “synthetic biology” established a new framework for assessing genetic engineering initiatives and their potential implementation. This measure mandates that scientists evaluate such projects on an individual basis, maintain transparency regarding the associated risks and benefits, and adhere to precautionary principles relating to genetic engineering. This applies to a spectrum of organisms, including animals, plants, yeast, and bacteria.
Another proposal, which aimed to suspend the release of genetically modified organisms into the environment, failed by a narrow margin of one vote.
Jessica Owley, a professor and director of the environmental law program at the University of Miami, noted that while the IUCN decision lacks legal force, it carries symbolic importance and could influence international policy.
“IUCN is a powerful and recognized entity in the conservation field. Their word holds weight, and governments pay attention. They play a significant role in various treaties,” she commented. “This can be viewed as groundwork for future legal language.”
Organizations advocating for a moratorium on the release of genetically modified organisms into the wild argue that there is insufficient evidence to prove it can be done safely and responsibly.
“We’re disappointed,” stated Dana Perls, senior food and agriculture program manager at the nonprofit Friends of the Earth. “Our focus should be on confined research that doesn’t turn our environment into a live experimental lab.”
As a potential example, she cited: genetically modifying mosquitoes to combat the malaria-causing parasite. The disease claims over 500,000 lives annually, prompting scientists to propose spreading this malaria resistance across broader mosquito populations through a method known as genetic drive.
One weekend, I observed one of my family’s cats, a Byronic fellow named Solomon, playfully swat his sister, regurgitate on her bed linens right before my father, who loves birds, and finish off her gold crest. Yet we couldn’t hold it against Solomon. After all, I harbor no ill feelings toward him or his sister. This paradox defines the experience of cat enthusiasts.
The domesticated house cat (Felice Catus) stands as one of the world’s favorite pets. However, there remains uncertainty over whether they can genuinely be classified as domesticated and why anyone sought to do so in the first place. How did we come to cherish them in their various forms, particularly given that numerous species throughout history counted humans as prey?
In his book, archaeologist Jerry D. Moore delves into the origins of that inquiry, Cat tales: history. More noteworthy than its subtitle “History” is the cover’s text: “How we learned to coexist with them.” It’s ambiguous whether this reflects a human viewpoint or a disgruntled feline’s perspective. Regardless, this book is more about our evolving bonds with cats than a mere study of the creatures themselves.
The narrative of cat domestication narrates how, once humans formed settlements and began hoarding grain, rats descended to feast on their hard-won resources, leading them to the African wildcat (Felice Ribica). Thus, a mutually beneficial arrangement formed: humans stored the grain, and the cats enjoyed a free meal.
Yet, the reality is more nuanced, according to Moore. Domestication, typically involving breeding for specific traits, has only become prevalent with cats in the last century, as humans have aimed for particular appearances and unique characteristics. The humorous notion about cats comes to mind, but another frequent catalyst for domestication is herding.
Moore posits that understanding commensalism offers valuable insight into our bond with cats. Nevertheless, cats can exhibit fickle and aloof behavior, and mice often outmaneuver other species, such as terrier dogs. Cats seem to have confidently established themselves within human homes, suggesting an admirable sense of self-assurance. In essence, they have self-domesticated.
Moore effectively links the depictions of big cats in ancient cave art to their visibility in contemporary conservation campaigns. A 2018 study revealed that big cats consistently rank as among the most charismatic animals.
He also positions cats among history’s elite seafarers, traversing trade routes to Asia and the Mediterranean alongside African and Arab navigators. Their later journeys aboard European colonial vessels wreaked havoc in regions like Australia and New Zealand, where local fauna fell victim to feral cats.
While Moore’s writing occasionally flows gracefully, there are also meandering sections that detract from the book’s overall impact. A notable instance involves an early discussion on 20th-century human tool use. Initially puzzling, he later contends that portraying ancient humans as adept hunters minimizes the influence of ancient cats—the primary predators of our ancestors who shaped our physiology and cognition.
Moore indicates that the dynamics between cats and humans may have been more varied than those with other animals. “Cats have existed as agents of fear, subjects of veneration, deities in religious rites, and have been brutally exploited for amusement.”
For me, Cat tales may not present a wealth of groundbreaking information, but it serves as an excellent collection of archaeological insights paired with stunning photography. Even if our understanding of cats remains shrouded in some mystery after reading this book, perhaps that’s exactly how they prefer it.
Stacking semiconductor transistors could aid in overcoming Moore’s law
Kaust
As semiconductor manufacturers make their products smaller, they encounter limitations on the computing power that can be integrated into a single chip. A groundbreaking chip may offer a solution to this dilemma and advance the creation of sustainable electronics.
Since the 1960s, enhancing electronic capabilities has revolved around miniaturizing their fundamental components, transistors, and packing them more densely onto chips. This trend was encapsulated by Moore’s Law, which posited that the number of components on a microchip doubles every year. However, this phenomenon began to falter around 2010. Li Xiaohan and colleagues at Saudi Arabia’s King Abdullah University of Science and Technology have suggested that the answer to this challenge might be to build upwards instead of inwards.
They engineered a chip featuring 41 vertical layers of two distinct semiconductor types, separated by insulating material. This stack of transistors is approximately ten times taller than any previously created. To evaluate its efficiency, the team produced 600 duplicates, all demonstrating consistent performance. Some of these stacked chips were utilized to execute various fundamental operations required by computers or sensing devices, showing performance levels comparable to traditional non-stacked counterparts.
Li mentions that producing these stacks necessitates a manufacturing method that requires less energy compared to standard chip production. Team members, including Thomas Anthopoulos from the University of Manchester in the UK indicates that while the new chip may not lead to advanced supercomputers, its application in everyday devices like smart home gadgets and wearable health monitors could significantly lower the carbon footprint of the electronics industry while enhancing functionality with each additional layer.
How high will the stack rise? “The possibilities are endless; we can keep pushing the limits. It’s just a journey of determination,” Anthopoulos states.
However, he notes that engineering hurdles persist regarding the temperature tolerance of the chip before it fails. Muhammad Alam from Purdue University in Indiana comments that it’s analogous to trying to keep cool by layering on multiple hoodies; each additional layer raises the heat. Alam asserts that the chip’s current thermal threshold of 50 degrees Celsius would need to rise by over 30 degrees Celsius to become practical for real-world application. Nonetheless, he believes that for electronics to progress in the near future, pursuing vertical growth is the only viable strategy.
Individuals facing significant adversity in their early years show elevated levels of specific proteins in their brains, a discovery that may shed light on the connection between childhood difficulties and persistent mental health issues. Moreover, medications targeting this protein could potentially mitigate these effects in the future.
About 1 in 5 adolescents in the U.S. report having experienced at least four potentially traumatic events, such as abuse, neglect, homelessness, or losing a parent. Studies indicate that these experiences can hinder brain development, leading to an increased risk of mental health conditions, including depression, persisting into adulthood.
“The mechanisms through which early life stress and adversity exert lasting effects are still not fully understood,” states Christoph Anacker from Columbia University, New York. “Individuals who have endured childhood trauma usually exhibit lesser responsiveness to current antidepressant treatments.”
Prior studies have indicated that individuals with depression show elevated symptoms such as heightened levels of the protein SGK1 (serum and blood glucocorticoid-regulated kinase 1). While little is known about this protein’s exact role, it seems to affect brain cell processing and information dissemination .
To investigate its effects further, Anacker and colleagues examined SGK1 levels in the postmortem brains of 50 men, 36 of whom had died by suicide. Each participant had completed a questionnaire detailing experiences of physical or sexual abuse before the age of 16.
The research revealed that in the hippocampus—a brain region linked to memory and stress—the levels of genetic material for SGK1 were approximately 33 percent higher in men who had died by suicide compared to those who had not, with even higher levels in those who faced childhood adversity.
In another segment of the study, over 8,500 children aged 9-10 were analyzed, revealing that those diagnosed with depression were more likely to exhibit heightened activity of the SGK1-encoding gene, which was also connected to instances of childhood adversity.
Finally, the researchers conducted an experiment injecting 10 adult male mice daily for 10 days with a novel drug designed to inhibit SGK1. After each injection, the mice were placed in a cage with aggressive counterparts for 5 minutes to elevate stress levels.
At the conclusion of the 10-day study, the treated mice exhibited fewer signs of anxiety and depression than a control group that received saline injections. Notably, the treated group spent more than double the time in the center of a vacant cage rather than cowering in a corner, compared to the control subjects.
“Lowering SGK1 levels in the hippocampus enhances resilience to stress in mice,” states Anacker. A similar biological pathway appears to exist in humans, suggesting that targeting SGK1 may alleviate depression in those who faced early hardships. Although the exact mechanism by which SGK1 contributes to mental health issues remains unclear, one theory is that it inhibits the formation of brain cells in the hippocampus.
While the drug utilized in this study is not yet approved for human use, other SGK1 inhibitors are undergoing clinical trials for specific heart conditions. If proven safe, these could potentially be repurposed for treating mental health disorders, according to Anacker. However, “this fundamental research in rodents is still far from providing the conclusive evidence needed to identify practical drug targets for humans,” notes Katie McLoughlin at Harvard University.
If you need someone to talk to, reach out to the British Samaritans at 116123; the U.S. National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at 1-800-273-8255; or find hotlines in other countries.
In September, Mexican officials confirmed an outbreak of the lethal flesh-eating parasite in Nuevo Leon, located less than 70 miles (113 kilometers) from the Texas border.
The outbreak was identified in an 8-month-old cow along the busy Monterrey to Laredo highway. Cocliomia hominivorax – the New World screwworm – has resurfaced for the first time in decades, threatening its eradication status achieved in the United States over fifty years ago.
