A fireball was spotted soaring through the sky in the southeastern United States on Thursday afternoon, coinciding with reports of a meteor shower in the region, according to officials.
A representative from Forsyth County Emergency Management in Georgia stated that the meteor shower, validated by the National Weather Service, was still visible hours after the initial sighting.
The representative noted that there have been no reports of impacts or injuries, and monitoring of the showers is ongoing.
Earlier, the National Weather Service office in Charleston indicated that just before noon, there were “numerous reports of fireballs” across the area.
“While it’s not confirmed, satellite-based lightning detection indicated markings in the clear sky above the NC/VA border in Gasbury, Virginia,” reported between 11:51 am and 11:56 am the weather service noted at the time.
A video circulating on social media displays a fireball descending into a wooded area in South Carolina.
Kathryn Far posted a dashcam video taken while driving south on Interstate 85 toward Anderson, South Carolina, around 12:25 pm.
A video shared on social media shows a fireball being shot down into a wooded area of South Carolina. Kathryn Rose Fur via Facebook
Another perspective from Andrew Colley Road in Lexington, South Carolina depicted suspected meteor stones blazing bright white with an orange flame tail before vanishing into a wooded area.
The Newton County Sheriff’s Office in Georgia reported that the weather department has informed them that the fireball is likely a meteor.
“Currently, there is no information on where the meteor may have landed.” The sheriff’s office stated, noting that fireballs have been reported by residents in Covington and nearby areas.
Marlene Lenthang
Marlene Lenthang is a news reporter for NBC News Digital.
Canadian Nuvvuagittuq Green Stone Belt may contain the world’s oldest rock
Jonathan O’Neill
About four billion years ago, magma from Earth’s mantle intruded the primitive crust of a nascent planet. Over the next period, nearly all of the planet’s early crust melted back into the mantle, leaving behind a small remnant near the site of this intrusion that still exists today.
This remnant is part of the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt along Hudson Bay’s coast in Canada. Recent analyses of the rock’s radioisotope signatures have sparked debates among geologists about whether it is indeed the oldest rock on Earth or simply very ancient.
In a study published in 2008, Jonathan O’Neill from the University of Ottawa and his team posited that the surrounding rocks could be as old as 4.3 billion years, dating back to the Hadean eon—just a few hundred million years after Earth’s formation.
While there have been discoveries of older mineral grains, these ancient Hadean rocks provide critical insights into Earth’s formative years, possibly shedding light on geological enigmas like the onset of plate tectonics and early ocean compositions.
The method used for dating the rocks has drawn controversy, particularly regarding the claimed age of 4.3 billion years. Traditionally, old rocks are dated utilizing a robust mineral known as zircon, but these volcanic rocks lack zircon. “No one can date these rocks using the popular techniques,” O’Neill remarks.
Instead, researchers analyzed the isotopes of neodymium and samarium within the rock. As samarium decays, it generates different isotopes of neodymium at predictable rates, allowing the ratio of isotopes to serve as a “clock” marking the time since the rock crystallized from magma. Interestingly, two isotopes of samarium can decay at differing rates, acting as two parallel chronometers. Disagreement arose among researchers about whether the rock was genuinely Hadean, as the two clocks provided inconsistent age estimates.
“I’m not convinced that most of the early Earth research community agrees,” states Richard Walker at the University of Maryland.
Currently, O’Neill’s team is assessing the neodymium and samarium isotopes in the rock formations dating back 4.3 billion years. By definition, such intrusions are younger than the surrounding rock layers, implying that dating an intrusion yields the minimum age for the enclosing rocks.
Detailed view of the Canada Nuvvuagittuq Green Stone Belt
David Hutt/Alamy
In the findings, the two chronological indicators tell the same tale, indicating the rocks’ age to be approximately 4.16 billion years. “Both clocks yield identical results,” O’Neill states. This consistency bolsters the theory that the surrounding rocks were indeed solidified during the Hadean eon, making them potentially the only known remnants of Earth’s ancient crust.
“I believe they present the strongest argument possible,” asserts Graham Pierson from the University of Alberta, Canada.
“The simplest interpretation of this data is that these represent the oldest rocks on Earth,” says Jesse Reimink at Pennsylvania State University. Nevertheless, he cautions that this may not be the final word on the subject, stating, “When it comes to the oldest rocks and minerals, absolute certainty is hard to come by.”
A deep nap could improve one’s capacity for creative problem-solving.
A recent study revealed that individuals are more likely to experience a “Eureka” moment after entering the second stage of sleep—characterized by slower brain activity and bursts of electrical discharges known as sleep spindles—compared to those who have light sleep.
The results suggest that brief, deep naps can lead to valuable insights. Annika Rowe from the Max Planck Institute in Berlin notes, “We are uncovering what actually occurs during sleep, which I believe is quite beneficial.” She added, “During deep sleep, our brains may process irrelevant information related to the problem, enabling us to have these insightful moments upon waking.”
While previous research highlights that naps can enhance creativity and problem-solving, opinions vary regarding which sleep stages are most beneficial. Some argue that the lightest non-REM stage, N1, is best—citing how Thomas Edison embraced ideas while holding a steel ball that would audibly drop, waking him from deeper slumber. In contrast, some studies advocate that deeper N2 sleep (even lighter N3) fosters greater innovation.
To explore this further, Löwe and her team engaged 90 healthy participants aged 18-35 in a task where they classified the movement direction of rapidly flashing dot patterns on a screen, without informing them that the dot colors would gradually hint at correct answers.
Fifteen participants chose shortcuts in the first 25 minutes, while the remaining 75 were invited to take a 20-minute nap in a quiet setting, monitoring their brain activity with an EEG.
After napping, participants revisited the task. This time, most recognized color-based shortcuts, although the likelihood of a “Eureka” moment appeared to hinge on having napped. Among the 68 participants yielding quality EEG data, 85.7% who entered deeper N2 sleep recognized shortcuts.
This research distinctly illustrates that deeper sleep can trigger “Eureka” moments—at least for the specific task used. Itamar Rana from the University of Texas, San Antonio states, “The task type heavily influences whether sleep enhances performance.” ”
Delphine Oudiette from the Paris Brain Institute mentions that varying task designs might explain their findings of significant problem-solving post N1 sleep. “Both sleep stages could be significant, but different cognitive processes may necessitate isolation for a clearer understanding,” she points out.
Björn Rasch at the University of Fribourg in Switzerland notes that the findings support the notion that deeper sleep aids problem-solving, but cautions that the study’s design complicates distinguishing between causation and coincidence. Participants were not randomly assigned to sleep stages and were not studied across various sleep scenarios; thus, those who napped comfortably might simply possess a higher insight capacity.
Certain ash trees exhibit genetic variations that offer partial resistance to ash dieback
FLPA/Alamy
British ash trees are evolving resistant traits to combat ash dieback, evident from DNA sequences found in numerous specimens.
This discovery is promising, according to Richard Buggs at the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew, England, although complete resistance in ash trees is not anticipated soon. “A breeding program may be necessary to assist nature in this process,” he states.
Ash dieback, caused by the fungus Hymenoscyphus fraxineus, progressively impairs the tree’s capacity to transport water. It began its spread across Europe in the 1990s and made its way to the UK in 2012.
The demise of ash trees leads to increased carbon dioxide release and threatens various species that depend on these trees for their ecosystem. Additionally, fallen trees pose risks to people and property. “There are numerous ash trees close to footpaths and roads, creating significant hazards,” Buggs notes.
Buggs’ team compared genomes of 128 adult European ash trees. Since fungi take considerably longer to kill mature trees than younger ones (Fraxinus excelsior), this also included 458 seedlings at a location called Marden Park in Surrey. They discovered thousands of variations previously linked to resistance were more prevalent in younger trees, likely because those without such variations perished.
This study provides the most comprehensive genetic insight into evolutionary responses observed in nature. “The significance of this research is its ability to characterize the genetic foundation and demonstrate the changes occurring within a single generation,” Buggs explains.
However, each gene variant offers only a marginal effect, failing to provide complete resistance. As the older ash trees diminish and fungal spores decrease, the rate of evolutionary change may also slow in the future. This indicates that younger ash trees might have better survival prospects, Buggs suggests.
