James Watson, a Nobel Prize-winning co-discussor of the DNA double helix, remarked in 1974, “All hell is unleashed politically and morally around the globe” regarding the potential of human in vitro fertilization.
Today, more than 12 million individuals are expecting through IVF, and the world seems relatively calm. Many of us may not have fully grasped this procedure.
Yet, what about our perceptions of future reproductive technologies? This question is sparked by the recent birth of a fertile mouse with two genetic fathers. While similar experiments have previously led to the creation of both motherless and fatherless mice, this new method is notable as it does not involve genetic alterations. Typically, this could also be applicable for human use.
Various obstacles, including low success rates and the removal of DNA from numerous human eggs, explain why such advancements aren’t imminent. Nonetheless, it is essential to begin contemplating the societal implications.
For some, the notion of a child having two genetic fathers may never be accepted, just as there remains criticism towards gay couples expanding their families. Changing such perspectives may prove challenging, if not impossible.
Like IVF, what used to be front-page news could eventually become routine.
However, one can expect a broader public to exhibit a strict moral opposition to this idea, along with a general sense of unease. The inaugural child born from this method is, in many ways, distinct from all previous human beings. IVF-born children come into existence through a process unimaginable to our ancestors but continue to carry the genetic lineage from one male and one female ancestor.
Is this significant? Just like IVF, what was once front-page news may soon be commonplace. In a time when reproductive and trans rights are being restricted in the U.S., engaging in objective discourse about emerging technologies presents a greater challenge. Fortunately, these questions do not require immediate answers.
Your brain communicates with your body through a network of 12 critical neural pathways that travel down your spine and extend throughout the body. Among these, the vagus nerve stands out as perhaps the most vital. This nerve influences digestion, heart rate, reflexes, and respiration.
This is why researchers are particularly fascinated by the vagus nerve’s functions, especially regarding how these bodily activities can influence your mood. Consider it a superhighway linking our brains and bodies.
Vagus nerve function
Unlike the quick “fight or flight” reactions managed by the sympathetic nervous system, the vagus nerve triggers a slower, restful, and digestive response associated with the parasympathetic nervous system. This nerve comprises two thick cords of neurons (nerve cells) that originate from the brain.
The majority of the neurons in the vagus nerve are sensory (around 100,000 on each side of the body), relaying information from the organs to the brain, activated by sensory stimuli from the surrounding environment. The remaining neurons are motor neurons, transmitting signals from the brain to various organs, directly influencing muscle activity.
The vagus nerve is a vital component of the parasympathetic nervous system, influencing various bodily functions including respiration, heart rate, swallowing, sneezing, digestion, appetite, immune responses, and even orgasm.
This wide-ranging capability results from its diverse neuronal cell types that enable the detection of various sensory signals from different organs. Some neurons respond to chemical signals like blood oxygen levels or bacterial secretions in the gut, while others pick up mechanical signals from blood vessels and the stretching of intestines.
Consequently, vagus nerve neurons mainly relay information to the brain about the body’s status, enabling the brain to process this information and respond to maintain balance. However, some neurons transmit signals in reverse, facilitating communication between the brain and intestines, as well as controlling certain mouth and throat muscles involved in speech and gag reflexes.
The vagus nerve’s roles are numerous, and there may be functions we’re yet to discover. However, we know some ways to leverage its activity. For instance, doctors sometimes recommend “Valsalva Maneuvers” to activate the vagus nerve and decelerate rapid heart rates. Activities like coughing, bearing down as if on the toilet, or even handstands can be effective.
Read more about stress:
Long, twisty nerves
The term “vagus” translates to “wandering” in Latin, which aptly describes the vagus nerve. It extends from the brain down to the base of the spine and colon, branching out to critical organs such as the heart, lungs, liver, and intestines along its path.
As the longest cranial nerve in the human body, it plays a key role in the parasympathetic nervous system, regulating automatic functions like digestion while the body is at rest. Historically, it was termed the pneumonia nerve, due to its connections to both the lungs and stomach.
How is the vagus nerve connected to our happiness?
In stressful situations, our sympathetic nervous system triggers “fight or flight” responses for quick reactions, whereas the parasympathetic system operates more gradually to foster relaxation. It’s crucial for recovering calmness following stress.
Thanks to the vagus nerve, our brains can detect changes in breathing and heart rate, facilitating a balancing act between the two nervous systems. Although the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems don’t always sync perfectly, they can operate independently or in harmony. Disruptions in their balance may lead to digestive issues or mental health disorders. Chronic stress is linked to an overactive sympathetic response, a phenomenon noted in individuals suffering from depression.
Vagus nerve and heart
A key metric often utilized is heart rate variability, which measures the intervals between consecutive heartbeats. Healthy heart rhythms typically exhibit slight variations; low variability may indicate an overactive sympathetic nervous system, indicating the body remains in a persistent state of combat or flight, while the vagus and parasympathetic responses struggle to keep pace.
Despite being a popular tool, questions regarding the true effectiveness of heart rate variability as an indicator of balance between the two systems continue to emerge. Heart rate monitors can supply this data, yet it’s best not to become overly fixated on the figures.
Historically, stomach ulcers were often treated by severing the vagus fibers beneath the ribcage, based on the belief that the vagus nerve significantly contributes to acid production in the stomach, resulting in pain. Today, with advancements in medication, such surgical procedures are less common, yet they illustrate the repercussions of damaging a nerve with extensive branches.
Cutting the vagus nerve can eliminate its supply to the stomach, pancreas, small intestine, and portions of the colon. Without further surgical intervention, patients may find it difficult to pass solid waste. Those with gastroparesis face similar challenges, generally due to vagus nerve damage caused by diabetes, medications, or infections.
Moreover, more severe damage higher up the vagus nerve may lead to different consequences. For example, the chickenpox virus can attack the nervous system and rarely cause vagus nerve lesions, resulting in the inability to swallow, headaches, and ear inflammation. Preliminary research from Spain indicates that some of the symptoms associated with long COVID may also relate to vagus nerve damage, encompassing respiratory, vocal, and gastrointestinal issues.
Should I get a vagus nerve stimulator?
Current evidence indicates that devices designed for vagus nerve stimulation are generally safe. However, researchers express concerns about the rising tendency for home use of neurostimulators.
Individuals seeking alternatives to technology may opt for activities like yoga, meditation, hypnotherapy, and deep breathing exercises, believed to enhance the parasympathetic nervous system’s function and bolster vagus nerve activity. Additionally, there’s evidence suggesting that cold exposure through swimming or bathing can stimulate the vagus nerve, activating the parasympathetic system. Splashing cold water on your face may also have a similar effect.
While using an inexpensive device or signing up for a yoga retreat may appear to be a convenient fix when you’re not feeling well, consulting with your doctor for serious health concerns is always a wise approach.
Read more about how to relax:
What is vagus nerve stimulation?
The vagus nerve stimulation concept originated in the late 19th century when neurologist James Leonard Corning created an electrical stimulation device for treating epilepsy. Although it was initially set aside, it has evolved to help over 100,000 patients with epilepsy via implants or adjustments for brain lesions.
Several studies suggest that some individuals can reduce seizure frequency by as much as 75% with implants, with longer use amplifying benefits. Devices developed by US medical company Cyberonics are also approved for severe depression and chronic headaches.
However, surgical implantation isn’t the only form of nerve stimulation. You can access the vagus nerve via ear and neck branches, using devices like TENS machines commonly utilized for labor pain relief. Ear clips, such as those developed by Nurosym, offer stylish neuromodulators intended for individuals seeking relief from anxiety, depression, or fatigue.
Research on vagus nerve stimulation is rapidly growing, with ongoing trials exploring its efficacy in conditions like burns, obesity, hypertension, rheumatoid arthritis, Alzheimer’s disease, and tinnitus. The well-documented link between the vagus nerve and gut function also suggests potential therapeutic applications for common gastrointestinal disorders like IBS. However, accumulating evidence to support these treatments must take time.
It is the longest cranial nerve that extends from the brain to the large intestine, transmitting signals bidirectionally through neurotransmitters and gut hormones.
The vagus nerve fibers harbor 200,000 sensory nerve cells, with the ears being the sole area where these fibers reach the body’s surface.
The vagus nerve’s “bypass,” which enables direct impulses between the uterus and brain, may allow women with spinal injury to achieve orgasm.
Vagus nerve stimulation influences gamma-aminobutyric acid neurotransmitters associated with ADHD, hinting at potential therapeutic applications.
The medical term for fainting is vasovagal syncope, occurring when the vagus nerve is overstimulated, leading to a sudden drop in heart rate and blood pressure.
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Some former employees of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) who were dismissed, re-hired, and then let go again this spring report having received debt notices from the federal government requiring repayment for medical compensation which they assert they never received.
These workers describe this as the latest chapter in a firing process marked by confusion, inadequate communication, and insufficient documentation, leaving them grappling with fundamental workplace concerns.
Three NOAA employees provided a letter to NBC News labeled “Notice of Payment Request.” Dated June 16, the letter claimed the employee owed money (sometimes several hundred dollars) with potential interest on the amount. It also warned that any unpaid debt would be reported to the Credit Bureau.
“The language is very ominous and threatening,” remarked Salakoury, who was dismissed in late February from his role as director of the agency’s marine acidification program.
It remains unclear how many dismissed employees received this notice; two former NOAA staff members informed NBC News that they did not get such letters.
The notice indicates that the debt pertains to healthcare premiums for the eighth and ninth months of the year, during which the health insurance plan had already lapsed.
“After my termination, they attempted to file a claim related to their health insurance, of which I had no reports,” noted Ya’el Seid-Green, a former special assistant at NOAA’s Office of Ocean and Atmospheric Research. “It’s just rubbing salt in the wound regarding how incompetent this is.”
NOAA spokesperson Kim Doster stated the agency could not comment on ongoing personnel issues and was unable to forward inquiries to the HR Administration, which did not respond initially. The Department of Commerce, which oversees NOAA, also did not reply.
Following NBC News’s inquiry about the problems at NOAA’s Media Affairs group, probationary employees received an acknowledgment from their representatives about potential errors.
“Our office is aware that you may have received a debt notice from the National Finance Center (NFC),” read an email sent to a probationary employee. “Please be assured that we are collaborating with the NFC to address this matter. No action is required from you at this moment. We will provide further information and updates.”
In February, the Department of Commerce terminated over 600 probationary employees at NOAA, including hurricane hunters, meteorologists, and storm modelers. Probationary employees typically serve their first or second year in a new position at the agency.
In mid-March, a judge ordered many of these employees reinstated, prompting NOAA to place them on administrative leave. However, in early April, the Supreme Court temporarily halted some of these reinstatements, leading to a second dismissal of the employees.
A former employee stated that the chaotic process of hiring and firing has resulted in documentation errors and confusion, leaving them unable to obtain answers from the agency.
Sabrina Valenti, a former budget analyst at NOAA, expressed concern that she has not yet received her separation paperwork from the agency.
“It has been four months since my termination, and there is no record acknowledging it,” she stated.
Additionally, the employees reported not having access to the health benefits that should have been available during their reinstatement period. Seid-Green underwent surgery in April while on administrative leave.
“We were receiving salaries during administrative leave, and our health insurance contributions were deducted,” she mentioned.
After her surgery, Seid-Green discovered that her health insurance had lapsed.
She subsequently applied to continue her temporary compensation, a program that allows government employees to retroactively cover their health benefits. However, that has also not been successful.
Seid-Green remarked that this effectively means she has been billed twice for health insurance she has not received.
“I’ve received letters demanding over $14,000 for the surgery,” she shared. “Not only did they fail to provide the compensation we were owed, but now they are sending us debt notices for benefits we never received.”
Tim White House, executive director of the Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility (PEER), a nonprofit organization dedicated to supporting environmental workers and monitoring administrative issues, stated that these errors reflect deeper leadership failures within the agency.
“They are inflicting emotional and financial burdens on these employees. The Department of Commerce is at fault. Other agencies have resolved these issues, while they remain persistent in this department,” he concluded.
Neurons Growing Among Cancer Cell Cultures (Stained Green)
Simon Grelet and Gustavo Ayala
Cancer cells are known to hijack energy-generating components from neurons, facilitating their spread to remote locations. This groundbreaking discovery may enhance treatments for the most aggressive tumors.
“This marks the first instance of mitochondrial transfer from nerves to cancer cells,” states Elizabeth Lepasky, who is not directly linked to the study conducted at the Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center in Buffalo, New York. “This signifies a pivotal advancement in cancer neuroscience, a rapidly evolving field.”
Prior knowledge indicated that both intratumor and adjacent tumors produce proteins and electrical impulses that promote cancer growth and dissemination. “A higher density of nerves within tumors correlates with a poorer prognosis,” says Simone Grelet from the University of Southern Alabama.
Earlier investigations have demonstrated that brain tumor cells can absorb mitochondria (the energy-producing organelles) from non-neuronal brain cells. However, the potential for tumor cells to extract mitochondria from neurons remained unclear, according to Grelet.
To explore this, Grelet and his team genetically modified breast cancer cells derived from mice to contain red fluorescent molecules and combined them with mouse neurons that had mitochondria labeled with green pigments in laboratory conditions. Imaging revealed that cancer cells can seize mitochondria from neurons within a matter of hours.
“Cancer cells extend their membranes to absorb mitochondria from neurons,” explains Grelet. “It’s akin to a lineup of mitochondria filtering through a narrow passage, entering the cancer cells sequentially.”
To assess whether this phenomenon occurs in vivo, the researchers injected red breast cancer cells into the mammary glands of female mice to induce tumor growth. They also genetically engineered the surrounding nerves to carry green mitochondria. Approximately one month later, 2% of the cancer cells in these tumors had taken up mitochondria from neurons.