This discovery raised concerns among U.S. ranchers and veterinarians who vividly recall the destruction this voracious insect once wreaked. The screwworm fly, a metallic blue-gray, appears relatively ordinary until its larvae begin to burrow into the living flesh of animals.
“The adults resemble the blowflies commonly found in my lab in North Carolina,” remarks Professor Max Scott, an entomologist at North Carolina State University who has dedicated his career to pest research. “The difference is that this blowfly is an obligate parasite. The female must lay her eggs in a living host.”
Within hours of being laid in a wound or natural opening, the eggs hatch into maggots that burrow deep into the tissue. After several days of feeding, the larvae drop to the ground and pupate, often leaving the host deformed or dead.
Each female can lay hundreds of eggs, and untreated infestations often attract other species of flies, exacerbating the host’s decline.
In livestock, screwworms can result in significant weight loss, skin damage, and even fatalities, representing a multibillion-dollar challenge for the livestock industry in South America.
A Terrible Past
The New World screwworm once plagued regions in the southern United States, Mexico, and the Caribbean. It wasn’t until the mid-20th century that an unexpected mix of genetics, radiation, and air transport helped regain control over the species.
Post-World War II, scientists at the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) pioneered germ-free insect technology, a groundbreaking method for genetic control. The approach was both simple and radical—breed millions of screwworm flies in captivity, sterilize them using gamma rays, and release them into the wild.
Females mate only once, so even if they pair with a sterile male, they won’t produce offspring, leading to a population collapse.
In the 1950s, experiments on Curaçao confirmed the method’s effectiveness. By the early 1960s, screwworms had been eradicated from Florida. The initiative spread west and south, ultimately eliminating the fly from the continental United States, Mexico, and much of Central America by the early 2000s.
The eradication campaign was costly, reportedly exceeding $750 million. However, it saved the livestock industry billions in losses annually and allowed U.S. cattle production to thrive in the following years.
A small production facility in Panama, jointly managed by the U.S. and Panamanian governments, maintained permanent barriers, releasing 100 million sterile flies weekly along the Panama-Colombia border and regularly developing new strains for longevity.
This system functioned effectively for two decades until it faltered. By 2023, infection cases began to re-emerge in Panama. Within two years, the parasite spread to Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Honduras, now reaching northern Mexico.
New World screwworm larvae feed on infected animal wounds for about seven days, then fall to the ground, burrow into the soil, and pupate. – Credit: COPEG
What Went Wrong?
The specific reasons behind the barrier’s collapse remain unclear, but Scott noted “warning signs indicating trouble along the border.”
Farmers failing to adhere to protocols when transporting livestock may have further facilitated the spread of infection, explaining the surge in cases beyond the natural movement of fly populations.
Scott pointed out that the Panama facility is currently overburdened, producing around 110 million sterile flies weekly. In contrast, during the initial eradication efforts in Mexico, local facilities generated between 500 million and 700 million units weekly. “We needed that volume,” he noted.
This shortfall means an insufficient supply of sterile flies to manage the ongoing outbreak.
Read More:
The Enemy at the Gate
As of now, there is no evidence that the screwworms have crossed into the U.S. The USDA has deployed approximately 8,000 traps in Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico but has not detected any flies. Nevertheless, vigilance is high.
“The risks are substantial,” Scott cautions. “The best chance to curb the outbreak was further south, near the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Reports of cases further north complicate containment given the current production capacities.”
In response, the U.S. government initiated a “five-pillar plan,” which includes constructing two new fly dispersal facilities in Texas. One facility at Moore Air Force Base can spray 100 million sterile flies weekly, while plans for a larger production plant in southern Texas aim to triple that capacity.
The USDA is also investing $100 million into innovative pest control technologies, exploring options from electron beam and X-ray sterilization to genetically modified flies.
A significant resurgence of screwworms could be catastrophic for U.S. livestock producers. An outbreak may incur billions in animal losses, quarantines, and trade restrictions. When the parasite re-emerged in Florida in 2016 from Caribbean-imported deer, it infected 145 animals, taking nearly a year to eradicate.
Human infections are rare but can be severe. The parasite’s scientific name, Cocliomia hominivorax, translates to “man-eating fly.” Most cases affect travelers to infested regions, leading to infections from wounds and nasal passages.
“This is not a major public health issue,” Scott explained. “However, caution is advised when visiting affected areas.”
The bulges on the larva’s body are the origin of the name “screw maggot.” – Credit: USDA Agricultural Research Service
Modern Genetic Upgrades
Scott believes that the old sterile fly method remains viable, especially when enhanced by new biotechnology. His lab at North Carolina State University has spent years developing genetically engineered screwworm strains that produce only males, significantly increasing efficiency.
Traditional sterile insect techniques require releasing both males and females, resulting in many males mating with sterile females.
This means that very high doses of radiation are needed to fully sterilize females, Scott noted. In contrast, his team’s method yields only males. They can then focus on sterilizing these males specifically, allowing researchers to maintain a higher quantity of healthier flies unlikely to reproduce.
These male-only stocks were field-tested in Panama in 2018 but were not deployed because existing methods were deemed sufficient. As the parasite moves northward, regulatory approval for genetically modified screwworms might become essential.
Moreover, researchers are investigating “gene drive systems” utilizing CRISPR technology to bias genetics, ensuring that most offspring carry infertile or male-only genes. In theory, this could drastically reduce the number of flies needed for suppression.
“We hope funding will be available to develop more effective technologies,” Scott stated. “The goal is to reduce releases from 100 million sterile flies to potentially just 10 million. This would make genetic control far more feasible.”
For the time being, strategies remain focused on aerial dispersal, targeted capture, and cross-border collaboration. Yet, scientists are increasingly concerned about the screwworm’s capability to migrate northward faster than anticipated.
“Given the current fly population, we sincerely hope to prevent them from entering the United States,” Scott warned. “But uncertainties remain.”
At present, the border remains intact. With each new case emerging towards the north, the focus shifts from whether the screwworms will invade the U.S. to whether they will be prepared upon their arrival.
Paleontologists have discovered a new collection of Triassic fossils at the Quebrada Santo Domingo site in the northern Pre-Cordillera Basin of northwestern Argentina. Among their findings are nearly complete skeletons of a previously unknown sauropod dinosaur species, along with several cynodonts, rhinocosaurs, and aetosaurs.
The newly identified species existed in what is now Argentina during the Carnian period of the late Triassic, approximately 230 million years ago.
Known as Huayracursor jaguensis, this dinosaur was an early and primitive member of the clade sauropodomorpha.
The ancient creature featured a relatively long neck and was larger than many of its contemporaries.
“The Carnian period (237 to 227 million years ago) is significant in the evolution of tetrapods, holding the earliest records of several major clades, including dinosaurs,” stated paleontologist Dr. Martin Hechenleitner of the La Rioja Regional Research Center and CONICET, along with colleagues.
“Following the Carnian pluvial period, dinosaurs faced unprecedented radiation levels and quickly established dominance for the remainder of the Mesozoic era.”
“Most of the earliest records originate from a few well-researched regions in South America, specifically the Izquiguarasto-Villa Union Basin in western Argentina and the Paraná Basin in southern Brazil.”
“These locales have produced a variety of early dinosaurs, encompassing ornithischians, herrerasaurs, theropods, and sauropods.”
“While sauropods are the most taxonomically diverse, the majority (with a few fragmentary exceptions) were small, bipedal, and short-necked.”
“Despite the advances in our understanding of the quadrupedal fauna from the Carnian, no dinosaur-containing groups have arisen outside of traditional classifications.”
Selected bone of the Huayracursor jaguensis holotype. Image credit: Hechenleitner et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09634-3.
Dr. Hechenleitner and his co-authors uncovered fossilized remains of Huayracursor jaguensis and other Triassic animals in the Santo Domingo formation at Quebrada Santo Domingo, a remote region of the Andes Mountains in La Rioja, northwestern Argentina.
“This newly discovered fauna is the first from the newly characterized northern Pre-Cordillera Basin,” the paleontologists remarked.
“Current findings encompass ceratopsians of the hyperodapedontid family, cynodonts from the traversodontid and probynognathic families, a eurysaurian, and at least two sauropod dinosaurs, indicating a Carnian age.”
“Among the sauropods, Huayracursor jaguensis provides the earliest evidence of concurrent weight gain and neck elongation in sauropods, suggesting that these crucial traits emerged at the dawn of dinosaurs.”
“This discovery enhances our understanding of the diversity and geographic distribution of early dinosaur faunas and illuminates the evolution of sauropods during the Carnian period.”
The findings regarding Huayracursor jaguensis are detailed in a paper published in the journal Nature.
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EM Hechenleitner et al. A newly discovered long-necked early dinosaur from the Upper Triassic basin of the Andes. Nature, published online October 15, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09634-3
Intricate and sophisticated sequences depend on several untested technologies. A crucial aspect is the refueling of starships in space. Dreyer noted that it remains uncertain how many launches will be required to supply the necessary fuel, but they must occur rapidly.
“It might take between 12 and 20 refueling missions within a month to replenish Starship’s tanks with enough fuel for a mission to the moon and back,” he stated. “Such a scenario has never been realized.”
Refueling only in space would necessitate a “significant advancement” from Starship’s current capabilities, he remarked.
“This poses a tremendous challenge,” Dreyer emphasized. “Without these advancements, our lunar aspirations won’t be achievable.”
The Starship lander is projected to stand approximately 150 feet taller than the rugged, spider-like lunar lander NASA utilized during the Apollo missions. Such a taller design could enable Starship to transport more passengers and cargo; however, it may also be less stable than the Apollo spacecraft.