“It poses a major challenge, but these trees won’t vanish entirely,” he remarks. “Our findings inspire hope that some of these younger ash trees may mature and undergo natural selection for subsequent generations, if feasible.”
Ash dieback has yet to invade North America; however, the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) has been introduced, actively decimating ash tree populations there. The outcome of both ash dieback and the emerald ash borer coexisting in the same region remains uncertain but might exacerbate the issue.
“Globalization is mixing insects and pathogens across the globe, leading to increasing challenges for these trees, and it is becoming increasingly difficult for them to adapt,” Buggs states. “Trees now face threats they have never experienced before, and at unprecedented speeds.”
He believes interventions are essential to help trees withstand these pressures, such as creating resistant hybrids between resilient species and native trees.
“One potential solution is to enhance the genetic diversity of trees globally, keeping pace with the array of pests and pathogens we are spreading,” he concludes.
What does it mean to lose your home because of climate change? About 10,000 residents of Tuvalu will soon find out.
With an average elevation of less than 3 meters, Tuvalu is on the brink of becoming uninhabitable due to floods, storm surges, and erosion. By 2100, a predicted rise in sea levels of 72 centimeters could result in one-third of the Coral Atoll Archipelago being submerged annually.
Yet, there are escape options for the people of Tuvalu. In late 2023, the Australian government revealed plans for the world’s first organized migration program.
Under the Australian-Tuvalu-Falapilli Union Treaty, 280 Tuvaluans will be granted residency in Australia each year through a lottery system. The inaugural lottery opened on June 16 and received applications from 3,125 citizens—nearly a third of Tuvalu’s population. Registration for this year’s lottery closes on July 18.
In a statement to New Scientist, the Australian government acknowledged the “devastating effects of climate change, especially in the Pacific, which faces challenges related to climate, security, and wellbeing.”
“This is the first agreement of its kind globally, offering a dignified migration pathway as climate conditions worsen,” the government commented.
Successful lottery applicants will learn their results by the end of July, with the first migrants likely to arrive in Australia by year-end.
Bateteba Aselu, a PhD student at the University of Melbourne, examines the climate challenges facing her people. On a student visa in Australia, Aselu is considering applying for the lottery to join her husband, while her son, a recent high school graduate, has already submitted his application.
Aselu notes that the impacts of climate change are visible, as the freshwater aquifers critical for agriculture and drinking water are becoming saline due to rising sea levels. This forces residents to uproot crops in an attempt to mitigate saltwater intrusion.
Stephen Howes from the Australian National University in Canberra describes the new visa as “very progressive,” providing successful applicants access to nearly all Australian health and welfare benefits without discrimination based on chronic health conditions, disabilities, age, or other factors.
While ostensibly aimed at aiding Tuvalu in the face of a climate crisis, Howes asserts that Australia’s initiative also serves to counteract China’s influence in the Pacific. The treaty outlines that Australia and Tuvalu “must collaborate on security and defense matters pertaining to the island nations and external countries.”
“I view it as a security transition agreement,” Howes explains. “Climate change serves as a backdrop, but the arrangement essentially provides Australia with enhanced security cooperation in return for offering Tuvalu a unique migration pathway.”
Tuvaluans engaging in traditional fishing
Mick Tsikas/EPA-EFE/Shutterstock
Jane McAdam at the University of New South Wales in Sydney reports varied perspectives on the future among Tuvaluans. Some believe the island will soon be submerged, while others hold hope. She notes that elderly residents express a desire to remain there until their last days.
However, McAdam considers the new migration program to be a “fair and constructive” initiative. A key feature is that once Tuvaluans secure a visa, they can return home whenever they wish or even live there until conditions become unbearable.
It’s “like having an oxygen mask on an airplane,” McAdam adds. “Ideally, you won’t need it, but you’ll be grateful it exists.”
Wesley Morgan, also at the University of New South Wales, remarked that, should conditions worsen, Tuvaluans face limited escape routes. This agreement could pave the way for similar opportunities for other at-risk nations like Kiribati.
“This could set a precedent as the first instance where migration pathways are explicitly linked to climate change and rising sea levels,” Morgan states. “Given these unique circumstances, Australia might explore comparable arrangements with Kiribati in the future.”
A remaining concern for the Tuvaluan population is how they will navigate their identity and sovereignty once they leave the island. Will they be considered a Tuvaluan diaspora or a nation in climate exile?
“If you had to leave your childhood home due to circumstances beyond your control, how would it feel?” Aselu asks. “Would you feel lost? Absolutely. It’s that sentiment of losing a cherished place that defines who you are, regardless of where you are in the world.”
“You grow up there; your history resides there. It’s where your identity is rooted, no matter where you go afterwards.”
“When I think about the future of robots and society, I don’t see machine overlords.”
Miguel Medina/AFP via Getty Images
Are you concerned that AI-driven robots might take our jobs or even pose a threat? You’re not alone. Yet, this fear invites a critical examination of whether the opposite might be true.
In my upcoming novel, Automatic Noodles, set to release later this year, I introduce four robots battling to secure jobs in a country where laws prevent them from unionizing, securing bank accounts, voting, or owning businesses. Although it’s a work of science fiction, it’s grounded in existing technology and delves into our fundamental anxieties about robots.
For years, I have written non-fiction on actual robotics, interviewing engineers and industry professionals to understand future advancements. Recently, I visited Yale University’s groundbreaking lab, the Faboratory, led by Rebecca Kramer-Bottiglio, where her team is developing soft robots. These include flexible, squishy creatures with circuits made of liquid metal. One such robot can swim like a turtle, aiding in environmental monitoring of wetlands. Another, named Tensegrity, resembles a cluster of plastic sticks connected by elastic bands, bouncing back when dropped to explore its surroundings.
Medha Goyal and researchers in the Faboratory showcased a tiny liquid ball that expands when warmed. These “Granular actuators” can be incorporated into robots to create varying rigidity and softness in their limbs. They also hold significant medical potential, enabling small robots to deliver medication or diagnose health issues.
Kramer-Bottiglio and her team are challenging traditional notions of robotics. Tomorrow’s bots may not resemble towering humanoids; instead, they could be softer, using air pressure instead of metal mechanics. Notably, one of my book’s characters is an octopus-like soft robot designed for underwater searches and rescues, aptly named Cayenne, equipped with sensors on its arms that allow it to interpret flavors.
Tomorrow’s bots probably won’t resemble gigantic humanoids; they might instead be soft little beings.
When you envision the future of robotics, you might picture something akin to Cayenne. All they and their robotic companions aspire to is to operate a noodle restaurant in San Francisco. Their crew includes Sweety, a three-legged wheeled bot, alongside a basic mixer with two arms and Staybehind, a humanoid soldier bot more interested in decorating the restaurant than fighting.
This makeshift family inhabits a remarkable era of human history. In the 2060s, California’s government decided that certain AI-powered robots should be regarded as individuals. However, officials worry that granting robots the same rights as humans could lead to an uncontrollable influx of robots dominating society. Thus, they have restricted essential rights “for their own good,” assuring the public that a vote could eventually expand robot rights.
Despite what their human counterparts fear, Cayenne and its companions do not seek dominance. They simply wish to pursue their passions. Rather than producing mediocre meals for distant human masters, they aspire to create what they genuinely care about. They symbolize immigrants in a new land, often viewed with skepticism, and at worst, they struggle to survive in a society that wishes them ill.
I’m intentionally drawing this parallel because it’s disconcerting how the fears surrounding immigration resonate with our anxieties about robots. We worry they will usurp our jobs, rise up against us, or disrupt cultural norms. Amazingly, those who voice such concerns about immigration often have never taken the time to understand the immigrants. Similarly, society projects those fears onto robots that do not yet exist. This reflects a troubling pattern: fearing those we don’t know or understand, and in the case of robots, not recognizing their potential.
This is why I do not envision a dystopian future dominated by machines when I think about robots and our society. Instead, I see a reality clouded by terrifying fantasies and restrictive laws. Rather than fearsome terminators, I imagine gentle, soft-bodied creatures like turtles and pneumatic arms. I’m observing Cayenne, apprehensive about human animosity and the vigilance against robot “threats.”
Humans craft narratives to brace for an unlikely future while often ignoring the realities unfolding right before us. Yet, we don’t have to follow this trend. We can develop our understanding based on empirical evidence and science, rather than indulging in surreal nightmares that will likely never materialize.
