The lines of galaxies that emerged after the collision of the two dwarf galaxies, which tore gases from one another.
Keim et al./Decals
A curious dwarf galaxy may have originated from a bullet-like collision in the universe.
Michael Keim from Yale University and his team employed the Keck Observatory in Hawaii to examine the distinctive trails of 12 small dwarf galaxies located approximately 75 million light-years from the Milky Way.
The orientation and velocity of the galaxies indicate that they resulted from a head-on impact between two galaxies known as NGC 1052-DF2 and NGC 1052-DF4. This collision expelled gas, which eventually coalesced into a group of stars due to gravitational attraction.
“They’re exceptionally unique,” states Kayme. “This is the only known system of its kind.”
Keim and his colleagues named this system after a similar cluster of large galaxies referred to as Bullet Clusters.
It is believed that the two galaxies collided at a speed of 350 kilometers per second around 9 billion years ago. As they passed through one another, gas was stripped from each galaxy. “While it’s improbable for two stars to collide,” notes Kayme, “the same does not apply to gas clouds.”
Interestingly, the remnants of stars left after the collision appear to lack dark matter. This is quite unusual, as most galaxies contain a substantial amount of dark matter, often comprising over 90% of their total mass.
Keim and his team theorize that this anomaly may stem from dark matter’s inability to interact with regular matter during the gas stripping process or because it remained unaffected by the interaction.
This finding may challenge alternative theories regarding dark matter, which posit that discrepancies in stellar and galactic behavior stem from gravitational effects rather than the existence of dark matter particles. “This suggests that dark matter is indeed a particle that can be separated from a galaxy,” explains Kayme.
While we acknowledge that reducing greenhouse gas emissions offers a sustainable and long-term solution to climate change, we continue to see rising emissions. As some exacerbate climate challenges, others are exploring options that were once beyond the scope of mainstream discussion.
This article is part of our special issue, showcasing how experts evaluate some of the more unexpected concepts in science. Click here for additional details
The term “geoengineering” broadly refers to human interventions in climate systems aimed at maintaining ecosystems and cooling the planet. Yet, the definition of geoengineering remains elusive; it can encompass endeavors from reforestation to the deployment of massive underwater curtains to support ice sheets.
Some geoengineering concepts spark more debate than others. Large-scale reforestation, when executed properly, is generally seen as a positive climate action. However, more radical ideas—like altering sunlight’s interaction with the Earth’s atmosphere—invoke heightened concerns.
“The risk-return dynamics vary significantly,” states Janice Lachance of the non-profit American Geophysical Union (AGU), which has recently introduced an “Ethical Framework” for scientists in this field. She elaborates, “Planting trees in a park is relatively straightforward and widely accepted. However, when we delve into novel technologies and methodologies, the situation rapidly shifts.”
Take, for example, the concept of solar radiation management (SRM), which proposes reflecting additional sunlight back into space to cool the planet. This can be approached in three fundamental ways (illustrated in the graphics below). Although early modeling suggests that SRM could yield cooling effects within just a few years of implementation, it may also disrupt rainfall patterns and cloud formation.
SRM has historically been a contentious area of research, but as temperatures climb and climate impacts intensify, it has garnered attention from scientists, policymakers, and philanthropists alike.
While some activists argue against this line of research, fearing it diverts focus from the urgency of rapid emission reductions, Andy Parker of the Degree Initiative—a nonprofit concentrating on SRM—cautions that merely reducing emissions may no longer suffice for humanity to tackle climate change’s consequences.
“We must explore strategies to manage the risks posed by previously released greenhouse gases,” he asserts. Moreover, without international dialogue on geoengineering, “there’s a heightened risk of individual nations—especially those severely affected by climate change—unilaterally pursuing geoengineering projects.”
In this context, an increasing number of scientists are advocating for geoengineering research. “Some researchers feel they are falling short in meeting the objectives outlined in the Paris Agreement,” notes Lachance. Consequently, the AGU has devised an ethical framework to guide climate intervention research.
The concerns regarding research extend beyond methodologies. Concepts of planetary-scale geoengineering often place developing nations—particularly those near the equator—at greater risk of unforeseen consequences, such as disruptions to monsoon patterns. Yet, the majority of geoengineering research is concentrated in wealthier countries, which have less to lose.
As part of the Degree Initiative, Parker collaborates with researchers from lower-income countries in the Southern Hemisphere to develop SRM research capabilities. He hopes this will ensure that future deployment decisions take into account the populations most affected. “We don’t hold a stance on whether SRM should be utilized or not,” he explains. “What we do want is for developing nations to have informed avenues for their own research.”
Explore other articles in this series with the links below:
Physicists observe that students often exhibit a “digging expression” when first introduced to quantum superposition, as noted by Marcelo Gleiser. Having taught quantum mechanics for several decades, he notes the consistent surprise among students as they grapple with the complexities of atomic and particle behavior.
This article is part of our special concept series, exploring how experts perceive some of the most astonishing ideas in science. Click here for additional details.
The term “clear” often adds confusion in this field. Since the inception of superposition, its true implications have been debated for centuries. What is universally acknowledged is that this concept challenges our understanding of what constitutes “reality.”
A foundational aspect to grasp is the Schrödinger equation. Formulated by Erwin Schrödinger in the 1920s, it serves as a cornerstone of quantum theory, outlining the probabilities of finding particles in specific states upon measurement. Notably, quantum mechanics focuses on predicting potential outcomes rather than clarifying the exact activities of particles pre-measurement.
The Schrödinger equation articulates all conceivable positions a particle may occupy before measurement, utilizing mathematical constructs known as wave functions. This establishes one mathematical interpretation of superposition, defined as the combination of various potential quantum states.
It is well-established that particles can indeed exist in superposition. For instance, in a double-slit experiment, a solitary photon (a light particle) is directed toward a barrier with two narrow openings. When a detector is active, the photon seems to “choose” one slit and strikes a specific point on the screen. In contrast, without the detector, an “interference pattern” is observed, indicating that the particles act like waves, traversing through both slits simultaneously and interacting with themselves.
However, the true significance of being “in a superposition” remains elusive. Generally, two perspectives exist. Some view wave functions merely as mathematical constructs rather than reflections of reality—this aligns with Gleiser’s stance at Dartmouth University, New Hampshire. He asserts, “In quantum mechanics, we argue that wave functions must constitute a part of physical reality,” asserting that equating mathematical constructs with truth has become almost cult-like.
Gleiser endorses an interpretation known as quantum Bayesianism (or QBism), which posits that the theory addresses our understanding rather than reality itself. Consequently, during quantum state measurements, what shifts is merely our information about reality, not reality itself.
Conversely, some scholars, like Simon Saunders, a philosopher from Oxford University, argue against this view, asserting that wave functions represent an authentic state of existence. He suggests that particles in superposition physically occupy multiple locations simultaneously. “It’s an extended object,” he clarifies. “It’s delocalized.” Within this framework, our experience of particle reality may deviate from actual reality. For example, electrons orbiting atoms appear as a cloud of probability until measured.
Critics of this interpretation often question the fate of alternate possibilities once measurement constrains a particle to a single location. Saunders concedes to the radical notion that this may suggest the existence of a branching infinite multiverse.
Ultimately, a resolution to this question isn’t imminent. Meanwhile, researchers have successfully extended superposition beyond individual particles to larger molecules and even 16-microgram crystals. This suggests that reality is much stranger than it appears.
Explore more articles in this series by using the links below:
Dating back either 12 or 800 years ago, wild wallabies were caught and transported by canoe to nearby islands located dozens of kilometers away.
The Sahuru natives—a group of marsupials from a prehistoric landmass that eventually broke into Australia and New Guinea—likely accompanied human explorers and traders to the islands in Southeast Asia, providing food, decorative fur, and tools made from bones. This animal import is recognized as one of the earliest known instances of animal translocation, with established colonies thriving over millennia, according to Dylan Gaffney at Oxford University.
“This aligns with a broader understanding of how early humans managed, transported, and raised animals more deliberately than previously assumed. They didn’t merely endure in these tropical environments; they actively transformed them,” says Gaffney.
Research pertaining to species translocation typically prioritizes European explorers, who notably introduced invasive rabbits to Australia in the 18th and 19th centuries and reintroduced horses to the Americas in the late 1400s and early 1500s.
However, in the 1990s, two types of marsupial bones were identified—Phalanger Orientalis Breviceps or Phalanger Breviceps, along with Bandicoot bones (Echymipera Kalubu)—from the Eastern Islands of New Guinea, and Brown Forest Wallabies (Dorcopsis Muelleri) found on an island west of Halmahera, roughly 350 km from Sahuru’s ancient shores.
Based on the age of nearby charcoal remains and the sediment layers, research teams estimate that the Wallabies arrived around 8,000 years ago, while other species date back to between 13,000 and 24,000 years ago.
The specifics of how these animals arrived on the islands remain unclear—whether by human transport or natural means. To explore this, Gaffney and his colleagues examined a new archaeological site in Indonesia’s Rajaanpat Islands.
There, thousands-of-years-old skeletons indicate that the colony of brown forest wallabies thrived on the island about 4,000 years ago, though the reasons behind this are still uncertain.
Radiocarbon dating in a cave inland revealed evidence of wallabies being hunted and cooked as far back as 13,000 years ago, further supported by findings from another island to the west that dates back 5,000 years.
The team also uncovered several bone tools utilized in hunting and textile work, suggesting human activity at least 8,500 years ago.
In investigating how these animals arrived on distant islands, the team employed computer modeling that accounted for the sea levels and environmental conditions of that era.
This modeling supports the theory that humans transported the animals via canoes, Gaffney explains. Without human assistance, Wallabies would have struggled to survive the treacherous oceanic journey that could have lasted over 24 hours, relying on vegetation rafts for days to reach the islands. While swimming to nearby islands is conceivable, it’s uncertain whether forest wallabies (modern or ancient) possessed the ability to swim.
In contrast, canoe trips would have taken only a few hours to a couple of days, a timeframe that likely would have been manageable for breeding animals.
These findings underscore a sophisticated understanding of species movement by humans well before the era of European colonial expansion. Tom Matthews, who was not involved in the research and is from the University of Birmingham, UK, states, “We frequently assume that these introductions began within the last 500 years, but the evidence indicates that humans were reshaping their ecosystems long before then.”
Modern atomic energy technologies primarily utilize nuclear fission. In this process, the nuclei of heavy atoms, such as uranium, are bombarded with neutrons, causing them to split apart and release lighter nuclei along with significant energy.
However, a major drawback of fission energy is that the resultant waste is often far more radioactive than the original fuel, with its hazardous nature persisting for extended periods. Moreover, managing the rate of fission reactions is crucial for ensuring safety.
A failure in this context can lead to catastrophic consequences.
An alternative to nuclear fission is fusion energy. In this process, lighter elements, specifically isotopes of hydrogen, merge to form heavier nuclei, releasing substantial energy in the process.
This is the fundamental reaction that powers stars, including our sun.
The byproducts of the fusion reaction are generally safe, primarily producing inert helium, though some mildly radioactive substances are also generated, but they are short-lived. The challenge with fusion energy lies in achieving the conditions required to initiate the reaction.
It necessitates temperatures in the millions of degrees, along with the incorporation of ultra-high-pressure fuel (usually within a magnetic field), which presents significant technical hurdles.
Like any industrial process, there are inherent risks, but the nature of a fusion reactor means that any failure would quickly halt energy production.
As a result, fusion energy “disasters” are considerably less probable than conventional industrial accidents; indeed, they lack the potential for the environmental and ecological crises associated with fission energy meltdowns.
This article responds to the inquiry (made via email by Brandon Harris) regarding “What does a Fusion Energy Disaster look like?”
Feel free to email us with your questionsat Question @sciencefocus.com or reach out viaFacebook,Twitter or Instagram(please remember to include your name and location).
Explore our ultimateFun fact page for more fascinating science content.
The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope captured this image of UGC 11397, the Barred Spiral Galaxy, which houses a rapidly growing, supermassive black hole.
The Hubble image depicts UGC 11397, a barred spiral galaxy, located about 250 million light years away in the constellation Lyra. Image credits: NASA/ESA/Hubble/MJ Koss/AJ Barth.
Also referred to as IRAS 19019+3346, Leda 62725, or TC 872, UGC 11397 is situated in the constellation Lyra and is approximately 250 million light years distant.
The first documented mention of this spiral galaxy appeared in a galaxy catalogue compiled by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky in 1966.
“At first glance, UGC 11397 seems like a typical spiral galaxy,” stated Hubble astronomers.
“It showcases two graceful spiral arms illuminated by stars, framed by dark, dense dust clouds.”
“What sets UGC 11397 apart from a standard spiral is the ultra-massive black hole at its core, which has a mass 174 million times that of the sun,” they noted.
“As the black hole ejects gas, dust, and even entire stars from its vicinity, this material heats up, creating a spectacular cosmic display.”
“Materials engulfed by black holes emit radiation ranging from gamma rays to radio waves, leading them to brighten and dim unexpectedly.”
“Nonetheless, in some galaxies like UGC 11397, thin dust clouds obscure much of this energetic activity from optical light observation.”
“Still, the rapidly growing black hole in UGC 11397 has been identified through its intense X-ray emissions.”
This discovery led astronomers to categorize it as a Type 2 Seyfert Galaxy, a classification for active galaxies whose central cores are obscured by dust and gas formations.
“Utilizing Hubble, we will examine hundreds of galaxies that host ultra-massive black holes similar to UGC 11397,” the researchers stated.
“Hubble’s observations aid us in measuring nearby supermassive black holes, understand their growth early in the universe’s history, and explore star formation in extreme conditions at the galaxy’s center.”
A collaborative team of physicists from Germany, Finland, India, and Japan has identified a new isotope of the synthetic element Seaborgium.