Nevertheless, Dreyer argued that it wouldn’t have been practical for NASA to depend on outdated technology, especially considering financial constraints. A single Saturn V rocket launch from the Apollo era costs around $2 billion today. In contrast, SpaceX aims to develop Starship as fully reusable, which could lower costs and speed up launch times.
The next phase for the company involves revealing an upgraded Starship prototype. This model is approximately five feet taller and incorporates an enhanced docking mechanism, increased energy storage, and software improvements to facilitate long-duration flights.
This new version will be employed for Starship’s inaugural orbital flight, testing essential SpaceX procedures such as fuel transfer and payload transportation into space, as per SpaceX officials. I discussed this in my previous post following Monday’s test.
Future missions, like this week’s, will also be under scrutiny as China moves toward its 2030 objectives.
“Four years is a short time frame in space,” Dreyer remarked. “These endeavors are exceptionally complex and challenging because the universe is perpetually testing you.”
Over 20 states have filed a lawsuit against the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), contesting the agency’s decision to terminate a $7 billion initiative designed to enhance access to solar power for low-income households.
The initiative, known as “Solar For All,” was launched in 2022 as part of the Inflation Reduction Act, which allocated subsidies for building rooftop and community solar projects. This action was part of the Biden administration’s commitment to decreasing carbon emissions and aimed to make solar energy available to around 1 million additional American households.
However, in August, the EPA announced the program’s cancellation, with states withdrawing approximately 90% of the grant funds from the awarded accounts, according to the legal complaint.
The EPA has been working to reinstate clean energy funding sanctioned by the Biden administration. This new lawsuit will assess whether the agency overstepped its bounds in this instance. The states involved in the legal challenge had expected the funding to boost solar power availability, lower greenhouse gas emissions from energy production, and decrease energy costs.
“Congress established a solar energy program to make electricity more affordable, but the administration is ignoring the law, focusing instead on conspiracy theories about climate change,” Washington Attorney General Nick Brown stated in a news release. The EPA’s action “places about $156 million in jeopardy” for Washington state, as mentioned in the release.
Earlier this month, a coalition of nonprofit organizations and solar installers lodged a complaint, which resembles a similar lawsuit against the program’s cancellation.
When asked about the recent lawsuit, the White House referred NBC News to the EPA, which typically remains silent on ongoing litigation.
The states involved in the lawsuits are all governed by Democratic officials. Notably, Washington, Arizona, and Minnesota are leading this legal action, which was filed in the Western District of Washington.
The lawsuit contends that the EPA “illegally and unilaterally terminated” the program, breaching the Administrative Procedure Act that regulates federal agencies’ operations. It also claims that the EPA overstepped its “constitutional authority” by attempting to revoke programs and funds approved by Congress.
This latest suit is part of a dual strategy employed by states to counteract the Trump administration’s cuts to clean energy initiatives established under President Joe Biden.
On Wednesday, another group, including states and state energy agencies, filed a separate complaint in the U.S. Court of Federal Claims regarding the cancellation of individual subsidy agreements.
The lawsuit argues that the EPA’s retraction of funds violated distinct subsidy contracts with states and state energy authorities.
It further claims the EPA relied on a “false and malicious interpretation” of the One Big Beautiful Bill, which was enacted during the Trump administration, to support its actions.
While acknowledging that the law granted the administration certain powers to retract Inflation Control Act funds, the complaint asserts that this authority only extended to funds not yet distributed to grant recipients.
A third lawsuit was filed this month in Rhode Island District Court. Solar companies, homeowners, nonprofits, and labor unions are making similar claims. It contends that the EPA’s actions could deny nearly 1 million people access to affordable solar energy and jeopardize “hundreds of thousands of good-paying, high-quality jobs.”
“Governments might resort to utilizing digital identities in more intrusive manners than initially assured…”
Dakuku/Getty Images
My first ID card was a flimsy laminated driver’s license. In the U.S., it includes a photo, biometric data (like eye color and height), and date of birth. This spurred its increased use beyond just driving; bars began issuing “cards” to minors attempting to purchase alcohol, interpreting the data as proof of being 21, the legal drinking age. I must admit, it wasn’t until I turned 18 that I learned to use a pencil to edit my birth date to enjoy some cheap cocktails.
This tale may seem like a dull 20th-century anecdote, yet it holds significant relevance in today’s ongoing discussion about the implementation of digital identity cards in the UK and elsewhere. While the cards themselves may differ vastly, the core issue remains the same. Firstly, the use of ID cards tends to escalate over time, and secondly, they are exceedingly easy to compromise.
The British government isn’t the first to suggest that citizens should carry a compact ID application on their smartphones for accessing government and public services. Countries such as China, Singapore, India, and Estonia already mandate digital IDs. Advocates argue that digital IDs help reduce fraud, simplify travel and purchases, and verify identity without the need to carry multiple physical documents.
“This digital ID will enhance your security,” the government might claim. “You can use it for shopping, obtaining medical care, and better yet, it will prevent any confusion about your immigration status, sparing you from unjust detention.” Apologies for the specificity, but the point is clear: these cards are touted as solutions to non-issues (like carrying a health insurance card) or problems that can’t be resolved by merely having an ID (immigration is complex and multifaceted).
Returning to the topic of usage expansion. What transpires when authorities implement digital IDs on mobile devices to authenticate citizenship during job applications or for social services? Fundamentally, they reside alongside other apps which, in certain instances, can share data with them. Some of these applications access sensitive data, including bank information, medical schedules, personal messages, and photos.
As journalist Byron Tau observes in his brilliant book: control means. Many applications gather information about you, often without your awareness, such as your location, purchasing behaviors, and even details from other apps on your device. There are businesses focused on extracting this data from applications like dating services and selling it to third parties, including government entities.
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Governments may begin using digital IDs in far more intrusive ways than originally intended. “
This practice is largely permissible in the U.S., albeit unsettling. The UK and Europe have regulations that curb rampant data sharing, yet the technology exists. The only shield you have against government ID applications monitoring your location via unrelated apps is the government itself—and that, too, may evolve. Regulations can shift. However, once you start using that digital ID for employment, entering bars, tipping, or taking public transport, it’s unlikely you would discard it.
Consider the potential of this creepiness: Governments may resort to using digital identities in much more invasive manners than initially promised. Conversely, the public might find it beneficial for so many tasks that they deem the trade-off worthwhile. If buying a candy bar is effortless without a credit card, who cares if the government tracks your daily whereabouts? That perspective holds until the government decides you’re the enemy.
And let’s not overlook the hacking angle. Even if governments refrain from spying using your digital ID, malicious actors might not. A hacker could exploit vulnerabilities to access your identity or harvest personal information through a compromised app. Security experts have warned the UK government regarding the threats posed by digital IDs, and even the notorious U.S. surveillance firm Palantir has backed away from support for digital IDs. As one of their executives recently put it, digital identity is:very controversial.
It’s crucial to recognize that concern shouldn’t center merely around identity theft. One must also consider the potential for location tracking, message monitoring, unauthorized bank access, and even phone tapping. Comparatively, a traditional ID card, while it can be lost or altered, only results in the loss of that card—not a comprehensive loss of other personal data.
Annalee’s Week
What I’ve Been Hearing
Our Ancestors were Messy, is a podcast exploring African American celebrity scandals from a century ago, drawn from the pages of black newspapers.
What I’m Reading
Thief’s PhilosophyWritten by Fran Wilde, this futuristic narrative involves a wealthy individual hiring a thief for entertainment at a party.
What I’m Working On
I’m delving into the history of “review bombing,” a phenomenon where media and products are inundated with one-star reviews driven by political motives.
Feedback is New Scientist A well-known figure who observes the latest news in science and technology with a critical eye. To share feedback about topics you believe may interest our readers, please contact us at feedback@newscientist.com.
Our Expiry Date
Unfortunately, we have some bad news. Humanity’s time is marked; experts predict our extinction by 2339, leaving us only a few centuries (as of now).
News Editor Jacob Aaron presented this startling information. A paper not yet peer-reviewed was shared on the social science preprint server SocArXiv. In their work, demographers David Swanson and Jeff Tayman discuss how the human population could decline from the current 8.1 billion to zero.
Their reasoning is straightforward: “Considering the decrease in birth rates from 2019 to 2024 and applying probabilistic forecasting methods, by 2139, the world’s population will fall between 1.55 billion and 1.81 billion… By 2339, humanity will be extinct,” they assert.
Swanson and Tayman highlight that this extinction timeline is “only 314 years away.” One might think the estimate could have been rounded to 300 to incorporate some necessary uncertainty in the predictions, but the confidence displayed is noteworthy.
This may seem evident, but we cannot base projections for the next three centuries on just five years of data — especially from 2019 to 2024, a period marked by significant global events that likely impacted birth rates.
They employed three different methodologies: the Cohort Component Method, the Hamilton-Perry Method, and even the notable Espenshade-Tiemann Method. Despite this, the prediction remains flawed. However, it’s likely our audience has already deduced this.
For a moment, we questioned if the paper was intended as satire, aiming to mislead unsuspecting science journalists into reckless reporting. However, this seems unlikely as Mr. Swanson shared it at a conference in September. Following his presentation, “a robust discussion unfolded.“Oh, I can’t believe I was heading straight for that wall.
This might hint at a precursor to a new belief system, positioning the apocalypse conveniently three centuries away to avoid embarrassment if it doesn’t come to pass.
Oh, No More
The feedback reveals that US President Donald Trump referred to climate change as “a scam, deeming renewable energy sources like wind power as “pathetic.”
This came in the wake of a government report published in July, generated by “independent researchers,” attempting to justify ceasing climate change mitigation efforts. Carbon Brief reviewed the report and identified over 100 misleading statements. Across the pond, the British Conservative Party has pledged to repeal climate change legislation upon regaining power.