Conversely, 14% of tumor cells that metastasized to the brain exhibited neuronal-derived mitochondria. This suggests that cancer cells acquiring mitochondria from nerves have a significant advantage over other cancer types. Further tests indicate that these mitochondria contribute to greater resilience against the physical and chemical challenges encountered in the bloodstream.
“Cancer cells face numerous hurdles in their migration,” remarks Repasky. “They must escape the primary tumor, navigate barriers to blood vessels, exit the bloodstream, and secure sufficient oxygen and nutrients at secondary sites. By appropriating mitochondria, it appears cancer cells can endure this tumultuous journey,” she adds.
To determine if this process also occurs in humans, researchers examined tumor samples from eight women with metastatic breast cancer. They discovered that tumor cells from distant sites contained, on average, 17% more mitochondria compared to those from breast tumors, suggesting that similar mechanisms are at play in patients, according to Grelet.
Moreover, the team analyzed human prostate tumor samples and observed that cancer cells near nerves contained significantly more mitochondria than those situated further away. “I believe this represents a common mechanism utilized by various tumor types,” asserts team member Gustavo Ayala from the University of Texas Health Science Center in Houston.
The findings indicate that inhibiting mitochondrial transfer could potentially curtail the spread of the deadliest tumors. “We are optimistic that this is achievable, at least for certain tumor types,” Repasky suggests. Ayala mentions that they are working towards developing a drug to facilitate this approach.
Teenager language may make online bullying difficult to detect
Vitapix/Getty Images
The terminology of Generation Alpha is evolving faster than educators, parents, and AI can keep up with.
Manisha Meta, a 14-year-old student from Warren E Hyde Middle School in Cupertino, California, alongside Fausto Giunchiglia from the University of Trent in Italy, examined 100 expressions popular among Generation Alpha, those born from 2010 to 2025, sourced from gaming, social media, and video platforms.
The researchers then asked 24 classmates of Mehta, aged between 11 and 14, to evaluate these phrases along with contextual screenshots. The volunteers assessed their understanding of the phrases, the contexts in which they were used, and if they carried potential safety risks or harmful interpretations. They also consulted their parents, professional moderators, and four AI models (GPT-4, Claude, Gemini, and Llama 3) for the same analysis.
“I’ve always been intrigued by Generation Alpha’s language because it’s so distinctive; relevance shifts rapidly, and trends become outdated just as quickly,” says Mehta.
Among the Alpha generation volunteers, 98% grasped the basic meaning of a given phrase, 96% understood the context of its use, and 92% recognized instances of harmful intent. In contrast, the AI model could identify harmful usage only around 40% of the time, with Claude stumbling from 32.5% to 42.3%. Parents and moderators also fell short, detecting harmful usages in just one-third of instances.
“We expected a broader comprehension than we observed,” Mehta reflects. “Much of the feedback from my parents was speculative.”
Common phrases from Generation Alpha often have double meanings based on context. For instance, “Let’s Cook His” can signify genuine praise in gaming but may also mockingly refer to someone rambling incoherently. “Kys,” once short for “know yourself,” has now been repurposed to mean “kill yourself.” Another phrase that could hide malicious intent is, “Is it acoustic?”
“Generation Alpha is exceedingly vulnerable online,” says Meta. “As AI increasingly dominates content moderation, understanding the language used by LLMs is crucial.”
“It’s evident that LLMs are transforming the landscape,” asserts Giunchiglia. “This presents fundamental questions that need addressing.”
The results were published this week at the Computing Machinery Conference Association on Equity, Accountability and Transparency in Athens, Greece.
“Empirical evidence from this research highlights significant shortcomings in content moderation systems, especially concerning the analysis and protection of young individuals,” notes Michael Veal from University College London. “Companies and regulators must heed this and adapt as regulations evolve in jurisdictions where platform laws are designed to safeguard the youth.”
Training in Bystander CPR may have played a key role in decreasing heart attack fatalities over the last 50 years
Piyamas Dulmunsumphun / Alamy stock photos
Heart attack fatalities in the US have dramatically decreased over the last five decades, while deaths from chronic heart diseases have surged, potentially due to increased longevity.
“Significant strides have been made in reducing cardiac mortality, and we’re witnessing this transformation,” says Sarah King from Stanford University in California.
She and her team analyzed heart disease mortality data from 1970 to 2022, utilizing the American disease control and prevention database to monitor all recorded deaths nationwide.
In 2022, they discovered that heart disease constituted 24% of all US deaths, a decrease from 41% in 1970, significantly aided by nearly a 90% drop in heart attack fatalities, previously the deadliest form of heart disease.
“We’ve made remarkable progress in reducing heart attack deaths over the past half-century,” remarks King. This includes innovations such as cardiac stents, coronary artery bypass surgery, and cholesterol-lowering therapies. King also believes that public health initiatives, including Bystander CPR training and efforts to decrease smoking rates, have contributed to these improvements.
Nonetheless, the rise in mortality from other types of cardiac ailments has surged by 81%, indicating that many chronic conditions are leading to increased deaths. For instance, fatalities from heart failure, arrhythmias, and hypertensive heart disease have surged by 146%, 106%, and 450%, respectively.
“Many of these issues are related to aging,” explains King. “Those who survive heart attacks seem to live longer, giving them more time to develop these chronic heart conditions.”
However, the statistics might overstate changes in cardiac mortality. “Various factors can lead to a person’s death, resulting in potential misclassification and oversimplification,” King warns. For instance, many patients succumb to heart failure following a heart attack. “It’s not a straightforward issue because the underlying reason for that heart failure is often a blockage in the coronary arteries,” she adds.
Still, the majority of heart disease fatalities aren’t directly caused by heart attacks. “Addressing these other causes of increased mortality will be crucial,” King states. “Discovering healthier aging methods will be the next frontier for heart disease.”
Are there any forms of suspended animation? If you consider how animals hibernate during winter, that’s a natural example. However, if we reference the science fiction concept of stasis—where an individual is placed in a pod and frozen to endure an interstellar voyage—then it’s more of a fantasy.
That said, there are several realistic applications, particularly if we can address the challenges of preserving human tissues through freezing.
For decades, the possibility of employing cold temperatures to slow down biological processes has been recognized, and we’ve recently started using this method as a critical life-saving intervention.
For instance, patients experiencing a heart attack can undergo what is formally termed “suspended animation for delayed resuscitation,” wherein they are rapidly cooled to induce hypothermia. This process slows bodily functions and safeguards vital organs, especially the brain, albeit at the cost of disrupting blood circulation.
This approach significantly reduces the chances of brain damage and proves incredibly effective, allowing individuals to survive without treatment for up to 90 minutes.
This form of suspended animation entails dropping body temperature to approximately 59°F (15°C), compared to the usual 98°F (37°C). Temperatures below this threshold can result in cellular death.
Once the temperature dips below freezing, the large volume of water within cells turns problematic. Ice forms and expands, creating sharp crystals that can damage delicate cells and blood vessels.
Those who have suffered frostbite can attest to the harmful effects of extreme cold on body tissues. Completely freezing a person would be fatal.
Nevertheless, we successfully freeze human embryos, which can remain frozen for as long as 19 years before being thawed and developing into healthy infants.
The suspended animation envisioned in science fiction remains a distant reality – Illustration credits: Daniel Bright
Embryos typically freeze at an early stage when they consist of only a few cells, and they survive thanks to prior preparation. Protective agents are used to draw out water and prevent the formation of ice crystals.
These embryos are then rapidly frozen in a tank of liquid nitrogen at -196°C (-320°F), allowing for prolonged storage in suspended animation.
North American Wood Frog employs a similar strategy to survive winter. As the temperature drops, it can inundate its cells with glucose (a natural antifreeze), effectively freezing itself until both heart and brain functions cease.
The frog’s organs are encased in ice, yet the glucose inhibits ice crystals from forming within its tissues.
As temperatures rise, it gradually thaws and resumes normal activity. This process is a complex challenge for humans; every body part would necessitate risky water extraction and chemical solutions.
Hibernation represents a different strategy. Small rodents, such as mice and hedgehogs, permit their body temperatures to drop significantly, leading to a marked decrease in breathing and heart rate.
Larger mammals don’t need to reduce their body temperatures as drastically. For example, American black bears may drop from 36°C to 30°C (96°F to 86°F), reducing their metabolic rate by about 25%. This is usually sufficient to avert bone and muscle loss resulting from prolonged inactivity.
Being frozen is far from ideal, and for large mammals, it may be more advantageous than suspended animation through a hibernation-like state.
This article responds to the inquiry (from Safia Hall via email) regarding whether suspended animation has ever been realized.
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Thirst is something we all encounter, and it can be quite uncomfortable. It’s also an early indicator of dehydration, which can escalate rapidly. Depending on factors like age, health, and environment, even mild to moderate dehydration can occur within just a few hours, leading to symptoms such as fatigue, dizziness, and confusion. If left unaddressed for 24 hours, severe dehydration can lead to critical issues such as shock and seizures.
Hidden dehydration (or hypochronic dehydration) is a more subtle condition that may arise from prolonged mild dehydration, affecting both physical and mental well-being.
Could this be the reason behind that frightening afternoon slump?
The Impact of Hidden Dehydration
As the name implies, hidden dehydration can be an insidious state, and you might be experiencing its effects without realizing the cause.
According to NHS guidelines, fatigue is one of the primary symptoms associated with hidden dehydration.
Symptoms include: Dark urine Dry mouth Dizziness Headaches Lack of concentration
The human body is composed of around 60% water. The brain and heart contain about 73% water, while muscle tissues are made up of 75% water. Dehydration leads to lower blood volume and blood pressure, reducing blood flow to the brain, which contributes to fatigue. After lunch, many individuals naturally feel a drop in energy. However, inadequate hydration throughout the day can amplify this slump.
The NHS advises that adults should drink 6-8 glasses of water (1.2-2 liters) daily. Although staying hydrated is key, how much do we know about the quality of the water we consume?
Why Water Quality Matters
In the UK, we are fortunate to have high standards for drinking water recognized globally. Nonetheless, it still contains hard minerals like calcium and magnesium, which are harmless but may affect the taste for some individuals.
A consistent supply of fresh water can indeed help you meet your hydration goals as advised by the NHS.
“Installing a water filter is one of the simplest methods to enhance your tap water quality,” states Waterdrop Filter. “A filter can eliminate impurities and improve taste.”
What Is Reverse Osmosis?
Reverse osmosis is a purification method used by Waterdrop filters. Water is pushed through a semi-permeable membrane to remove various impurities, including:
Lead, arsenic, and mercury Chlorine and fluoride Microorganisms Dissolved salts and minerals
The Waterdrop filter offers two reverse osmosis systems: the X16 and the A2. The X16 features an 11-step process with a 0.0001μm RO membrane that effectively reduces TDS, PFOA, PFOS, chlorine, fluoride, arsenic, lead, and more. With a flow rate of 1,600 gallons per day, it is ideal for larger households. Note that it requires electrical installation under the sink, and it comes equipped with LED lights and energy-saving modes for water safety.
The A2 is a compact countertop system ideal for individuals or smaller households. This system includes a five-stage process with a 0.0001 μm RO membrane to minimize TDS, PFOA, PFOS, chlorine, fluoride, lead, and arsenic. It features temperature controls ranging from 10°C to 95°C, along with a touch control screen for customizable temperature and volume settings.
Elevate your hydration habits by maintaining consistent water intake throughout the day, especially if you struggle with brain fog and fatigue during the afternoon.
Researchers have found that endangered species of killer whales in the Pacific Northwest utilize tools crafted from kelp for mutual care.
A new study published in Current Biology reveals that scientists observed the Southern resident whales producing tools by tearing bull kelp and rolling it between each other during social interactions.
Drone footage captured the kelp being pushed against a companion, revealing a whale engaged in an extended grooming session.
“What’s particularly remarkable is that although this behavior appears to be common, despite the regular drone observations over these whales for nearly 50 years, it has never been documented.” stated Lead author Dr. Michael Weiss from the Whale Research Center in Friday Harbor, Washington.
The endangered Southern resident population has fewer than 80 individuals residing in the Salish Sea, situated between British Columbia and Washington.
While tool use is well recognized among primates, elephants, and birds, it remains scarce in marine species.
Weiss and her team observed this behavior across various age groups and social units, noting that whales are more inclined to groom relatives or older companions.
Two whales interact by rubbing against each other. These scrubs may serve hygienic functions. – Whale Research Center, NMFS NOAA permit 27038
Whales with greater amounts of dead skin participated more frequently in this behavior, suggesting a connection to hygiene.
The findings underscore the cultural identity of Southern residents and emphasize the necessity of conservation efforts. It remains uncertain whether this tool-assisted grooming is exclusive to this group or if it occurs in other whale populations.
Weiss remarked, “It was incredibly thrilling to discover that whales are not just utilizing tools but employing them in ways previously unreported in marine mammals.”
I woke up with a multitude of itchy red bites. And? Most likely, it’s those pesky mosquitoes that are causing the irritation. While they aren’t the sole culprits for the marks left behind, the redness is actually a reaction to the saliva from those tiny, blood-sucking insects.
Globally, there are around 3,500 mosquito species, including 36 in the UK and over 200 in the US, with only the females being the notorious bloodsuckers.
Mosquitoes are widely recognized as nuisances. Even in regions like the UK and the US, where concerns over diseases such as malaria, dengue, and Zika are minimal, it’s important to be aware of their potential threats.
However, Professor James Logan urges us to take these creatures seriously. He is the Dean of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine’s (LSHTM) School of Disease Control and the CEO of Arctech.
“As climate change progresses, more mosquitoes capable of transmitting diseases are encroaching closer to the UK and the US, including not just malaria-carrying mosquitoes but those that spread dengue as well,” he states.
“Currently, there are no active disease outbreaks, but that won’t be the case for long. It’s not a question of ‘if,’ but rather ‘when.’”