Mossat et al. Report on the discovery of the new isotope Seaborgium-257. Image credit: P. Mossat, GSI/Fair.
Seaborgium is a synthetic chemical element with the symbol SG and atomic number 106.
This element was first synthesized in 1974, and currently, there are 14 known isotopes. The most stable isotope, Seaborgium-271, has a half-life of about 2.4 minutes.
The newly discovered isotope, Seaborgium-257, decays through spontaneous fission and alpha particle emission, possessing a half-life of 12.6 ms.
“Our progress is hindered by a scarcity of high-quality lead-206 targets necessary for the production of Seaborgium-257, using a powerful beam of Chromium-52 from the GSI/Fair Linear Accelerator Unilac,” they explained.
Utilizing the advanced gas-filled recoil separator TASCA (transactinide separator and chemical device), researchers recorded a total of 22 decays of Seaborgium-257.
“Our findings regarding Seaborgium-257 provide intriguing insights into the shell effects influencing the fission properties of ultra-heavy nuclei,” they mentioned.
“One significant outcome suggests that the next lightweight yet unknown isotopes may undergo nuclear fission within a brief timeframe of 1 nanosecond to 6 microseconds.
“This upper limit for the anticipated half-life is close to the current experimental capabilities unless a so-called K-extra-character state exists.”
“This excited state, stabilized by quantum effects, exhibits extended fission lifetimes and potentially allows for the exploration of short-lived nuclei.”
“Recently, notable advancements were achieved with the discovery of the 60-NS Rutherford 252 through a long-lived K-amplitude state, edging towards the stability threshold.”
“The quest for the isotopic limits of elements is a natural extension of these experiments, mapping the boundaries of hyper-heavy nuclear stability.”
“To date, no K-atroscopy states have been identified in Seaborgium isotopes.”
Nonetheless, in this current experiment, the team also irradiated a lead-208 target and found strong evidence of a K-isomer state in Seaborgium-259.
“Our results concerning the K-Crossic state of Seaborgium-259 open avenues to investigate the K-isomer phenomena in other isotopes, paving the way for the synthesis of short-lived Seaborgium-256 isotopes.”
The team’s results were published in the journal Physical Review Letters.
____
P. Mossat et al. 2025. Investigating the shell effect in fission: a new hyperstable nucleus 257SG. Phys. Rev. Lett. 134, 232501; doi:10.1103/s7hr-y7zq
Honey sourced from Australian stingless bees, often referred to as sugar bag honeybees, has long been a vital food source and a traditional remedy for ailments such as itching and pain among Indigenous Australian communities. A recent study has examined the antibacterial properties and chemical composition of honey from three species of Australian stingless bees: Tetragonula carbonaria, Tetragonula hockingsii, and Austroplebeia australis. The results revealed these honeys possess strong antibacterial capabilities against various human pathogens, exhibiting efficacy on par with or superior to that of most European honeys derived from Apis mellifera.
Antibiotic resistance poses a significant global health issue.
Numerous natural substances have developed complex defenses against microbial threats and may serve as potential therapeutic agents.
While the medicinal qualities of European honey have been extensively researched, the therapeutic potential of Australian stingless bee honey is still in its early stages.
Kenya Fernandez, a researcher from the University of Sydney, noted:
“Unlike honey from European honeybees, which predominantly depends on hydrogen peroxide for its antibacterial effects, the honey from Australian stingless bees demonstrates high levels of hydrogen peroxide along with non-peroxide activity, making it a robust and versatile candidate for therapy.”
The study found that the honey retained antibacterial properties even without hydrogen peroxide, indicating that these traits are inherent to the honey.
“Bee Manuka honey’s notable non-oxide antibacterial activity is a key factor behind its commercial success,” Dr. Fernandez added.
“In contrast, the consistent antibacterial effectiveness of heat-treated non-toxic honey from Australian bees—regardless of various locations and nectar sources—highlights the unique qualities of these bees.”
Professor Dee Carter at the University of Sydney remarked:
Researchers are hopeful that this reliability will enhance the potential for commercial health applications.
Nonetheless, challenges concerning scalability persist. Each stingless bee hive produces roughly 0.5 liters of honey annually, complicating large-scale production.
“Although the yields are modest, these hives require less upkeep than traditional bee hives, enabling beekeepers to manage a greater number of hives,” stated Dr. Ross Groag from the University of Sydney.
“Encouragingly, the commercial value of honey may foster the growth of more hives and pave the way for scalability in commerce.”
“In the past year, native stingless bee honey has made strides toward local and global commercialization, having received endorsements from Australian and New Zealand food safety authorities.”
“This regulatory backing is crucial in establishing a niche market for high-value, low-volume products.”
The survey results were published on May 21st in the journal Applied and Environmental Microbiology.
____
Kenya E. Fernandez et al. 2025. Potent antibacterial activity and unique physicochemical properties of honey from Australian stingless bees Tetragonula carbonaria, Tetragonula hockingsii, and Austroplebeia australis. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 91 (6); doi:10.1128/aem.02523-24
A novel theory proposed by Gunther Kettetschka, a researcher at Fairbanks University in Alaska, suggests that we exist in three dimensions rather than the single dimension we perceive continuously, with space serving as a secondary byproduct.
Time, not space and time, can be a single fundamental property in which all physical phenomena occur. Image credit: M. Weiss/Harvard – Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
“These three dimensions of time constitute the fundamental layers, akin to the canvas of a painting,” Dr. Kettetschka stated.
“While space exists in three dimensions, it is not the canvas itself; rather, it resembles the paint on the canvas.”
“These concepts starkly contrast established physics, which maintains that our reality comprises a single time dimension alongside three spatial dimensions.”
“This is referred to as space-time, a notion developed over a century ago that regards time and space as a single entity.”
Dr. Kettetschka’s mathematical model, which integrates time and space, seeks to provide a unified explanation of the universe.
Understanding time’s dimensions beyond our daily experience is challenging. Theoretical physicists have explored numerous variations.
This latest research contributes to a long-term body of work among theoretical physicists exploring ideas beyond mainstream physics.
“Prior three-dimensional time proposals largely consisted of mathematical constructs lacking concrete experimental connections,” Dr. Kettetschka noted.
“My research transforms intriguing mathematical concepts into physically testable theories through various independent validation methods.”
“This theory has the potential to predict unknown particle properties and aid in uncovering the origin of mass, ultimately addressing one of physics’ greatest enigmas.”
The concept of three-dimensional time includes multiple independent trajectories, similar to time and space. It can be visualized as three axes of temporal motion, akin to the spatial X, Y, and Z axes.
Imagine walking straight ahead, perceiving time as we typically do. Now envision another path intersecting the first, allowing lateral movement.
If you could traverse sideways while remaining in the same moment of ‘normal’ time, you’d recognize that scenarios may slightly differ, potentially representing alternate versions of the same day.
Following this vertical path lets you explore various outcomes of the day without advancing forward as we understand it.
The existence of these alternative outcomes represents the second dimension of time, while the third dimension pertains to the transition from one outcome to another.
“This theory addresses issues confronted by earlier three-dimensional time theories based on traditional physics,” Dr. Kettetschka highlighted.
“For instance, previous theories often presented ambiguous cause-and-effect relationships when discussing multiple time dimensions.”
“The new theory utilizes more complex mathematical frameworks to ensure clear precedence of effects caused, even in the context of multiple time dimensions.”
According to the 3D time perspective, the second and third dimensions are particularly conceptualized by theoretical physicist Yitzhakuber at the University of Southern California, likely manifesting at extreme energy levels, such as those present in the early universe and high-energy particle collisions.
This innovative approach might help confront significant challenges within the realm of unresolved physics: unifying quantum mechanics—the behavior of particles at the most minute scale—with gravity, towards an overarching quantum gravity theory.
The theory of quantum gravity has the potential to evolve into a grand theory encompassing the universe and all related theories.
A central goal of this elusive unified theory is to integrate the four fundamental forces of nature: electromagnetic, strong nuclear, weak nuclear, and gravity.
The standard model of particle physics unifies the first three forces, while gravity is addressed through Albert Einstein’s theory of general relativity.
Since the two frameworks are incompatible, physicists are striving for a theoretical synthesis. Pinpointing the origin of particle mass is crucial to this endeavor.
Dr. Kettetschka is optimistic that the three-dimensional time theory can be beneficial.
This framework effectively replicates the masses of known particles like electrons, moons, and quarks, providing insights into why these particles possess their specific masses.
“Achieving unity may necessitate a fundamental reassessment of the very nature of physical reality,” Dr. Kettetschka remarked.
“This theory demonstrates how perceiving time as three-dimensional can elegantly resolve multiple physics puzzles within a cohesive mathematical framework.”
His paper was published in the journal Report on Advances in Physical Science.
____
Gunther Kletetschka. 2025. 3D Time: Mathematical Framework for Fundamental Physics. Report on Advances in Physical Science 9:2550004; doi:10.1142/s2424942425500045
The identification of human footprints in White Sands, New Mexico, estimated to be between 21,000 and 23,000 years old, was a significant advancement in our comprehension of the earliest inhabitants of the Americas. However, this research faced scrutiny concerning the dependability of radiocarbon dating materials, such as common aquatic plant seeds Rupiah Silhosa and coniferous pollen grains. A recent study, spearheaded by University of Arizona researcher Vance Holiday, indicates that the ancient mud from Perelora ceotero, the third material utilized for dating the footprints, dates back to approximately 20,700 to 22,400 years ago.
Ancient human footprints found in White Sands National Park, New Mexico, USA. Image credit: Bennett et al. , doi: 10.1126/science.abg7586.
Historically, scientists believed that humans entered North America roughly 16,000 to 13,000 years ago.
However, the footprints found at White Sands indicate that human presence in the area dates back to between 23,000 and 21,000 years ago. This timeline offers insights into the development of culture in North America.
The remnants of 10,000-year-old prints, uncovered nearly a century ago at a site near Clovis, New Mexico, led to a classification of artifacts long considered to represent the earliest known cultures in North America.
Critics have challenged two prior studies over the last four years, asserting that ancient species and pollen in the soil used for dating the footprints are unreliable indicators.
“The record is consistently strong, and it’s challenging to explain it all,” Dr. Holiday stated.
“As I mention in my publication, it would be an extraordinary coincidence for all these dates to be inaccurate.”
Thousands of years prior, the white sands formed from a series of lakes that eventually dried up.
Wind erosion created layers of plaster on the sand dunes that now characterize the region.
The footprints were excavated from stream beds that once fed into this ancient lake.
“Wind erosion has erased part of the narrative, leaving that segment lost. The remainder is buried beneath the world’s largest accumulation of plaster sand,” Dr. Holiday remarked.
For their latest research, Dr. Holiday and his team returned to White Sands in 2022 and 2023, excavating new trenches to gain deeper insights into the lakebed’s geology.
“We’ve put in considerable effort to explore this area,” stated Jason Windingstad, a doctoral candidate at the University of Arizona.
“You essentially find yourself questioning everything taught about North American populations.”
The authors recognize that their research hasn’t addressed lingering questions posed by critics since 2021: Why are there no artifacts or settlements left by the individuals who made the footprints?
“This is a valid inquiry. Some footprints discovered during the 2021 survey belong to a trackway that was created in mere seconds,” they explained.
“It is entirely plausible that hunter-gatherers would act with caution to avoid leaving resources in such a brief timeframe.”
“These individuals were aware of their resources and were distanced from their replacements.”
“They wouldn’t abandon artifacts casually. It doesn’t make sense for you to be viewing a debris field.”
The team’s recent findings will be published in the journal Advances in Science.
____
Vance T. Holliday et al. 2025. Perelorace Geochronology supports the last Glacier Max (LGM) age of human tracks in White Sands, New Mexico. Advances in Science 11 (25); doi:10.1126/sciadv.adv4951
Images and videos from the Vera C. Rubin Observatory showcase over 10 hours of test observations before being revealed. The event was live streamed on Monday from Washington, DC.
Keith Bector, an associate professor from the University of Wisconsin-Madison physics department, has contributed to the Rubin Observatory for nearly a decade as a system verification scientist, ensuring that all components of the observation deck function properly.
He mentioned that the team was present as images streamed in real-time from the camera.
“In the control room, there was a moment when all engineers and scientists gazed at these images. We were able to observe more details about stars and galaxies,” Vector explained to NBC News. “Understanding this on an intellectual level is one thing, but on an emotional level, I realized I was part of something truly extraordinary, all happening in real-time.”
One of the newly released images enabled the Rubin Observatory to identify galaxies billions of light-years away, alongside asteroids in the solar system and stars in the Milky Way.
“In fact, most of the objects captured in these images exhibit light that was emitted before our solar system was formed,” highlighted Bechtol. “We are witnessing light that reflects billions of years of the universe’s history, and many of these galaxies have never before been observed.”
Astronomers are eagerly awaiting the first images from the new observatory, affirming that experts will aid in unraveling some of the universe’s greatest mysteries and revolutionizing our understanding.
“We are entering the golden age of American science,” stated Harriet Kang, acting director of the Energy Department of Science. She elaborated in a statement.
“We anticipate that the observation deck will provide profound insights into our past, future, and potentially the fate of the universe,” Kang remarked during a Monday event.
The Vera C. Rubin Observatory is collaboratively managed by the Energy Agency and the National Science Foundation.
Named after an American astronomer renowned for uncovering evidence of dark matter in space, the observatory is situated atop Cerro Pachon, a mountain in central Chile. It is designed to capture around 1,000 images of the southern hemisphere sky each night, covering the entire visible southern sky every three to four nights.
These early images stem from a series of test observations and mark the commencement of a bold decade-long mission to scan the sky continuously, capturing all visible details and changes.
“The entire observatory design is centered on this capability, enabling you to point, shoot, and repeat,” Bechtol noted. “Every 40 seconds, the view shifts to a new part of the sky. Imagine bringing the night sky back to life in a way we’ve never experienced before.”