The feedback notes that renewable energy has surpassed coal to become the leading source of electricity by mid-2025, which doesn’t seem particularly pathetic. Meanwhile, we’re reminded of that memorable scene from Monty Python and the Holy Grail, where monks beat their heads in a rhythmic fashion. We can only assume that these individuals read Swanson and Tayman’s paper and concluded that 2339 was too far off.
A Simple Thank You
One of the hallmarks of being an excellent researcher is to explore questions that others haven’t considered. Consequently, a study was published in the journal Socius in September: “‘This Task Would Have Been Impossible‘… A study examining the length of acknowledgments in sociology books.” Yes, that’s correct. This is an entire sociology paper dedicated to the acknowledgments section of sociology literature.
The first takeaway, as noted by the authors, is that they are not the first to pose this question. Back in 1972, Kenneth Henry Mackintosh published a study titled Approval Patterns in Sociology. When I searched for feedback online, I was disappointed to find that it was over 300 pages long and, even if the table of contents was accurate, it lacked an acknowledgments section.
What of the new research? The researchers evaluated 411 books written by 317 sociologists and examined the acknowledgments (excluding 7 percent for rudeness). A significant statistical trend revealed that female authors wrote longer acknowledgments than their male counterparts.
Similarly, books released by university presses contained longer acknowledgments compared to those from other publishers. It remains unclear whether this means they were thanking more individuals or simply elaborating more extensively.
Naturally, I was curious about the acknowledgments section of this very paper, so I scrolled down. We were pleased to see it consisted of 218 words and included a heartfelt mention of “steadfast love and support.”
I would like to acknowledge the cats who prevented me from stepping on my laptop keyboard while writing this article.
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Gamma rays are detected in unusually high amounts at the center of the Milky Way galaxy
The center of our galaxy is exhibiting unusual behavior, potentially linked to dark matter. In 2009, observations from the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope uncovered unexpectedly high levels of gamma ray emissions from the Milky Way’s center, a phenomenon termed galactic central gamma-ray excess (GCE). Simulations suggest these gamma rays could arise from the annihilation of dark matter particles.
The discussion surrounding the origins of GCE has intensified since its initial discovery, leading to two main theories. The first posits that it may stem from a previously unobserved population of pulsars, rapidly spinning neutron stars that emit considerable radiation.
Alternatively, it could be linked to weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs), long considered primary candidates for dark matter. These particles seldom interact with normal matter, but a collision between two can lead to annihilation and consequently, a burst of gamma rays.
However, the dark matter explanation has lost traction recently, especially after searches for WIMPs yielded no results. “The dark matter interpretation demands greater proof due to insufficient direct evidence of its existence despite thorough investigations,” notes Jeff Grube from King’s College London.
Another factor contributing to this skepticism is that dark matter in galaxies is expected to be evenly distributed, while GCEs display a flattened distribution. Yet, new simulations by Joseph Silk and his colleagues at Johns Hopkins University in Maryland indicate that this discrepancy may not be significant.
These new simulations carefully considered the Milky Way’s history in relation to GCEs. “We know from history that our galaxy merged with smaller galaxies billions of years ago, which contributed to the formation of dark matter,” noted Silk. “No one would have anticipated that the galaxy’s center would exhibit spherical symmetry due to this history.”
The results confirmed this notion, resulting in a distorted dark matter distribution aligned with the shape of GCE, reviving the dark matter theory. However, the mystery remains unresolved, as pulsars continue to be a viable explanation. “At best, the situation is still ambiguous,” added Grube.
The current gamma-ray observatories do not possess the capability to distinguish between these two theories; however, the Cherenkov Telescope Array observatories, under construction in the Canary Islands and Chile and expected to begin operations in 2026, could provide clarity.
“In many ways, there’s a 50 percent chance that we may have discovered significant dark matter, but we require new telescopes to confirm this,” stated Silk. If GCE is indeed the result of dark matter, it could offer the best insight yet into this enigmatic substance that underpins the universe.
Individuals engage in wrongdoing and face consequences. They begin to collaborate. This fundamental belief that humans act rationally and alter their behavior in response to consequences lies at the core of Western legal frameworks, criminal behavior, and economic theories. The evolution of cooperation. However, extensive research over several decades indicates that punishment may not be as effective as thought.
Analysis has consistently shown that harsher penalties, including the three strikes law, do not reliably deter crime. The U.S. National Research Council’s report could not establish the death penalty’s effectiveness. Meanwhile, the U.S. possesses the most punitive criminal justice system globally, with notable rates of imprisonment and recidivism.
These real-world observations stand in stark contrast to much of the controlled experimental literature. In notable research, economists Ernst Fehr and Simon Gechter designed a game where participants could allocate money to a communal pool, which would then be doubled and redistributed, maximizing benefits for all contributors. Yet, individuals found it more advantageous to withhold contributions while others carried the load. While cooperation diminished in scenarios lacking punishment for free riders, the introduction of penalties significantly boosted contributions to the pool.
What explains the gap between experimental results and real-world dynamics? We explored this question in a recent study published in PNAS. We noted that individuals tasked with enforcing penalties often have conflicting incentives that can erode their credibility and diminish the public’s trust in them. In Ferguson, Missouri, authorities relied on fines to fund city services, disproportionately impacting Black communities. Across the U.S., billions are confiscated through civil asset forfeiture, permitting law enforcement to seize property from individuals suspected of criminal activity.
We hypothesized that self-serving motives behind punishment could undermine cooperation by clouding the ethical implications associated with collaborative behavior. Unlike other species, humans possess a “theory of mind” and are acutely aware of others’ intentions and motives. Punishment carries a message of disapproval necessitating behavioral change; however, this only holds weight if individuals perceive the punisher’s motives as justifiable. Humans, inherently social beings, ask, “What’s your reasoning for this?” If the answer appears self-serving, the deterrent effects of punishment diminish.
To validate our hypothesis, we conducted a series of experiments utilizing the same game that demonstrated punishment’s role in enhancing cooperation. Here, one player (the dictator) decides on potential monetary sharing with another player (the receiver), while a third player (the punisher) can revoke funds from the dictator. A twist emerged where punishers were incentivized financially; akin to police utilizing ticket quotas to boost revenue, our punishers received bonuses each time they issued a penalty. This change reversed the expected outcome; rather than improving cooperation, the incentivized punishment led to decreased collaboration, as trust in the punisher waned.
Our results indicate a need to reassess crime management methodologies. When punitive actions are perceived as self-serving, they foster distrust and hinder the cooperation that such measures are intended to reinforce. To cultivate safer, more cohesive communities, it is essential to eliminate policies that compromise the ethical underpinnings of punishment. This includes abolishing speed trap quotas and profit-driven incarceration, practices implying that punishment is motivated by financial gain rather than justice.
Raihan Alam and Tage Rai are students at the Rady School of Business at the University of California, San Diego.
Certainly. Plants convert sunlight into food (stored energy), so transforming that food into fuel seems like it should yield a sustainable biofuel with zero carbon emissions, right? Wrong. In reality, the surge in biofuels is driving up emissions and harming both people and wildlife. Yet, production is ramping up rapidly. What gives?
If you believe biofuels are beneficial, you may be misled by the pervasive greenwashing. Evidence suggests that biofuels generally do more harm than good. A recent report by the campaign group Transport and Environment (T&E) reveals that the shift to biofuels has resulted in a 16% increase in carbon dioxide emissions on average, as compared to sticking with fossil fuels.
Why is this? Because agricultural cultivation is one of the leading sources of greenhouse gases. To be fair, the 16% figure is a global average according to the T&E report. Some regions, like Europe, argue that biofuels marginally reduce emissions overall, but only by a slight amount. We are making substantial sacrifices for minimal emissions reductions, given the numerous adverse effects of biofuels.
For starters, rising food costs are a significant consequence we’re all experiencing. Converting wheat and corn into bioethanol and vegetable oil into biodiesel escalates demand, leading to soaring prices. It’s difficult to quantify, but experts I’ve consulted over the years generally agree this is a major factor in food price inflation.
Moreover, biofuel crops frequently necessitate irrigation, worsening water scarcity in various areas. According to the T&E report, producing enough biofuel for a vehicle to travel just 100 kilometers (62 miles) consumes 3,000 liters of water. In contrast, a solar-powered electric car only requires 20 liters for the same distance.
We also need land. Agricultural land continues to expand globally to accommodate growing populations that are consuming more meat. As biofuel production rises, more land is needed. This often results in deforestation, such as clearing rainforests in Indonesia to establish new palm oil plantations. In essence, biofuels are exacerbating another global crisis: the loss of wildlife and biodiversity.
What’s particularly concerning is the inefficiency of biofuel production. A report from T&E suggests that if solar panels were installed on the same land, the equivalent amount of energy could be generated using just 3% of the space. In other words, solar energy can mitigate emissions with a significantly lower environmental footprint. It appears we can outperform nature when it comes to harnessing the sun’s energy.
In contrast, biofuels contend with all the same pollution problems as traditional agriculture, from pesticides detrimental to humans and wildlife to nutrient runoff that devastates rivers, lakes, and seas. Utilizing non-food biofuel sources like waste could help address some of these challenges. However, by 2030, over 90% of biofuel production is still expected to rely on food crops, according to the T&E report.
So why are numerous countries incentivizing the production of more biofuels than ever? A financial interest in biofuels drives influential lobby groups to advocate for more government support. Simultaneously, some nations and organizations look to meet emissions targets without confronting the inconvenient truths.
For instance, politicians across the American political spectrum have aimed to maintain favor with Corn Belt farmers growing corn for bioethanol. Earlier this year, tax incentives for biofuels were introduced in the U.S. in 2022 and further extended.