According to Logan, the US is “even further ahead” in this regard, with cases of dengue, malaria, and the West Nile virus on the rise.
In May 2025, the UK Health Security Agency reported the first detection of the West Nile virus within British mosquitoes.
Regardless of potential disease threats, mosquito bites tend to be a common nuisance every summer, with scant scientific evidence to support any immediate concerns.
In the UK, the National Health Service (NHS) has noted an uptick in visits to pages about “insect bites and stings,” indicating a rise in the number of people reporting bites in recent years.
“The warmer weather might encourage mosquito reproduction and activity, leading to more of them being around,” Logan mentions.
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Physical barriers like mosquito nets, window screens, and appropriate clothing can help protect against bites. – Credit: Holly Wilmes
Why do mosquito bites itch?
As the weather heats up, the mosquito population rises—so what makes their bites so bothersome?
It all boils down to the mosquito’s mouthparts, slender and needle-like, designed for sucking.
“Mosquitoes are drawn to your scent, warmth, and moisture. When they alight on you, they insert their mouthparts into your skin,” Logan explains. “The tip of the mouthpart navigates around, seeking a blood vessel, and once it finds one, it feeds from there.”
In the process of feeding, these unwelcome intruders inject saliva into your bloodstream to prevent clotting and numb pain, allowing them to go undetected.
However, the chemicals they inject can trigger an allergic response, resulting in those itchy red welts.
“When bitten by a particular mosquito species for the first time, the reaction is generally mild,” states Logan. “With repeated bites, your body becomes sensitized, and the reactions may become stronger. Continuous exposure can further adapt your immune system.”
Your immune system treats substances like mosquito saliva as threats, prompting white blood cells to produce antibodies. Consequently, your body reacts with redness or swelling during subsequent encounters.
This process is known as sensitization, akin to how allergies develop. Fortunately, regular exposure—termed desensitization—can reduce your response over time.
In seasonal regions, the intermittent summer exposure to mosquitoes means our bodies take longer to acclimatize.
How to keep mosquitoes at bay
Now that we’ve identified the problem, how can we prevent mosquito bites? While closing windows and donning long clothing are effective strategies, they may not be appealing during hot summer days.
You might consider installing insect screens or mosquito nets in your sleeping areas.
“Removing breeding grounds is also crucial,” Logan advises, as mosquitoes thrive in stagnant water—anything deeper than a bottle cap can serve as ideal breeding conditions. Ensure to cover water sources such as flowerpots, buckets, and bird baths, and eliminate any trash or recyclables that might gather water.
In addition, wearing insect repellents is advisable. Logan praises DEET (N,N-diethyl-M-toluamide) as “one of the best repellents available,” affirming its safety when applied according to product instructions.
If you prefer a natural alternative, consider using Lemon Eucalyptus oil, noted also as OLE or PMD. Other options include IR3535 and picaridin.
Some essential oils have shown promise; a 2023 study found that clove, cinnamon, and geraniol oils can be effective.
Despite this, Logan cautions, “reliance solely on natural solutions may not be sufficient.”
If you’re willing to invest further, consider “impregnated” clothing—this doesn’t refer to anything sensational but involves fabric treated with insect repellents or insecticides, typically permethrin.
“We also have plug-in devices that distribute pesticides throughout our homes,” Logan adds, “which can eliminate pests like spiders and flies that venture inside.”
Since mosquitoes are attracted to our body odor, changing our scent can deter them – Credit: Jaromir via Jetty
What to do if bitten
If you’ve already fallen victim to a mosquito bite, here are some tips to manage the situation.
“The first rule is not to scratch,” Logan advises, acknowledging the challenge. “Scratching only risks infection.”
In severe cases, mosquito bites could lead to serious infections, sepsis, or even limb amputation, Logan warns.
If a bite is particularly bothersome, you may consider over-the-counter antihistamines or hydrocortisone creams, although their effectiveness can vary.
“They may work wonders for some, while others experience little relief,” he notes. “Antihistamine creams need to be applied immediately after being bitten due to the rapid production of histamine.”
“Unfortunately, many people delay addressing the bite, making timely intervention essential.”
In summary, Logan emphasizes:
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Professor James Logan serves as the Director and Head of Disease Management at the London School of Hygiene (LSHTM). He is associated with Arctech, a spinout from LSHTM. His research focuses on using sensors, insects, and other wildlife as biosensors for disease diagnostics and developing nature-inspired tools for disease surveillance. His team was the first to identify the connection between body odor and malaria infection.
Recent findings from researchers at Ruhr-University Bochum, Ankara University at Prince Edward Island, and Bari Aldo Moro University reveal that two-thirds of domestic cats (Felis Catus) tend to sleep on their left side. This orientation provides them with a left field of vision, allowing the right hemisphere of their brain to have an unobstructed view of impending approach, while protecting their body.
Isparta et al. We propose that the significant left-side preference in cat sleep may have evolved alongside hemispheric asymmetry related to threat assessment. Image credits: Noah Dustin von Weissenfrue / Gleb Kuzmenko / Isparta et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.04.043.
“Sleep represents one of the most vulnerable states for animals, particularly during deep sleep when vigilance to threats is notably diminished.”
“Domestic cats act as both predators and prey (to animals like coyotes), averaging 12-16 hours of sleep per day.”
“This implies they spend around 60-65% of their lives in highly susceptible states.”
“To minimize the risk of becoming prey, cats tend to rest in elevated locations, where they can better see approaching threats while remaining concealed.”
“In such elevated spots, predators can typically only approach from below.”
“Thus, resting at height affords cats a sense of safety, comfort, and a vantage point to observe their surroundings.”
The authors of this study examined 408 publicly available YouTube videos featuring individual cats lying on their sides in clear sleep positions, ensuring unbroken sleep durations of at least 10 seconds with full visibility from head to tail.
Only original, unedited videos were considered; those that were low resolution, obscured, duplicated, or altered (such as mirror images or selfies) were excluded.
The findings showed that 266 cats (65.1%) exhibited left-oriented sleep positions, while 142 demonstrated a significant left-sided bias as a population, compared to the 34.8% that slept on their right side.
“A cat that sleeps on its left side gains awareness of its environment upon waking with a left field of vision processed by the right hemisphere,” explained the researchers.
“This hemisphere is critical for spatial awareness, handling threats, and coordinating quick escape responses.”
“When a cat awakens after sleeping on its left side, visual cues regarding predators or prey are relayed directly to the right hemisphere of the brain.
“This suggests that favoring the left side while sleeping might be a strategic survival behavior.”
The Vera C. Rubin Observatory is a groundbreaking scientific facility, funded collaboratively by the NSF and the US DOE Scientific Bureau. Explore new images showcasing a glimpse of the observatory’s decade-long mission to unravel some of the universe’s greatest enigmas.
This composite image integrates 678 individual photos captured by the NSF-DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory over a span of just over 7 hours, showcasing the Trifid (top right) and Lagoon Nebulae. Image credits: Rubinobs/Noirlab/SLAC/NSF/DOE/AURA.
The Vera C. Rubin Observatory is named in tribute to the renowned American astronomer Vera C. Rubin, who provided crucial evidence for the existence of elusive dark matter.
Investigating the characteristics of dark matter, dark energy, and other monumental cosmic phenomena is central to the observatory’s mission.
Located atop Cerro Pachón in Chile, the observatory benefits from an optimal environment with dry air and exceptionally dark skies, making it one of the world’s premier observation sites.
Equipped with an 8.4-meter telescope that houses the largest digital camera ever constructed, the facility is supported by a robust data processing system.
In the latter half of 2025, the observation deck will embark on its primary mission: a legacy study of space and time. Each night, we will systematically scan the sky, capturing every observable change.
This approach yields a detailed time-lapse record of the cosmos at ultra-high resolution.
It brings the heavens alive, revealing immense possibilities for billions of scientific discoveries.
The imagery uncovers asteroids and comets, pulsating stars, supernovae, distant galaxies, and cosmic events that have never before been documented.
“The Vera C. Rubin Observatory illustrates the United States’ commitment to leading international basic science, showcasing remarkable achievements that arise when different facets of national research collaborate,” stated an expert.
“This observatory represents an investment in our future, laying the groundwork for the knowledge that today’s youth will cultivate tomorrow.”
“The Vera C. Rubin Observatory records more data about space than all optical telescopes in history combined,” commented Dr. Brian Stone, acting NSF Director.
“Through this exceptional scientific facility, we are investigating many of the universe’s mysteries, including the enigmatic dark matter and dark energy that fill our cosmos.”
“We are entering a golden era of American science,” remarked Dr. Harriet Kang, acting director of the DOE’s Department of Science.
“The Rubin Observatory symbolizes what can be accomplished when the federal government endorses a tool that leads world-class engineers and scientists.”
“This facility will propel discovery, inspire future innovators, and unleash America’s scientific excellence.”
The Rubin Observatory is also the most efficient solar system discovery tool ever created.
It captures approximately 1,000 images of the southern hemisphere sky each night, enabling a complete survey of the visible southern sky every three to four nights.
This capability will assist millions in detecting hidden asteroids, comets, and interstellar objects.
The observatory represents a paradigm shift in planetary defense, helping to identify potential threats to Earth or the Moon.
“The unveiling of the first images from the observatory heralds a new era in astrophysics,” remarked Dr. Patrick McCarthy, director of NSF’s NOIRLab.
“We congratulate the Rubin Observatory team on this monumental accomplishment and anticipate the initiation of a legacy study of space and time that may transform our comprehension of the universe.”
Yellow spotted tropical night lizard (Lepidophyma flavimaculatum)
Dante Fenolio/Science Photo Library
A unique and elusive group of lizards remains today, recognized as the only terrestrial vertebrates to withstand the catastrophic Chicxulub asteroid impact, which likely resulted in the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs.
The Xantusiid Night lizard is known as an ancient lineage, surviving for tens of millions of years. However, Chase Brownstein from Yale University and his team proposed that this lineage might have originated earlier than previously estimated.
The end of the Cretaceous period was marked by a colossal asteroid strike near the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico, creating craters wider than 150 kilometers and leading to the extinction of most animal and plant species globally.
Today, the night lizard—despite its name, not actually nocturnal—continues to inhabit Cuba, Central America, and the southwest region of the United States.
Brownstein and his researchers utilized previously published DNA sequencing data from Xantusiids to construct evolutionary trees for these groups. They integrated findings from skeletal anatomy of current species and fossil records, allowing them to estimate the lineage’s age and the quantity of offspring produced by the ancestral night lizard.
The team identified a shared ancestor that lived deep within the Cretaceous period, dating back over 93 million years, likely producing only one or two clutches of offspring.
“It’s highly probable that these ancient populations were situated close to the impact site, much like their modern counterparts,” remarks Brownstein. “It’s as though the distribution of Xantusiid lizards encircles the impact zones.”
According to fossil records, Brownstein argues that it is improbable for ancient night lizards to have simply returned to the affected areas later.
“Our reconstructions suggest that the common ancestors of living species most likely originated in North America, as the fossil evidence of Xantusiids is relatively continuous on both sides of the boundary layer,” he adds.
Numerous night lizard species inhabit rock crevices and possess a slow metabolism akin to other survivors of mass extinction, like turtles and crocodiles. “This likely enabled them to endure the aftermath of the impact,” states Brownstein.
Nathan Law from the University of Sydney expresses amazement at their survival. “These lizards resided near the asteroid’s impact site; despite the asteroid’s devastating effects within hundreds of kilometers, they managed to survive.”
Remarkably, they achieved this despite lacking many common characteristics typically associated with mass extinction survivors. “Species that endure these extinction events tend to be small, reproduce rapidly, and have extensive geographical ranges,” explains Law. “Conversely, these lizards generally have slower reproduction rates and appear to cover a minimal range.”
Paracetamol, also known as acetaminophen, is a pain reliever traditionally produced from a diminished supply of fossil fuels, such as crude oil. Every year, thousands of tons of fossil fuels, alongside numerous drugs and chemicals, are utilized to transport painkillers to manufacturing facilities. Professor Stephen Wallace from the University of Edinburgh and his team discovered that E. coli bacteria can transform molecules derived from waste plastic bottles into paracetamol.
Johnson et al. Reporting the reorganization of phosphate-catalyzed loss of biocompatibility in bacteria E. coli Activated acylhydroxamate is transformed into primary amine-containing metabolites in living cells. Image credit: Johnson et al. , doi: 10.1038/s41557-025-01845-5.
The issue of plastic waste is increasingly pressing, making the quest for sustainable plastic upcycling solutions a priority.
Metabolic engineering combines organic chemistry with the exploitation of biological cell chemical reaction networks to create new small molecules.
However, it remains uncertain whether these reactions can be effectively combined to convert plastics into useful products.
“Our research indicates that polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic is not merely waste, but can be converted by microorganisms into valuable new products with potential applications in disease treatment,” stated Professor Wallace.
In their study, Professor Wallace and co-authors found that a specific type of chemical reaction, known as loss rearrangement, occurs within living cells and is catalyzed by internal phosphates in E. coli.
This reaction produces nitrogen-containing organic compounds that are vital for cellular metabolism.
The researchers demonstrated that chemical processes can decompose PET plastic to yield starting molecules for further reactions, allowing cellular metabolism to regenerate these plastic-derived molecules.
Additionally, they discovered that this plastic-derived compound can serve as a precursor for paracetamol production in E. coli, achieving a yield of 92%.
This finding may mark the first instance of paracetamol synthesized from E. coli waste materials.
Future research will focus on exploring how other bacteria and types of plastics can yield beneficial products.
“Thus, biocompatible chemistry should be viewed as a complement to early enzyme design research and non-biological chemistry engineering, integrating collaboratively as a tool for biological cells to enhance potential synthetic chemistry within biological systems,” the scientists noted.
The team’s study was published in the journal Nature Chemistry on June 23, 2025.