Annaly’s Week
What I’m reading
Torchon Ebuchi Racebook: A Personal History of the Internet, An engaging compilation of essays exploring cosplay, video games, and social media.
What I’m watching
Murder Bot, for sure.
What I’m working on
I’m wandering with an archaeologist through the Roman town of Talos in Sardinia, Italy. More details to come!
Annalee Newitz is a science journalist and author of the latest book, *Automatic Noodles*. They co-host the Hugo Award-winning podcast, *We Are Right*. Follow them @annaleen or visit their website at techsploitation.com.
The Arts and Science of Writing Science Fiction
Explore the realm of science fiction and discover the art of crafting your own captivating stories during this immersive weekend workshop.
Feedback provides the latest science and technology news from New Scientist, highlighting interesting items. You can reach out to Feedback@newscientist.com with stories that might intrigue readers.
Curious Connections
Earlier this year, feedback sought an example of “No kidding, Sherlock.” Reader Roger Eldem requested evidence supporting the claim that inadequate rest increases the risk of injury during prolonged tasks.
Feedback acknowledges that political differences can create tension in relationships. When did we start selecting partners solely by looks and style?
On the theme of problematic relationships, Roger shares another notable discovery from the 2016 Journal PLOS 1 titled Sexually cannibalistic behavior in colonial spider species. It discusses the dynamics of these spiders, where females often consume males post-mating. Research highlights that males may be choosy about their partners, preferring younger, more robust females.
No apologies here; feedback maintains its critical stance. The complexities are not as straightforward as they seem. Researchers indicate that males in solitary species may not be selected for, as they rarely encounter females, thus opting not to risk decapitation during mating. This contrasts with social species that carefully select males before sacrificing them for reproduction.
Clearly, many instances of “No kidding, Sherlock” exist. Can others find more examples? New insights are always welcome.
Disproven Fiction
As a long-time science fiction reader, Feedback enjoys revisiting stories that are now outdated. These narratives often held plausible premises that have since become unlikely or completely impossible.
Sometimes, what was once considered a “prediction” has been surpassed by time. For instance, Blade Runner was released in 1982 and set in 2019. Now, well over six years have passed since that date, with flying cars still absent. However, the film accurately portrayed the pitfalls of tech billionaires. Depending on your perspective, whether you subscribe to Star Trek or Terminator, the late 1990s were supposed to be defined by either superhumans born from eugenics or nuclear devastation.
We would like to highlight another phenomenon: groundbreaking scientific findings that undermine significant story premises. For example, World War discoveries previously attributed to the apparent absence of life on Mars.
A similar scenario unfolds in Revelation Space, a book by Alastair Reynolds. Feedback still cherishes these novels, and anyone who hasn’t delved into them should stop reading now.
The narrative revolves around the eventual clash between our galaxy and the Andromeda galaxy billions of years from now. Consequently, humanity is perceived to be limited by Inhibitors that restrict intellectual life until the crisis resolves.
However, on June 2nd, Natural Astronomy published a paper under an unexciting title: Uncertainty in Milky Way and Andromeda Collision. Researchers simulated the movements of galaxies within the local cluster and concluded that the current positioning and mass of galaxies leave room for dramatically different potential outcomes. They assert that “the fate of our galaxy remains completely open.”
Readers are encouraged to share other recent discoveries that have subverted plausible science fiction narratives.
More from GS
In the London Centric Newsletter, readers will uncover “The Real 5G Conspiracy: How Londoners Misrepresent Their Phone Signals“. The article addresses how, despite high mobile coverage signals, functional data download capabilities are absent. Londoners may claim to be connected to modern 5G networks, yet they lead lives devoid of 4G awareness.
The article was inspired by an app creator named SignalTracker, who tests various networks while roaming around London “with five different mobile phones.”
Capitalism continues to evolve. Reader Brian Darvel has drawn our attention to this mobile detective, Martin Sims.
Have you shared your feedback?
You can send your stories to feedback@newscientist.com, including your home address. Previous and current feedback can be found on our website.
Wavy polar jet streams can lead to icy storms extending further south
Images of the history of science / Alamy Stock Photos
Recent studies indicate that the increasingly erratic winter weather in the Northern Hemisphere is not solely due to more pronounced wavy polar jet streams.
The Arctic jet stream functions as a wind current that helps to maintain the balance between temperate and cold air in the Arctic region.
For over a decade, some researchers have engaged in discussions regarding the effects of the warm Arctic on the jet stream. This warming has reportedly intensified in winter, leading to severe storms that carry snow and ice much further south than usual. However, doubts persist about this theory.
Testing this hypothesis has proven challenging due to limited satellite data and the natural fluctuations of the jet stream during winter.
Researchers like Erich Osterberg from Dartmouth University have sought to determine whether the recent behavior of the jet stream deviates from the long-term average.
Since satellite observations of the jet stream began only in 1979, researchers leveraged temperature and atmospheric pressure data extending back to 1901 to reconstruct the movement of polar jets across the United States throughout the 20th century.
They discovered that polar jets exhibited wave-like patterns during various periods, indicating that the current erratic behavior may not be unprecedented. In fact, at times, the winter jet stream was even more undulating than it is today. “What we’re observing with the jet stream now is not particularly unusual when you consider the broader context of the 20th century,” Osterberg states.
The winters in the Northern Hemisphere are becoming warmer and wetter, a trend emphasized by Osterberg even as climate change continues to provoke more severe storms and precipitation. “It’s evident that climate change is influencing extreme weather events significantly,” he remarks. “However, in the context of winter jet streams, these changes don’t appear to be a fundamental factor.”
Similarly, Tim Woolling from Oxford University highlights the importance of long-term data in identifying shifts in polar jet stream behavior, noting its significant variability in the short to medium term. “Utilizing extensive data records and diverse methodologies reveals that today’s North American winter jet patterns are not necessarily worse than in previous decades,” he explains.
Contrastingly, during the Northern Hemisphere summer, emerging evidence suggests that climate change has elevated tropical temperatures, leading to broader polar waves in warmer months. “In summer, it seems that the jet stream undergoes a fundamental shift in behavior, with larger waves leading to intense heat waves, droughts, and wildfires,” Osterberg adds. “This phenomenon appears to be linked to climate change.”
Enthusiasts of Marvel movies and comics might recognize the tale of Thor’s Hammer, Mjolnir. This metal was crafted from the core of a dying star. While the power of the God of Thunder is not accessible to anyone, some of the heavy metals around us might originate from a long-dormant planet.
Similar to living beings, stars experience a life cycle. For stars with less than about 10 times the mass of the sun, the concluding phase is a White Dwarf. At this point, stars are compressed to the density of Earth and reach temperatures of around 100,000 Kelvin, approximately 100,000°C or 180,000°F. Unlike other stars, they cease to fuse elements in their cores for energy. Instead, they maintain their structure through Quantum mechanical principles and slowly release heat. This is why scientists often refer to white dwarfs as The dead star.
Nevertheless, under certain conditions, a white dwarf can experience one last surge of energy. There exists a limit to a white dwarf’s size, specifically 1.4 times the mass of the sun. If a star exceeds this threshold, gravitational forces can overpower its structural support, caused either by accumulating surrounding gas and dust or by merging with another white dwarf. This rapid compression ignites a chain reaction of fusion, culminating in an explosion known as a Type IA Supernova. Researchers estimate that such an explosion occurs in the Milky Way every 100-700 years.
A group of astrophysicists aimed to explore this phenomenon along with a rarer alternative. If a star is spinning while accumulating material, it can collapse into something even denser, a Neutron Star, and eject excess material without undergoing an explosion. The team simulated the aftermath of six different scenarios where the white dwarf collapsed after surpassing the size limit, known as Post Bounce. In these simulations, they adjusted various parameters, such as speed, width, temperature, and size thresholds of the white dwarfs.
They then controlled the initial conditions, including the mass of the white dwarf. Alkar simulated the behavior of low-energy particles referred to as liquid physics Neutrino 2D. Given the computational demands, astrophysicists typically simulate only a fraction of a second of post-bounce behavior. However, this team extended their simulation to 4.5-7 seconds to gain a deeper understanding of how ejected layers from white dwarfs behave.