Additionally, the shipping and aviation sectors claim they are reducing emissions but view biofuels as a means to maintain their traditional operations. Aviation industry standards for “sustainable aviation fuels” at least consider emissions linked to increased land use and impose limits on biofuels, which are the highest emitters. The shipping industry could be facing even greater repercussions, as it has yet to decide whether to account for land use. The usage of biofuels for maritime purposes alone could double by the 2030s, as warned by the T&E report—this could be catastrophic for all the reasons discussed.
For years, it has been evident that producing biofuels to minimize emissions is counterproductive, and continuing on this path is sheer madness.
AI relies on data centers that consume a significant amount of energy
Jason Alden/Bloomberg/Getty
Optimizing the choice of AI models for various tasks could lead to an energy saving of 31.9 terawatt-hours this year alone, equivalent to the output of five nuclear reactors.
Thiago da Silva Barros from France’s Cote d’Azur University examined 14 distinct tasks where generative AI tools are utilized, including text generation, speech recognition, and image classification.
We investigated public leaderboards, such as those provided by the machine learning platform Hugging Face, to analyze the performance of various models. The energy efficiency during inference—when an AI model generates a response—was assessed using a tool named CarbonTracker, and total energy consumption was estimated by tracking user downloads.
“We estimated the energy consumption based on the model size, which allows us to make better predictions,” states da Silva Barros.
The findings indicate that by switching from the highest performing model to the most energy-efficient option for each of the 14 tasks, energy usage could be decreased by 65.8%, with only a 3.9% reduction in output quality. The researchers believe this tradeoff may be acceptable to most users.
Some individuals are already utilizing the most energy-efficient models, suggesting that if users transitioned from high-performance models to the more economical alternatives, overall energy consumption could drop by approximately 27.8%. “We were taken aback by the extent of savings we uncovered,” remarks team member Frédéric Giroir from the French National Center for Scientific Research.
However, da Silva Barros emphasizes that changes are necessary from both users and AI companies. “It’s essential to consider implementing smaller models, even if some performance is sacrificed,” he asserts. “As companies develop new models, it is crucial that they provide information regarding their energy consumption patterns to help users assess their impact.”
Some AI firms are mitigating energy usage through a method known as model distillation, where a more extensive model trains a smaller, more efficient one. This approach is already showing significant benefits. Chris Priest from the University of Bristol, UK notes that Google recently claimed an advance in energy efficiency: 33 times more efficient measures with their Gemini model within the past year.
However, allowing users the option to select the most efficient models “is unlikely to significantly curb the energy consumption of data centers, as the authors suggest, particularly within the current AI landscape,” contends Priest. “By reducing energy per request, we can support a larger customer base more rapidly with enhanced inference capabilities,” he adds.
“Utilizing smaller models will undoubtedly decrease energy consumption in the short term, but various additional factors need consideration for any significant long-term predictions,” cautions Sasha Luccioni from Hugging Face. She highlights the importance of considering rebound effects, such as increased usage, alongside broader social and economic ramifications.
Luccioni points out that due to limited transparency from individual companies, research in this field often relies on external estimates and analyses. “What we need for more in-depth evaluations is greater transparency from AI firms, data center operators, and even governmental bodies,” she insists. “This will enable researchers and policymakers to make well-informed predictions and decisions.”
Oscar Isaac embodies the obsessive and charismatic Victor Frankenstein
Ken Woroner/Netflix
frankenstein Directed by Guillermo del Toro, Now playing in selected cinemas in the UK and US, streaming on Netflix beginning November 7th
Guillermo del Toro has long been captivated by the intersections of science, mythology, and monsters. In his latest film, frankenstein, he finally explores Mary Shelley’s essential text—the 1818 novel widely regarded as the foundation of both science fiction and modern horror.
The outcome is visually lavish, delivered with intensity, and at times thought-provoking, though its pacing and certain design choices reflect the influence of Netflix, the film’s financier.
Shelley’s tale of Victor Frankenstein, the brilliant yet reckless scientist seeking to animate lifeless matter, remains one of the most poignant cautionary narratives regarding the allure and risks of scientific ambition. In del Toro’s rendition, Oscar Isaac portrays Victor as a charismatic and obsessive character, driven by his personal and intellectual struggles into unknown territories.
Isaac’s performance captures both arrogance and fragility, while the surrounding ensemble enriches the narrative. Charles Dance plays Victor’s authoritarian father, and Mia Goth delivers a standout performance as the poignant and compassionate Elizabeth Lavenza.
The film truly shines in the laboratory scenes. Del Toro, alongside production designer Tamara Deverell, crafts an environment echoing a 19th-century anatomical theater, equipped with towering instruments and rudimentary electrical devices. The representations of anatomy and experimental medicine are stylized, yet maintain an element of realism. Authenticity is embedded in the nuances of ligation, scalpel usage, and surgical procedures.
However, Victor’s excess may risk the film’s realism. The abundance of fresh corpses at his disposal stretches believability, yet his actions resonate with Romantic-era debates on electricity, vitalism, and the boundaries of life and death.
The creature, created and forsaken by Victor (played by Jacob Elordi), deviates from the iconic giant with a neck bolt seen in the 1931 film frankenstein. Instead, we encounter a leaner, scarred figure brought to life through prosthetics and CGI. While effective, certain close-ups—particularly when the creature lies still—evoke discomfort due to his jawline. Additionally, his appearance, imbued with a brooding “emo” aesthetic, aligns more closely with contemporary tastes than Shelley’s 19th-century context.
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The film’s visuals present chiaroscuro depictions of captivating laboratories and landscapes. “
In many ways, this aesthetic continues the early films’ fascination with biology as bricolage, viewing the body as a site for transformation, as seen in water shape. Even through a modern lens, this creature exemplifies our enduring interest in reconstructing life from remnants—a scientific ambition that remains as mesmerizing today as it was in Shelley’s era.
Story-wise, frankenstein may falter in places. Del Toro dedicates his 150 minutes of screen time to Victor’s formative years, intellectual development, and gradual immersion into his quest for conquering death. While this extensive focus fleshes out Victor’s psyche, it may result in a sluggish pacing that some viewers could find overly drawn-out. Additionally, the creature’s strength—capable of lifting a ship as if it were driftwood—runs the risk of exaggeration, potentially undermining the film’s serious examination of scientific potential.
Nevertheless, the central theme remains pressing. In the end, frankenstein is less about the mechanics of resurrection and more about society’s response to the unfamiliar. The film dazzles with consistent visual allure, featuring Dan Laustsen’s cinematography that highlights chiaroscuro scenes of both laboratories and landscapes, along with Alexandre Desplat’s score oscillating between eerie crescendos and tender motifs of longing.
Del Toro’s oeuvre includes various ambitious projects; however, frankenstein stands as a sincere and provocative exploration of one of science’s most profound fables. It compels us to question not only whether we can engineer life, but also whether we can coexist with what we’ve created.
Picture a spinning top coming to a halt. Is it possible to make it spin again and return to its original position, as if no movement had occurred? Surprisingly, mathematicians affirm that there is a universal method to revert the rotation of nearly any object.
It seems that the sole method to reverse a complicated rotation sequence is to meticulously execute the exact reverse motion, one step at a time. However, Jean Pierre Eckmann from the University of Geneva, alongside Tzvi Trusty and a research team from South Korea’s Ulsan Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), discovered a concealed reset mechanism that modifies the initial rotation by a common scaling factor and applies this process twice.
For a spinning top, if it makes three-quarters of a turn during its first spin, you can apply an eighth scaling to retrace your steps back to the start and repeat that sequence again to achieve another quarter turn. Yet, Eckmann and Trusty have shown that this principle applies to much more intricate scenarios.
“Essentially, this property extends to nearly any rotating object, including spins, qubits, gyroscopes, and robotic arms,” Trusty explains. “You merely need to scale all rotation angles by the same factor and replicate this complex pathway twice, navigating through an intricate trajectory in space before returning to the origin.”
Their mathematical proof stems from a comprehensive catalog of all potential rotations in three-dimensional space, known as SO(3), which follows specific rules. This can be visualized as an abstract mathematical space resembling a ball. Transporting an object through various rotations in physical space translates to moving from one point to another within this ball, akin to a bug tunneling through an apple.
When a piece undergoes a complicated rotation, its corresponding trajectory in SO(3) may initiate at the center of the ball and terminate at different points within, depending on the intricacies of the rotation. The objective of reversing this rotation is akin to discovering a route back to the center, yet given that there is only one center within the ball, randomly accomplishing this is improbable.
Some of the many paths that can be taken through the mathematical space SO(3). Corresponds to rotation sequences in real space.
Tzvi Trusty
Eckmann and Trusty realized that due to the structure of SO(3), halting a rotation midway is analogous to finding a path that ends on any point on the ball’s surface. Because the surface comprises numerous points, Trusty notes that this approach is significantly more straightforward than directly targeting the center. This insight led to a new proof.
Eckmann mentioned that they invested considerable time unraveling mathematical tensions that yielded no results. The breakthrough came from a 19th-century formula that merged the two successive rotations, known as Rodriguez’s formula, along with an 1889 theorem in number theory. Ultimately, the researchers concluded that a scaling factor is nearly always necessary for resetting.
For Eckmann, this latest research exemplifies the richness of mathematics, even in seemingly familiar domains like rotation studies. Trusty pointed out potential practical outcomes, such as in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), which underpins magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Researchers assess material and tissue properties by examining the behavior of internal quantum spins under the influence of external magnetic fields. The new proof could pave the way for strategies to negate unwanted spin rotations that disrupt the imaging process.