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NW Johnson et al. Relocation of loss of biocompatibility in E. coli. Nat. Chem. Published online on June 23, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41557-025-01845-5
Medical advances have changed childbirth – potentially enough to affect human evolution
Fatcamera/Getty Images
Research involving over 8,000 participants across three nations indicates that women’s pelvises have become narrower over the last 150 years. While several factors contribute to this change, it offers fresh insights that could prompt researchers to reevaluate the so-called “obstetric dilemma,” which pertains to the evolutionary constraints surrounding pelvic size.
The exact drivers of this change and its implications for health remain unclear. Nonetheless, a continued reduction in pelvic size could heighten the likelihood of requiring cesarean sections.
Maciej Henneberg, from the University of Adelaide, Australia, and his team revisited an existing dataset featuring 1,247 Australian women born from 1900 to 1984. They discovered that pelvic width decreased by 0.42 mm annually. In Poland, the pelvic width of 3,486 women reduced by 0.47 mm each year from 1880 to 1970, while in a sample of 320 Mexican women, the decline was 0.42 mm annually from 1900 to 1970.
“I find this compelling, considering that these regions, despite differences in height, show similar evolutionary trends,” remarks Philip Mitter Ecker from the University of Vienna, Austria.
“The dataset is impressive,” adds Leah Betty from University College London.
Henneberg posits that these findings suggest modern medical practices diminish the effects of natural selection on human pelvises. Historically, a baby too large or a birth canal too narrow often resulted in fatal outcomes for both mother and child. However, the introduction of safe, effective cesarean sections has lessened this evolutionary pressure, potentially leading to further narrowing of the birth canal and pelvis.
Mitteroecker agrees that cesarean sections are influencing the evolutionary forces at play in human birth anatomy. He predicts this trend may result in even narrower pelvises, as highlighted in his 2016 analysis, stating it represents the latest chapter in a long-standing narrative.
“Midwifery has ancient roots, uniquely human,” he explains. For thousands of years, women have supported each other during childbirth. This cultural tradition has mitigated selection pressures on the pelvis and birth canal, demonstrating how our actions influence our biological evolution. “In a way, cesarean sections are an extreme manifestation of this,” Mitteroecker concludes.
However, Betty remains skeptical that cesarean sections are the primary cause of the recent changes in pelvic width. She highlights that humans have also experienced increased height during the same period, likely due to improved nutrition and healthcare rather than evolutionary gene alterations.
“Diet plays a significant role in determining pelvic structure,” Betty notes. When undernourished, developing bodies prioritize certain organs, particularly the brain, over others. With adequate nutrition now available, bodies may be reallocating resources, leading to variances in proportions. “Different body proportions are certainly a possibility,” she observes.
Understanding the factors behind these changes is crucial for comprehending the challenges of human childbirth. However, the nature of this dilemma is still debated. In a 2024 study, Mitter Ecker and colleagues suggested that pelvic floor mechanics could be a significant contributor to narrowing, potentially heightening pressure on the pelvic floor and elevating the risk of incontinence.
It’s also feasible that both factors are at play. An April study involving 31,000 participants associated wider pelvises with easier childbirth, yet identified slower walking speeds and increased risk of pelvic floor conditions.
The implications of this dilemma extend beyond childbirth. Betty notes that competitive sports during childhood may also influence pelvic size, emphasizing that various environmental factors, including temperature, can affect the pelvis. Other studies tie the evolving obstetric dilemma to rising obesity rates, which may result in larger babies. Ultimately, a combination of these factors likely explains the observed changes, prompting researchers to classify the issue as a “multifactorial pelvis” challenge.
A narrower pelvis poses health implications, complicating vaginal births and potentially increasing the need for cesarean deliveries. “Nobody knows how long it will take to reach a point where natural childbirth ceases to exist,” remarks Renata Henneberg, one of the researchers on this new study and Maciej Henneberg’s wife.
Conversely, a narrower pelvis may reduce the incidence of pelvic floor issues, which can be quite severe. Childbirth can have long-lasting, detrimental effects on women’s lives,” Betty cautions.
Predicting future trends is complex, given the multitude of interacting factors. While fewer children may lead to decreased injury risks, later childbirth may counteract this. “Many changes are occurring simultaneously,” she reflects.
Bolivian archaeologists have unearthed an ancient complex located approximately 215 km (130 miles) southeast of the historic Tiwanak site. This large modular structure, featuring integrated sunken courtyards, bears a striking resemblance to the terraced temples of Tiwanak, indicating significant national investment.
Isometric reconstruction of the Paraspata temple rendered with a 3 m high wall. Image credits: Capriles et al., doi: 10.15184/aqy.2025.59.
The ancient society near the southern shore of Lake Titicaca was once among the most influential civilizations in Bolivia.
Known as Tiwanak, this society is regarded by archaeologists as one of the earliest instances of Andean civilization and a precursor to the Inca Empire, yet it mysteriously vanished around a millennium ago.
“Much remains enigmatic about the Tiwanak civilization,” remarked Pennsylvania archaeologist Jose Capriles.
“Their society disintegrated around 1000 AD, long before the Incas seized control of the Andes in the 15th century.”
“At its zenith, Tiwanak showcased a well-organized social structure, leaving behind architectural remnants like pyramids, terraced temples, and monoliths. While most of these artefacts are found around Lake Titicaca, Tiwanak’s influence extended much farther, though the exact boundaries of its control remain debated.”
“The newly uncovered temple complex is situated about 215 km south of the historically recognized Tiwanak site, known to local indigenous farmers but inadequately studied by researchers due to its unassuming setting.”
“However, the site’s location is quite strategic.”
During the Tiwanaku period, it linked three major trade routes across diverse ecosystems, with the fertile highlands around Lake Titicaca to the north.
This has led researchers to conclude that the site must have been significant in connecting communities.
“People traveled, traded, and erected monuments at pivotal points across the arid mountainous terrain,” Dr. Capriles said.
“Upon discovering an unmapped rectangular area, we employed various techniques to visualize the region.”
“The function of the site was unclear, so I integrated different satellite images.”
“We also carried out a series of UAV missions to capture high-resolution images.”
“Using photogrammetry—a method that constructs 3D models from photographs—we achieved a more detailed visualization of the structure and its surrounding landscape.”
Stone alignments identified an ancient temple named Palaspata, derived from the local terminology.
This temple complex spans roughly 125 m in length and 145 m in width, featuring 15 rectangular enclosures surrounding a central courtyard.
The layout seems to align with rituals that coincide with the sun’s zenith, particularly when it is directly above the equator.
Paraspata Temple. Image credits: Capriles et al., doi: 10.15184/aqy.2025.59.
Using the information gathered, researchers created reconstructions to visualize what the ancient Palaspata temple may have looked like.
The temple’s surface contained numerous fragments of Kelcups, which were used for consuming chicha, a traditional corn beer, during agricultural festivals and ceremonies, suggesting the temple was a key trade hub.
This highlights that corn was cultivated in the Cochabamba valley, indicating the temple’s role in facilitating connections among various culinary traditions on its elevated grounds, thereby enhancing access to an assortment of products.
“The temple likely served a spiritual function, as evidenced by the interconnections that managed trade and harvest distribution within designated ritual spaces,” noted Dr. Capriles.
“Most economic and political dealings were likely mediated through divinity, since this was a common framework for fostering cooperation among disparate individuals, as religion often serves as a unifying force among different groups.”
“The discovery was a revelation, even for local inhabitants,” commented Jas Ventura Guaralo, the mayor of Caracoro, where the site is located.
“The archaeological findings at Palaspata are vital as they unearth significant aspects of local heritage that have been largely ignored.”
“This discovery is crucial for our community, and we regard its documentation as invaluable for boosting tourism and showcasing the region’s rich history.”
The team’s paper was published today in the journal Ancient.
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Jose M. Capriles et al. 2025. Gateway to the East: Palaspata Temple and the southeast expansion of Tiwanak. Ancient 99 (405): 831-849; doi: 10.15184/aqy.2025.59
Members of the genus Metatherian Swaindelphys were previously identified in the Swain Quarry in southern Wyoming and the Nasimiento Formation in the San Juan Basin, New Mexico, and are now also found in the Black Peaks Formation in West Texas.
Reconstructing the life of Swaindelphys. Image credit: Kristen Tietjen.
The newly identified species thrived in Texas during the Ale-Nocene period, around 60 million years ago.
It has been designated Swaindelphys Solastella; these animals were significantly larger than related species, yet still about the size of a modern hedgehog.
It belonged to Metatherian, a group encompassing living marsupials and their extinct relatives.
“We’ve dedicated a lot of effort to uncovering this world,” remarked Kristen Miller, a doctoral student at the University of Kansas.
Fossil remains of Swaindelphys Solastella were uncovered in the Black Peak Formation within Big Bend National Park, West Texas.
“The earliest fossil mammals from the Big Bend during the Ale Holocene epoch were initially documented decades ago,” stated Professor Chris Beard of the University of Kansas.
“However, our mission is to uncover some of the smaller, more elusive fossil mammals that inhabited Big Bend during that era.”
“The new fossil we are describing holds significance as it represents the largest marsupial ever identified from the Ale Holocene in North America, in terms of body size.”
“This isn’t surprising considering that everything tends to be larger in Texas.”
The distribution patterns of Swaindelphys may provide insights into the natural features and barriers that limited the geographical spread of species during this time, including early primates.
“During the Ale New Century, the climate would have been warmer, likely leaning towards tropical,” Miller explained.
“Instead of the desert landscape seen today, there would have been more vegetation, possibly alongside numerous rivers and streams.”
“These fossils are found in what are referred to as river sediments, stemming from ancient river systems.”
The discovery of Swaindelphys Solastella is detailed in a paper released this month in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
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Kristen Miller et al. Implications of biogeographical and biostratigraphic novel species. Swaindelphys (Mammals, Metatheria) from the Black Peaks Formation, Big Bend National Park, Texas. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, published online on June 17th, 2025. doi:10.1080/02724634.2025.2500501
In Paterson, New Jersey, over 100 individuals required medical attention during two outdoor graduation ceremonies on Monday, as the heat index soared to 107 degrees. That evening, Mayor Andre Seig declared a state of emergency, leading to the cancellation of all recreational activities due to the extreme heat.
Monday saw record high temperatures exceeding 60 degrees nationwide, with predictions extending from the southeast up to New England throughout the week.
Preliminary daily records were established on Tuesday in New York City (99 degrees), Philadelphia (for the first time since 2012), and Raleigh, North Carolina (100 degrees).
New monthly records for June were set in Boston (101 degrees) and Providence, Rhode Island (100 degrees), while Newark recorded a staggering June high of 103 degrees.
The National Weather Service indicates that the oppressive heat conditions are likely to persist through the evening.
These elevated temperatures are attributed to high-pressure ridges, which are currently parked over the eastern United States. Known as thermal domes, these systems effectively trap heat in the region, leading to prolonged periods of elevated temperatures.
While some relief may arrive towards the weekend, heat and humidity levels are expected to remain elevated over the coming days.
“The most severe cumulative heat impacts are expected on Friday across the eastern Ohio valleys stretching from the Mid-Atlantic to Thursday, resulting in multi-day oppressive heat,” stated the Weather Service.
All individuals are at risk for heat-related illnesses and fatalities, but the excessive heat and humidity—especially over several days—pose a particular risk to children, those with pre-existing health conditions, the elderly, and outdoor workers. These health concerns are increasingly pressing as climate change leads to more frequent, intense, and lasting heat events.
While the eastern U.S. battles the heat dome, a severe storm system could impact parts of Wyoming, Colorado, South Dakota, and Nebraska. Additionally, heavy rainfall and flooding are likely for much of New Mexico and southwestern Texas.
Leonardo da Vinci’s concept for a flying device might have outperformed today’s drones in terms of functionality and noise reduction.
Rajat Mittal, a researcher at Johns Hopkins University in Maryland, along with his team, found that Da Vinci’s “air screws”—which were never actually constructed or tested during his time as a military engineer in 1480—could potentially require less power to achieve the same lift as conventional drone rotors.
The device closely resembles an Archimedes screw, a helical pump that lifts water as it rotates. Although Da Vinci envisioned it being powered by human effort, employing a lightweight electric motor could have enabled it to actually achieve flight.
Mittal’s team created a simulation of the air screw, testing it in a virtual wind tunnel across various rotational speeds and comparing it with traditional drone rotors, including a two-blade variant.
They discovered that the air screws can maintain the same lift while rotating at a slower speed, indicating reduced power consumption.
By measuring the pressure and wind flow around the virtual screw, the team also estimated its potential output.
“I was taken aback,” Mittal remarked. “We initially believed that the spiral screw’s shape would yield terrible aerodynamic performance, but it turns out it might surpass traditional blades.”
Mittal and his team aim to investigate ways to optimize Da Vinci’s design for improved efficiency without sacrificing its distinguishable noise-reducing properties.
As drones become more prevalent in urban settings for deliveries and emergency services, the challenge of noise pollution has prompted researchers to explore alternative rotor designs that generate less noise for similar lift outputs.
“An author can produce the same thrust with a slower rotation, which is exactly what Da Vinci’s design achieves. This will indeed contribute to quieter operations,” noted Cheryl Grace from Boston University, Massachusetts. “It’s not necessary for it to strictly follow Da Vinci’s blueprint, but it’s fantastic that his concept aligns with this idea.”
However, to validate the practicality of Da Vinci’s design in real-world applications, testing its performance during flight—rather than just hovering—and evaluating the impact of rotor weight on its efficiency is crucial, Grace added.
Renaissance science: Italy
Explore the brilliant scientific minds and discoveries of the Renaissance that have positioned Italy as a leader in scientific advancement.
The term “thinking” might evoke memories of certain self-help literature that lacks scientific basis. Yet, emerging studies indicate that our cognitive patterns can significantly shape our lives through their effects on our thoughts, motivation, and behaviors.