By repeating this process nightly over the next decade, scientists aim to create extensive images of the visible southern sky, tracking bright stars, moving asteroids in the solar system, measuring supernova explosions, and observing other cosmic phenomena.
“Utilizing this groundbreaking scientific facility, we will delve into many mysteries of the universe, including the dark matter and dark energy that fills our cosmos,” stated Brian Stone, Chief of Staff of the National Science Foundation, in a statement.
In the last decade, quantum computing has evolved into a multi-billion dollar sector, attracting investments from major tech firms like IBM and Google, along with the U.S. military.
However, Ignacio Cirac, a trailblazer in this field from Germany’s Max Planck Institute for Quantum Optics, provides a more measured assessment: “Quantum computers are not yet a reality,” he states, because creating a functional and practical version is exceedingly challenging.
This article is part of our special feature that delves into how experts perceive some of science’s most intriguing concepts. Click here for more information.
These quantum systems utilize qubits to encode data, in contrast to the traditional “bits” of conventional computers. Qubits can be generated through various methods, ranging from small superconducting circuits to ultra-cold atoms, yet each method presents its own complexities in construction.
The primary advantage lies in their ability to leverage quantum attributes for performing certain calculations at a speed unattainable by classical computers.
This acceleration holds promise for various challenges that traditional computers face, such as simulating complex physical systems and optimizing passenger flight schedules or grocery deliveries. Five years ago, quantum computers appeared poised to tackle these and numerous other computational hurdles.
Today, the situation is even more intricate. Certainly, the progress in creating larger quantum computers is remarkable, with numerous companies developing systems exceeding 1000 qubits. However, this progress also highlights the formidable challenges that remain.
A significant issue is that as these computers scale up, they tend to generate increased errors, and developing methods to mitigate or correct them has proven more challenging than anticipated. Last year, Google researchers made notable strides in addressing this problem, but as Cirac emphasizes, a fully functional useful quantum computer remains elusive.
Consequently, the list of viable applications for such machines may be shorter than many previously anticipated. Weighing the costs of construction against the potential savings reveals that, in many scenarios, the economics may not favor them. “The most significant misconception is that quantum computers can expedite all types of problems,” Cirac explains.
So, which issues might still benefit from quantum computing? Experts suggest that quantum computers could potentially compromise the encryption systems currently employed for secure communications, making them appealing to governments and institutions concerned with security. Scott Aaronson from the University of Texas at Austin notes this.
Another promising area for quantum computers is in modeling materials and chemical reactions. Because quantum computers operate within a framework of quantum objects, they are ideally suited for simulating other quantum systems, such as electrons, atoms, and molecules.
“These are simplified models that don’t accurately reflect real materials. However, if you appropriately design your system, there are numerous properties of real materials you can learn about physics.” Daniel Gottesman from the University of Maryland adds.
While quantum chemical simulations might seem more specialized than flight scheduling, the potential outcomes (such as discovering room-temperature superconductors) could be groundbreaking.
The extent to which these ambitions can be realized heavily relies on the algorithms guiding quantum computations and methods for correcting those pesky errors. This is a complex new domain, as Vedran Dunjko of Leiden University in the Netherlands points out, prompting researchers like himself to confront fundamental questions about information and computation.
“This creates a significant incentive to investigate the complexity of the problem and the potential of computing devices,” Dunjko asserts. “For me, this alone justifies dedicating a substantial portion of my life to these inquiries.”
Explore more articles in this series by using the links below:
Do dogs possess their own thoughts and emotions? What about pigeons, honeybees, earthworms, or jellyfish? Your answer likely reveals a human tendency to attribute consciousness to familiar creatures, while skeptically viewing “simpler” beings like invertebrates.
In truth, we can never be fully sure that other beings possess awareness. “The subjective nature of experience means absolute certainty is unattainable. You can’t even be 100% certain about other humans,” says Jonathan Burch, an author at the London School of Economics, in his work The edge of the senses.
This article is part of our concept special, exploring how experts perceive some of the most surprising ideas in science. Click here for more details.
Despite this uncertainty, evidence can be gathered. We must first clarify what consciousness entails. Philosopher Herbert Feigle’s framework divides consciousness into three layers.
The most basic layer involves raw sensations of the present, including external perceptions and internal emotions such as pain, joy, excitement, and boredom. The second layer, “sapiens,” allows for reflection on our experiences, such as “This is the worst pain I’ve ever felt.” The final layer encompasses our sense of self, recognizing our existence through past and future.
Research into animal consciousness primarily centers on sensation. “Much of this research focuses on pain, but there is a trend toward exploring positive emotions like joy,” says Christine Andrews from York University, Toronto. For instance, fish in pain may swim toward an area of a tank infused with painkillers.
Social behavior provides evidence for the second type of sensation. “Animals acquire much of their knowledge and skills socially,” Andrews states. Even insects exhibit this behavior. For example, fruit flies learn about mating by observing other fruit flies.
Some remarkable findings have revealed that certain animals recognize cultural contexts, such as recent studies showing mice providing “first aid” to unconscious companions. Researchers are also investigating episodic memory—the capacity to reflect on past experiences—and have found it in various mammals, including rats and chimpanzees, as well as birds like scrub jays.
Although we are gathering substantial evidence about sensation, the neurobiological foundations of consciousness remain unclear. “However, these findings may not universally apply to other species with distinct neural structures,” Andrews notes, referencing various studies on mammals that discuss involved brain regions. For example, while insects do not possess a human-like brain, there is strong evidence that they can experience pain, confirming a sensory component.
This challenges the prevailing assumptions of many biologists, but may not be a significant leap for the general public. The notion of animals as intricate automata represents “an anomaly in Western science,” explains Burch. “Non-Western cultures, and indeed many individuals in the West outside academia, have consistently regarded animals as sentient beings.”
Explore other stories in this series through the links below:
When observing the universe, we realize it can sustain life—if it couldn’t, we wouldn’t be here. This notion has been articulated numerous times throughout history, but it lies at the core of the philosophical debate known as the principle of humanity. While seemingly straightforward, it holds complexities.
This article is part of our special concept series, examining the intriguing perspectives scientists have on some of the most unexpected concepts in science. Click here for more information.
The universe seems to be delicately balanced on the edge of habitability, which leads to what scientists call “tweaking problems.” Several fundamental constants, from the mass of neutrons to gravity, require precise values for life to exist. “If some of these constants were larger, it could destabilize all atoms,” says Luke Burns from Western Sydney University, Australia.
The principles of humanity originated as a way to explain why the universe appears to be in this seemingly favorable condition, distilled into a simple idea: the universe must be this way, or we wouldn’t be here to observe it.
There are two central formulations of this principle, both articulated in a 1986 book by cosmologists John Barrow and Frank Tippler. The weak principle states that the basic constants of the universe must be in a state compatible with the existence of life—at least here and now. The strong principle goes further, asserting that these constants must lie within a range conducive to life, implying that the universe is designed to support it. This notion of “necessity” indicates that the universe exists to foster life.
If the weak principle suggests, “A tree falls in the forest and life must be able to thrive there,” the strong principle posits, “This planet is destined to have a forest where the tree can flourish.”
For contemporary scientists, the weak principle acts as a reminder of potential biases in our observations of the universe, especially if conditions are not uniform everywhere. “If we lived in a universe different from our current one, we’d find ourselves in conditions where life was feasible,” notes Shawn Carroll from Johns Hopkins University in Maryland.
As for the strong formulation of the principle, some physicists, like Burns, find it useful. He is exploring various multiverse models and sees the strong principle as a practical benchmark. This implies there’s a 100% chance at least one life-supporting universe will arise within the multiverse framework. Therefore, the closer a multiverse model approaches this 100% likelihood, the more plausible it becomes. Conversely, if the probability is around 50%, he views it as a solid signal of the model’s validity. “But if it hits a square meter, we have a problem,” he states.
Despite its utility, most physicists regard the strong principle as overly deterministic. It implies life was always meant to be present, according to Elliot Thorber from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. “However, the likelihood is minimal; life could have failed to emerge, and we would still be making the same observations.”
Where does that leave us? The strong extrinsic principle offers a solution to the fine-tuning dilemma, yet many consider it an irrational conclusion. In contrast, the weak principle doesn’t clarify why our universe’s constants are finely tuned, though it remains a valuable analytical tool for researchers. As principles go, this topic is quite complex.
Explore other stories in this series using the links below:
My child is extraordinary. He enters the kitchen, glances at me, and articulates enchanting words: “Could I please have a cheese and tomato sandwich?” Moments later, that very snack materializes in front of him.
Other young animals express their hunger through sounds and murmurs, but only humans possess advanced grammar and vocabulary systems that enable precise communication.
This narrative is part of our themed special, showcasing expert perspectives on some of science’s most astonishing concepts. Click here for additional insights.
Research into animal behavior reveals that these creatures exhibit many traits previously thought to be exclusive to humans—from culture to emotional depth, and even aspects of morality. While language may seem to set us apart, “I believe language gives us a unique status as a species,” says Brian Relch from the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
Given this context, one critical area of research focuses on how language originated and why it evolved solely within our human lineage.
Psychologist Simon Edelman from Cornell University proposes in The Magical Power of Language that there is a straightforward evolutionary rationale. Alongside his colleague Oren Korodny, now at Hebrew University in Jerusalem, he theorizes that the origins of language may date back approximately 1.7 million years, coinciding with early humans developing the ability to create stone tools—a skill beyond the capabilities of non-human animals.
The notion is that tool-making locations functioned as learning environments, where novice tool creators required guidance from experienced individuals. Proto-language may have developed as a way for mentors to instruct their students, possibly explaining why both language and tool-making appear to necessitate cognitive structures that organize thoughts in a coherent sequence.
However, around a decade ago, a pivotal experiment questioned this narrative. In 2014, Shelby Putt from Illinois State University and her team investigated how individuals learn to create tools, exposing 24 volunteers either to expert instructions or to direct demonstrations while occasionally engaging their attention. Surprisingly, both approaches proved effective, indicating that intricate tool-making may not rely on verbal language.
This does not imply that Putt views language and tool-making as entirely disconnected. She posits that creating complex tools required individuals to structure their thoughts and organize them to achieve their task. She asserts that this ability led to an expansion of brain regions associated with working memory, enabling easier mental manipulation of concepts.
Nonetheless, Putt suggests that humans utilized these cognitive frameworks to devise language, enhancing communication and potentially increasing survival odds.
All these scenarios presume that language functions fundamentally as a communication tool among individuals. However, an alternative perspective on the evolution of language emphasizes the ways it aids individuals in organizing their thoughts when confronted with complex tasks.
Some, including prominent linguist Noam Chomsky, argue that this may have driven language evolution, suggesting it had no relation to tool-making. These researchers propose that language emerged approximately 70,000 years ago, possibly due to random genetic mutations that reconfigured brain circuitry.
Ultimately, the origins of language remain a subject of debate. If Chomsky and his associates are correct, the development of language was less about magic and more about fortunate circumstances.
Explore other pieces in this series via the links below:
Countless unique asteroids traverse the solar system, amidst millions of distant stars and galaxies captured in the inaugural images released by the Vera C. Rubin Observatory.
“These stunning galaxies were photogenically disrupted by asteroids,” noted Željko Ivezić during a press briefing on June 23rd at Washington University in Seattle, presenting images that showcase several asteroids zipping past two spiral-armed galaxies.
Within just 10 hours of observing the night sky, the telescope, positioned in the pristine atmosphere atop a mountain in the Chilean desert, detected 2,104 previously unknown asteroids. Among these, seven have trajectories that come close to Earth, yet none poses a threat, according to Ivezic.
Researchers identified and tracked newly discovered asteroids in images taken over 10 hours
NSF-DOE VERA C. RUBIN OBSERVATORY
Although telescopes are not primarily designed to detect near-Earth objects, they are intended for a comprehensive study of the universe over a decade. However, their features are also conducive to spotting asteroids. “You need to survey the sky rapidly with a vast field of view,” Ivezic explained.
Asteroids were identified by scrutinizing areas of the sky and noting what was in motion. In the composite image shown by Ivezić during the briefing, the asteroids appeared as colored streaks against the backdrop of brighter objects in deeper space. This enhances our understanding of the neighboring celestial bodies. “We weren’t surprised,” he said. “There’s an impressive simulation.”
Throughout a decade-long research initiative, the telescope is anticipated to identify around 5 million new asteroids, surpassing the total discovered in previous centuries.
Asteroids are marked with a colored dot in front of an image of a galaxy visible in the southern sky
NSF-DOE VERA C. RUBIN OBSERVATORY Copyright: NSF-DOE VERA C. Rubin Observatory
The new detections are reported daily to the US Minor Planet Center, which analyzes orbital paths and identifies objects that could threaten Earth. “In under 24 hours, the world will be informed about potentially hazardous objects,” Ivezic stated.
Matthew Payne from the Minor Planet Center remarked that it’s estimated only 40% of close Earth objects capable of posing a threat have been discovered. An exponential increase in detections from the Vera Rubin Observatory will hasten the identification of the remaining objects.
A substantial rise in observations of other solar system entities—from main belt asteroids between Mars and Jupiter to objects further out beyond Neptune—is anticipated to offer fresh insights into our immediate cosmic neighborhood. “It’s expected to truly revolutionize solar system science,” Payne concluded.
Adult male mouse with two fathers and possessing their own offspring
Yang Chang Wei
For the first time, male mice with two fathers have successfully produced offspring. This significant advancement paves the way for the possibility of two men having a genetically related child, although there are still numerous obstacles to overcome before this could be realized in people.
Yang Chang Wei in Shanghai, China, achieved this by merging two sperm cells with eggs stripped of their nucleus. The research team also reprogrammed seven areas of sperm DNA through a process called epigenome editing to facilitate embryo development.