The findings could also spur advancements in robotics, says Josie Hughes at the Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne, Switzerland. For instance, a rolling robot may be developed to navigate a path comprising repetitive segments, featuring a reliable roll-reset-roll motion that could theoretically continue indefinitely. “Visualize a robot that could transition between any solid form and subsequently follow any desired trajectory through shape transformation,” she envisions.
Some schools mandate that students store their cell phones in lockers throughout the school day.
Robin Utrecht/Shutterstock
Concerns about the adverse effects of excessive screen time are growing. Specifically, phone usage in educational settings can detract from learning experiences. However, some studies indicate that outright banning smartphones from schools can lead to feelings of loneliness among students, at least initially.
“When a school opts to completely prohibit smartphones, several factors should be considered,” explains Sanyogita Kare from Radboud University in the Netherlands. “Socially vulnerable youth may face additional challenges, leading to a possible sense of estrangement from peers.”
Mobile phones and similar devices have been linked to various issues, ranging from declining academic performance to worsening mental health among adolescents. However, there is a lack of concrete evidence supporting these claims. As of January 1, 2024, the Netherlands has instituted a ban on the use of smartphones and other smart devices in classrooms. Many schools enforce strict rules, prohibiting students from using such devices at all during class and often requiring that they be stored in lockers.
Seeking to unravel this impact, Carré and colleagues conducted a study with students from two middle schools in the Netherlands, both of which disallow smartphone usage during class. Surveys were administered initially in December 2023, prior to the nationwide ban, and repeated in March or April 2024.
The researchers aimed to analyze two types of loneliness: social loneliness and emotional loneliness. “Social loneliness pertains to your overall network and feelings of group belonging,” states Carre. “Emotional loneliness speaks to the depth of connection in close friendships.”
Upon comparing loneliness rates before and after the ban, findings were mixed. “Though we did not observe a significant change in social loneliness, there was a slight uptick in psychological loneliness,” Carre mentions. This surge may occur if some classmates are absent, thereby limiting students’ ability to connect with close friends during the school day.
The research also revealed that while the general sense of social loneliness didn’t rise among children, those who found social interactions more challenging were likely to feel increased loneliness. Carre notes that these impacts might not be long-lasting as students adjust to the ban over time.
A limitation of the study is that there was no comparison made with other Dutch schools where regulations are more lenient, such as allowing phones during breaks. Jonathan Canter from RAND, a U.S. nonprofit research organization, states, “To draw meaningful comparisons, we need data from similar students in schools without prohibition. Without that, we can’t ascertain whether our findings reflect broader patterns.”
Both Carre and Cantor express that there’s a gap in fundamental data regarding the effects of phone bans in schools. Canter and his team have recently attempted to address this issue by looking into voluntary bans on phones in U.S. schools.
They discovered significant variability in policies; certain schools enforce total bans on phones, while others permit their use at the discretion of teachers. In the UK, government guidelines suggest the use of phones in schools but leave the final decision to the discretion of school leaders regarding whether these devices should be banned.
“The pressing issue is the need for rigorous evaluations to assess the effectiveness of these policies at the school level. This requires detailed data on the types and timing of policies implemented,” Kanter states. “This is the focal point of current analysis efforts.”
Venus, the second planet from the Sun, is often called Earth’s sister planet. If extraterrestrial observers on a remote exoplanet were to analyze our solar system with the same methods used by observers on Earth today, the two planets would appear strikingly similar. Both are rocky, with nearly identical diameters and masses, and both exist within or near the solar system’s habitable zone. However, only one of them is known to support life.
A significant difference between the two planets—and a likely reason for the first—is their atmospheric compositions. Earth’s atmosphere comprises approximately 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, whereas Venus’ atmosphere consists of more than 96% carbon dioxide. In the distant past, volcanic activity released this carbon dioxide, triggering an uncontrollable greenhouse effect. This process, coupled with Venus’ proximity to the Sun, has driven its surface temperature to a searing 500°C (900°F).
Harold Morowitz and Carl Saganfirst observed in 1967 that although Venus’ barren surfaces may be inhospitable to life as we know it, its clouds present “an entirely different story,” according to Morowitz. The upper atmosphere of Venus contains low levels of water vapor and cloud regions characterized by extreme temperatures and pressures.These conditions could potentially support some types of terrestrial microorganisms and have led scientiststo investigate the clouds of Venus. In the 1970s, these clouds were found to be primarily composed of sulfuric acid, which is consideredincompatible with life. Nevertheless, a controversial detection of phosphine—gases found in Venus’ clouds that could be produced by microbes on Earth—has prompted some astrobiologists to reevaluate this notion of habitability.This has opened discussions on potential habitability.
Previously, researchers established that biomolecules such as the nucleic acids forming DNAcan remain stable for up to one year in sulfuric acid concentrations ranging from 81% to 98%. To advance this research, scientists at the University of Chicago have recently tested whether more complex organic structures can also form in concentrated sulfuric acid.
They began with a set of carbon-based molecules known as lipids. Lipids serve as the foundation of cell membranes, acting as a barrier to the external environment and regulating what enters and exits the cell. The research team contended that cell membranes are essential for life, especially under extreme conditions like those present in Venus’ clouds. Thus, they evaluated whether simple lipids could create membranous structures called vesicles in concentrated sulfuric acid.
Membrane lipids feature one side that is attracted to water, known as the hydrophilic side, and another that repels water, termed the hydrophobic side (Figure below, left). The hydrophilic side consists of long carbon chains, referred to as tails, while the hydrophobic side comprises charged compounds known as polar heads. In cell membranes, lipids are arranged in bilayers, with hydrophilic tails oriented inwards and hydrophobic heads facing outwards (Figure below, right). The research team selected simple, commercially available lipids with tails of 10 or 18 carbon atoms and polar heads of trimethylamine, sulfate, and phosphonate. These tailed lipids were chosen for their solubility and ability to form membrane structures due to their hydrophobic nature.
Illustration of a single simple lipid (left) and stacked lipids forming a cell membrane structure (right). Created by the author.
To assess the lipids’ resilience against sulfuric acid, various concentrations of each 10-carbon lipid were incubated in 1%, 30%, and 70% sulfuric acid for a minimum of 1 hour at room temperature. Utilizing a method that evaluates molecular structures based on their magnetic properties, they examined how increasing acid concentrations affected the lipids. Results indicated that trimethylamine and phosphonate lipids remained stable in up to 70% sulfuric acid, although around 20% of the sulfate head degraded.
The researchers then explored whether the lipids could form vesicles in these sulfuric acid solutions. They prepared lipid mixtures across varying concentrations in 70% to 90% sulfuric acid, measuring the particle size of the lipid-acid mixture using light scattering techniques. They discovered that a 50/50 blend of 10-carbon or 18-carbon lipids produced particles comparable in size to typical vesicles in 70% and 80% sulfuric acid solutions, with these particles maintaining stability even after a week.
Upon examination under a high-powered microscope, the lipid particles formed foam-like vesicles. Lastly, numerical models illustrated that the charged ends of lipid and acid molecules interact at the molecular level to help stabilize the vesicles and prevent the entry of acid.
The researchers concluded that simple lipids can create stable membrane-like structures in sulfuric acid concentrations similar to those found in Venusian clouds. They recommended that future studies conduct laboratory experiments to validate the molecular model and ascertain whether lipid membranes can effectively block sulfuric acid. These scientists are beginning to formulate a clearer picture of the potential types of life that could exist within the cloud layers of Venus, although that picture remains largely incomplete.
Researchers have shown that hypercompressed water can undergo various freeze-thaw processes to convert into ice VI at room temperature, facilitated by a previously unidentified metastable ice form known as ice XXI.
Small ice crystals XXI formed through a nucleation and slow melting process. Image credit: Lee et al., doi: 10.1038/s41563-025-02364-x.
Water consists of only two elements, yet it has numerous polymorphs ranging from Ice Ih to Ice XX, along with four amorphous phases.
The exploration of formation and migration pathways for various water phases has captivated scientists for a century, especially in high-pressure physics and the quest for extraterrestrial life on icy moons.
“Water exhibits remarkable complexity in its solid forms,” stated Dr. Lee Geun-woo from the Korea Institute of Standards and Science and the National University of Science and Technology.
“Most phases are typically found under conditions of high pressure and low temperature.”
“When water is compressed rapidly, it can remain in a liquid state even under high pressures where it would normally crystallize into ice VI.”
“Ice VI is particularly fascinating, as it is believed to exist within icy moons like Titan and Ganymede.”
“Its highly distorted structure may facilitate intricate transition pathways that lead to metastable ice forms.”
“Most ice variants can only be observed under extreme conditions; hence, we utilized a diamond anvil cell to create these high-pressure conditions.”
“In this setup, the water sample is positioned between two diamonds, which can withstand and apply immense pressure.”
“The water was subjected to pressures as high as 2 gigapascals, roughly 20,000 times greater than typical atmospheric pressure.”
“This allows for ice formation even at room temperature, with molecules packed more tightly than in conventional ice.”
To examine ice formation under varied pressure conditions, researchers initially produced high pressures of 2 gigapascals in just 10 milliseconds.
They then took 1 second to release the anvil cell and repeated this procedure.
During these cycles, the scientists utilized Europe’s XFEL’s X-ray flashes to capture images of the sample every microsecond.
With extremely high X-ray pulse rates, they could even create videos illustrating the formation of ice structures.
Using PETRA III’s P02.2 beamline, the researchers confirmed that ice XXI possesses a tetragonal crystal structure composed of unusually large repeating units known as a unit cell.
“The unique X-ray pulses from Europe’s XFEL revealed multiple crystallization pathways in rapidly compressed and depressurized water over 1,000 times using a dynamic diamond anvil cell,” Dr. Lee explained.
“In this specialized pressure cell, the sample is squeezed between the tips of two opposing diamond anvils, following a defined pressure trajectory,” said Dr. Cornelius Strom from the Deutsche Electron Synchrotron.