This article is part of a special feature that explores how experts perceive some of the most unexpected scientific ideas. Click here for more information.
“We perceive thinking as a belief system regarding how the world operates, which includes our thoughts about ourselves and our surroundings,” states David Jager from the University of Texas at Austin.
Initially popularized by Carol Dweck at Stanford University, this concept emerged from her interest in how beliefs about intelligence affect academic performance.
Some individuals strongly agree with statements in psychological surveys, such as “Your intelligence is fundamentally fixed and does not change significantly.” Such individuals are characterized as having a “fixed mindset.” Conversely, those who resonate more with statements like, “Your intelligence can change significantly throughout your life,” are viewed as having a “growth mindset.”
Dweck’s research demonstrated that individuals with a growth mindset are more likely to persevere after setbacks and embrace challenges beyond their comfort zones.
Crucially, Dweck and her team found that mindset is flexible. For instance, educating individuals about the brain’s inherent plasticity can foster a growth mindset, as shown in this research. Although some replication attempts showed mixed results, the overall effect seems to hold up under varying contexts.
“Interventions are typically more effective when educators cultivate a growth mindset within a nurturing school culture,” Jager explains. I have led several studies in this area.
Building on Dweck’s groundwork, psychologists are uncovering various concepts that could positively influence our well-being and success. At Stanford, Aria Crum has been researching “mindsets regarding stress.” Those who perceive stress as energizing are often better equipped to handle life’s demands compared to those who view stress as debilitating.
Crum likens our mindset to a “lens” that influences our worldview; recent studies indicate that these lenses may have long-term health implications. For instance, research on first responders has shown that individuals who interpret stress as beneficial possess a lower risk of heart disease, regardless of their overall stress levels.
Integrating growth and stress-affirming mindsets can amplify the benefits of both. In a series of studies released in 2022, Yeager revealed that teaching students a “synergistic mindset” improved both mental health and academic achievement. “These two perspectives complement each other,” Jager notes. “They shape your beliefs.”
However, it’s crucial to understand that mindset research is sometimes misinterpreted. The researchers do not advocate the notion that positive thinking can yield miraculous outcomes. “To clarify, the growth mindset does not suggest that someone with the right mindset and education can become an Einstein or Beethoven,” Dweck writes in her book, Thinking: The New Psychology of Success, “rather, it implies that an individual’s true potential is unknown and not fixed.”
Fostering a growth mindset shouldn’t merely be about offering constant praise for every effort. It often requires establishing high expectations. “This may involve difficult conversations, but it’s also about guiding someone to meet those standards,” asserts Jager. “It can be challenging.”
Thus, unlike self-help advocates, a positive mindset won’t promise instant wealth. However, it prepares us to exert the effort needed to reach our aspirations and navigate the emotional hurdles along the journey.
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Metaphysics often faces undue criticism. “Many people consider it a waste of time,” states philosopher Stephen Mumford from Durham University, UK, and author of Metaphysics: A Very Short Introduction. “Are they simply arguing over trivial matters, like how many angels can dance on the head of a pin?”
This viewpoint is understandable. Classical metaphysics—originating from the Greek term “meta”—has often grappled with peculiar questions. For instance, what constitutes a table? What shape does color assume? We utilize logical tools like “reductio ad absurdum” to derive conclusions solely from inference. This method seeks to demonstrate the validity of a claim by highlighting absurdities within its negation, quite different from the empirical observations that characterize scientific inquiry.
This article is part of our concept special, exploring how experts view some of the most intriguing scientific ideas. Click here for more information.
Nonetheless, the notion that metaphysics is merely an abstract discipline disconnected from reality is rebutted by Mumford:
Indeed, modern science has encroached upon areas once deemed exclusive to metaphysics, including the nature of consciousness and the implications of quantum mechanics. It’s becoming increasingly evident that both domains are interconnected.
To understand this interplay, one must recognize that everyone inherently possesses metaphysical beliefs, asserts Vanessa Seyfert, a philosopher of science at the University of Bristol, England. For instance, many believe in the existence of objects even when they are not being observed, despite the absence of robust empirical evidence to support this claim.
Moreover, “naturalized metaphysics” emerges from this discussion. Unlike traditional metaphysics, which remains speculative, this version is grounded in scientific understanding, according to Seyfert. “We observe what science reveals about our universe and consider whether we can accept it as literal truth.”
This contemporary metaphysics serves a crucial role for science, as it probes the foundational assumptions behind our understanding of the universe. “In many instances, metaphysical beliefs form the basis upon which empirical knowledge is constructed,” explains Mumford.
Causality—the principle that every effect has a cause—is a prime example. Despite the fact that causality itself is not directly observable, it is a belief we universally hold. “Essentially, the entirety of science operates on this metaphysical premise of causality,” he remarks.
These days, scientists routinely engage with deeply metaphysical concepts, ranging from chemical elements to space and time, as well as the very laws of nature, thereby intensifying the scrutiny of these ideas.
“We can critically evaluate our metaphysical assumptions or choose to overlook them for their validity,” says Mumford. “However, ignoring them means we make unexamined assumptions.”
One notable intersection of science and metaphysics exists in quantum mechanics, which delves into the atomic and subatomic realm. While it stands as a highly successful scientific framework, addressing its implications requires physicists to confront metaphysical queries, such as the interpretation of quantum superpositions.
In this realm, competing interpretations of reality exist without being testable through conventional experiments. It’s increasingly clear that scientific advancement hinges on confronting these hidden assumptions. In response, some researchers are revitalizing the notion of “experimental metaphysics,” aiming to assess the consistency of metaphysical beliefs that prioritize various interpretations of quantum theory.
“Ultimately, you cannot engage in physics without also grappling with metaphysical inquiries,” states Eric Cavalcanti, a prominent proponent of this perspective at Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia. “Both aspects must be addressed simultaneously.”
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Climate change might be even more severe than previously estimated
kapook2981/getty images
The Earth’s climate appears to be more responsive to the pollution caused by greenhouse gases than previously assumed, making it harder to keep global temperature increases below 2°C.
This is concerning news for global efforts to combat climate change, according to Gunnar Myhre from Cicero International Climate Research Centre in Norway.
Researchers have long been aware that releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere can lead to climate warming with widespread consequences. However, the extent of potential warming due to these emissions remains uncertain. Specifically, how sensitive is the Earth’s climate to this pollution?
The primary uncertainty arises from how clouds react to warming atmospheres, as shifts in cloud systems could exacerbate warming through feedback loops.
Most predictions regarding warming by the century’s end are derived from climate models that incorporate various sensitivity assumptions. The model utilized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change indicates that if atmospheric concentrations double compared to pre-industrial levels, warming could range between 2°C and 5°C, prompting organizations to adopt a median estimate of 3°C.
Myhre and his team sought to align climate model predictions with satellite data showing the Earth’s energy imbalance—a measure of excess heat within our climate system, reflecting its sensitivity levels.
They discovered that less sensitive climate models, which suggest that the Earth’s climate is more resistant to greenhouse gas emissions, did not align with satellite data collected since the turn of the millennium. According to Myhre, models asserting that the Earth’s climate is less resistant to these gases are “more common.” He added, “Models predicting minimal warming are increasingly rare.”
The findings challenge the reliability of climate models forecasting warming below 2.9°C with doubled greenhouse gas concentrations. Instead, the data imply that warming beyond this threshold is more probable for the same level of pollution.
This has been corroborated by recent record-high temperatures observed both on land and in the sea since 2023, described as “strong climate feedback” in the atmosphere by Myhre.
A more sensitive climate necessitates a quicker reduction in emissions to maintain the same temperature trajectory. In essence, the world must accelerate decarbonization efforts to meet its climate commitments.
Johannes Kuas from the University of Leipzig in Germany argues that the study presents a “very plausible contention” that the Earth is indeed more sensitive to global warming than some models suggest, stating it “reduces the margin” for model estimations that scientists should follow. “It highlights the urgent need for political action against climate change,” he emphasized.
Richard Allen from the University of Reading in the UK notes that “natural climate change” could also be part of the narrative, by pointing out that satellite records date back only to 2001. Nevertheless, he describes the study as “rigorous” and adds, “there is further evidence that simulations predicting less warming are increasingly unrealistic in the long-term.”
The lines of galaxies that emerged after the collision of the two dwarf galaxies, which tore gases from one another.
Keim et al./Decals
A curious dwarf galaxy may have originated from a bullet-like collision in the universe.
Michael Keim from Yale University and his team employed the Keck Observatory in Hawaii to examine the distinctive trails of 12 small dwarf galaxies located approximately 75 million light-years from the Milky Way.
The orientation and velocity of the galaxies indicate that they resulted from a head-on impact between two galaxies known as NGC 1052-DF2 and NGC 1052-DF4. This collision expelled gas, which eventually coalesced into a group of stars due to gravitational attraction.
“They’re exceptionally unique,” states Kayme. “This is the only known system of its kind.”
Keim and his colleagues named this system after a similar cluster of large galaxies referred to as Bullet Clusters.
It is believed that the two galaxies collided at a speed of 350 kilometers per second around 9 billion years ago. As they passed through one another, gas was stripped from each galaxy. “While it’s improbable for two stars to collide,” notes Kayme, “the same does not apply to gas clouds.”
Interestingly, the remnants of stars left after the collision appear to lack dark matter. This is quite unusual, as most galaxies contain a substantial amount of dark matter, often comprising over 90% of their total mass.
Keim and his team theorize that this anomaly may stem from dark matter’s inability to interact with regular matter during the gas stripping process or because it remained unaffected by the interaction.
This finding may challenge alternative theories regarding dark matter, which posit that discrepancies in stellar and galactic behavior stem from gravitational effects rather than the existence of dark matter particles. “This suggests that dark matter is indeed a particle that can be separated from a galaxy,” explains Kayme.
While we acknowledge that reducing greenhouse gas emissions offers a sustainable and long-term solution to climate change, we continue to see rising emissions. As some exacerbate climate challenges, others are exploring options that were once beyond the scope of mainstream discussion.
This article is part of our special issue, showcasing how experts evaluate some of the more unexpected concepts in science. Click here for additional details
The term “geoengineering” broadly refers to human interventions in climate systems aimed at maintaining ecosystems and cooling the planet. Yet, the definition of geoengineering remains elusive; it can encompass endeavors from reforestation to the deployment of massive underwater curtains to support ice sheets.
Some geoengineering concepts spark more debate than others. Large-scale reforestation, when executed properly, is generally seen as a positive climate action. However, more radical ideas—like altering sunlight’s interaction with the Earth’s atmosphere—invoke heightened concerns.
“The risk-return dynamics vary significantly,” states Janice Lachance of the non-profit American Geophysical Union (AGU), which has recently introduced an “Ethical Framework” for scientists in this field. She elaborates, “Planting trees in a park is relatively straightforward and widely accepted. However, when we delve into novel technologies and methodologies, the situation rapidly shifts.”
Take, for example, the concept of solar radiation management (SRM), which proposes reflecting additional sunlight back into space to cool the planet. This can be approached in three fundamental ways (illustrated in the graphics below). Although early modeling suggests that SRM could yield cooling effects within just a few years of implementation, it may also disrupt rainfall patterns and cloud formation.
SRM has historically been a contentious area of research, but as temperatures climb and climate impacts intensify, it has garnered attention from scientists, policymakers, and philanthropists alike.
While some activists argue against this line of research, fearing it diverts focus from the urgency of rapid emission reductions, Andy Parker of the Degree Initiative—a nonprofit concentrating on SRM—cautions that merely reducing emissions may no longer suffice for humanity to tackle climate change’s consequences.
“We must explore strategies to manage the risks posed by previously released greenhouse gases,” he asserts. Moreover, without international dialogue on geoengineering, “there’s a heightened risk of individual nations—especially those severely affected by climate change—unilaterally pursuing geoengineering projects.”
In this context, an increasing number of scientists are advocating for geoengineering research. “Some researchers feel they are falling short in meeting the objectives outlined in the Paris Agreement,” notes Lachance. Consequently, the AGU has devised an ethical framework to guide climate intervention research.
The concerns regarding research extend beyond methodologies. Concepts of planetary-scale geoengineering often place developing nations—particularly those near the equator—at greater risk of unforeseen consequences, such as disruptions to monsoon patterns. Yet, the majority of geoengineering research is concentrated in wealthier countries, which have less to lose.
As part of the Degree Initiative, Parker collaborates with researchers from lower-income countries in the Southern Hemisphere to develop SRM research capabilities. He hopes this will ensure that future deployment decisions take into account the populations most affected. “We don’t hold a stance on whether SRM should be utilized or not,” he explains. “What we do want is for developing nations to have informed avenues for their own research.”
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Physicists observe that students often exhibit a “digging expression” when first introduced to quantum superposition, as noted by Marcelo Gleiser. Having taught quantum mechanics for several decades, he notes the consistent surprise among students as they grapple with the complexities of atomic and particle behavior.
This article is part of our special concept series, exploring how experts perceive some of the most astonishing ideas in science. Click here for additional details.
The term “clear” often adds confusion in this field. Since the inception of superposition, its true implications have been debated for centuries. What is universally acknowledged is that this concept challenges our understanding of what constitutes “reality.”
A foundational aspect to grasp is the Schrödinger equation. Formulated by Erwin Schrödinger in the 1920s, it serves as a cornerstone of quantum theory, outlining the probabilities of finding particles in specific states upon measurement. Notably, quantum mechanics focuses on predicting potential outcomes rather than clarifying the exact activities of particles pre-measurement.
The Schrödinger equation articulates all conceivable positions a particle may occupy before measurement, utilizing mathematical constructs known as wave functions. This establishes one mathematical interpretation of superposition, defined as the combination of various potential quantum states.