The simulated white dwarf quickly collapsed, transitioning from a slower rate of 0.8 seconds to a rapid 0.04 seconds. The scenario diverged, with the unspinning white dwarf erupting into a supernova, while the spinning white dwarf transformed into a neutron star. In this latter case, the remnants of the stars were so densely packed that neutrinos collided with them, heating them up and ejecting them from the star.
The focus then shifted to the ejected material. The mass of material expelled ranged from 0.005 times to 0.05 times the mass of the sun, equivalent to about 1,700 to 17,000 Earth masses. Heavier elements like nickel can form during this process.
The researchers concluded that the outer layers ejected from collapsing white dwarfs could change rapidly during these events. They discovered that the material released was initially rich in protons and formed lighter elements but later became enriched in neutrons and heavier elements.
The team recommended developing more advanced 3D models of white dwarfs prior to their collapse for future studies. They suggested that astrophysicists could utilize these models to estimate the contribution of elements in the solar system originating from white dwarf collapses.
Sweltering and humid conditions have impacted nearly the entire eastern U.S. this week, triggered by “heat domes” settling over various regions.
On Wednesday, a heat advisory impacted approximately 150 million individuals, with temperatures exceeding 95 degrees Fahrenheit spreading through the Ohio Valley and along the East Coast. The National Weather Service predicts that “extremely dangerous heat” will persist until Thursday.
But what exactly is a heat dome, and how does it contribute to extreme heat?
Heat domes form when a strong high-pressure system remains stationary over an area, trapping warm air underneath like a lid on a pot.
These thermal domes are typically influenced by the jet stream’s behavior. The jet stream is a fast-moving ribbon of air that flows from west to east in the Northern Hemisphere, impacting weather patterns.
The jet stream is powered by the temperature disparity between the chilly polar regions and warm southern air masses. As it travels around the globe, it can create ripples that form troughs and ridges, leading to unusual weather phenomena.
For instance, certain ripples can intensify cold snaps, while others can move and amplify heat, resulting in higher humidity levels.
Heat domes can persist for days or even weeks, contributing to prolonged heat waves that can be deadly. Heat-related illnesses and fatalities can impact individuals of all ages, but children, those with pre-existing health conditions, and older adults are especially vulnerable to sudden temperature spikes.
Research indicates that climate change is increasing the frequency, intensity, and duration of heat waves globally. The hottest years on record since 1850 have all occurred within the last decade, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Some respite is anticipated later this week across the Midwest and East Coast, although temperatures are expected to remain high in the days ahead.
For many years, climate scientists and advocates have held onto a sense of optimism. They believe that once the impacts of global warming become undeniable, both individuals and governments will take significant action. The hope is that a major disaster—whether it be a fierce hurricane, extreme heat, or widespread flooding—will force a collective recognition of the gravity of the issue and lead to meaningful change. However, despite the increasing frequency of such disasters, climate change continues to rank low on voters’ agendas, and effective policy responses remain elusive.
This widespread inaction is often attributed to various political or structural barriers. Yet, decades of psychological studies indicate that more profound factors may be at play. The human brain often fails to recognize gradual changes.
Many areas are experiencing severe climate-related issues, but for the majority of the world, the changes manifest as slow and subtle shifts in daily weather.
This gradual nature of change presents challenges. People primarily assess climate issues based on personal experiences: there’s a heightened concern for an unusually hot day than when the weather feels typical. However, as conditions quietly worsen, the perception of “normalcy” shifts. This is often referred to as the boiling frog effect, where subtle and gradual changes fail to trigger alarm bells, leading to a state of indifference: akin to a frog in a pot of water that is gradually heated.
In 2020, we researched climate impacts in Princeton, New Jersey. This area is not burdened by wildfires or droughts, but it has seen a loss of something significant: winter ice skating. For many years, Carnegie Lake would freeze enough for skating, but now it seldom does.
Conversations with long-time residents and a review of local newspaper archives revealed a marked decline in ice skating on the lake over the last century, evoking a sense of loss. This disruption to winter traditions made Princeton’s experience with climate change feel more immediate, tangible, and personal.
We then posed the question: could binary climate indicators—such as “Lake Frozen” vs. “Lake Not Frozen”—serve as more effective alerts than graphs depicting gradual temperature increases?
I explored this concept through a series of experiments. Participants were presented with one of two graphs. One illustrated rising winter temperatures in a fictional town, while the other depicted whether the lake froze each year. Notably, both graphs represented the same underlying climate trends, but reactions varied significantly.
Those who viewed the binary “freeze or not” graphs consistently acknowledged that climate change had a more substantial impact compared to those who saw the temperature graphs. Follow-up studies analyzing data from North American and European lakes corroborated these findings. When climate impacts were communicated in stark terms, individuals responded more seriously.
What motivated this difference? We discovered that binary data creates an impression of sudden shifts. When people observed a series of winters where the lake froze juxtaposed with years it didn’t, they perceived a distinct “before” and “after,” despite the gradual nature of change.
Climate change transcends mere physical challenges; it also encompasses psychological dimensions. As long as we convey it in ways that resonate, we risk desensitizing our warning signals until it’s too late.
We encourage policymakers, journalists, and educators to leverage these insights. Highlighting specific losses that resonate—such as winters without ice skating, drought-damaged harvests, and summers plagued by wildfires—can be impactful. Utilize visuals that contrast “what we had” with “what we’ve lost.”
Allow people to witness the changes—it’s not merely about the slope of the line.
Grace Lew is affiliated with Carnegie Mellon University in Pennsylvania, while Lachitt Dubay is affiliated with UCLA.
As articulated in Gray’s Anatomy, it’s no surprise that healthcare professionals have inspired numerous popular narratives. The journey of a patient through the healthcare system mirrors the structure of classic storytelling, featuring beginnings, conflicts, and resolutions, often accompanied by various tensions.
Although medicine is often perceived as grounded in hard science (blood tests, medical imaging, treatment protocols), it fundamentally involves storytelling, a theme that Pria Anand explores in her debut book, Electric of the Mind: A Tale of the Strangeness and Wonders of Our Brains.
During her time at medical school in California, Anand was concerned that her aversion to storytelling might hinder her. Yet, she found that how individuals narrate their experiences could convey as much insight as any clinical test.
Anand pays homage to her predecessor, neurologist Oliver Sacks, drawing from his personal anecdotes while diagnosing and empathizing with patients. In Electric of the Heart, she acknowledges the influence of Sacks’s iconic work, The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat.
While it’s unrealistic to expect anyone to reach Sacks’s level of ingenuity, Anand embodies his empathy, curiosity, and intellectual breadth. Her writing is both polished and insightful as she navigates complex neurological concepts, addressing the narratives of individual patients with similar finesse.
However, Electric of the Heart transcends mere “clinical anecdotes.” Anand’s core message emphasizes the vital role of storytelling in medical practice. The human craving for narratives is ancient, universal, and remarkably resilient, often thriving even in the aftermath of severe brain injuries, as she notes.
Regardless of health status, how individuals articulate their condition may diverge significantly from a physician’s evaluation or observable metrics. Anand recounts the story of a patient who entered a coma following a cerebral hemorrhage but appeared to recover fully, often mistaking Anand and her colleagues for her former medical team as she made her rounds among fellow patients.
No one can match the brilliance of Sacks, but Anand embodies the writer’s humanity and broad intellect.
Anand delves into the way our brains can mislead us, highlighting both the hurdles and the character of medical practice. However, it’s not just the patients’ misconceptions that warrant attention; doctors can exhibit similar biases and errors.
The evolution of her own health conditions has profoundly informed Anand’s work ethic—from sleep deprivation during her training to the “phantom noises” she began experiencing that prompted her concern. It was later discovered that these sounds stemmed from a vascular malformation connecting her brain to her heart.
The inherent “imbalance of power” in medicine signifies an ongoing struggle between empirical evidence and narrative, as well as between objective truths and subjective experiences—this dynamic exists not only in the realm of physicians but also among the false dichotomies pervasive in healthcare. Historically, many confidently given diagnoses have been based solely on “scientific” definitions. One can reflect on the notion of a “wandering uterus.”
Although comparisons between Anand and early reviewers might not be misleading, Electric of the Heart invites parallels with Glass Body, a personal narrative by Caroline Crampton that also explores hypochondria. Like Crampton’s insightful account, Anand elucidates “a vast liminal spread between health and illness” from her perspective as a physician.