“The crystallization structure of liquid water is influenced by the degree of supercompression,” added Dr. Lee.
“Our results hint at the potential existence of more high-temperature metastable ice phases and the related transition pathways, offering new insights into the compositions of icy satellites,” remarked Dr. Rachel Husband, also from the Deutsche Electron Synchrotron.
These findings were published in a magazine on October 10th in Nature Materials.
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YH. Lee et al. Multiple freeze-thaw paths of dense ice through the ice XXI phase at room temperature. Nat. Mater. published online on October 10, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41563-025-02364-x
New genus and species of theropod dinosaur named Antebi Sukuri Longs has been reported by a team of researchers from the National University of San Juan, the Bernardino Rivadavia Museum of Natural Sciences, the University of Birmingham, CONICET, and CIGEOBIO.
Reconstruction of Antebi Sukuri Longs. Image credit: Jorge Blanco.
Antebi Sukuri Longs inhabited the Earth during the Carnian period of the late Triassic, approximately 231 to 226 million years ago.
This dinosaur measured about 1.2 meters (4 feet) in length and weighed around 8 to 9 kilograms.
The species represents an early-diverging theropod outside the Neoheteropod group, with functional traits previously believed to be exclusive to that classification surprisingly derived.
“This is among the oldest and most primitive dinosaurs yet discovered,” stated Dr. Ricardo Martinez from San Juan National University and his team.
“The early diversification of dinosaurs triggered significant ecological transformations in terrestrial ecosystems, culminating in the dominance of dinosaurs in tetrapod populations by the Triassic-Jurassic boundary 201 million years ago.”
“Therefore, investigating the early diversification of dinosaurs is crucial for understanding the formation of Mesozoic populations.”
“Nonetheless, the absence of stratigraphically continuous fossil data in different geological formations, where the oldest known dinosaurs (dating from 233 to 227 million years ago) are found, has hindered our comprehension of this early diversification.”
Paleontologists uncovered fossilized remains of Antebi Sukuri Longs—including a partial skeleton and skull—discovered in 2014 within the Izquiguarasto formation in northwestern Argentina.
“Few locations in the world offer such ancient and well-preserved fossils,” Martinez remarked.
“One notable site is the Santa María Formation in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, and the other is the Izquiguarasto Formation.”
Antebi Sukuri Longs thrived around 2 million years after Earth’s formation in a warm, arid savannah, experiencing episodes from the Carnian rainy season.
“We demonstrate that dinosaur diversity and abundance in the Iskigualast Formation were greater than previously acknowledged, particularly among smaller herbivores (under 30 kg) and medium-sized predators (30 kg to 200 kg),” the researchers stated.
“This diversification took place in Iskigualast during a transition to semi-arid conditions, but a return to wetter conditions created a gap in the dinosaur record beginning around 229 million years ago.”
“Only 15 million years later, during the mid-Norian period, the abundance and diversity of dinosaurs in the basin rebounded, this time characterized by larger-bodied species.”
“Our findings suggest that early dinosaur diversification was interrupted by climate-induced faunal replacement, at least in southwestern Pangea.”
A paper detailing this discovery was published in this week’s edition of Nature Ecology and Evolution.
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RN Martinez et al. Carnian theropods with unexpectedly derived features during the initial radiation of dinosaurs. Nat Ecol Evol published online October 14, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41559-025-02868-4
Homo sapiens may have developed greater tolerance to lead exposure compared to other hominids
frantic00/Shutterstock
Research on fossilized teeth indicates that ancient humans were exposed to harmful lead for over two million years, suggesting that modern humans might have adapted to handle this toxic metal more effectively than their predecessors.
Traditionally, lead poisoning was associated with modern issues such as industrialization, poor mining techniques, and lead additives in fuels. Fortunately, efforts to phase out lead exposure have been underway since the 1980s.
This toxin is particularly harmful to children, hindering physical and cognitive growth, while adults may experience a range of serious physical and mental health issues.
Dr. Renaud Joanne Bois and colleagues from Southern Cross University in Lismore, Australia, aimed to investigate whether our ancient ancestors faced similar lead exposure.
They examined 51 fossilized hominin teeth, representing species such as Australopithecus africanus, Paranthropus robustus, Gigantopithecus black, Homo neanderthalensis, and Homo sapiens. The fossils were sourced from regions including Australia, Southeast Asia, China, South Africa, and France.
The research team utilized laser ablation techniques to identify lead concentrations in the teeth, revealing layers of lead that accumulated during the growth of these hominids. This exposure could be attributed to environmental contaminants, such as polluted water, soil, or volcanic eruptions.
Dr. Joanne Boyau noted the surprising levels of lead discovered within the teeth. For instance, Gigantopithecus, a massive ancestral relative of today’s orangutans, primarily lived in what is now China. “If current humans exhibit similar lead levels, it indicates considerable exposure from industrial activities,” she remarked.
The research then shifted focus to understanding how both modern humans and Neanderthals managed lead exposure. The team created lab-grown brain models called organoids to analyze differences in the NOVA1 gene in both species, subsequently assessing the effects of lead neurotoxicity on these organoids.
“Our findings indicate that modern NOVA1 is significantly less impacted by lead neurotoxicity,” states Joannes Boyau.
Crucially, when archaic organoids expressed NOVA1 under lead exposure, another gene, Fox P2 exhibited notable differences.
“These genes are linked to cognitive functions, language, and social bonding,” explains Joannes-Boyau. “The diminished neurotoxicity in modern humans compared to Neanderthals could provide a crucial evolutionary advantage.” This suggests that lead exposure has influenced our evolutionary history.
However, Dr. Tanya Smith from Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia, remains cautious about the conclusions drawn by the researchers regarding lead exposure levels or potential evolutionary benefits inferred from their organoid studies.
“This paper is complex and makes speculative claims,” Smith emphasizes. “While it seems logical that ancient humans and wild primates faced some level of lead exposure, the limited scope and variety of fossils studied do not necessarily demonstrate that our ancestors were consistently exposed to lead over two million years.”
Exploring Neanderthals and Ancient Humans in France
Join New Scientist’s Kate Douglas on an engaging exploration of significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, spanning from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Computer illustration of a cross-section (orange strands) of a lipid nanoparticle carrying viral mRNA
Science Photo Library / Alamy
Virus-like vaccines typically trigger strong immune reactions; however, mRNA versions are significantly quicker and less expensive to manufacture. We now benefit from mRNA vaccines that encode for virus-like nanoparticles instead of individual proteins, as is the case with current COVID-19 mRNA vaccines.
Grace Hendricks and her team at the University of Washington in Seattle have demonstrated that an mRNA version of a coronavirus nanoparticle vaccine provokes immune responses in mice that are up to 28 times stronger than those elicited by standard mRNA vaccines.
According to Hendricks, some mild but unpleasant side effects of mRNA vaccines result from the body’s immediate response to the injected mRNA and the lipid particles encapsulating it. A more potent vaccine could enable lower dosages. “This means we can maintain the essential immune response while reducing the dose, thus minimizing side effects,” she explains.
The first vaccine was comprised of a weakened “live” virus and is highly effective, yet poses risks for individuals with compromised immune systems. This was followed by inactivated vaccines containing “dead” viruses, which are safer but challenging to produce.
The advancement continued with protein subunit vaccines that generally include only the exterior proteins of the virus. These are even safer than inactivated vaccines, but airborne proteins often fail to induce robust immune responses.
As a solution, vaccine developers began embedding viral proteins into tiny spheres to create spiky structures resembling viruses to the immune system, yet as safe as protein subunit vaccines. This is achieved by modifying existing proteins to self-assemble into small spheres with protruding viral proteins known as vaccine nanoparticles.
During the pandemic, Hendricks’s colleagues worked on a COVID-19 nanoparticle vaccine called Skycovion. Although it received approval in South Korea in 2022, mRNA vaccines had already made significant advances by that time, leading to limited use of Skycovion.
mRNA vaccines are significantly faster and more straightforward to produce than protein-based vaccines, as they provide a recipe for protein assembly, while the challenging task of protein synthesis is executed by the body’s cells. The viral proteins coded by these first-generation mRNA vaccines eventually protrude from the cell surface, inducing a more effective immune response compared to free-floating proteins but still falling short of the efficacy seen with nanoparticle vaccines.
Currently, Hendricks and her colleagues have merged the advantages of both methods by developing a vaccine that consists of mRNA encoding Skycovion. After the vaccine proteins are produced within cells, they organize into nanoparticles that have shown efficacy in mouse studies.
“This was merely a proof of concept for this gene transfer,” Hendricks stated. She and her team are already advancing what they term mRNA-launched nanoparticle vaccines targeting influenza, Epstein-Barr virus (which can lead to cancer), and various other viruses.
“I am excited about the potential of mRNA-launched protein nanoparticle vaccines.” said William Sheeff from The Scripps Research Institute in California, who is working on an HIV vaccine. “My colleagues and I have published impressive immunogenicity results with two mRNA-launched nanoparticles in clinical trials and several similar particles in mouse models. This new research enhances the existing body of work.” Despite this promising trajectory, the United States has announced significant cuts to funding for the development of mRNA vaccines.
Wildfires like the one in Greece in 2024 emitted significant quantities of carbon dioxide.
Xinhua News Agency/Alamy Stock Photo
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has disclosed that atmospheric carbon dioxide levels are set to soar to unprecedented heights in 2024, reaching levels not seen since records began.
According to WMO, the global average CO2 concentration is projected to rise by 3.5 ppm from 2023 to 2024, reaching 423.9 ppm. This marks the largest increase observed since modern measurements began in 1957, significantly surpassing the 2.3 ppm rise from 2022 to 2023.