It is well-established that particles can indeed exist in superposition. For instance, in a double-slit experiment, a solitary photon (a light particle) is directed toward a barrier with two narrow openings. When a detector is active, the photon seems to “choose” one slit and strikes a specific point on the screen. In contrast, without the detector, an “interference pattern” is observed, indicating that the particles act like waves, traversing through both slits simultaneously and interacting with themselves.
However, the true significance of being “in a superposition” remains elusive. Generally, two perspectives exist. Some view wave functions merely as mathematical constructs rather than reflections of reality—this aligns with Gleiser’s stance at Dartmouth University, New Hampshire. He asserts, “In quantum mechanics, we argue that wave functions must constitute a part of physical reality,” asserting that equating mathematical constructs with truth has become almost cult-like.
Gleiser endorses an interpretation known as quantum Bayesianism (or QBism), which posits that the theory addresses our understanding rather than reality itself. Consequently, during quantum state measurements, what shifts is merely our information about reality, not reality itself.
Conversely, some scholars, like Simon Saunders, a philosopher from Oxford University, argue against this view, asserting that wave functions represent an authentic state of existence. He suggests that particles in superposition physically occupy multiple locations simultaneously. “It’s an extended object,” he clarifies. “It’s delocalized.” Within this framework, our experience of particle reality may deviate from actual reality. For example, electrons orbiting atoms appear as a cloud of probability until measured.
Critics of this interpretation often question the fate of alternate possibilities once measurement constrains a particle to a single location. Saunders concedes to the radical notion that this may suggest the existence of a branching infinite multiverse.
Ultimately, a resolution to this question isn’t imminent. Meanwhile, researchers have successfully extended superposition beyond individual particles to larger molecules and even 16-microgram crystals. This suggests that reality is much stranger than it appears.
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Dating back either 12 or 800 years ago, wild wallabies were caught and transported by canoe to nearby islands located dozens of kilometers away.
The Sahuru natives—a group of marsupials from a prehistoric landmass that eventually broke into Australia and New Guinea—likely accompanied human explorers and traders to the islands in Southeast Asia, providing food, decorative fur, and tools made from bones. This animal import is recognized as one of the earliest known instances of animal translocation, with established colonies thriving over millennia, according to Dylan Gaffney at Oxford University.
“This aligns with a broader understanding of how early humans managed, transported, and raised animals more deliberately than previously assumed. They didn’t merely endure in these tropical environments; they actively transformed them,” says Gaffney.
Research pertaining to species translocation typically prioritizes European explorers, who notably introduced invasive rabbits to Australia in the 18th and 19th centuries and reintroduced horses to the Americas in the late 1400s and early 1500s.
However, in the 1990s, two types of marsupial bones were identified—Phalanger Orientalis Breviceps or Phalanger Breviceps, along with Bandicoot bones (Echymipera Kalubu)—from the Eastern Islands of New Guinea, and Brown Forest Wallabies (Dorcopsis Muelleri) found on an island west of Halmahera, roughly 350 km from Sahuru’s ancient shores.
Based on the age of nearby charcoal remains and the sediment layers, research teams estimate that the Wallabies arrived around 8,000 years ago, while other species date back to between 13,000 and 24,000 years ago.
The specifics of how these animals arrived on the islands remain unclear—whether by human transport or natural means. To explore this, Gaffney and his colleagues examined a new archaeological site in Indonesia’s Rajaanpat Islands.
There, thousands-of-years-old skeletons indicate that the colony of brown forest wallabies thrived on the island about 4,000 years ago, though the reasons behind this are still uncertain.
Radiocarbon dating in a cave inland revealed evidence of wallabies being hunted and cooked as far back as 13,000 years ago, further supported by findings from another island to the west that dates back 5,000 years.
The team also uncovered several bone tools utilized in hunting and textile work, suggesting human activity at least 8,500 years ago.
In investigating how these animals arrived on distant islands, the team employed computer modeling that accounted for the sea levels and environmental conditions of that era.
This modeling supports the theory that humans transported the animals via canoes, Gaffney explains. Without human assistance, Wallabies would have struggled to survive the treacherous oceanic journey that could have lasted over 24 hours, relying on vegetation rafts for days to reach the islands. While swimming to nearby islands is conceivable, it’s uncertain whether forest wallabies (modern or ancient) possessed the ability to swim.
In contrast, canoe trips would have taken only a few hours to a couple of days, a timeframe that likely would have been manageable for breeding animals.
These findings underscore a sophisticated understanding of species movement by humans well before the era of European colonial expansion. Tom Matthews, who was not involved in the research and is from the University of Birmingham, UK, states, “We frequently assume that these introductions began within the last 500 years, but the evidence indicates that humans were reshaping their ecosystems long before then.”
Modern atomic energy technologies primarily utilize nuclear fission. In this process, the nuclei of heavy atoms, such as uranium, are bombarded with neutrons, causing them to split apart and release lighter nuclei along with significant energy.
However, a major drawback of fission energy is that the resultant waste is often far more radioactive than the original fuel, with its hazardous nature persisting for extended periods. Moreover, managing the rate of fission reactions is crucial for ensuring safety.
A failure in this context can lead to catastrophic consequences.
An alternative to nuclear fission is fusion energy. In this process, lighter elements, specifically isotopes of hydrogen, merge to form heavier nuclei, releasing substantial energy in the process.
This is the fundamental reaction that powers stars, including our sun.
The byproducts of the fusion reaction are generally safe, primarily producing inert helium, though some mildly radioactive substances are also generated, but they are short-lived. The challenge with fusion energy lies in achieving the conditions required to initiate the reaction.
It necessitates temperatures in the millions of degrees, along with the incorporation of ultra-high-pressure fuel (usually within a magnetic field), which presents significant technical hurdles.
Like any industrial process, there are inherent risks, but the nature of a fusion reactor means that any failure would quickly halt energy production.
As a result, fusion energy “disasters” are considerably less probable than conventional industrial accidents; indeed, they lack the potential for the environmental and ecological crises associated with fission energy meltdowns.
This article responds to the inquiry (made via email by Brandon Harris) regarding “What does a Fusion Energy Disaster look like?”
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The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope captured this image of UGC 11397, the Barred Spiral Galaxy, which houses a rapidly growing, supermassive black hole.
The Hubble image depicts UGC 11397, a barred spiral galaxy, located about 250 million light years away in the constellation Lyra. Image credits: NASA/ESA/Hubble/MJ Koss/AJ Barth.
Also referred to as IRAS 19019+3346, Leda 62725, or TC 872, UGC 11397 is situated in the constellation Lyra and is approximately 250 million light years distant.
The first documented mention of this spiral galaxy appeared in a galaxy catalogue compiled by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky in 1966.
“At first glance, UGC 11397 seems like a typical spiral galaxy,” stated Hubble astronomers.
“It showcases two graceful spiral arms illuminated by stars, framed by dark, dense dust clouds.”
“What sets UGC 11397 apart from a standard spiral is the ultra-massive black hole at its core, which has a mass 174 million times that of the sun,” they noted.
“As the black hole ejects gas, dust, and even entire stars from its vicinity, this material heats up, creating a spectacular cosmic display.”
“Materials engulfed by black holes emit radiation ranging from gamma rays to radio waves, leading them to brighten and dim unexpectedly.”
“Nonetheless, in some galaxies like UGC 11397, thin dust clouds obscure much of this energetic activity from optical light observation.”
“Still, the rapidly growing black hole in UGC 11397 has been identified through its intense X-ray emissions.”
This discovery led astronomers to categorize it as a Type 2 Seyfert Galaxy, a classification for active galaxies whose central cores are obscured by dust and gas formations.
“Utilizing Hubble, we will examine hundreds of galaxies that host ultra-massive black holes similar to UGC 11397,” the researchers stated.
“Hubble’s observations aid us in measuring nearby supermassive black holes, understand their growth early in the universe’s history, and explore star formation in extreme conditions at the galaxy’s center.”
A collaborative team of physicists from Germany, Finland, India, and Japan has identified a new isotope of the synthetic element Seaborgium.
Mossat et al. Report on the discovery of the new isotope Seaborgium-257. Image credit: P. Mossat, GSI/Fair.
Seaborgium is a synthetic chemical element with the symbol SG and atomic number 106.
This element was first synthesized in 1974, and currently, there are 14 known isotopes. The most stable isotope, Seaborgium-271, has a half-life of about 2.4 minutes.
The newly discovered isotope, Seaborgium-257, decays through spontaneous fission and alpha particle emission, possessing a half-life of 12.6 ms.
“Our progress is hindered by a scarcity of high-quality lead-206 targets necessary for the production of Seaborgium-257, using a powerful beam of Chromium-52 from the GSI/Fair Linear Accelerator Unilac,” they explained.
Utilizing the advanced gas-filled recoil separator TASCA (transactinide separator and chemical device), researchers recorded a total of 22 decays of Seaborgium-257.
“Our findings regarding Seaborgium-257 provide intriguing insights into the shell effects influencing the fission properties of ultra-heavy nuclei,” they mentioned.
“One significant outcome suggests that the next lightweight yet unknown isotopes may undergo nuclear fission within a brief timeframe of 1 nanosecond to 6 microseconds.
“This upper limit for the anticipated half-life is close to the current experimental capabilities unless a so-called K-extra-character state exists.”
“This excited state, stabilized by quantum effects, exhibits extended fission lifetimes and potentially allows for the exploration of short-lived nuclei.”
“Recently, notable advancements were achieved with the discovery of the 60-NS Rutherford 252 through a long-lived K-amplitude state, edging towards the stability threshold.”
“The quest for the isotopic limits of elements is a natural extension of these experiments, mapping the boundaries of hyper-heavy nuclear stability.”
“To date, no K-atroscopy states have been identified in Seaborgium isotopes.”
Nonetheless, in this current experiment, the team also irradiated a lead-208 target and found strong evidence of a K-isomer state in Seaborgium-259.
“Our results concerning the K-Crossic state of Seaborgium-259 open avenues to investigate the K-isomer phenomena in other isotopes, paving the way for the synthesis of short-lived Seaborgium-256 isotopes.”
The team’s results were published in the journal Physical Review Letters.
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P. Mossat et al. 2025. Investigating the shell effect in fission: a new hyperstable nucleus 257SG. Phys. Rev. Lett. 134, 232501; doi:10.1103/s7hr-y7zq
Honey sourced from Australian stingless bees, often referred to as sugar bag honeybees, has long been a vital food source and a traditional remedy for ailments such as itching and pain among Indigenous Australian communities. A recent study has examined the antibacterial properties and chemical composition of honey from three species of Australian stingless bees: Tetragonula carbonaria, Tetragonula hockingsii, and Austroplebeia australis. The results revealed these honeys possess strong antibacterial capabilities against various human pathogens, exhibiting efficacy on par with or superior to that of most European honeys derived from Apis mellifera.
Antibiotic resistance poses a significant global health issue.
Numerous natural substances have developed complex defenses against microbial threats and may serve as potential therapeutic agents.
While the medicinal qualities of European honey have been extensively researched, the therapeutic potential of Australian stingless bee honey is still in its early stages.
Kenya Fernandez, a researcher from the University of Sydney, noted:
“Unlike honey from European honeybees, which predominantly depends on hydrogen peroxide for its antibacterial effects, the honey from Australian stingless bees demonstrates high levels of hydrogen peroxide along with non-peroxide activity, making it a robust and versatile candidate for therapy.”
The study found that the honey retained antibacterial properties even without hydrogen peroxide, indicating that these traits are inherent to the honey.
“Bee Manuka honey’s notable non-oxide antibacterial activity is a key factor behind its commercial success,” Dr. Fernandez added.
“In contrast, the consistent antibacterial effectiveness of heat-treated non-toxic honey from Australian bees—regardless of various locations and nectar sources—highlights the unique qualities of these bees.”
Professor Dee Carter at the University of Sydney remarked:
Researchers are hopeful that this reliability will enhance the potential for commercial health applications.
Nonetheless, challenges concerning scalability persist. Each stingless bee hive produces roughly 0.5 liters of honey annually, complicating large-scale production.
“Although the yields are modest, these hives require less upkeep than traditional bee hives, enabling beekeepers to manage a greater number of hives,” stated Dr. Ross Groag from the University of Sydney.
“Encouragingly, the commercial value of honey may foster the growth of more hives and pave the way for scalability in commerce.”
“In the past year, native stingless bee honey has made strides toward local and global commercialization, having received endorsements from Australian and New Zealand food safety authorities.”
“This regulatory backing is crucial in establishing a niche market for high-value, low-volume products.”
The survey results were published on May 21st in the journal Applied and Environmental Microbiology.
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Kenya E. Fernandez et al. 2025. Potent antibacterial activity and unique physicochemical properties of honey from Australian stingless bees Tetragonula carbonaria, Tetragonula hockingsii, and Austroplebeia australis. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 91 (6); doi:10.1128/aem.02523-24
A novel theory proposed by Gunther Kettetschka, a researcher at Fairbanks University in Alaska, suggests that we exist in three dimensions rather than the single dimension we perceive continuously, with space serving as a secondary byproduct.
Time, not space and time, can be a single fundamental property in which all physical phenomena occur. Image credit: M. Weiss/Harvard – Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
“These three dimensions of time constitute the fundamental layers, akin to the canvas of a painting,” Dr. Kettetschka stated.
“While space exists in three dimensions, it is not the canvas itself; rather, it resembles the paint on the canvas.”
“These concepts starkly contrast established physics, which maintains that our reality comprises a single time dimension alongside three spatial dimensions.”
“This is referred to as space-time, a notion developed over a century ago that regards time and space as a single entity.”
Dr. Kettetschka’s mathematical model, which integrates time and space, seeks to provide a unified explanation of the universe.
Understanding time’s dimensions beyond our daily experience is challenging. Theoretical physicists have explored numerous variations.