Out of 259 embryos transferred to female mice, only two male offspring survived and grew, highlighting the low success rates. After mating with a female, both offspring were found to be descendants of the father, exhibiting normal size, weight, and appearance.
Generating a mouse with two fathers has proven far more challenging than producing one with two mothers. The initial report of a viable mouse with two mothers, named Kaguya, surfaced in 2004.
While Kaguya was genetically modified, Wei and his team successfully created similar paternalless mice in 2022 utilizing only epigenome editing without altering DNA sequences. This method was also instrumental in developing motherless mice.
The birth of mammals with two fathers or mothers is notably significant due to the concept of imprinting, which occurs as most animals possess two sets of chromosomes.
During the formation of eggs and sperm, chemical markers are applied to these chromosomes, activating certain genes while deactivating others. These alterations are termed “epigenetic” because they do not modify the actual DNA sequence, yet they can influence gene expression during cell division.
Crucially, the epigenetic programming of mothers differs from that of fathers; genes marked “active” in sperm may be marked “inactive” in eggs, and vice versa.
This discrepancy means that if an egg contains two sets of paternal chromosomes or maternal chromosomes, it will struggle to develop correctly. A gene that should be turned on in one chromosome could become overactive if only one copy of both is present or if both copies are included.
In Kaguya’s scenario, researchers managed this issue by removing some genes, normalizing overall gene activity. However, creating a mouse with two fathers necessitates additional alterations.
Earlier this year, a different team from China managed to produce mice with two fathers after implementing 20 genetic modifications to standardize gene activity, but these mice exhibited neither full health nor fertility.
Although modifying gene activity through genetic alterations aids in researching imprinting in laboratory animals, it remains unpalatable for human application, especially considering the unknown implications of genetic modifications.
For their epigenetic approach, Wei and his team employed modified versions of the CRISPR protein, typically utilized for gene editing. These modified proteins, like standard CRISPR versions, are designed to locate specific sites in the genome. When these sites are identified, the modified proteins can add or remove epigenetic labels without altering the DNA itself.
This research marks a significant breakthrough. Helen O’Neill, University College London, stated, “We confirm that genome imprinting is the primary barrier to mammalian reproduction overnight and demonstrate that it can be surpassed.”
Since this technique does not involve direct genetic modification, it may, in theory, allow same-sex couples to have genetically related children. However, a considerably higher success rate is necessary before such a method can be deemed acceptable for human use. “While this study on producing offspring from same-sex parents is encouraging, it is unlikely to translate to humans due to the vast number of eggs required, the large pool of surrogate women necessary, and the low success rate,” explained Christoph Galichet from the Sainsbury Welcome Centre in the UK.
The low success rate can be attributed to various factors. Firstly, merging the two sperm cells resulted in some embryos containing two Y chromosomes, leading to underdevelopment. Additionally, for effective epigenome editing, all seven targeted sites in the embryo must be successfully modified, and there might have been off-target effects in some instances.
It’s plausible that animal success rates and health could be enhanced by modifying more than seven sites; however, these modifications likely wouldn’t be applicable to human use, considering the differing sites that require changes in humans compared to mice.
If a human baby were to be conceived using this method, the mitochondria within the cell—containing a small amount of DNA—would originate from the egg donor, essentially making it three contributing genetic sources.
In 2023, a Japanese team reported the birth of a mouse puppy with two fathers through a distinct method involving the conversion of mouse stem cells into eggs. However, it remains uncertain whether the puppies thrived into adulthood, and no successful attempts have yet been made to transform human stem cells into eggs.
Building strong friendships may seem like a natural process—finding joy in each other’s presence, sharing laughter, and bonding over common interests. However, the unspoken dynamics of different types of friendships can often be complex. Recent research has shed light on the significance of these relationships in our overall happiness. Yet, there are strategies for nurturing meaningful connections.
This article is a part of our special series that explores how experts view some of the most intriguing concepts in science. Click here for additional information.
Jeffrey Hall, Director of the Relationships and Technology Labs at the University of Kansas, is among the researchers examining ways to cultivate friendships. He suggests viewing friendships as a spectrum—from mere acquaintances to our closest confidants who remain by our side.
“The fundamental requirement is mutual liking and a communication frequency that allows the relationship to develop,” he states. “Trust and a sense of safety in sharing secrets are expected, along with prioritizing each other above others.”
Time invested in a friendship is crucial, as highlighted by Hall’s research. In a series of studies, he had participants recently relocated to a new city map out their social lives. He found that individuals must spend about 57-164 hours with someone before they are deemed “friends,” while developing “good” or “best” friendships typically requires around 200 hours together.
The quality of time spent together is also vital. “Engaging in daily activities—eating, drinking, playing, exploring—helps cement these bonds because we want to share those moments with them,” says Hall, co-author of the upcoming book Social Biome, which delves into these themes. Conversely, being compelled to interact through work or study does little to foster genuine friendships.
It’s common to find ourselves gravitating toward individuals who share common traits. Over the last decade, anthropologist Robin Dunbar from Oxford University identified seven key attributes in “pillars of friendship.” These pillars represent deep connections stemming from shared language, culture, education, career experiences, interests, worldviews, humor, and musical tastes.
He notes that we may share only one or two of these pillars with around 150 people we identify as friends, while only five close companions and about six to seven truly good friends exist in our lives, as mentioned in his book Friends: Understanding the Influence of Our Most Important Relationships.
Interestingly, friends may even share similar brain activity patterns. In a 2018 study, Carolyn Parkinson at UCLA had students watch a series of videos in an fMRI scanner. The results showed that she could predict friendships based on similarities in their brain responses to the clips, indicating that closer friends often have synchronized neural activity.
As discussed in my book, Connection Law, Parkinson’s research explores the concept of shared reality. This idea suggests that having a mutual perspective on the world enhances relationships. “These individuals focus on similar aspects of life and share similar emotional responses to their experiences,” she notes.
Can these connections exist digitally? Hall believes they can. “Communicating via phone or video with loved ones is likely just as beneficial as in-person interactions,” he asserts. “Creating regular opportunities for digital communication can help maintain and enrich these relationships.”
Explore more articles in this series by following the links below:
Can you envision the impression a 4D hexagon might create as it travels through a 3D kitchen table? It might seem implausible, yet some individuals can perceive it.
One such individual was mathematician Alicia Bourstott, daughter of logician George Bourg. In the early 20th century, she devised models of shapes while moving through three-dimensional objects. Years later, when mathematicians could verify her work with computer programs, they found that Stott had an uncanny ability to accurately depict these shapes.
This narrative is part of our special concept, uncovering how specialists ponder some of science’s most astonishing ideas. Click here for further details
For many of us, geometry recalls images of pencils, rulers, triangles, and circles. It evokes the complex questions posed in school involving parallel lines and angles. However, as Boole Stott’s experience illustrates, scholars have been expanding the scope of geometry for some time.
Geometry can transcend the conventional realm of 2D and 3D shapes. A prime example is Albert Einstein’s theory of gravity, known as general relativity, which intertwines with time to form a four-dimensional stage where the universe unfolds.
Moreover, geometry can also explore dimensions that defy physical reality. Take meteorology, for example. Atmospheric data encompasses multiple “dimensions” such as latitude, longitude, temperature, pressure, wind speed, and more.
Researchers visualize these dimensions as shapes extending into higher dimensions, aiding in understanding atmospheric behavior. “From this, we can implement mathematical models to explain what occurs. [those properties] In numerous dimensions,” states mathematician Snezana Lawrence of Middlesex University in London.
For theoretical physicists, extra dimensions appear to be essential for a complete understanding of the universe, with some suggesting that our reality might be a “projection” from a higher dimension. While this idea might sound peculiar, under certain simplified assumptions, physicists can perform calculations related to fundamental particles and black holes.
Some physicists have even proposed the concept of “all theories,” a curious geometric idea that may lead to a unified explanation of the universe and everything within it. One of these concepts is the “amplituhedron,” introduced by Jaroslav Trnka from the University of California, Davis, and Nima Arkani Hamed at the Institute for Advanced Study in New Jersey. Imagine it as an abstract, multidimensional crystal that offers an alternative perspective on the fundamentals of particle physics.
Another concept is “causal dynamic triangulation,” developed by Renate Roll at Radboud University in the Netherlands. This approach stitches together various geometric shapes to craft an explanation of space-time that seems to embody characteristics of both quantum mechanics and general relativity—two concepts that are traditionally seen as incompatible. She asserts that it serves as a testable reflection of both abstract geometric theories and true properties of the universe, as observed in the cosmic microwave background radiation.
Neither of these ideas has yet been universally accepted in all theories. However, some believe that a fresh perspective on physics is essential for progress. There is a growing consensus that this perspective may be expressed through the language of geometry. While the truth of this notion remains to be seen, it is evident that geometry encompasses far more than just hexagons.
Explore other stories in this series using the links below:
In the initial two billion years of Earth’s existence, our planet was dominated by a combination of bacteria and their relatives, the Archaea. This period can be described as “slimeball Earth,” marked by a critical merger that shaped the future of life on our planet.
This article is part of our special concept series, showcasing how experts approach some of the most unexpected concepts in science. Click here for additional insights.
One of these ancient cells engulfed a bacterial cell, and remarkably, the bacterium survived. Together, they replicated, leading the engulfed bacteria to evolve into mitochondria, which serve as the energy source for these early cells.
Nick Lane from University College London discovered that mitochondria enabled these cells to express an extraordinary 200,000 times more genes, fostering growth and the emergence of varied life forms. This new combination eventually evolved into complex eukaryotic cells, resulting in nearly every organism observable without a microscope, including humans.
Coexistence is fundamental to our existence, a factor that continues to sustain us today. Over 80% of terrestrial plant species engage in symbiotic relationships with mycorrhizal fungi, which provide essential nutrients while plants supply the fungi with carbohydrates. Without this interaction, oxygen as we know it would be nonexistent. The soil itself is a product of symbiosis among fungi, bacteria, and plants—an ecological partnership that took root when life transitioned from sea to land roughly 500 million years ago.
When many think of “symbiosis,” they often envision entities coexisting peacefully, like the clownfish and anemone or the vibrant ecosystems of coral reefs. Lichens, too, symbolize the intimate connections among distinct life kingdoms. Generally, we perceive symbiosis as a benevolent arrangement characterized by mutual benefit.
However, experts suggest viewing symbiotic relationships on a spectrum, ranging from parasitism to mutualism. Katie Field from the University of Sheffield, UK, points out that reciprocity isn’t always altruistic; partners often give in hopes of future benefits.
To illustrate this spectrum, consider the diverse strategies employed by orchids. Their minuscule seeds contain very few resources and must parasitize mycorrhizal fungi to access the sugars and nutrients needed for germination. As they develop leaves, some species begin to establish a more reciprocal relationship with the fungus, shifting from parasitism to mutual benefit.
Conversely, older orchids might provide sustenance for younger ones, while certain species may remain parasitic indefinitely, never developing photosynthetic leaves. “There’s a whole cycle of different stages of symbiotic interactions,” Field remarks.
Another significant perspective on symbiosis is its potential as a key to a sustainable future. Leguminous plants such as pulses, beans, and lentils utilize symbiotic bacteria to convert atmospheric nitrogen into fertilizer. Recent studies indicate that these plants have adapted mechanisms from existing cellular structures for this purpose.
This revelation could pave the way for other crops, notably grains like wheat and corn—staples that account for half of human caloric intake—to produce their fertilizers. Giles Oldroyd from the Crop Science Center at Cambridge University is exploring this avenue, with hopes of significantly reducing the reliance on chemical fertilizers in agriculture.
Oldroyd is conducting field trials using modified crops to harness the power of symbiosis, with a clear mission to minimize the use of chemical fertilizers. “I’m committed to this goal,” he states.
Explore more stories in this series through the links below:
Traditionally, we envision particles as tangible objects—tiny, point-like entities with specific properties like position and velocity. In reality, however, particles are energetic fluctuations within an underlying field that fills the universe, and they cannot be directly observed. This concept can be quite perplexing.
This article is part of our special focus on concepts, examining how experts interpret some of the most astonishing ideas in science. Click here for more information.
Furthermore, there exists a layer of complexity due to quasiparticles, which arise from intricate interactions among the “fundamental” particles found in solids, liquids, and plasma. These quasiparticles possess fascinating properties of proximity, suggesting the potential for exotic new materials and techniques, challenging our established notions of particles.
“When discussing what particles are, the topic can become quite convoluted,” states Douglas Natelson from Rice University in Houston, Texas. He describes quasiparticles as “excitations in a material that exhibit many characteristics associated with particles.” They can have relatively well-defined positions and velocities and can carry charge and energy. So why aren’t they considered actual particles?
The answer lies in their existence. Natelson likens this to fans performing “waves” in a stadium. “We can observe the waves and think, ‘Look! There’s a wave, it’s of a certain size, moving at a specific speed.’ But those waves are essentially a collective phenomenon, resulting from the actions of all the fans present.”
To create a quasiparticle, physicists often manipulate materials like metal substrates subjecting them to extreme temperatures, pressures, or magnetic fields. Subsequently, they study the collective behavior of the intrinsic particles.
One intriguing phenomenon recognized in the 1940s involved a “hole,” which describes a lack of negative electrons that should normally be present. By analyzing these holes as if they were independent entities, researchers were able to develop semiconductors that power modern laptops and smartphones.
“Essentially, modern electronics hinge on both electrons and holes,” remarks Leon Balents from the University of California, Santa Barbara. “We continuously utilize these quasiparticles.”
Over the years, we have uncovered an entire spectrum of exotic quasiparticles. Magnons emerge from spin waves, a fundamental quantum property related to magnetism. Cooper pairs, present at low temperatures, can transmit charge without resistance in superconductors. The list expands, continually growing as physicists predict and observe peculiar new types with strange names, such as pi tons, fractures, and even wrinkles.