Both works suggest a growing openness in mainstream media to not only drama but the complexities of medical intricacies, challenging the traditional notion that the divides between “healthy brains and failing brains” or illnesses and wellness are as clear-cut as they seem.
In Electric of the Heart, Anand exhibits empathy, humility, and a profound interest in humanity—qualities that define outstanding doctors and ideally should be prevalent throughout the medical profession.
Elle Hunt is an author based in Norwich, UK
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A restless mind is a prevalent obstacle to achieving sleep
Andrii Lysenko/Getty Images
It might be due to age and warmer temperatures, but sleep is becoming increasingly elusive in my household. Between my husband’s insomnia, my child’s energy, and my own racing thoughts, our nights are filled with as much activity as our days. My social media feed has begun presenting videos featuring a technique known as “cognitive shuffle” for inducing sleep, prompting me to explore whether it actually works or if there are other mental tricks that could prove beneficial.
One major hindrance to restful sleep is a restless mind, the very challenge that cognitive shuffle aims to alleviate. Luc Beaudoin from Simon Fraser University in British Columbia, Canada, has devised methods to help you divert your attention from spiraling thoughts and worries before drifting off.
How to Practice Cognitive Shuffling
The concept is straightforward. Pick a random word, such as “plonk,” and think of all the words you can generate from each letter. Examples include Primsol, Puma, Awards…lion, lemon, levitation, and more. As each word surfaces, spend some time visualizing it. This process creates a transitional phase between wakefulness and slumber, mirroring the spontaneous imagery seen in a “hypnotic state.”
Individuals who are good sleepers often report experiencing vivid images just before sleep, while poor sleepers tend to find themselves planning and problem-solving, as noted by Sophie Bostock, a doctor and sleep consultant. “It’s not that we need to empty our minds (which can actually be counterproductive), but rather we should steer our thoughts away from overly logical thinking,” she explains.
Cognitive shuffling seems to foster more fluid thinking. In a small study involving 154 students, those who reported struggling with “pre-sleep wakefulness” benefited from this technique, which shortened their time to sleep.
However, there lacks a gold-standard study on cognitive shuffling. Beaudoin himself conceded that there is no direct comparison between various cognitive techniques utilized at bedtime within the scientific literature.
Consequently, I turned to some of the world’s leading sleep scientists to inquire about their recommendations for anyone hoping to calm their minds at night.
Strategies for Insomnia Relief
Kevin Morgan from the Clinical Sleep Research Unit at Loughborough University in the UK directed me towards Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia (CBTI). “CBTI is internationally recognized as the first evidence-based treatment for insomnia disorders,” he asserts.
This therapy focuses on training individuals to manage intrusive thoughts, which can otherwise lead to cognitive arousal (mental alertness), elevate hormones like adrenaline, and disrupt the normal sleep process. CBTI also tackles other facets of insomnia by assisting individuals in overcoming anxieties about sleeplessness and teaches meditation techniques.
While effective, acquiring CBTI techniques typically takes about 6–8 weeks, leading to a high dropout rate.
Morgan mentions that the component of CBTI that appears to yield the greatest benefits is sleep restriction therapy. This counterintuitive method “has proven to be extremely effective” by reinforcing the idea of spending limited time in bed without sleeping.
This echoes the advice I received from Colin S.P., a professor of sleep medicine at Oxford University. He emphasized that “you cannot force sleep. It doesn’t exist in a tangible sense,” he notes. “You can only encourage sleep. It’s an involuntary process that occurs naturally, not something you can will into being. So rather than trying to sleep when you feel ‘slept and tired,’ focus on creating a conducive environment.”
Designing a Sleep Sanctuary
Another straightforward suggestion from several experts is to cultivate a sleep sanctuary in your bedroom. “Sleep-friendly environments are crucial,” advises Joseph Zielzevsky, Senior Vice President of Research and Science Affairs at the National Sleep Foundation. Others concur. “The top recommendation is to create a bedroom that promotes sleep—dark, cool, quiet, and uncluttered,” states Emerson Wickwire, Head of Sleep Medicine at the University of Maryland School of Medicine in Baltimore.
Many experts also highlighted the importance of avoiding screens before bedtime. The blue light emitted can inhibit melatonin production, disrupt circadian rhythms, complicate the process of falling asleep, and prompt unnecessary thoughts. However, Dzierzewski points out that many people engage with emotionally stimulating content, such as news and social media, right before bed. “Regrettably, over half of Americans admit to using screens within an hour of bedtime,” she mentions.
Perhaps the most significant advice I received wasn’t a trick or hint to quiet our racing thoughts at night but rather a prompt to genuinely prioritize sleep. Numerous specialists, including Aparajitha Verma, a sleep medicine neurologist in Houston, Texas, emphasized the necessity of treating sleep as a priority. Morgan reiterates that anyone dealing with insomnia should “seek expert help and engage in recommended treatment strategies as soon as possible.”
Chronic sleep deprivation is linked to increased risks of dementia, type 2 diabetes, obesity, heart disease, and even cancer. This reality alone is enough to keep anyone awake at night. Additionally, thoughts of “organizing” my child’s room linger in my mind. Yet, I am resolved to place it at the top of my to-do list as an immediate concern—hopefully, that will serve as a positive first step towards achieving a restful night for all.
Rice served as a fundamental crop in the Austronesian region, which includes the ancestors of Taiwan and the islands of Southeast Asia. However, it was largely unknown in the Pacific Islands during their initial encounters with Europeans, with the exceptions of Guam and the Mariana Islands. A recent study conducted by scientists from Guam, China, and Australia highlights the discovery of abundant rice husks and leafy plant oils associated with red melted pottery found in the Litidian Beach Caves in Guam, dating back between 3,500 and 3,100 years ago.
The presence of early rice in Pacific Island settlements is part of a broader narrative about rice as a staple in the diet of ancient Austronesian speakers, who formed the world’s most extensive language family prior to the onset of global colonial expansions.
Austronesian communities cultivated rice in Taiwan no less than 4,800 years ago, but cultivation of rice among populations in eastern Indonesia seems to have been carried over into the more remote Pacific Islands. The Austronesian ancestors migrated from Taiwan across the Asia-Pacific region approximately 4,200 years ago.
These early islanders introduced domesticated rice from Taiwan and returned to the Yangtze River Basin in mainland China, the source of these resources.
In this context, rice’s significance in the Mariana Islands in Guam and western Micronesia has garnered significant interest, as it was the sole island in the distant Pacific where rice cultivation occurred, as evidenced by historical records from the 1500s and 1600s.
“These findings provide fresh insights into ancient migration and culture,” states Dr. Hsiao-Chun Hung, an archaeologist at the Australian National University.
“To this point, archaeological records only showed traces of rare rice in the remote Pacific Ocean, dating back perhaps 1,000 to 700 years ago. The evidence we have found pushes that timeline significantly forward.”
Rice cultivation from excavations at Litidian Beach Cave in Guam. Scale bar – 10μm. Image credits: Carson et al. , doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adw3591.
Dr. Hung and her team discovered ancient rice remnants in a cave at Ritidian Beach in northern Guam.
“Rice served as a daily staple in many ancient Asian societies, yet this discovery reveals that, in the remote Pacific Ocean, it was regarded as a valuable item reserved for rituals rather than regular consumption,” Dr. Hung remarked.
“Our investigations found no signs of ancient rice paddies, irrigation systems, or harvesting tools in Guam.”
“Our findings bolster the hypothesis that the first Pacific Islanders transported rice from the Philippines over 2,300 km of open ocean.
“This indicates not just their exceptional navigation abilities but also their foresight in storing and carrying essential resources across vast distances.
“The caves at Ritidian Beach offer unique insights into the lives of early inhabitants in the region, especially given that most other cave sites in Guam were affected during World War II.”
“Despite extensive exploration of outdoor sites, evidence of early rice usage had not been uncovered until this point.”
“This discovery highlights a profound and enduring connection between our ancestral heritage and our Asian roots.”
“Rice husks were found in the oldest cultural layer of this site, dated through a range of advanced methods including radiocarbon analyses of nearby human waste deposits.
“It is likely that rice was prepared and cooked elsewhere, as the grain processing would have left different kinds of evidence.”