This latest research contributes to a long-term body of work among theoretical physicists exploring ideas beyond mainstream physics.
“Prior three-dimensional time proposals largely consisted of mathematical constructs lacking concrete experimental connections,” Dr. Kettetschka noted.
“My research transforms intriguing mathematical concepts into physically testable theories through various independent validation methods.”
“This theory has the potential to predict unknown particle properties and aid in uncovering the origin of mass, ultimately addressing one of physics’ greatest enigmas.”
The concept of three-dimensional time includes multiple independent trajectories, similar to time and space. It can be visualized as three axes of temporal motion, akin to the spatial X, Y, and Z axes.
Imagine walking straight ahead, perceiving time as we typically do. Now envision another path intersecting the first, allowing lateral movement.
If you could traverse sideways while remaining in the same moment of ‘normal’ time, you’d recognize that scenarios may slightly differ, potentially representing alternate versions of the same day.
Following this vertical path lets you explore various outcomes of the day without advancing forward as we understand it.
The existence of these alternative outcomes represents the second dimension of time, while the third dimension pertains to the transition from one outcome to another.
“This theory addresses issues confronted by earlier three-dimensional time theories based on traditional physics,” Dr. Kettetschka highlighted.
“For instance, previous theories often presented ambiguous cause-and-effect relationships when discussing multiple time dimensions.”
“The new theory utilizes more complex mathematical frameworks to ensure clear precedence of effects caused, even in the context of multiple time dimensions.”
According to the 3D time perspective, the second and third dimensions are particularly conceptualized by theoretical physicist Yitzhakuber at the University of Southern California, likely manifesting at extreme energy levels, such as those present in the early universe and high-energy particle collisions.
This innovative approach might help confront significant challenges within the realm of unresolved physics: unifying quantum mechanics—the behavior of particles at the most minute scale—with gravity, towards an overarching quantum gravity theory.
The theory of quantum gravity has the potential to evolve into a grand theory encompassing the universe and all related theories.
A central goal of this elusive unified theory is to integrate the four fundamental forces of nature: electromagnetic, strong nuclear, weak nuclear, and gravity.
The standard model of particle physics unifies the first three forces, while gravity is addressed through Albert Einstein’s theory of general relativity.
Since the two frameworks are incompatible, physicists are striving for a theoretical synthesis. Pinpointing the origin of particle mass is crucial to this endeavor.
Dr. Kettetschka is optimistic that the three-dimensional time theory can be beneficial.
This framework effectively replicates the masses of known particles like electrons, moons, and quarks, providing insights into why these particles possess their specific masses.
“Achieving unity may necessitate a fundamental reassessment of the very nature of physical reality,” Dr. Kettetschka remarked.
“This theory demonstrates how perceiving time as three-dimensional can elegantly resolve multiple physics puzzles within a cohesive mathematical framework.”
His paper was published in the journal Report on Advances in Physical Science.
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Gunther Kletetschka. 2025. 3D Time: Mathematical Framework for Fundamental Physics. Report on Advances in Physical Science 9:2550004; doi:10.1142/s2424942425500045
The identification of human footprints in White Sands, New Mexico, estimated to be between 21,000 and 23,000 years old, was a significant advancement in our comprehension of the earliest inhabitants of the Americas. However, this research faced scrutiny concerning the dependability of radiocarbon dating materials, such as common aquatic plant seeds Rupiah Silhosa and coniferous pollen grains. A recent study, spearheaded by University of Arizona researcher Vance Holiday, indicates that the ancient mud from Perelora ceotero, the third material utilized for dating the footprints, dates back to approximately 20,700 to 22,400 years ago.
Ancient human footprints found in White Sands National Park, New Mexico, USA. Image credit: Bennett et al. , doi: 10.1126/science.abg7586.
Historically, scientists believed that humans entered North America roughly 16,000 to 13,000 years ago.
However, the footprints found at White Sands indicate that human presence in the area dates back to between 23,000 and 21,000 years ago. This timeline offers insights into the development of culture in North America.
The remnants of 10,000-year-old prints, uncovered nearly a century ago at a site near Clovis, New Mexico, led to a classification of artifacts long considered to represent the earliest known cultures in North America.
Critics have challenged two prior studies over the last four years, asserting that ancient species and pollen in the soil used for dating the footprints are unreliable indicators.
“The record is consistently strong, and it’s challenging to explain it all,” Dr. Holiday stated.
“As I mention in my publication, it would be an extraordinary coincidence for all these dates to be inaccurate.”
Thousands of years prior, the white sands formed from a series of lakes that eventually dried up.
Wind erosion created layers of plaster on the sand dunes that now characterize the region.
The footprints were excavated from stream beds that once fed into this ancient lake.
“Wind erosion has erased part of the narrative, leaving that segment lost. The remainder is buried beneath the world’s largest accumulation of plaster sand,” Dr. Holiday remarked.
For their latest research, Dr. Holiday and his team returned to White Sands in 2022 and 2023, excavating new trenches to gain deeper insights into the lakebed’s geology.
“We’ve put in considerable effort to explore this area,” stated Jason Windingstad, a doctoral candidate at the University of Arizona.
“You essentially find yourself questioning everything taught about North American populations.”
The authors recognize that their research hasn’t addressed lingering questions posed by critics since 2021: Why are there no artifacts or settlements left by the individuals who made the footprints?
“This is a valid inquiry. Some footprints discovered during the 2021 survey belong to a trackway that was created in mere seconds,” they explained.
“It is entirely plausible that hunter-gatherers would act with caution to avoid leaving resources in such a brief timeframe.”
“These individuals were aware of their resources and were distanced from their replacements.”
“They wouldn’t abandon artifacts casually. It doesn’t make sense for you to be viewing a debris field.”
The team’s recent findings will be published in the journal Advances in Science.
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Vance T. Holliday et al. 2025. Perelorace Geochronology supports the last Glacier Max (LGM) age of human tracks in White Sands, New Mexico. Advances in Science 11 (25); doi:10.1126/sciadv.adv4951
Images and videos from the Vera C. Rubin Observatory showcase over 10 hours of test observations before being revealed. The event was live streamed on Monday from Washington, DC.
Keith Bector, an associate professor from the University of Wisconsin-Madison physics department, has contributed to the Rubin Observatory for nearly a decade as a system verification scientist, ensuring that all components of the observation deck function properly.
He mentioned that the team was present as images streamed in real-time from the camera.
“In the control room, there was a moment when all engineers and scientists gazed at these images. We were able to observe more details about stars and galaxies,” Vector explained to NBC News. “Understanding this on an intellectual level is one thing, but on an emotional level, I realized I was part of something truly extraordinary, all happening in real-time.”
One of the newly released images enabled the Rubin Observatory to identify galaxies billions of light-years away, alongside asteroids in the solar system and stars in the Milky Way.
“In fact, most of the objects captured in these images exhibit light that was emitted before our solar system was formed,” highlighted Bechtol. “We are witnessing light that reflects billions of years of the universe’s history, and many of these galaxies have never before been observed.”
Astronomers are eagerly awaiting the first images from the new observatory, affirming that experts will aid in unraveling some of the universe’s greatest mysteries and revolutionizing our understanding.
“We are entering the golden age of American science,” stated Harriet Kang, acting director of the Energy Department of Science. She elaborated in a statement.
“We anticipate that the observation deck will provide profound insights into our past, future, and potentially the fate of the universe,” Kang remarked during a Monday event.
The Vera C. Rubin Observatory is collaboratively managed by the Energy Agency and the National Science Foundation.
Named after an American astronomer renowned for uncovering evidence of dark matter in space, the observatory is situated atop Cerro Pachon, a mountain in central Chile. It is designed to capture around 1,000 images of the southern hemisphere sky each night, covering the entire visible southern sky every three to four nights.
These early images stem from a series of test observations and mark the commencement of a bold decade-long mission to scan the sky continuously, capturing all visible details and changes.
“The entire observatory design is centered on this capability, enabling you to point, shoot, and repeat,” Bechtol noted. “Every 40 seconds, the view shifts to a new part of the sky. Imagine bringing the night sky back to life in a way we’ve never experienced before.”
By repeating this process nightly over the next decade, scientists aim to create extensive images of the visible southern sky, tracking bright stars, moving asteroids in the solar system, measuring supernova explosions, and observing other cosmic phenomena.
“Utilizing this groundbreaking scientific facility, we will delve into many mysteries of the universe, including the dark matter and dark energy that fills our cosmos,” stated Brian Stone, Chief of Staff of the National Science Foundation, in a statement.
In the last decade, quantum computing has evolved into a multi-billion dollar sector, attracting investments from major tech firms like IBM and Google, along with the U.S. military.
However, Ignacio Cirac, a trailblazer in this field from Germany’s Max Planck Institute for Quantum Optics, provides a more measured assessment: “Quantum computers are not yet a reality,” he states, because creating a functional and practical version is exceedingly challenging.
This article is part of our special feature that delves into how experts perceive some of science’s most intriguing concepts. Click here for more information.
These quantum systems utilize qubits to encode data, in contrast to the traditional “bits” of conventional computers. Qubits can be generated through various methods, ranging from small superconducting circuits to ultra-cold atoms, yet each method presents its own complexities in construction.
The primary advantage lies in their ability to leverage quantum attributes for performing certain calculations at a speed unattainable by classical computers.
This acceleration holds promise for various challenges that traditional computers face, such as simulating complex physical systems and optimizing passenger flight schedules or grocery deliveries. Five years ago, quantum computers appeared poised to tackle these and numerous other computational hurdles.
Today, the situation is even more intricate. Certainly, the progress in creating larger quantum computers is remarkable, with numerous companies developing systems exceeding 1000 qubits. However, this progress also highlights the formidable challenges that remain.
A significant issue is that as these computers scale up, they tend to generate increased errors, and developing methods to mitigate or correct them has proven more challenging than anticipated. Last year, Google researchers made notable strides in addressing this problem, but as Cirac emphasizes, a fully functional useful quantum computer remains elusive.
Consequently, the list of viable applications for such machines may be shorter than many previously anticipated. Weighing the costs of construction against the potential savings reveals that, in many scenarios, the economics may not favor them. “The most significant misconception is that quantum computers can expedite all types of problems,” Cirac explains.
So, which issues might still benefit from quantum computing? Experts suggest that quantum computers could potentially compromise the encryption systems currently employed for secure communications, making them appealing to governments and institutions concerned with security. Scott Aaronson from the University of Texas at Austin notes this.
Another promising area for quantum computers is in modeling materials and chemical reactions. Because quantum computers operate within a framework of quantum objects, they are ideally suited for simulating other quantum systems, such as electrons, atoms, and molecules.
“These are simplified models that don’t accurately reflect real materials. However, if you appropriately design your system, there are numerous properties of real materials you can learn about physics.” Daniel Gottesman from the University of Maryland adds.
While quantum chemical simulations might seem more specialized than flight scheduling, the potential outcomes (such as discovering room-temperature superconductors) could be groundbreaking.
The extent to which these ambitions can be realized heavily relies on the algorithms guiding quantum computations and methods for correcting those pesky errors. This is a complex new domain, as Vedran Dunjko of Leiden University in the Netherlands points out, prompting researchers like himself to confront fundamental questions about information and computation.
“This creates a significant incentive to investigate the complexity of the problem and the potential of computing devices,” Dunjko asserts. “For me, this alone justifies dedicating a substantial portion of my life to these inquiries.”
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Do dogs possess their own thoughts and emotions? What about pigeons, honeybees, earthworms, or jellyfish? Your answer likely reveals a human tendency to attribute consciousness to familiar creatures, while skeptically viewing “simpler” beings like invertebrates.
In truth, we can never be fully sure that other beings possess awareness. “The subjective nature of experience means absolute certainty is unattainable. You can’t even be 100% certain about other humans,” says Jonathan Burch, an author at the London School of Economics, in his work The edge of the senses.
This article is part of our concept special, exploring how experts perceive some of the most surprising ideas in science. Click here for more details.
Despite this uncertainty, evidence can be gathered. We must first clarify what consciousness entails. Philosopher Herbert Feigle’s framework divides consciousness into three layers.
The most basic layer involves raw sensations of the present, including external perceptions and internal emotions such as pain, joy, excitement, and boredom. The second layer, “sapiens,” allows for reflection on our experiences, such as “This is the worst pain I’ve ever felt.” The final layer encompasses our sense of self, recognizing our existence through past and future.
Research into animal consciousness primarily centers on sensation. “Much of this research focuses on pain, but there is a trend toward exploring positive emotions like joy,” says Christine Andrews from York University, Toronto. For instance, fish in pain may swim toward an area of a tank infused with painkillers.
Social behavior provides evidence for the second type of sensation. “Animals acquire much of their knowledge and skills socially,” Andrews states. Even insects exhibit this behavior. For example, fruit flies learn about mating by observing other fruit flies.
Some remarkable findings have revealed that certain animals recognize cultural contexts, such as recent studies showing mice providing “first aid” to unconscious companions. Researchers are also investigating episodic memory—the capacity to reflect on past experiences—and have found it in various mammals, including rats and chimpanzees, as well as birds like scrub jays.
Although we are gathering substantial evidence about sensation, the neurobiological foundations of consciousness remain unclear. “However, these findings may not universally apply to other species with distinct neural structures,” Andrews notes, referencing various studies on mammals that discuss involved brain regions. For example, while insects do not possess a human-like brain, there is strong evidence that they can experience pain, confirming a sensory component.
This challenges the prevailing assumptions of many biologists, but may not be a significant leap for the general public. The notion of animals as intricate automata represents “an anomaly in Western science,” explains Burch. “Non-Western cultures, and indeed many individuals in the West outside academia, have consistently regarded animals as sentient beings.”
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When observing the universe, we realize it can sustain life—if it couldn’t, we wouldn’t be here. This notion has been articulated numerous times throughout history, but it lies at the core of the philosophical debate known as the principle of humanity. While seemingly straightforward, it holds complexities.