Among the more thrilling discoveries is the non-Abelian anyon. Unlike typical particles, these quasiparticles possess the ability to retain memory of how they were altered.
The practicality of these quasiparticles remains uncertain, according to Balents. Nonetheless, major companies like Microsoft have heavily invested in research involving quasiparticles.
The ongoing investigation raises fundamental questions about particle nature itself. If quasiparticles exhibit particle-like characteristics, one must consider whether the “fundamental” particles (e.g., electrons, photons, quarks) might emerge from a more profound underlying framework.
“Are what we classify as fundamental particles truly elementary, or could they be quasiparticles arising from more basic fundamental theories?” ponders Natelson. “An eternally looming question.”
Explore more articles in this series via the links below:
Killer whales demonstrate strong social interactions
Shutterstock/Tory Kallman
Orcas off the coast of North America have been observed engaging in a unique behavior, grooming each other with kelp—showcasing an intriguing instance of marine mammals utilizing tools.
For several years now, scientists have closely monitored a population of 80 endangered killer whales in the Pacific region between British Columbia and Washington. Researchers employed drones to capture a bird’s-eye view of these whales’ activities.
Since analyzing the footage from summer 2024, they have noted Orcas manipulating kelp chains in a peculiar manner. “It’s quite strange,” states Rachel John from the Whale Research Center in Washington, “but whales are known for their quirky behaviors.”
The footage reveals Orcas snapping off kelp stems at the seabed by using their teeth and rocking back and forth on their heads. The segments they break off are approximately the length of their beak-like snout. Remarkably, the Orcas consistently target specific parts of the kelp rather than randomly selecting pieces.
After breaking the kelp, the whales rub it between their heads and the sides of their pod mates, taking turns to groom each other for extended periods—sometimes lasting up to 12 minutes.
“What’s fascinating is that they lack appendages like hands, so they accomplish this using deliberate body movements,” adds John.
Known as “kelping,” this behavior, observed among Orcas, could be a social variation of existing grooming habits. “The social bonds in this group are exceptionally strong, and physical contact is a known way to reinforce these ties,” explains John.
This behavior was observed across all ages and genders within the pod, with the data suggesting that whales of similar ages were more likely to engage in this “kelping” behavior together. Importantly, it may serve as a form of hygiene, says John. The team found that Orcas were more inclined to scrub each other with kelp if they had any skin issues.
While it’s premature to ascertain any health benefits from this behavior, Olaf Meynecke from Griffith University in Australia expresses interest in having researchers compare the skin bacteria of Orcas with kelp properties to identify any correlations.
“It makes perfect sense that they would explore what resources the oceans provide to mitigate skin infections,” comments Meynecke. He believes this behavior may be prevalent among other Orca pods as well as various whale species.
The killer whale populations in the southern regions are critically endangered and are protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act. Currently, their population averages around 73 years. These creatures are highly social, forming close-knit family groups led by their mothers and grandmothers.
Each whale receives a tracking number from the Whale Research Center and is meticulously monitored by researchers, photographers, and whale watchers.
According to Giles, “I would argue that this is the most studied whale population globally, regardless of species, due to the extensive research conducted over the last 50 years.”
What led to this remarkable behavior going unnoticed by researchers for decades?
The issue lay in their perspective.
Weiss remarked, “This behavior is truly inexplicable. It’s predominantly underwater, with approximately two feet of kelp wedged between the two animals.”
Recently, researchers have begun utilizing drones to observe whales from the sky. As drone technology has advanced, so too has the quality of the data gathered.
“A major breakthrough during the 2024 field season was our acquisition of a new drone,” Weiss revealed.
He mentioned that researchers first noticed a whale nudging another whale’s horn in April, followed by about 15 minutes of them rubbing against each other.
Once this unusual behavior was recognized, its occurrence began to increase significantly.
“We started observing it frequently. At least one whale exhibits this behavior every day when we fly the drone,” Weiss said.
Researchers believe this behavior may have been ongoing all along.
Giles noted, “We simply lacked the appropriate perspective. This behavior may have existed since ancient times. We’ve only scratched the surface of understanding these animals.”
For years, Southern resident whales have been at the forefront of conservation efforts. The Marine Mammals Commission reports that these whales face numerous threats, such as decreased prey availability, toxic pollution, and disturbances from ship noise. Studies indicate that without urgent intervention, Southern resident killer whales could face extinction.
Weiss emphasized that these new insights highlight the necessity of protecting the species.
“Through these discoveries, I’ve realized that the later stages of our study present even more to uncover, and we must ensure their survival to learn it,” he stated. “This isn’t just a group of 73 whales; it’s a distinct culture and society. These whales possess a rich array of traditions that trace back thousands of years.”
Illustration of TRAPPIST-1, a red dwarf star with at least seven orbiting planets
Mark Garlick/Alamy
Investigating the atmosphere surrounding the TRAPPIST-1 star system, one of the most promising locations in the galaxy, may prove even more challenging for astronomers than previously anticipated due to sporadic radiation bursts emitted by the stars.
First identified in 2016, TRAPPIST-1 is a diminutive red star located about 40 light years from Earth and is known to orbit at least seven planets. Several of these planets are situated within habitable zones that could support liquid water, making them prime candidates for astronomers searching for signs of extraterrestrial life.
For life to be sustainable, these planets must retain an atmosphere. Up to now, extensive observations from the James Webb Space Telescope have shown no signs of atmospheres on any of the planets.
Now, Julien DeWitt from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and his team have detected minor bursts emanating from TRAPPIST-1 for several minutes each hour. These radiation surges seem to complicate the planets’ capacity to capture light filtering through their atmospheres — if they exist — which is essential for determining the chemical makeup of any atmosphere.
Using the Hubble Space Telescope, DeWitt and his team searched for specific ultraviolet wavelengths from TRAPPIST-1 that would be absorbed by hydrogen. If a planet detected this light more than anticipated while transiting in front of the star, it could suggest that hydrogen was escaping from its atmosphere.
Although they found no definitive evidence, significant variabilities in different observations hint that extra light is being emitted at certain times. Hubble data can be divided into 5-minute increments, showing that this additional light is fleeting. DeWitt and his team deduce that these must be microflares — akin to solar flares from our sun, but occurring more frequently.
TRAPPIST-1 is quite faint, requiring astronomers to observe for extended periods to gather enough light. “Furthermore, there’s this flaring activity, which coincides with the timing of the transiting planets,” DeWitt states. “It’s particularly difficult to draw any conclusive insights regarding the existence of [atmospheres on the exoplanets],” he adds.
DeWitt and his colleagues also assessed whether these flares could impede a planet’s ability to retain its atmosphere. They found that one planet, TRAPPIST-1b, which the James Webb Space Telescope had already failed to detect atmospheric evidence for, could lose an equivalent of 1,000 times the hydrogen found in Earth’s oceans every million years. However, it’s often challenging to pinpoint which of these flares actually impact the planet. DeWitt suggests many uncertainties and various scenarios still need exploration.
Such stars can exhibit varying activity levels, but TRAPPIST-1 appears to be experiencing a more active phase, states Ekaterina Ilin from the Dutch Institute of Radio Astronomy. “This outcome isn’t completely unexpected or otherworldly; it’s just unfortunate. It’s more active than we had hoped,” she remarks. “In a way, it adds new layers to interpreting these flares, especially if you consider them.”
Geologists have identified rocks that originated in the deep sea during the early Jurassic era, around 180 million years ago, indicating a deficiency of oxygen in the ocean. These rocks were enriched with carbon atoms, specifically Carbon 12 compared to heavier carbon atoms, known as Carbon-13. Carbon-13 is denser than Carbon-12 due to having an additional neutron. Atoms belonging to the same element but with varying neutron counts are referred to as Isotopes, and the decrease in the ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 in rock samples is termed Negative carbon isotope distal.
Previous studies have demonstrated that during the early Jurassic, the release of photocarbon 12 into the atmosphere led to a doubling of carbon dioxide levels and an increase in ocean temperatures by 5°C, equivalent to about 9°F. This warming event is known as the Toarcian Marine Anoxia Event.
Sadly, the specific triggers for this carbon 12 release remain unclear, as there is no defined timeline for the Toarcian events. Previous estimates suggested that rock sections exhibiting low carbon isotopic ratios spanned between 300,000 to 1.5 million years. This uncertainty complicates comparisons between Toarcian warming events and more contemporary warming occurrences. Consequently, an international research team recently employed a high-precision dating technique to ascertain the exact duration of these events.
The team analyzed the Sakuradani tick section in the Tab Basin, Japan. During the early Jurassic, this region was accumulating sediment, including mud, sand, and organic matter near the coastline. The section, approximately 90 meters thick (or about 300 feet), contained layers with negative carbonate isotopic distals. Within the slope, these layers extend from around 33 meters deep to 45 meters deep.
Researchers also identified three layers of rock formed from volcanic ash both above and below the layer containing distal carbon isotopes. The upper ash layer is located about 16 meters within the rock section, while the lower ash layer can be found at approximately 49 and 51 meters. The researchers utilized volcanic ash minerals to accurately date the crystallization age of the layers. They reported that the volcanic ash layers are approximately 182.3 million, 182.5 million, and 182.9 million years old, from youngest to oldest.
These observations indicate that 62 meters (approximately 200 feet) of rock between the ash layers accumulated over a span of 400,000 years. Considering the sediment volume deposited during this time, the researchers concluded that the rock sections with distal carbon isotopes required more than 300,000 years to develop. They estimated that the duration of the Toarcian marine anoxic events was significantly shorter than earlier assumptions, lasting less than 417,000 years, with a minimum duration of 169,000 years.
With this information, the team sought to connect the Toarcian warming event and the associated carbon isotope distal to its source. They hypothesized that the event was at least partially related to volcanic activity during the early Jurassic period, which altered the composition of the surface rocks. This surge of magma to the surface could have caused the rocks to emit carbon dioxide and methane, leading to a rise in global temperatures and releasing 12 photocarbons.
The researchers concluded that volcanic activity was likely responsible for the marine anoxia events during the Toarcian period. They noted that earlier scientists had proposed volcanic mechanisms for other warming events of a similar nature. They recommend that future studies explore the direct impacts of the marine anaerobic events during the Toarcian and quantify the extent of carbon release that occurred.
Even if you haven’t experienced smartphone theft personally, you likely know someone who has. Last year alone, 80,000 mobile phones were reported stolen in London. For those affected, losing a costly device can feel devastating, and navigating the tedious process of replacing it, which holds all your vital information, can be frustrating. So, what can be done to prevent phone theft and better safeguard your personal data?
The explanation involves various factors, including how criminals exploit stolen phones, alongside the failure of tech companies focused on user-friendly designs over security measures, and the lack of coordinated international strategies. In short, it’s a multifaceted issue.
Some victims have expressed frustration with the police for their perceived lack of action against phone thieves. NAV Dugmore, who hails from Wolverhampton, England, had her iPhone snatched just moments after she exited Euston Station in London. “Honestly, it hurt me,” she recalls. “We need better systems to deter them from using stolen phones. I think the police could do more.”
The Metropolitan Police informed her that other thefts had occurred in the same vicinity recently, admitting that the chances of recovery were “nonexistent.” Although Dugmore activated face recognition on her phone, it was unlocked when the thief grabbed it, allowing them to quickly spend £300 at various London stores. The most painful loss for her was a photo of her three young children that wasn’t backed up.
When a phone like Dugmore’s is stolen, it enters a grim cycle with multiple potential fates. The simplest scenario for thieves is to sell the phone, frequently exporting it to other countries. Some may also sell the devices for parts at non-official repair shops. According to Daniel Green, a police inspector in London, the thief was connected to a gang that ships the stolen devices out of the country.
More elaborate crimes can occur as well, such as removing SIM cards to disguise the phone’s identity and using another mobile to access text messages, emails, and websites that require two-factor authentication. This can be somewhat mitigated by setting up a PIN on the SIM card, yet this requires action before theft occurs.
Thieves mainly target unsecured phones, but even safeguarding your device with a PIN isn’t foolproof, warns James O’Sullivan, who runs an app called Nuke, designed to assist those whose phones have been stolen. Thieves might simply observe you enter your PIN or employ clever tactics to outsmart your security measures. For instance, if you trigger and then cancel the emergency SOS feature on an iPhone, access via face or fingerprint recognition is temporarily disabled, necessitating a PIN entry the next time. A skilled thief could document you while you unwittingly do this, preparing to capture the input after reclaiming the phone.
Unlocked devices expand the criminals’ possibilities. Thieves can access online banking apps and cryptocurrency wallets, even scamming the victim’s friends and family for emergency funds. They can also share fraudulent links through social media, fishing for further login information and private data.
What measures can we take? At least the UK government acknowledges the issue. In the latter half of last year, they initiated a crackdown aimed at pressuring smartphone manufacturers to permanently disable stolen devices. They also pledged to conduct research aimed at understanding the dynamics of phone theft and devising solutions.
In theory, technology exists to render stolen phones useless. Each device carries a unique IMEI code, allowing reported stolen codes to be blocked on mobile networks. However, blocked phones can still access the internet through Wi-Fi. For years, the Met Police has urged tech firms to enhance protocols to restrict access to cloud services on stolen phones, making them less desirable to thieves. So far, both Apple and Google have not complied.
This also becomes problematic when trying to enforce restrictions across countries, similar to IMEI blocks. Green hopes that manufacturers will create permanent kill switches to effectively eliminate the incentive for phone theft altogether. “I don’t know if that’s a problem for them,” he remarks. “We need to push more. We’re trying to pick up the pieces on the sidelines, which is a tall order.”