“The humid cave conditions were not suitable for storing raw rice in a pot.”
“Ancient residues were only located on ceramic surfaces, ruling out conventional food storage options.”
Details of these findings are documented in a study published in the journal Advances in Science.
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Mike T. Carson et al. 2025. The earliest evidence of rice cultivation in remote Oceania: ritual use by the first islanders of the Marianas 3,500 years ago. Advances in Science 11 (26); doi:10.1126/sciadv.adw3591
Gastric bypass surgery is primarily utilized for weight loss, but it may provide other advantages
Portra/Getty Images
A widely recognized form of weight loss surgery may lower the risk of colorectal cancer by changing the levels of bile acids in the bloodstream. These findings could pave the way for new bowel cancer treatments.
During gastric bypass surgery, the stomach is surgically altered to create a small upper pouch and a larger lower pouch. The small intestine is then connected to the upper pouch, allowing food and digestive juices to bypass most of the upper stomach and small intestine. Post-surgery, patients often feel fuller and experience quicker weight loss.
Earlier research indicated that this procedure is associated with a decreased risk of colorectal cancer; however, the underlying reasons remained unclear. To investigate further, Rebecca Kesselling of the University of Freiburg, Germany, and her team fed mice a high-fat diet until they reached approximately 50% of their starting weight. They then performed a partial gastric bypass on some of the mice, while the remaining mice underwent a sham surgery that did not alter their digestive systems.
To isolate the weight-loss effects of gastric bypass surgery, the team grouped the gastric bypass mice alongside half of the sham-operated mice. Over six weeks, the gastric bypass mice lost about 20% of their body weight on average.
Subsequently, the researchers implanted colorectal cancer cells into the colons of the mice. After an additional six weeks, it was observed that colon tumors in the gastric bypass mice were two-thirds smaller than those in the mice that either continued gaining weight or lost weight solely through diet.
Additionally, cancer spread to the liver was seen in only one out of twenty gastric bypass mice, while it occurred in most of the sham-operated mice.
“Both sham groups exhibited similar tumor levels, but weight loss alone could not account for the lower cancer risk, suggesting that gastric bypass involves additional factors,” Kesselling explains.
The researchers speculated that this might be attributed to alterations in bile acids, which are compounds that aid in fat digestion. These molecules are typically produced by the liver, move through the gallbladder, stomach, and small intestine, and then return to the liver via the bloodstream.
“Bile acids are reintroduced into the small intestine during bypass surgery,” Kesselling states, implying that this process may lead to variations in intestinal bacteria that chemically modify these molecules.
The mice that underwent gastric bypass surgery displayed lower levels of specific bile acids, known as primary bile acids, in both their colon and bloodstream compared to the sham group.
To further explore whether changes in bile acids influenced cancer risk, the team conducted a similar experiment with another group of mice. Instead of gastric bypass, these mice had surgery that redirected bile acids to the latter part of the small intestine without altering the stomach.
Significantly, the team noted that this surgery also lowered primary bile acid levels in the bloodstream and decreased the size and spread of colorectal tumors as effectively as gastric bypass surgery. This was supported by an additional experiment, where they identified that primary bile acids promote the growth of colorectal cancer cells in laboratory settings.
The results indicate that focusing on primary bile acids may hold promise for cancer treatment. “We might be able to leverage various oral medications designed to reduce these bile acids to replicate some of the advantageous effects of gastric bypass surgery,” notes Vance Albaf from Louisiana State University.
Ancient artifacts crafted from mammoth tusks are the earliest recognized boomerangs
Talamo et al., 2025, PLOS One, CC-BY 4.0
The earliest known boomerang could be over 22,000 years older than previously believed, indicating it was crafted during a time when early humans exhibited a rise in artistic expression.
In 1985, archaeologists discovered a 72-centimeter ivory boomerang buried beneath six layers of sediment within the Obwazwa Cave in Poland. Further analysis of sediment revealed bone beads from Homo sapiens, made from nearby thumb bones, antlers, fox teeth, and pendants. In the 1990s, radiocarbon dating estimated the thumbs to be 31,000 years old, while surprisingly, the boomerang dated only to 18,000 years ago—thousands of years younger than the associated crafts.
Sarataramo at the University of Bologna suspects contamination. “Even minor amounts of modern carbon from adhesives and maintenance can skew radiocarbon dates by tens of thousands of years,” she explains. The analysis of carbon-nitrogen ratios in the thumbs indicated collagen changes, suggesting that the samples were not suitable for reliable radiocarbon dating.
Redoing the dating on the contaminated boomerang would have wasted resources and unnecessarily harmed significant artifacts, according to Taramo. Instead, she and her team re-dated the human thumb bones and 13 nearby animal bones, using statistical modeling to reconstruct the timeline. Their findings indicated that the entire sediment layer—along with the boomerangs and thumb bones—dated to approximately 39,000 to 42,000 years ago.
“In a way, this serves as a reminder for museums; if you discover something extraordinary, avoid covering it with glue or any repair materials prior to completing thorough analysis,” she asserts.
This new timeline suggests that the ivory boomerang predates the second oldest known wooden boomerang created by Australian Indigenous peoples. Unlike other simpler throwing tools, like the 300,000-year-old wooden artifact found in Schoningen, Germany, the boomerang has a curved, aerodynamic design, although it may not always return when thrown, according to Taramo.
While it’s likely that these ancient boomerangs could fly, their size and construction likely meant they did not return to the thrower. They may have held symbolic or ritual significance, potentially related to their placement alongside the thumb bones within a decorative stone ring, which featured intricate carvings and reddish pigments, along with a smooth polished surface.
This discovery provides insight into the cognitive abilities and craftsmanship of early humans during a remarkable period of artistic growth, known as the early Aulignacian, which began around 40,000 years ago. This era saw the emergence of iconic artifacts, including mammoth ivory figurines, rock art, and aesthetically refined tools in Europe, notes Taramo.
According to an independent survey derived from household interviews, about 75,000 individuals (3.6% of the population) in the Gaza Strip lost their lives due to violence between October 7, 2023, and January 5, 2025. This figure exceeds the Gaza Health Ministry’s estimate of 46,000 violent deaths in the same timeframe.
The research also indicated that approximately 9,000 additional non-violent deaths occurred during this period compared to expected norms in the Gaza Strip. This marks the first estimate of indirect deaths stemming from the conflict that began in October 2023.
The survey involved interviews with 2,000 randomly selected households, which detailed the current and prewar conditions for all household members. “We were present on-site and gathered data directly from the population,” says Debarati Guha-Sapir at Louban Catholic University in Belgium.
The research team encountered restrictions in several locations due to ongoing combat and Israeli evacuation orders, but they believe these limitations likely understate the actual figures rather than exaggerate them.
Guha-Sapir notes that Gaza’s Ministry of Health maintains strict death counting standards. For instance, deaths of unidentified bodies, such as those buried in tunnels, are excluded from the counts. This leads her to conclude that their estimates may closely reflect the true numbers.
Another independent study published in February determined that the death toll up to June 24, 2024, surpassed the official count. However, this study relied on online research and social media obituaries, making Guha-Sapir regard the current research approach as more credible.
Francesco Checchi from the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, which conducted the February research, disagrees, stating, “The findings aren’t necessarily more accurate than ours.” Nonetheless, he acknowledges that Guha-Sapir’s research is more recent and includes indirect deaths, providing a more comprehensive mortality picture.
The estimated 9,000 indirect deaths from the conflict is lower than previous estimates. For example, a letter in The Lancet in 2024 suggested that for every direct death, there could be four indirect deaths in Gaza, projecting a death toll of around 186,000.
However, Guha-Sapir points out that the direct death rates observed in countries like Sudan, where extreme poverty and inadequate healthcare predate the conflict, do not apply to Gaza’s context prior to the war. This distinction is crucial in interpreting the current situation.
Nevertheless, changes may occur if conditions continue to deteriorate. “As the situation worsens, the rate of non-violent deaths could escalate quickly,” warns team member Michael Spagat from Royal Holloway University in London.
A team of biologists from the University of Virginia and the National Institutes of Health has found that half of certain organelles can make up to 10% of vesicle organelles present in cells, yet they do not follow the typical endocytotic pathway.