This continues a troubling trend of accelerating increases each year, with the growth rate tripling since the 1960s. The last instance of comparable CO2 levels on Earth dates back 3 to 5 million years.
The WMO cautions that surplus carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will lead to global warming effects for centuries. “The heat captured by CO2 and other greenhouse gases is speeding up climate change and causing increasingly severe weather events,” stated Ko Barrett from the WMO.
Continued emissions from fossil fuels, a rise in emissions from wildfires, and a slow rate of carbon dioxide absorption by the planet’s land and oceans were identified as the primary factors behind last year’s record rise, as per WMO’s reports.
Researchers are forecasting that carbon uptake by oceans, forests, and other ecosystems will slow down in 2024 due to recent El Niño weather patterns, which have increased global temperatures and caused heatwaves, wildfires, and droughts in significant areas like the Amazon, thereby hindering carbon absorption. Scientists earlier this year indicated that the loss of tropical forests in 2024 will double compared to 2023. “In certain tropical regions, warm El Niño years like 2024 are generally drier and sequester less carbon dioxide,” noted Richard Allan from the University of Reading, UK.
Nevertheless, there are growing concerns that the decline in carbon uptake by Earth, particularly from land, is indicative of a long-term trend, suggesting that climate change is diminishing the planet’s capacity to absorb excess carbon.
“There are indications that land subsidence was markedly low in 2023 and 2024, even amidst the El Niño conditions, and we are witnessing a troubling decline over time, especially in the Northern Hemisphere outside of tropical regions,” said Zeke Hausfather, a climate scientist at the Breakthrough Institute. “In summary, there are alarming signs that land subsidence is decreasing, but it’s premature to make definitive conclusions without additional data over the coming years.”
In the meantime, it is more critical than ever for humanity to reduce ongoing fossil fuel emissions. Piers Foster, from the University of Leeds, UK, explained, “The primary factor driving the persistent increase in CO2 concentrations is that fossil fuel emissions remain at record levels and have yet to decline.”
Deep in Argentina’s Andes Mountains, paleontologists have uncovered the remains of a small dinosaur, giving insight into the early adaptations that characterized sauropod dinosaurs, specifically the extended neck seen in diplodocus.
The fossil, named Huayracursor jaguensis, represents a partial skeleton of a creature that roamed the Earth during the Triassic period, roughly 230 million years ago. It is estimated to have measured around 2 meters in length and weighed about 18 kilograms.
Subsequent sauropods like brontosaurus and Patagotitan would grow to impressive sizes—over 35 meters long and weighing more than 70 tons, marking them as the largest and longest-necked animals in history.
Previously, scientists believed that the ancestors of these long-necked, herbivorous dinosaurs were small, short-necked, and possibly even omnivorous.
At the same time, other smaller sauropods, such as homo jaguensis, measured approximately 1 meter and displayed no signs of elongated neck bones, unlike the newly identified species. This led paleontologists to think that substantial growth in size and neck elongation in sauropods didn’t occur until millions of years later.
The discovery of homo jaguensis at Santo Domingo Creek in northwestern Argentina has prompted a reevaluation of how these dinosaurs developed their iconic long necks, according to Martin Hechenleitner from Argentina’s National Council for Scientific and Technical Research.
“Waila cursor presents a different narrative than the gradual transition model,” Hechenleitner points out. “This is evident since it coexisted with closely related species that were smaller and had relatively shorter necks.”
This dinosaur had a small skull, muscular hind limbs, slender hips, and notably short arms, with relatively large and robust hands compared to other dinosaurs of its era.
This suggests that the traits of increased size and neck elongation emerged early in this evolutionary line, Hechenleitner explains.
“Waila cursor allows us to trace the origins of elongated necks and larger body sizes back to the dawn of dinosaurs in the fossil record,” he says, referencing species like argentinosaurus and Patagotitan, which emerged from a lineage that originated over 100 million years ago, with early bipedal forms measuring just over a meter long and weighing between 10 and 15 kilograms.
Dinosaur hunting in Mongolia’s Gobi desert
Join an exciting expedition to unearth dinosaur remains in the expansive wilderness of the Gobi Desert, known as one of the premier paleontological sites in the world.
Have you ever watched a weevil extend its wings on a grain of rice? Zhang You, a photographer from China, remarked that he managed to capture this moment with such stunning detail that his image has been awarded this year’s top prize in the Nikon Small World Contest. The photograph beautifully showcases this small agricultural pest resting on its favorite food, with its wings beautifully unfurled and perfectly symmetrical.
Insects like the rice weevil serve a significant role in ecosystems around the globe. Images displaying such intricate detail and dramatic poses are exceptionally rare, unveiling the hidden beauty of life that often goes unnoticed.
Dr. Jan Rosenboom claimed second place with his captivating picture of algae balls suspended in water droplets, while third place was awarded to John Oliver Damm for his delicate shot of pollen ensnared in a spider’s web in his garden.
Now entering its 51st year, the Nikon Small World Contest recognizes the finest examples of science viewed under a microscope and invites anyone passionate about photography and videography to participate.
Here are this year’s top photographs from the contest.
Honorable Mention
A fusion of crystallized soy sauce and aluminum as seen through a 10x magnification. Photo courtesy of Mishal Abdulaziz Allihan/Nikon Small WorldFrost on wooden railing viewed at 5x magnification. Photo by Gregory B. Murray/Nikon Small World
Image of Distinction
The fascinating parasitic fly (Crataerina hirundinis) as seen under 10x magnification. Photo courtesy of Bernard Allard/Nikon Small World3D brain organoids in custom organ-on-a-chip devices photographed at 20x magnification. Photo courtesy of Dr. Arthur Chen and Dr. Ann Na Cho/Nikon Small WorldTrue insect (Hemiptera) eggs on a leaf viewed at 5x magnification. Photo courtesy of Dr. Walter Ferrari/Nikon Small WorldAdult zebrafish displaying brain blood vessels, photographed at 4x magnification. Photo courtesy of Hannah Summers/Nikon Small WorldThe androconial (pheromone-producing) region of a butterfly (Colias) wing viewed at 10x magnification. Photo courtesy of Daniel Evrard/Nikon Small WorldCrystals from a mixed solution of alanine and glutamine under polarized light as viewed at 20x magnification. Photo courtesy of Doong Yien/Nikon Small WorldAutofluorescence of barnacle cirri exoskeleton, with bright red diatoms. Photographed at 5x magnification. Photo credit: Charles Krebs/Nikon Small WorldVascular bundle of bamboo leaves (Phyllostachys sp.) viewed at 20x magnification. Photo by David Maitland/Nikon Small World
Top 20
Marine copepods observable under a microscope at 60x magnification. Photo courtesy of Zachary Sanchez/Nikon Small WorldParasitic fungi (Cordycipitaceae) affecting flies (Calliphoridae), photographed at 2x magnification. Photo by Eduardo Agustin Carrasco/Nikon Small WorldFluorescently labeled mouse colon under 20x magnification. Photos by Marius Mehlen, Cohen Oost, Prisca Liberali, Laurent Germain/Nikon Small WorldDaphnia and algae viewed at 5x magnification. Photo courtesy of Hong Guo/Nikon Small WorldA fern sporangium photographed at 40x magnification. Photo courtesy of Rogelio Moreno/Nikon Small WorldGeometry moth (Typertidae) laying eggs, captured at 5x resolution. Photo courtesy of Zhang You/Nikon Small WorldQuartz crystal featuring filaments of biogenic goethite. Photo courtesy of Manfred Heising/Nikon Small WorldSlime mold Arcyria major, also known as Arcyria insignis, releasing spores at 10x magnification. Photo courtesy of Henri Koskinen/Nikon Small WorldActin cytoskeleton (cyan) and endoplasmic reticulum (red) in mouse brain tumor cells, displayed at 100x magnification. Photo courtesy of Halli Lindamood & Eric Vitriol/Nikon Small WorldSunflower trichomes generated by stacking 112 images, displayed at 10x magnification. Photo courtesy of Marek Miś/Nikon Small World
Top 10
Metaphase in human cardiomyocytes showing condensed chromosomes during the second stage of cell division. Displayed at 60x magnification. Photo courtesy of Dr. Dylan Barnett and Dr. James Hayes/Nikon Small WorldFungi (Talaromyces purpureogenus) with red diffuse pigment, shown at 10x magnification. Photo by Wim van Egmond/Nikon Small WorldMalvaceae pollen germinating on the stigma, while being parasitized by filamentous fungi. Displayed at 40x magnification. Photo courtesy of Dr. Igor Siwanowicz/Nikon Small WorldInduced pluripotent stem cell-derived sensory neurons showing tubulin and actin proteins at 10x magnification. Photo by Stella Whittaker/Nikon Small WorldRat hepatocytes observed under a microscope at 63x magnification. Photo provided by: Dr. Francisco Lazaro-Dieguez/Nikon Small WorldSmall tropical fern (Ceratopteris richardii) spores depicted as blue/purple structures. Displayed at 25x magnification. Photo courtesy of Dr. Igor Siwanowicz/Nikon Small WorldCardiomyocytes with condensed chromosomes post-cell division at 100x magnification. Photo courtesy of Dr. James Hayes/Nikon Small World
3rd Place
Pollen resting on a spider web in the garden, displayed at 20x magnification. Photo courtesy of John Oliver Damm/Nikon Small World
2nd Place
Colonial algae (Volvox) forming spherical structures within water droplets, viewed at 5x magnification. Photo courtesy of Dr. Jan Rosenboom/Nikon Small World
Overall Winner
A rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae) perching on a grain of rice, photographed at 5x magnification. Photo courtesy of Zhang You/Nikon Small World
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