Jordan Hare, a former digital forensics expert with law enforcement now working for private security firm S-RM, states that many phones already possess security features capable of thwarting the most determined criminals. For instance, certain devices will lock automatically if they detect sudden movements, such as being grabbed by a thief.
The issue arises because many of these protective measures are disabled by default. Hare emphasizes that companies design for user convenience, often at the expense of security awareness. “Opting in for these features doesn’t benefit the average consumer, who may not even know they exist,” he explains. “An opt-out approach where users are informed that certain settings are enabled and why they should remain on would be far more effective.”
Meanwhile, other admirable security features, like locating your phone via a web browser, fall short in practicality. If the phone is tracked far from its original location, there’s little a police officer can do without extensive paperwork for search warrants.
Dugmore experienced this firsthand with her stolen iPhone. “The last known location was about ten miles from where my phone was taken,” she recounts. “The police indicated that they wouldn’t be able to retrieve it.” When approached for comment, the Metropolitan Police told New Scientist: “Unfortunately, the investigation couldn’t progress due to the lack of CCTV in the area. We’re aware of the victim’s concerns.”
Most prominent smartphone manufacturers, including New Scientist Samsung, Xiaomi, and Google, did not respond. However, Apple did provide a statement.
“For more than a decade, we’ve been actively addressing this issue through hardware, software, and customer support,” an Apple representative stated. “We are committed to investing in industry-leading tools and features designed to empower users against theft,” although they did not clarify why some security features aren’t activated by default.
Ultimately, preventing smartphone theft hinges on ensuring manufacturers remove any appeal that criminals might find in stolen devices. They possess the capability to control hardware and software, developing features that could entirely secure your phone, its applications, and components against misuse or resale. However, O’Sullivan asserts that it doesn’t appear to be a priority. “To be candid, stolen phones generate considerable profit for those selling new devices.”
Trifid (top right) and Lagoon (center) nebula view from Vera C. Rubin Observatory
NSF-DOEVERA C. Rubin Observatory
The stunning pink and blue regions of this stellar nursery, along with dense clusters of surrounding galaxies, mark the initial insights from the Vera C. Rubin Observatory.
These images were crafted from about 10 hours of observations atop Chile’s Celopachen Mountain, serving as tests to illustrate the types of captures Rubin can produce. The telescope’s extensive mission to monitor the night sky, recognized as a legacy study of space and time, is set to commence later this year.
The initial image (above) showcases the Trifid Nebula, a striking pink and blue formation located in the upper right corner, where numerous young stars emerge from a star-forming region. At the image’s center lies the Lagoon Nebula, a large expanse of interstellar gas and dust. To create this visual, astronomers amalgamated 678 individual photographs taken by Rubin over a span of seven hours.
A close-up of the full Virgo cluster as seen from Vera C. Rubin Observatory
NSF-DOEVERA C. Rubin Observatory
The subsequent image focuses on the Virgo cluster, a composition of thousands of galaxies recognized by astronomers for ages. While the brightest members are visible through a basic telescope, Rubin’s detailed capture presents the entire cluster and its surrounding galaxies. For a more comprehensive view, check out the full zoom-out image showcased in the video below, which reveals around 10 million galaxies.
These represent only 0.5% of the 20 billion galaxies that Rubin will observe throughout its lifespan, assisting in unraveling the enigmas of dark matter and exploring the potential for a mysterious ninth planet within our solar system.
Observatory photos will be unveiled during the live stream today at 4 PM (11 AM EDT).
Juan Salvo (Ricardo Darín) Faces the Deadly Snowfall in Buenos Aires
Mariano Landette/Netflix
Forever Netflix
Creating impactful art comes down to specificity. While this notion might undermine broader statements, it’s a guiding principle for me. The focus isn’t on appealing to the lowest common denominator; rather, it’s about the unique elements of artists that resonate and captivate audiences.
Perhaps that explains the surge of TV apocalypse narratives. Forever offers a refreshing perspective. This new Netflix series is inspired by a beloved comic book series from 1957, crafted by the renowned Argentinian writer Hector German Oesterheld.
The show draws upon themes from Oesterheld’s 1969 story reboot, echoing his growing anti-imperialist sentiments. This narrative, intertwined with the realities of violence linked to the Argentine military dictatorship, deserves greater recognition globally.
On a summer evening in Buenos Aires, Juan Salvo (Ricardo Darín) and his friends congregate in a basement for a game of Traco. Amidst laughter and whiskey, they experience an unusual phenomenon: the snow that has only fallen thrice in Buenos Aires’s recorded history turns lethal, killing anyone who touches it almost immediately.
Trapped indoors, Juan is uncertain about the fate of his ex-wife Elena (Carla Peterson) and daughter Clara (Mora Fiss). Dressed in a waterproof suit and gas mask, he braves the treacherous streets as panic rises in the community, igniting debates on resource sharing among survivors.
This narrative is rooted in genuine violence and delusions, yet it deserves greater fame.
Though I haven’t read the original comics due to limited availability in the UK, the modern adaptations seem effective. A notable update involves the protagonist’s backstory as a soldier from the 1982 Falklands War, enriching his role as a leader among survivors while his unresolved trauma contributes to the haunting visions he faces.
The storyline of Forever echoes that of many apocalyptic dramas, albeit with distinct nuances that elevate it within the genre. The Spanish series maintains authenticity by preserving its Argentine context rather than setting the drama in the typically overused NYC or London backdrop, making room for unique elements ranging from architecture to societal issues.
Before watching, I was unaware of Argentina’s history and how Oesterheld and his four daughters (two of whom were pregnant) vanished during the 1977 military dictatorship. The significance of this new series sheds light on the families affected during that tragic time. An Updated Search suggests that he may have been connected to other families due to his missing grandchildren’s plight. This tragic backdrop imbues the adaptation with depth, far surpassing its peers.
Some weaknesses in Forever do exist: the pacing of the initial three episodes feels sluggish and the treatment of female characters is somewhat lacking. Nonetheless, it remains a deeply engaging survival drama, with the narrative complexity increasing in the latter half. Plus, here’s a pleasant surprise—the series has been renewed for a second season following its sleeper success on Netflix.
I Also Recommend:
The Mist Directed by Frank Darabont When a mysterious fog envelops the town of Bridgeton, residents are forced to either stay indoors or confront a deadly threat. This Stephen King adaptation offers a surprising twist with a new ending.
I’m Still Here Directed by Walter Salles Elsa Sanchez, the widow of comic book writer Hector German Oesterheld, seeks justice against the Argentine military regime. Her journey parallels Eunice Paiva’s story, captured in this remarkable film about her husband’s assassination under a Brazilian dictatorship.
Bethan Ackerley is a sub-editor at New Scientist. She has a passion for science fiction, sitcoms, and all things eerie. Follow her at @inkerley
The Art and Science of Crafting Science Fiction
Engage in science fiction writing this weekend, focusing on the creation of new worlds and innovative artworks.
Being located in the Northern Hemisphere, my recommendations for observing the night sky are often limited by this perspective. Thus, in this edition, we shift our focus to the stunning views offered by the Southern Hemisphere, particularly the Milky Way during this time.
Every visible star belongs to our galaxy; when I gaze at the night sky, I’m encountering the Milky Way. Stargazers refer to the Milky Way as the luminous bands of stars and cosmic dust found toward the core of our spiral galaxy. This plane is tilted approximately 60 degrees relative to the solar system, enabling us to see the inner edge of the spiral arm that faces away from our location. Viewed in three dimensions, it resembles a curved arc across the sky.
This view is significantly enhanced in the Southern Hemisphere due to the Earth’s tilt. Stargazers in the southern part of the globe have the advantage of looking toward the galaxy’s center, while those in the north gaze away from it into a star-bereft region. This positioning allows for a clearer view of numerous constellations near the galactic core, including Centaurus and Sagittarius.
Regardless of your location on Earth, we share the same sunlit side, making this the optimum time for celestial observation. However, the Southern Hemisphere offers year-round visibility of the Milky Way—a perk of our planet’s tilt plus the benefits of darker nights during this season.
A decade-old study indicates that one-third of the global population is unable to see the Milky Way, a figure likely increasing due to growing light pollution. I encourage you to seek a remote location on a moonlit night; a new moon, around June 25th, would be ideal. It typically takes your eyes about 40 minutes to adjust to darkness, so if you’re in the Northern Hemisphere, you might need to wait until after midnight for optimal conditions.
Some of my most unforgettable nights under the stars occurred in the Southern Hemisphere. The first was at Mount Cook, New Zealand, in early June, and the second was at Warrumbungle National Park, Australia, in April. On both occasions, I was utterly amazed by the sight of the Milky Way, as captured in the image of Uluru, Australia.
If you’re stargazing in the Southern Hemisphere, make sure to look for the Milky Way. You might even spot two of our neighboring galaxies: the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds. Neither of these is visible from the Northern Hemisphere but can be located near the southern celestial pole.
Abigail Beall is the editor of New Scientist and author of Art of Urban Astronomy. Follow her @abbybeall
For additional projects, visit newscientist.com/maker
Strategies to Prevent Nightmares, Such as Avoiding Scary Movies
Andrii Lysenko/Getty Images
Experiencing nightmares weekly may accelerate aging and significantly increase the chances of early death.
“Individuals with more frequent nightmares experience faster aging and a higher risk of premature death,” states Abidemi Otaiku from Imperial College London.
In collaboration with his team, Otaiku examined data from over 183,000 adults aged between 26 to 86 who participated in several studies, initially self-reporting their nightmare frequency over a span of 1.5 to 19 years.
The findings revealed that individuals reporting weekly nightmares are over three times more likely to die before reaching 70 compared to those who do not experience nightmares.
Moreover, the researchers noted that the frequency of nightmares is a more potent predictor of preterm birth than factors such as smoking, obesity, poor diet, or inadequate physical activity. Otaiku presented these findings at the European Neurological Society Conference 2025 held in Helsinki, Finland, on June 23rd.
The team additionally assessed participants’ biological ages by measuring telomere lengths, small DNA sequences at the ends of chromosomes that shorten with each cell division; short telomeres linked to premature aging. This segment of the study also included approximately 2,400 children aged 8 to 10, while adults contributed further biological age data using epigenetic clocks.
According to Otaiku, their research established a consistent connection between frequent nightmares and accelerated aging across various ages, genders, and ethnic backgrounds. “Even in childhood, those with frequent nightmares exhibit shorter telomeres, indicating faster cellular aging,” he remarked. In adults, this accelerated biological aging accounts for roughly 40% of their heightened risk of death.
Regarding the reasoning behind this association, Otaiku suggests two main factors. The first is the elevated levels of the stress hormone cortisol triggered by nightmares. These levels are linked to faster cellular aging. “Nightmares elicit a more intense stress response than what is typically experienced upon waking, often rousing us with pounding hearts,” he explained.
The second factor involves sleep disruption, which hinders the body’s overnight cellular repair processes. Poor sleep quality is associated with an increased risk of various health issues, including heart disease.
For those wishing to reduce their occurrence of nightmares, Otaiku suggests straightforward strategies, such as avoiding scary movies and addressing mental health issues like anxiety.
“This is a fascinating finding with a number of biological underpinnings,” said Guy Restiner from the NHS Foundation Trust at Guy and St. Thomas. However, he emphasized that further research is necessary to identify causal relationships, noting that nightmares can be associated with various medical conditions and medications that may impact the findings as individuals age.
Deep within the shadowy oceans, a variety of curious and enigmatic creatures inhabit the depths, such as the frilled shark (Chlamydoselachus anguineus), which has been known for over a century, yet much of its lifestyle remains elusive.
We gain insight into their appearance through the occasional specimens caught in deep-sea fishing nets across the globe.
These sharks typically measure about 2 meters (6.5 feet) in length, with smooth, tube-like brown or gray bodies and dorsal fins positioned lower on their backs, close to the tail of their elongated form.
The most peculiar characteristic is found at the front end. The frilled shark possesses six prominent gill slits, exceeding the number found in most other sharks.
Indeed, there are five other known species in the frilled shark taxonomic order, Hexanchiformes, which include the Sixgill and Seven Gill sharks.
The name “frilled shark” derives from the unique ruffled edges of its gill slits, with the extended tips of the gill filaments visible.
The first pair of gill slits connects beneath the throat, resembling a lacy collar.
Moreover, their mouths are larger, akin to those of lizards, compared to typical sharks. Inside, they feature a series of three-pronged teeth resembling tiny tridents.
Studies of the stomach contents from rare specimens reveal that frilled sharks employ their three-pronged teeth to capture soft-bodied squid.
They are also reported to occasionally consume fish and other shark species. Unlike many sharks, pregnant female frilled sharks do not lay eggs; rather, the eggs hatch internally.
The newborn sharks begin life as embryos, attached to egg yolks, which serve as a nutritional source during their development.
Photos of the frilled shark (Chlamydoselachus anguineus) were taken in collaboration with the University of the Zoological Museum in Hamburg. – Photo credit: Aramie
One mystery that remains unsolved is the duration of their pregnancy. If other deep-sea sharks are indicative, it could take several years before a frilled shark pup emerges into the ocean.
Often mischaracterized as “living fossils,” frilled sharks garnered significant attention in 2022 after a viral video showcased rare footage of live frilled sharks in Japan, prompting news outlets worldwide to clarify misconceptions.
These creatures likely exist for decades.
However, it is indeed true that the oldest known fossils of frilled sharks date back to the late Cretaceous period, approximately 80 million years ago, displaying surprisingly little change through time.
The fossils indicate that the ancestors of frilled sharks exhibited similar deep-sea swimming behaviors.
This suggests that these unusual-looking sharks have been gracefully navigating the oceans with their snake-like bodies for millions of years, and although their young are rarely observed, they continue to thrive today.
Please email us to submit your questionsQuestion @sciencefocus.com or MessageFacebook,XorInstagramPage (don’t forget to include your name and location).