Cutting-edge Cryo-Electron microscope images of rat-1 cells cultured on Cryo-EM grids. The lamellipodia and filopodia in the upper right corner illustrate the cell boundary, distinguishing the cytoplasm from the extracellular space (ext). Various vesicle organelles are highlighted, including early endosomal-like vesicles (EN, pink), multinuclear bodies (MVB, blue), hemispores (HF, yellow), and inverted hemifusomes (FHF, green). Scale bar – 0.5 µm. Image credit: Tavakoli et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-59887-9.
“It’s like uncovering a new recycling center within a cell,” remarked Dr. Seham Ebrahim, a researcher at the University of Virginia.
“Many believe it plays a role in how cells manage their packaging and processing of materials. If this process fails, it can lead to diseases affecting multiple systems in the body.”
“One such condition is Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome, a rare genetic disorder that may result in albinism, visual impairments, lung issues, and problems with blood clotting.”
“The challenges related to how cells manage their cargo are central to many of these issues.”
“We’re just beginning to grasp how these new organelles fit into the broader context of cellular health and disease.”
“This discovery is thrilling because finding a genuinely new internal cell is rare, and it opens up avenues for exploring entirely new paths.”
Utilizing Cryo-Electron tomography (Cryo-ET), the researchers managed to capture a significant number of images.
They propose that these organelles facilitate the creation of vesicle-based organelles, which function like mixing bowls, small blister-like sacs, and multiple vesicles.
This process plays a critical role in cellular sorting, recycling, and debris management.
Dr. Ebrahim stated, “You can think of vesicles as small delivery trucks within a cell.”
“Part of it functions like a loading dock where cargo is connected and transferred. It’s a step in the process we were unaware of.”
Many of these organelles have gone unnoticed but are surprisingly prevalent in certain areas of the cell.
Researchers aim to enhance their understanding of their significance in proper cell functioning and how issues with them can lead to diseases.
Such findings may contribute to targeted treatments for a range of serious genetic disorders.
“This is only the beginning,” Dr. Ebrahim noted.
“Now that we’ve confirmed the existence of hemifusomes, we can explore their behavior in healthy cells and investigate what occurs when problems arise.”
“It could pave the way for new strategies to address complex genetic disorders.”
The team’s paper was published in the journal Nature Communications.
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A. Cigarette et al. 2025. Proteolipid nanosap interacting with half of hemifusomes mediates polyspore formation. Nat Commun 16, 4609; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-59887-9
James Watson, a Nobel Prize-winning co-discussor of the DNA double helix, remarked in 1974, “All hell is unleashed politically and morally around the globe” regarding the potential of human in vitro fertilization.
Today, more than 12 million individuals are expecting through IVF, and the world seems relatively calm. Many of us may not have fully grasped this procedure.
Yet, what about our perceptions of future reproductive technologies? This question is sparked by the recent birth of a fertile mouse with two genetic fathers. While similar experiments have previously led to the creation of both motherless and fatherless mice, this new method is notable as it does not involve genetic alterations. Typically, this could also be applicable for human use.
Various obstacles, including low success rates and the removal of DNA from numerous human eggs, explain why such advancements aren’t imminent. Nonetheless, it is essential to begin contemplating the societal implications.
For some, the notion of a child having two genetic fathers may never be accepted, just as there remains criticism towards gay couples expanding their families. Changing such perspectives may prove challenging, if not impossible.
Like IVF, what used to be front-page news could eventually become routine.
However, one can expect a broader public to exhibit a strict moral opposition to this idea, along with a general sense of unease. The inaugural child born from this method is, in many ways, distinct from all previous human beings. IVF-born children come into existence through a process unimaginable to our ancestors but continue to carry the genetic lineage from one male and one female ancestor.
Is this significant? Just like IVF, what was once front-page news may soon be commonplace. In a time when reproductive and trans rights are being restricted in the U.S., engaging in objective discourse about emerging technologies presents a greater challenge. Fortunately, these questions do not require immediate answers.
Your brain communicates with your body through a network of 12 critical neural pathways that travel down your spine and extend throughout the body. Among these, the vagus nerve stands out as perhaps the most vital. This nerve influences digestion, heart rate, reflexes, and respiration.
This is why researchers are particularly fascinated by the vagus nerve’s functions, especially regarding how these bodily activities can influence your mood. Consider it a superhighway linking our brains and bodies.
Vagus nerve function
Unlike the quick “fight or flight” reactions managed by the sympathetic nervous system, the vagus nerve triggers a slower, restful, and digestive response associated with the parasympathetic nervous system. This nerve comprises two thick cords of neurons (nerve cells) that originate from the brain.
The majority of the neurons in the vagus nerve are sensory (around 100,000 on each side of the body), relaying information from the organs to the brain, activated by sensory stimuli from the surrounding environment. The remaining neurons are motor neurons, transmitting signals from the brain to various organs, directly influencing muscle activity.
The vagus nerve is a vital component of the parasympathetic nervous system, influencing various bodily functions including respiration, heart rate, swallowing, sneezing, digestion, appetite, immune responses, and even orgasm.
This wide-ranging capability results from its diverse neuronal cell types that enable the detection of various sensory signals from different organs. Some neurons respond to chemical signals like blood oxygen levels or bacterial secretions in the gut, while others pick up mechanical signals from blood vessels and the stretching of intestines.
Consequently, vagus nerve neurons mainly relay information to the brain about the body’s status, enabling the brain to process this information and respond to maintain balance. However, some neurons transmit signals in reverse, facilitating communication between the brain and intestines, as well as controlling certain mouth and throat muscles involved in speech and gag reflexes.
The vagus nerve’s roles are numerous, and there may be functions we’re yet to discover. However, we know some ways to leverage its activity. For instance, doctors sometimes recommend “Valsalva Maneuvers” to activate the vagus nerve and decelerate rapid heart rates. Activities like coughing, bearing down as if on the toilet, or even handstands can be effective.
Read more about stress:
Long, twisty nerves
The term “vagus” translates to “wandering” in Latin, which aptly describes the vagus nerve. It extends from the brain down to the base of the spine and colon, branching out to critical organs such as the heart, lungs, liver, and intestines along its path.
As the longest cranial nerve in the human body, it plays a key role in the parasympathetic nervous system, regulating automatic functions like digestion while the body is at rest. Historically, it was termed the pneumonia nerve, due to its connections to both the lungs and stomach.
How is the vagus nerve connected to our happiness?
In stressful situations, our sympathetic nervous system triggers “fight or flight” responses for quick reactions, whereas the parasympathetic system operates more gradually to foster relaxation. It’s crucial for recovering calmness following stress.
Thanks to the vagus nerve, our brains can detect changes in breathing and heart rate, facilitating a balancing act between the two nervous systems. Although the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems don’t always sync perfectly, they can operate independently or in harmony. Disruptions in their balance may lead to digestive issues or mental health disorders. Chronic stress is linked to an overactive sympathetic response, a phenomenon noted in individuals suffering from depression.
Vagus nerve and heart
A key metric often utilized is heart rate variability, which measures the intervals between consecutive heartbeats. Healthy heart rhythms typically exhibit slight variations; low variability may indicate an overactive sympathetic nervous system, indicating the body remains in a persistent state of combat or flight, while the vagus and parasympathetic responses struggle to keep pace.
Despite being a popular tool, questions regarding the true effectiveness of heart rate variability as an indicator of balance between the two systems continue to emerge. Heart rate monitors can supply this data, yet it’s best not to become overly fixated on the figures.
Historically, stomach ulcers were often treated by severing the vagus fibers beneath the ribcage, based on the belief that the vagus nerve significantly contributes to acid production in the stomach, resulting in pain. Today, with advancements in medication, such surgical procedures are less common, yet they illustrate the repercussions of damaging a nerve with extensive branches.
Cutting the vagus nerve can eliminate its supply to the stomach, pancreas, small intestine, and portions of the colon. Without further surgical intervention, patients may find it difficult to pass solid waste. Those with gastroparesis face similar challenges, generally due to vagus nerve damage caused by diabetes, medications, or infections.
Moreover, more severe damage higher up the vagus nerve may lead to different consequences. For example, the chickenpox virus can attack the nervous system and rarely cause vagus nerve lesions, resulting in the inability to swallow, headaches, and ear inflammation. Preliminary research from Spain indicates that some of the symptoms associated with long COVID may also relate to vagus nerve damage, encompassing respiratory, vocal, and gastrointestinal issues.