This article is part of our special concept series, examining the intriguing perspectives scientists have on some of the most unexpected concepts in science. Click here for more information.
The universe seems to be delicately balanced on the edge of habitability, which leads to what scientists call “tweaking problems.” Several fundamental constants, from the mass of neutrons to gravity, require precise values for life to exist. “If some of these constants were larger, it could destabilize all atoms,” says Luke Burns from Western Sydney University, Australia.
The principles of humanity originated as a way to explain why the universe appears to be in this seemingly favorable condition, distilled into a simple idea: the universe must be this way, or we wouldn’t be here to observe it.
There are two central formulations of this principle, both articulated in a 1986 book by cosmologists John Barrow and Frank Tippler. The weak principle states that the basic constants of the universe must be in a state compatible with the existence of life—at least here and now. The strong principle goes further, asserting that these constants must lie within a range conducive to life, implying that the universe is designed to support it. This notion of “necessity” indicates that the universe exists to foster life.
If the weak principle suggests, “A tree falls in the forest and life must be able to thrive there,” the strong principle posits, “This planet is destined to have a forest where the tree can flourish.”
For contemporary scientists, the weak principle acts as a reminder of potential biases in our observations of the universe, especially if conditions are not uniform everywhere. “If we lived in a universe different from our current one, we’d find ourselves in conditions where life was feasible,” notes Shawn Carroll from Johns Hopkins University in Maryland.
As for the strong formulation of the principle, some physicists, like Burns, find it useful. He is exploring various multiverse models and sees the strong principle as a practical benchmark. This implies there’s a 100% chance at least one life-supporting universe will arise within the multiverse framework. Therefore, the closer a multiverse model approaches this 100% likelihood, the more plausible it becomes. Conversely, if the probability is around 50%, he views it as a solid signal of the model’s validity. “But if it hits a square meter, we have a problem,” he states.
Despite its utility, most physicists regard the strong principle as overly deterministic. It implies life was always meant to be present, according to Elliot Thorber from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. “However, the likelihood is minimal; life could have failed to emerge, and we would still be making the same observations.”
Where does that leave us? The strong extrinsic principle offers a solution to the fine-tuning dilemma, yet many consider it an irrational conclusion. In contrast, the weak principle doesn’t clarify why our universe’s constants are finely tuned, though it remains a valuable analytical tool for researchers. As principles go, this topic is quite complex.
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My child is extraordinary. He enters the kitchen, glances at me, and articulates enchanting words: “Could I please have a cheese and tomato sandwich?” Moments later, that very snack materializes in front of him.
Other young animals express their hunger through sounds and murmurs, but only humans possess advanced grammar and vocabulary systems that enable precise communication.
This narrative is part of our themed special, showcasing expert perspectives on some of science’s most astonishing concepts. Click here for additional insights.
Research into animal behavior reveals that these creatures exhibit many traits previously thought to be exclusive to humans—from culture to emotional depth, and even aspects of morality. While language may seem to set us apart, “I believe language gives us a unique status as a species,” says Brian Relch from the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
Given this context, one critical area of research focuses on how language originated and why it evolved solely within our human lineage.
Psychologist Simon Edelman from Cornell University proposes in The Magical Power of Language that there is a straightforward evolutionary rationale. Alongside his colleague Oren Korodny, now at Hebrew University in Jerusalem, he theorizes that the origins of language may date back approximately 1.7 million years, coinciding with early humans developing the ability to create stone tools—a skill beyond the capabilities of non-human animals.
The notion is that tool-making locations functioned as learning environments, where novice tool creators required guidance from experienced individuals. Proto-language may have developed as a way for mentors to instruct their students, possibly explaining why both language and tool-making appear to necessitate cognitive structures that organize thoughts in a coherent sequence.
However, around a decade ago, a pivotal experiment questioned this narrative. In 2014, Shelby Putt from Illinois State University and her team investigated how individuals learn to create tools, exposing 24 volunteers either to expert instructions or to direct demonstrations while occasionally engaging their attention. Surprisingly, both approaches proved effective, indicating that intricate tool-making may not rely on verbal language.
This does not imply that Putt views language and tool-making as entirely disconnected. She posits that creating complex tools required individuals to structure their thoughts and organize them to achieve their task. She asserts that this ability led to an expansion of brain regions associated with working memory, enabling easier mental manipulation of concepts.
Nonetheless, Putt suggests that humans utilized these cognitive frameworks to devise language, enhancing communication and potentially increasing survival odds.
All these scenarios presume that language functions fundamentally as a communication tool among individuals. However, an alternative perspective on the evolution of language emphasizes the ways it aids individuals in organizing their thoughts when confronted with complex tasks.
Some, including prominent linguist Noam Chomsky, argue that this may have driven language evolution, suggesting it had no relation to tool-making. These researchers propose that language emerged approximately 70,000 years ago, possibly due to random genetic mutations that reconfigured brain circuitry.
Ultimately, the origins of language remain a subject of debate. If Chomsky and his associates are correct, the development of language was less about magic and more about fortunate circumstances.
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Countless unique asteroids traverse the solar system, amidst millions of distant stars and galaxies captured in the inaugural images released by the Vera C. Rubin Observatory.
“These stunning galaxies were photogenically disrupted by asteroids,” noted Željko Ivezić during a press briefing on June 23rd at Washington University in Seattle, presenting images that showcase several asteroids zipping past two spiral-armed galaxies.
Within just 10 hours of observing the night sky, the telescope, positioned in the pristine atmosphere atop a mountain in the Chilean desert, detected 2,104 previously unknown asteroids. Among these, seven have trajectories that come close to Earth, yet none poses a threat, according to Ivezic.
Researchers identified and tracked newly discovered asteroids in images taken over 10 hours
NSF-DOE VERA C. RUBIN OBSERVATORY
Although telescopes are not primarily designed to detect near-Earth objects, they are intended for a comprehensive study of the universe over a decade. However, their features are also conducive to spotting asteroids. “You need to survey the sky rapidly with a vast field of view,” Ivezic explained.
Asteroids were identified by scrutinizing areas of the sky and noting what was in motion. In the composite image shown by Ivezić during the briefing, the asteroids appeared as colored streaks against the backdrop of brighter objects in deeper space. This enhances our understanding of the neighboring celestial bodies. “We weren’t surprised,” he said. “There’s an impressive simulation.”
Throughout a decade-long research initiative, the telescope is anticipated to identify around 5 million new asteroids, surpassing the total discovered in previous centuries.
Asteroids are marked with a colored dot in front of an image of a galaxy visible in the southern sky
NSF-DOE VERA C. RUBIN OBSERVATORY Copyright: NSF-DOE VERA C. Rubin Observatory
The new detections are reported daily to the US Minor Planet Center, which analyzes orbital paths and identifies objects that could threaten Earth. “In under 24 hours, the world will be informed about potentially hazardous objects,” Ivezic stated.
Matthew Payne from the Minor Planet Center remarked that it’s estimated only 40% of close Earth objects capable of posing a threat have been discovered. An exponential increase in detections from the Vera Rubin Observatory will hasten the identification of the remaining objects.
A substantial rise in observations of other solar system entities—from main belt asteroids between Mars and Jupiter to objects further out beyond Neptune—is anticipated to offer fresh insights into our immediate cosmic neighborhood. “It’s expected to truly revolutionize solar system science,” Payne concluded.
Adult male mouse with two fathers and possessing their own offspring
Yang Chang Wei
For the first time, male mice with two fathers have successfully produced offspring. This significant advancement paves the way for the possibility of two men having a genetically related child, although there are still numerous obstacles to overcome before this could be realized in people.
Yang Chang Wei in Shanghai, China, achieved this by merging two sperm cells with eggs stripped of their nucleus. The research team also reprogrammed seven areas of sperm DNA through a process called epigenome editing to facilitate embryo development.
Out of 259 embryos transferred to female mice, only two male offspring survived and grew, highlighting the low success rates. After mating with a female, both offspring were found to be descendants of the father, exhibiting normal size, weight, and appearance.
Generating a mouse with two fathers has proven far more challenging than producing one with two mothers. The initial report of a viable mouse with two mothers, named Kaguya, surfaced in 2004.
While Kaguya was genetically modified, Wei and his team successfully created similar paternalless mice in 2022 utilizing only epigenome editing without altering DNA sequences. This method was also instrumental in developing motherless mice.
The birth of mammals with two fathers or mothers is notably significant due to the concept of imprinting, which occurs as most animals possess two sets of chromosomes.
During the formation of eggs and sperm, chemical markers are applied to these chromosomes, activating certain genes while deactivating others. These alterations are termed “epigenetic” because they do not modify the actual DNA sequence, yet they can influence gene expression during cell division.
Crucially, the epigenetic programming of mothers differs from that of fathers; genes marked “active” in sperm may be marked “inactive” in eggs, and vice versa.
This discrepancy means that if an egg contains two sets of paternal chromosomes or maternal chromosomes, it will struggle to develop correctly. A gene that should be turned on in one chromosome could become overactive if only one copy of both is present or if both copies are included.
In Kaguya’s scenario, researchers managed this issue by removing some genes, normalizing overall gene activity. However, creating a mouse with two fathers necessitates additional alterations.
Earlier this year, a different team from China managed to produce mice with two fathers after implementing 20 genetic modifications to standardize gene activity, but these mice exhibited neither full health nor fertility.
Although modifying gene activity through genetic alterations aids in researching imprinting in laboratory animals, it remains unpalatable for human application, especially considering the unknown implications of genetic modifications.
For their epigenetic approach, Wei and his team employed modified versions of the CRISPR protein, typically utilized for gene editing. These modified proteins, like standard CRISPR versions, are designed to locate specific sites in the genome. When these sites are identified, the modified proteins can add or remove epigenetic labels without altering the DNA itself.
This research marks a significant breakthrough. Helen O’Neill, University College London, stated, “We confirm that genome imprinting is the primary barrier to mammalian reproduction overnight and demonstrate that it can be surpassed.”
Since this technique does not involve direct genetic modification, it may, in theory, allow same-sex couples to have genetically related children. However, a considerably higher success rate is necessary before such a method can be deemed acceptable for human use. “While this study on producing offspring from same-sex parents is encouraging, it is unlikely to translate to humans due to the vast number of eggs required, the large pool of surrogate women necessary, and the low success rate,” explained Christoph Galichet from the Sainsbury Welcome Centre in the UK.
The low success rate can be attributed to various factors. Firstly, merging the two sperm cells resulted in some embryos containing two Y chromosomes, leading to underdevelopment. Additionally, for effective epigenome editing, all seven targeted sites in the embryo must be successfully modified, and there might have been off-target effects in some instances.
It’s plausible that animal success rates and health could be enhanced by modifying more than seven sites; however, these modifications likely wouldn’t be applicable to human use, considering the differing sites that require changes in humans compared to mice.
If a human baby were to be conceived using this method, the mitochondria within the cell—containing a small amount of DNA—would originate from the egg donor, essentially making it three contributing genetic sources.
In 2023, a Japanese team reported the birth of a mouse puppy with two fathers through a distinct method involving the conversion of mouse stem cells into eggs. However, it remains uncertain whether the puppies thrived into adulthood, and no successful attempts have yet been made to transform human stem cells into eggs.
Building strong friendships may seem like a natural process—finding joy in each other’s presence, sharing laughter, and bonding over common interests. However, the unspoken dynamics of different types of friendships can often be complex. Recent research has shed light on the significance of these relationships in our overall happiness. Yet, there are strategies for nurturing meaningful connections.
This article is a part of our special series that explores how experts view some of the most intriguing concepts in science. Click here for additional information.
Jeffrey Hall, Director of the Relationships and Technology Labs at the University of Kansas, is among the researchers examining ways to cultivate friendships. He suggests viewing friendships as a spectrum—from mere acquaintances to our closest confidants who remain by our side.
“The fundamental requirement is mutual liking and a communication frequency that allows the relationship to develop,” he states. “Trust and a sense of safety in sharing secrets are expected, along with prioritizing each other above others.”
Time invested in a friendship is crucial, as highlighted by Hall’s research. In a series of studies, he had participants recently relocated to a new city map out their social lives. He found that individuals must spend about 57-164 hours with someone before they are deemed “friends,” while developing “good” or “best” friendships typically requires around 200 hours together.
The quality of time spent together is also vital. “Engaging in daily activities—eating, drinking, playing, exploring—helps cement these bonds because we want to share those moments with them,” says Hall, co-author of the upcoming book Social Biome, which delves into these themes. Conversely, being compelled to interact through work or study does little to foster genuine friendships.
It’s common to find ourselves gravitating toward individuals who share common traits. Over the last decade, anthropologist Robin Dunbar from Oxford University identified seven key attributes in “pillars of friendship.” These pillars represent deep connections stemming from shared language, culture, education, career experiences, interests, worldviews, humor, and musical tastes.
He notes that we may share only one or two of these pillars with around 150 people we identify as friends, while only five close companions and about six to seven truly good friends exist in our lives, as mentioned in his book Friends: Understanding the Influence of Our Most Important Relationships.
Interestingly, friends may even share similar brain activity patterns. In a 2018 study, Carolyn Parkinson at UCLA had students watch a series of videos in an fMRI scanner. The results showed that she could predict friendships based on similarities in their brain responses to the clips, indicating that closer friends often have synchronized neural activity.
As discussed in my book, Connection Law, Parkinson’s research explores the concept of shared reality. This idea suggests that having a mutual perspective on the world enhances relationships. “These individuals focus on similar aspects of life and share similar emotional responses to their experiences,” she notes.
Can these connections exist digitally? Hall believes they can. “Communicating via phone or video with loved ones is likely just as beneficial as in-person interactions,” he asserts. “Creating regular opportunities for digital communication can help maintain and enrich these relationships.”
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