Check out our ultimateFun fact More amazing science pages
You might have come across videos online featuring Donald Trump and Elon Musk. These clips recreate iconic scenes from shows like Breaking Bad. Additionally, you may have seen footage of them dancing to the classic hit “YMCA” at the Great Year Day Party.
The catch is that while one of these scenarios actually took place, the other is a fabrication created using artificial intelligence (AI). You may recall both events, but can you tell which one is *?
In psychological terms, the “source monitoring framework” illustrates how we identify the origins of our memories.
This framework treats the source of a memory as a cohesive unit of information, encoded alongside other elements of our experiences.
However, the “tags” that denote the origins of a memory can easily fade, leaving other aspects intact.
As a result, AI-generated clips may blur in our minds with actual events, which is a growing concern as the quality of AI videos continues to improve.
Many of us hold fragmented memories but often struggle to distinguish what’s real from imagined scenarios – Credit: Gary Yowell via Getty
This dissociation between memory content and its origin is a common occurrence. You may recognize the actor on screen, yet find yourself unable to recall any other films or shows he has appeared in.
Her research indicates that when certain ideas are suggested to us, we may foster them in our own minds but later forget their original source, leading us to confuse them with genuine experiences.
According to Loftus’s findings, AI can easily plant numerous false memories in our minds, particularly when we consume artificial content in environments similar to those where we consume authentic news.
This raises critical questions about how to label AI-generated content and how to help people remember that it is fictional.
*For clarification, the dance at the New Year’s Eve party was indeed real.
This article responds to the inquiry (posed by Christopher Wiley of Birmingham): “Does artificial intelligence give us false memories?”
Please email us your questionsat Question @sciencefocus.com or reach out viaFacebook,Twitter, orInstagram(please include your name and location).
Explore more of our ultimateFun facts and captivating science pages
Groundbreaking research indicates that middle-aged individuals in the initial stages of Alzheimer’s disease may become more sociable.
Utilizing data from nearly half a million Britons over 40, the study revealed that those at a high genetic risk for Alzheimer’s are more likely to enjoy positive social lives, have happy family relationships, and experience less isolation.
“This finding was remarkable for us,” stated Dr. Scott Zimmerman, a senior researcher at Boston University. BBC Science Focus.
“We anticipated finding evidence of withdrawal from social networks, possibly due to changes in social activities and mood regulation. Instead, we encountered the opposite.”
Research published in American Journal of Epidemiology, concluded that individuals showing early signs of Alzheimer’s may engage more with family and friends, noting subtle changes in cognitive functions, and may receive additional support through daily interactions.
Dementia has often been linked to feelings of social isolation and loneliness. However, it remains unclear whether such loneliness is a risk factor for developing Alzheimer’s or if social withdrawal stems from the disease itself.
These findings imply that adults genetically predisposed to Alzheimer’s are unlikely to withdraw socially years prior to a formal diagnosis when significant symptoms emerge.
“Their social life may expand,” explained co-author Dr. Ashwin Kotwal, an associate professor of medicine at UCSF. He noted that this study does not contradict previous research on Alzheimer’s and social withdrawal but rather enhances the understanding of the relationship.
“This study suggests that the connection between social isolation and dementia risk, supported by other research, is not simply a result of early symptoms leading to withdrawal,” said co-researcher Dr. Louisia Chen, a postdoctoral researcher at Boston University. BBC Science Focus.
“This underscores the importance of maintaining social connections for better brain health.”
Adults in their 40s, 50s, and 60s with a genetic predisposition to dementia showed a greater tendency to thrive socially – Credit: Skynesher via Getty
In addition to genetic predispositions, various lifestyle factors can influence the development of dementia, including exercise habits, smoking, blood pressure, glucose levels, sleep patterns, mental health, and medication use.
These modifiable factors may explain around 30% of Alzheimer’s cases, with loneliness potentially being one of them.
“In an era marked by decreasing social engagement, we hope families, communities, and policymakers will explore ways to foster healthy social interactions throughout people’s lives,” remarked Dr. Jacqueline Torres, an associate professor of epidemiology and biostatistics. BBC Science Focus.
read more:
About our experts
Dr. Scott Campbell Zimmerman is a senior researcher in epidemiology at Boston University’s Faculty of Public Health.
Dr. Ashwin Kotwal is an assistant professor of medicine in the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) School of Medicine’s Department of Geriatric Medicine. He co-leads UCSF’s social connection and aging lab, focusing on the health impacts of loneliness and social isolation among older populations.
Dr. Louisia Chen is a postdoctoral researcher in epidemiology at Boston University’s Faculty of Public Health. Her work focuses on how social determinants over the life course contribute to the risks and disparities related to dementia.
Dr. Jacqueline Torres is a social epidemiologist at the UCSF School of Medicine and an associate professor of epidemiology and biostatistics. Her current research examines how policies, families, and communities influence population health, particularly during middle and late stages of life.
In 2019, the Australian radio telescope detected a fascinating signal emanating from the vicinity of Proxima Centauri, the nearest star to Earth.
This signal, designated as breakthrough listen candidate 1 (BLC1), exhibited all the characteristics of a “technosignature,” which may suggest the presence of intelligent life.
The signal comprised a single discernible narrowband wavelength and displayed a Doppler shift (indicating movement), was precisely localized in the sky, and persisted for several hours, capturing the attention of researchers.
These features imply that the signals are unlikely to be attributed to natural phenomena.
Nonetheless, some complications have surfaced regarding the extraterrestrial explanation. It was discovered that the signal was present in other observations of Proxima Centauri during the same timeframe, and notably, even when the telescope was not aimed at the star.
A subsequent observation the following year failed to detect the signal. An analysis of all the data collected by the Breakthrough Listening Project later identified similar signals from various other targets, including blank sky. This strongly indicates that the source of the signal was probably radio interference.
The BLC1 mirrors another narrowband radio signal detected in August 1977, famously referred to as “Wow!”
This potential “technosignature” lasted a full 72 seconds and could not be readily explained by natural occurrences.
However, the precise location of the signal in the sky was never identified, and follow-up searches of the area yielded no further signals.
There is ongoing debate regarding the origins of “Wow!”, but no clear evidence exists yet to confirm it as a product of extraterrestrial civilizations.
However, scientists are not solely focused on alien signals.
NASA describes Oumuamua as “the first confirmed object from another star to visit our solar system.” Its name means “the first messenger to arrive from afar” in Hawaiian – Illustration Credit: Science Photography Library
Discovered in 2017, ‘Oumuamua (depicted above) was identified as an elongated, reddish rocky object traveling through the solar system at extraordinary speed.
Its peculiar shape and trajectory led some astronomers to speculate that it might be a “solar sail” from a distant alien civilization.
However, this theory is considered improbable, as its unusual characteristics can also be explained without resorting to alien hypothesis.
Still, scientists have yet to intercept or discover anything that definitively indicates an exciting “alien” origin.
This article addresses the query posed by Lester to Daniel Howell: “Have we ever intercepted anything from an alien?”
Please email us to submit your questionsat Question @sciencefocus.com or MessageFacebook,Twitter or InstagramPage (please remember to include your name and location).
Check out our ultimatefun facts and more fascinating science pages.
Spider-like organisms dwelling near methane seepage seem to infiltrate the seabed, consuming microbes within their bodies that oxidize energy-dense gas. This discovery broadens the understanding of entities that rely on symbiotic associations with microorganisms in these alien settings.
Shana Goffredi from Occidental College, California, along with her team, has investigated marine arthropods named for their resemblance to ahinides, which thrive near three distinct methane seeps in the Pacific Ocean. They previously identified three new species from the sea spider genus Celico Sura, noted to be plentiful exclusively near these gas seepages.
In contrast, other sea spider species, which do not inhabit methane seep regions, primarily feed on various invertebrates. However, researchers have found that these newly identified sea spiders primarily acquire nutrition by ingesting a specific range of bacterial species residing in their bodies. These bacteria are capable of converting methane and methanol from the seepage into energy, something the sea spiders alone would not access.
Scientists observed that bacteria remained confined to the spiders’ exoskeletons, resembling “microbial fur coats,” and formed clusters that Goffredi describes as “volcanic-like.” The bacterial layer exhibited patterns resembling marks from a lawnmower, indicative of feeding by the spider’s robust “lips” and three tiny teeth.
To confirm that ocean spiders were actually consuming the bacteria, researchers employed radioactive labeling techniques to monitor the assimilation of methane carbon by laboratory sea spiders. “I observed methane being absorbed into the microorganisms on the spider’s surface, and subsequently traced carbon molecules migrating into the spider’s tissues,” Goffredi explains.
Researchers believe that ocean spiders do not consume all microorganisms growing on their exoskeletons. The species inhabiting the exoskeleton differ from those typically found in their surroundings, indicating a selection process is at play, Goffredi remarks. “The spiders are clearly cultivating and nurturing a unique microbial community.”
Sea spiders are not the first to cultivate microorganisms for chemical energy. “With every observation of these ecosystems near methane seeps, this phenomenon becomes increasingly evident,” notes Eric Cordes from Temple University, Pennsylvania. He previously collaborated with Goffredi on related studies, revealing a similar symbiosis in tube worms. The rich biodiversity near methane seepage is sustained not by solar energy but rather through methane and other chemicals. “That’s truly remarkable,” he remarks.
Cordes emphasizes that bacteria might also be transported along the surface of sea spiders. Unlike livestock on a farm, they gain superior protection and access to pastures. For instance, if methane seepage shifts to another area of the seabed, sea spiders could transfer bacteria to new locales. “Sea spiders maintain these organisms in an ideal habitat,” he adds.
The discovery of Litoria Tylerantiqua indicates that Australian tree frogs (Perodrius) were already present in Australia when the continent was still attached to Antarctica and South America.
Artist Reconstruction of Litoria Tylerantiqua (right) alongside the previously described species Platyplectrum casca (left) from Margon in southeast Queensland. Image: Samantha Yabsley, https://www.instagram.com/shy_art.
Litoria Tylerantiqua lived in Australia during the early Eocene period, approximately 55 million years ago.
The fossilized frog bones were retrieved in the 1990s by paleontologists at the University of New South Wales while screenwashing clay samples from the Tingamara fossil frog site in Margon, Queensland.
“About 55 million years ago, Australia, Antarctica, and South America were connected as the last remnants of Gondwana,” stated Dr. Roy Furman and his colleagues at the University of New South Wales and the Australian National University.
“During this era, the global climate was warmer, facilitating forested corridors linking South America and Australia.”
“Previously, Australia’s oldest tree frogs were believed to have originated from the late Illuminocene (around 26 million years ago) and the early Miocene (approximately 23 million years ago).”
“Fossils from the late Illuminocene have been discovered in the Northern Territory’s kangaroo wells and the Etadunna formation in Lake Palancarina, South Australia. Furthermore, the Riversley World Heritage Area in Queensland unveiled an early Miocene tree frog.”
“This new species extends the fossil record of Perodrids by roughly 30 million years, bringing it closer to the timeframe when Australian tree frogs diverged from their South American counterparts,” they noted.
“Previous estimates based on molecular clock analyses suggest that Australian and South American frogs diverged approximately 33 million years ago.”
Litoria Tylerantiqua is the only other known frog from Margon, also identified as Platyplectrum casca (previously categorized as Lechriodus Casca), recognized as the oldest frog species in Australia.
Both have existing relatives in Australia and New Guinea, showcasing incredible resilience over time.
“Despite their fragile nature, these frogs have surprisingly thrived, surviving numerous major extinction events since their origin around 250 million years ago.”
“Current global extinction threats, fueled by human activities like rapid climate change and the proliferation of pathogenic bacteria, pose significant challenges for frogs. The fossil record reveals how certain frog groups have navigated past adversities, potentially by adapting to less-threatened habitats.”
“This insight might guide future conservation efforts, such as relocating endangered frogs to safer environments.”
“If fossil records show similarly structured frogs occupying very different habitats, today’s frogs could potentially benefit from reintroductions into comparable environments.”
The findings are detailed in a study published in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
____
Roy M. Furman et al. New fossil discoveries for early Eocene perodrids from local faunas of Southeast Queensland, Margon, Tingamara, and frog molecular lineages. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology published online on May 14, 2025. doi:10.1080/02724634.2025.2477815
The primordial stars, known as group III, likely formed from the abundant gases present in the young universe. These stars were responsible for generating the first heavier elements, illuminating the universe, bringing an end to the cosmic dark ages, and ushering in the era of reionization. Due to the challenges of direct observation, the characteristics of these early stars are still largely unknown. Professor Anastasia Fialkov from Cambridge University and her team suggest that astronomers can infer the masses of these stars by analyzing the cosmological 21 cm signal produced by hydrogen atoms located between the regions where the stars formed.
Artist’s impression of a field of Population III stars that would have existed hundreds of millions of years post-Big Bang. Image credits: noirlab/nsf/aura/J. da silva/SpaceEngine.
“This presents a unique opportunity to understand how the universe’s first light emerged from darkness,” stated Professor Fialkov.
“We are beginning to unravel the narrative of the transition from a cold, dark cosmos to one filled with stars.”
Studies focused on the universe’s ancient stars rely on the faint 21 cm signal, an energy signature emanating from over 13 billion years ago.
This signal, influenced by the radiation from nascent stars and black holes, offers a rare glimpse into the universe’s formative years.
Professor Fialkov leads the Leach theory group dedicated to radio experiments analyzing space hydrogen.
“Leach is a radio antenna and one of two key projects designed to enhance our understanding of the dawn and reionization phases of the universe, when the first stars reactivated neutral hydrogen atoms,” explained the astronomer.
“While our abilities to capture radio signals are presently undergoing calibration, we remain dedicated to unveiling insights about the early universe.
“Conversely, the Square Kilometer Arrays (SKAs) chart variations in cosmic signals across extensive areas of the sky.”
“Both initiatives are crucial for probing the masses, brightness, and distribution of the universe’s earliest stars.”
In their current research, Professor Fialkov and co-authors formulated a model to predict the 21 cm signal for both REACH and SKA, discovering that the signal is sensitive to the mass of the first stars.
“We are the first group to accurately model how the 21 cm signal correlates with the mass of the first stars, factoring in ultraviolet starlight and x-ray emissions resulting from the demise of the first stars,” stated Professor Fialkov.
“Our findings stem from simulations integrating the primordial conditions of the universe, such as the hydrogen and helium composition formed during the Big Bang.”
In developing their theoretical framework, researchers examined how the 21 cm signal responds to the mass distribution of Population III stars.
They discovered that earlier studies underestimated this relationship as they failed to account for both the quantity and luminosity of x-ray binaries among Population III stars and their impact on the 21 cm signal.
While REACH and SKA cannot photograph individual stars, they do provide comprehensive data on stars, x-ray binary systems, and entire galactic populations.
“Connecting radio data to the narrative of the first stars requires some imagination, but its implications are profound,” remarked Professor Fialkov.
“The predictions we present hold significant value in enhancing our understanding of the universe’s earliest stars,” noted Dr. Eloi de Lera Acedo from Cambridge University.
“We offer insights into the masses of these early stars, suggesting that the light they emitted may have been drastically different from today’s stars.”
“Next-generation telescopes like REACH are set to unlock the secrets of the early universe. These predictions are vital for interpreting radio observations being conducted from Karu, South Africa.”
The research paper was published online today in the journal Nature Astronomy.
____
T. Gessey-Jones et al. Determination of the mass distribution of the first stars from a 21 cm signal. Nature Astronomy Published online on June 20th, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41550-025-02575-x
Iran’s Arak Heavy Water Nuclear Facility was damaged by Israeli bombing
ShutterStockEdit
Israel’s assault regarding Iran’s nuclear activities has raised concerns about potential radioactive incidents, according to experts, including the director of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). New Scientist While there have been reports of radiological and chemical contamination at one nuclear enrichment facility, the overall risk remains low.
Peter Bryant from the University of Liverpool notes that the terms “nuclear” and “radiation” understandably provoke fear, but despite extensive bombings, there have been no reported external leaks as of now.
Iran’s nuclear ambitions trace back to the 1950s, including attempts to develop nuclear weapons. The country pledged to allow IAEA inspections to verify that its energy facilities are not being utilized for weapon production; however, the agency recently issued a report criticizing Iran for failing to comply with non-proliferation obligations. Evidence of uranium traces at certain plants suggests that a covert nuclear weapons program might still be in progress.
Following reports regarding Iranian facilities responsible for uranium enrichment, Israel launched its strikes. Naturally occurring uranium exists in a mixture of three isotopes, but the enriched variant has a greater proportion of uranium-235, which can be used for both electrical generation in reactors and for nuclear arms. Given this dual-purpose potential, Iran has committed to restricting enrichment under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.
Philip Bleak from the Middlebury International Institute in California points out that the IAEA reports indicate Iran has already accumulated over 400 kilograms of uranium concentrated to 60%. This quantity is adequate for multiple rudimentary nuclear weapons, and Israeli intelligence suggests that the actual figures may be underreported to the IAEA. Even uranium at 60% purity significantly exceeds the requirements for fueling a power plant, implying that Iran harbors intentions to develop nuclear capabilities.
Iran maintains two primary enrichment sites: the Fordow Fuel Enrichment Plant (FFEP) and the Natanz Nuclear Facility. Israel’s strikes on Natanz resulted in internal radiation leaks; however, according to the IAEA, there have been no signs of external contamination.
In contrast, the Fordow facility remains operational due to its underground location, making it susceptible to destruction only by powerful US munitions. Only a powerful US bomb could destroy it. Former President Donald Trump has indicated he might assess support for Israel in this matter.
The Arak Heavy Water Reactor has also been targeted in bombings; however, it was never commissioned and housed no radioactive substances. If operational, it could have enabled the conversion of uranium into plutonium, a material viable for nuclear weaponry. Additionally, the Isfahan Nuclear Technology Center and certain missile sites designed for nuclear weapons launch were also bombed.
Bleak asserts that fresh uranium poses “very modest” health risks irrespective of enrichment levels. “A significant amount must enter your body to have a meaningful impact, similar to what uranium miners experienced,” he explains.
This is why the enrichment facilities targeted in strikes represent minimal risk outside their immediate vicinity, according to Bryant. Moreover, since these plants are built deep underground for resistance against attacks, any radioactive emissions would be further contained. “Uranium fuel can be handled without issue,” states Bryant. “You would need to physically ingest it to face health problems.”
Nonetheless, should a working reactor be targeted and operational for months prior to an attack, it may accumulate “dangerous fission byproducts,” which represent a more significant radiological threat. Bleak warns that if such materials escape, scenarios akin to Chernobyl or Fukushima could arise.
Bryant expresses confidence that such leaks are exceedingly unlikely, attributing this to advancements in reactor design that can withstand heavy bombardments. Furthermore, civilian power plants are not core to Iran’s nuclear weapons program and are unlikely to be prioritized targets for Israel, he says. Bushehr, Iran’s only functioning nuclear power facility, has not been targeted thus far.
Despite assurances from scientific experts, New Scientist reports that IAEA Director Rafael Grossi cautioned earlier this week about the real risks of harm.
“I have consistently stated that we should never attack nuclear facilities, irrespective of the circumstances, as they can pose hazards to both humanity and the environment,” he asserted.
The Zombie Apocalypse might sound like an ideal chance to eliminate your debts and catch up on reading 28 Years Later, but surviving in undead-infested wastelands isn’t a walk in the park.
When the Danny Boyle film debuted, we spoke with survival experts and professional preppers about what to do—and what not to do—and gathered their tips on navigating an apocalypse scenario. After all, the zombie apocalypse feels less like fiction now than it did a few years ago.
Stay Safe at Home
John Rammy, founder of The Prevent, a Survivalist Company, advises against investing in a bunker. “Instead of focusing on bunkers,” he explains,
“we should concentrate on reinforcing our current homes and communities. It’s essential that your doors can withstand multiple kicks. Your home is your fortress, providing a secure space during emergencies.”
He encourages contemplating how long one could stay inside their home. “If I had to lock myself in right now, how long could I last?” he asks.
“The initial goal should be a two-week supply, covering most emergencies like natural disasters. Some go further and prepare to last for six months. Personally, I am prepared to survive indefinitely, as I can grow food, find water, and purify it.”
As frightening as it sounds, being unprepared means being vulnerable. According to Ramey, stocking up on essential gear is crucial. “Consider Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: food, water, health, and communication,” he notes.
“First aid supplies are essential. Have sanitary products available—can you clean yourself properly? Water storage is vital. Generally, aim for one gallon of water per day.
“In the long run, do you know how to collect and store water? Make sure you have purification systems like filters or UV purifiers to ensure you can drink safely from natural sources.”
It’s also crucial to have a “bugout bag,” a pack of essential supplies ready for quick evacuation. Cameron Carlson, a survival expert and member of the Zombie Research Association, suggests the following items:
“Waterproof matches, an emergency blanket, a sleeping bag, freeze-dried food, a flashlight, batteries, a solar radio, a water purifier, a camping stove, a knife, a firearm, and a medical kit.”
“A useful tip is to include steel wool and a 9-volt battery. Touching the battery to the steel wool can ignite it, and steel wool is compact and lightweight.”
Ramey also recommends bicycles. “The bicycle is the ultimate bug-out vehicle,” he states. “It’s the most efficient human-powered machine ever made.
“Whenever experts watch The Walking Dead, one common complaint is that after eight years, people are still relying on gasoline vehicles. Gasoline tends to expire in six months. Though additives can extend its life, finding usable gasoline within a year can be challenging.”
Essential Skills
Having supplies is of no use if you lack the skills to utilize them effectively.
“Core skills include first aid and understanding how to treat injuries,” Ramey explains.
“Consider characters like Daryl from The Walking Dead. If he suffered an injury from a crossbow bolt, would you know how to assist? Modern society is advanced, yet we’ve lost centuries of survival skills over just a single century.”
“Many of our grandparents possessed at least rudimentary knowledge of treating wounds. Even standard first aid courses typically assume you can call for help—there’s often an expectation for emergency services to arrive promptly.”
Outdoor survival skills are equally vital. “Additionally,” Ramey adds, “many people no longer know how to navigate without technology. There’s a phenomenon known as ‘death by GPS.’ So, do you know how to read a map? Can you start a fire? Can you build a shelter for winter?
“Less obvious yet essential skills include conflict resolution and situational awareness. Are you aware of your surroundings? Do you know how to defuse a tense situation without resorting to violence?”
There may come a time when you need to leave your home in search of safety. But where should you head?
If you’re in New York or London during a zombie apocalypse, you might want to head to the countryside, away from the crowds, Rammy suggests. “Yet even in such a scenario, isolation may become undesirable, as community becomes essential.”
“Community cooperation generally proves more beneficial than the stereotype of the lone wolf wandering off into the sunset with a shotgun slung over their shoulder.”
The prevailing belief that humanity will descend into chaos after an apocalyptic event is challenged by Michał Zalewski, author of A Practical Ending: A User’s Guide to the End of the World, who argues against this notion.
“Most individuals will likely suffer in silence rather than harming innocents,” he asserts. “The real danger during times of uncertainty is the tendency to react against ‘outgroups.’ However, in a zombie scenario, we have a defined enemy.
“And as we slow down, we are not machines. We need rest and recuperation. It’s impossible to master every necessary survival skill against every potential disaster.”
Dealing with Zombies
What about the zombies themselves? According to zombie aficionado Cameron Carlson, it all hinges on their nature—whether they’re fast and rabid (think 28 Days Later) or sluggish (like in The Walking Dead).
“If they are fast, there’s no outrunning them,” he admits. “Stealth becomes imperative, enabling you to maneuver away from their line of sight. If faced with fast-moving zombies, tactics are essential.”
“Against slower zombies, your main task is evasion.”
Carlson also suggests utilizing dogs for their acute sense of smell, which is superior to ours. “Dogs serve as excellent early warning systems. If your dog starts acting oddly—growling, showing teeth, or restlessly pacing—it’s a signal that something’s wrong.
Interestingly, a significant contrast exists between the UK’s and the US’s gun ownership cultures. How might this affect survival outcomes in a zombie apocalypse?
“It has its pros and cons,” Rammy states. “In cases where zombies are approaching, having a shotgun could be your last line of defense. In that sense, American gun culture provides certain advantages.
“However, it also means that in a society breaking down, many people will be armed. We’ve witnessed over the past two years that even during milder emergencies, a significant portion of the population can become erratic and difficult to manage. So, it’s a double-edged sword.”
Meet Our Experts
John Rammy is the founder of The Prevent, a Survivalist Company. He leverages his Silicon Valley background to advise the US government and Department of Defense on emergency preparedness technologies.
Cameron Carlson serves as a spokesperson for the Zombie Research Association. Currently active in the US Navy, he specializes in anti-piracy operations while studying disaster relief effectiveness and outdoor survival.
Michał Zalewski is a computer security expert and author of A Practical Ending: A User’s Guide to the End of the World.
Sure! Here’s a rewritten version of your content while retaining the HTML tags:
The peak of sunshine has officially arrived in the Northern Hemisphere with the Summer Solstice.
This Friday marks the longest day north of the equator, ushering in the joy of astronomical summer. In contrast, the Southern Hemisphere experiences its shortest day and the onset of winter.
The term “bliss” derives from the Latin “sol,” meaning sun, and “stitium,” which translates to “stop.” This term encapsulates the sun’s annual journey, tracing its longest and most radiant arc in the sky. Unfortunately for sun enthusiasts, the days will gradually shorten until late December as the sun begins its retreat.
The solstice has been celebrated for centuries, with various traditions and monuments, such as Stonehenge, built to align with the solar path during this event. But what exactly occurs in the heavens? Here’s what you need to understand about Earth’s orbit.
Bliss signifies the extremes of day and night
As the Earth orbits the Sun, it tilts at an angle, causing uneven distribution of sunlight and warmth between the northern and southern hemispheres throughout the year.
The solstice represents a time when this tilt is most pronounced, leading to the greatest disparity between day and night.
During the Northern Hemisphere’s summer solstice, the upper half tilts toward the sun, resulting in the longest day and the shortest nights of the year, occurring between June 20th and 22nd.
In contrast, during the winter solstice, which transpires between December 20th and 23rd, the Northern Hemisphere turns away from the sun.
The equinox: a balance of day and night
The equinox occurs when the Earth’s axis and orbit align, granting both hemispheres an equal amount of sunlight.
The word equinox is derived from Latin, meaning equal and night, as it denotes the time when day and night are nearly identical in duration.
Spring in the Northern Hemisphere, or Vernal Equinox, can occur between March 19th and 21st, while the Autumnal Equinox can fall between September 21st and 24th.
At the equator, the sun is directly overhead at noon during the equinox, which is the only time when both the Arctic and Antarctic receive sunlight simultaneously.
Differentiating between weather and astronomical seasons
These represent two distinct interpretations of the year.
Astronomical seasons are based on Earth’s orbit around the Sun, while weather seasons are categorized by prevailing weather conditions. The latter divides the year into three-month periods based on temperature cycles, leading to spring starting on March 1st, summer on June 1st, followed by autumn on September 1st and winter on December 1st.
Let me know if you need any further modifications!
This website uses cookies so that we can provide you with the best user experience possible. Cookie information is stored in your browser and performs functions such as recognising you when you return to our website and helping our team to understand which sections of the website you find most interesting and useful.
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Strictly Necessary Cookie should be enabled at all times so that we can save your preferences for cookie settings.