Should I get a vagus nerve stimulator?
Current evidence indicates that devices designed for vagus nerve stimulation are generally safe. However, researchers express concerns about the rising tendency for home use of neurostimulators.
Individuals seeking alternatives to technology may opt for activities like yoga, meditation, hypnotherapy, and deep breathing exercises, believed to enhance the parasympathetic nervous system’s function and bolster vagus nerve activity. Additionally, there’s evidence suggesting that cold exposure through swimming or bathing can stimulate the vagus nerve, activating the parasympathetic system. Splashing cold water on your face may also have a similar effect.
While using an inexpensive device or signing up for a yoga retreat may appear to be a convenient fix when you’re not feeling well, consulting with your doctor for serious health concerns is always a wise approach.
Read more about how to relax:
What is vagus nerve stimulation?
The vagus nerve stimulation concept originated in the late 19th century when neurologist James Leonard Corning created an electrical stimulation device for treating epilepsy. Although it was initially set aside, it has evolved to help over 100,000 patients with epilepsy via implants or adjustments for brain lesions.
Several studies suggest that some individuals can reduce seizure frequency by as much as 75% with implants, with longer use amplifying benefits. Devices developed by US medical company Cyberonics are also approved for severe depression and chronic headaches.
However, surgical implantation isn’t the only form of nerve stimulation. You can access the vagus nerve via ear and neck branches, using devices like TENS machines commonly utilized for labor pain relief. Ear clips, such as those developed by Nurosym, offer stylish neuromodulators intended for individuals seeking relief from anxiety, depression, or fatigue.
Research on vagus nerve stimulation is rapidly growing, with ongoing trials exploring its efficacy in conditions like burns, obesity, hypertension, rheumatoid arthritis, Alzheimer’s disease, and tinnitus. The well-documented link between the vagus nerve and gut function also suggests potential therapeutic applications for common gastrointestinal disorders like IBS. However, accumulating evidence to support these treatments must take time.
It is the longest cranial nerve that extends from the brain to the large intestine, transmitting signals bidirectionally through neurotransmitters and gut hormones.
The vagus nerve fibers harbor 200,000 sensory nerve cells, with the ears being the sole area where these fibers reach the body’s surface.
The vagus nerve’s “bypass,” which enables direct impulses between the uterus and brain, may allow women with spinal injury to achieve orgasm.
Vagus nerve stimulation influences gamma-aminobutyric acid neurotransmitters associated with ADHD, hinting at potential therapeutic applications.
The medical term for fainting is vasovagal syncope, occurring when the vagus nerve is overstimulated, leading to a sudden drop in heart rate and blood pressure.
Read more about the human body:
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Some former employees of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) who were dismissed, re-hired, and then let go again this spring report having received debt notices from the federal government requiring repayment for medical compensation which they assert they never received.
These workers describe this as the latest chapter in a firing process marked by confusion, inadequate communication, and insufficient documentation, leaving them grappling with fundamental workplace concerns.
Three NOAA employees provided a letter to NBC News labeled “Notice of Payment Request.” Dated June 16, the letter claimed the employee owed money (sometimes several hundred dollars) with potential interest on the amount. It also warned that any unpaid debt would be reported to the Credit Bureau.
“The language is very ominous and threatening,” remarked Salakoury, who was dismissed in late February from his role as director of the agency’s marine acidification program.
It remains unclear how many dismissed employees received this notice; two former NOAA staff members informed NBC News that they did not get such letters.
The notice indicates that the debt pertains to healthcare premiums for the eighth and ninth months of the year, during which the health insurance plan had already lapsed.
“After my termination, they attempted to file a claim related to their health insurance, of which I had no reports,” noted Ya’el Seid-Green, a former special assistant at NOAA’s Office of Ocean and Atmospheric Research. “It’s just rubbing salt in the wound regarding how incompetent this is.”
NOAA spokesperson Kim Doster stated the agency could not comment on ongoing personnel issues and was unable to forward inquiries to the HR Administration, which did not respond initially. The Department of Commerce, which oversees NOAA, also did not reply.
Following NBC News’s inquiry about the problems at NOAA’s Media Affairs group, probationary employees received an acknowledgment from their representatives about potential errors.
“Our office is aware that you may have received a debt notice from the National Finance Center (NFC),” read an email sent to a probationary employee. “Please be assured that we are collaborating with the NFC to address this matter. No action is required from you at this moment. We will provide further information and updates.”
In February, the Department of Commerce terminated over 600 probationary employees at NOAA, including hurricane hunters, meteorologists, and storm modelers. Probationary employees typically serve their first or second year in a new position at the agency.
In mid-March, a judge ordered many of these employees reinstated, prompting NOAA to place them on administrative leave. However, in early April, the Supreme Court temporarily halted some of these reinstatements, leading to a second dismissal of the employees.
A former employee stated that the chaotic process of hiring and firing has resulted in documentation errors and confusion, leaving them unable to obtain answers from the agency.
Sabrina Valenti, a former budget analyst at NOAA, expressed concern that she has not yet received her separation paperwork from the agency.
“It has been four months since my termination, and there is no record acknowledging it,” she stated.
Additionally, the employees reported not having access to the health benefits that should have been available during their reinstatement period. Seid-Green underwent surgery in April while on administrative leave.
“We were receiving salaries during administrative leave, and our health insurance contributions were deducted,” she mentioned.
After her surgery, Seid-Green discovered that her health insurance had lapsed.
She subsequently applied to continue her temporary compensation, a program that allows government employees to retroactively cover their health benefits. However, that has also not been successful.
Seid-Green remarked that this effectively means she has been billed twice for health insurance she has not received.
“I’ve received letters demanding over $14,000 for the surgery,” she shared. “Not only did they fail to provide the compensation we were owed, but now they are sending us debt notices for benefits we never received.”
Tim White House, executive director of the Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility (PEER), a nonprofit organization dedicated to supporting environmental workers and monitoring administrative issues, stated that these errors reflect deeper leadership failures within the agency.
“They are inflicting emotional and financial burdens on these employees. The Department of Commerce is at fault. Other agencies have resolved these issues, while they remain persistent in this department,” he concluded.
Neurons Growing Among Cancer Cell Cultures (Stained Green)
Simon Grelet and Gustavo Ayala
Cancer cells are known to hijack energy-generating components from neurons, facilitating their spread to remote locations. This groundbreaking discovery may enhance treatments for the most aggressive tumors.
“This marks the first instance of mitochondrial transfer from nerves to cancer cells,” states Elizabeth Lepasky, who is not directly linked to the study conducted at the Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center in Buffalo, New York. “This signifies a pivotal advancement in cancer neuroscience, a rapidly evolving field.”
Prior knowledge indicated that both intratumor and adjacent tumors produce proteins and electrical impulses that promote cancer growth and dissemination. “A higher density of nerves within tumors correlates with a poorer prognosis,” says Simone Grelet from the University of Southern Alabama.
Earlier investigations have demonstrated that brain tumor cells can absorb mitochondria (the energy-producing organelles) from non-neuronal brain cells. However, the potential for tumor cells to extract mitochondria from neurons remained unclear, according to Grelet.
To explore this, Grelet and his team genetically modified breast cancer cells derived from mice to contain red fluorescent molecules and combined them with mouse neurons that had mitochondria labeled with green pigments in laboratory conditions. Imaging revealed that cancer cells can seize mitochondria from neurons within a matter of hours.
“Cancer cells extend their membranes to absorb mitochondria from neurons,” explains Grelet. “It’s akin to a lineup of mitochondria filtering through a narrow passage, entering the cancer cells sequentially.”
To assess whether this phenomenon occurs in vivo, the researchers injected red breast cancer cells into the mammary glands of female mice to induce tumor growth. They also genetically engineered the surrounding nerves to carry green mitochondria. Approximately one month later, 2% of the cancer cells in these tumors had taken up mitochondria from neurons.
Conversely, 14% of tumor cells that metastasized to the brain exhibited neuronal-derived mitochondria. This suggests that cancer cells acquiring mitochondria from nerves have a significant advantage over other cancer types. Further tests indicate that these mitochondria contribute to greater resilience against the physical and chemical challenges encountered in the bloodstream.
“Cancer cells face numerous hurdles in their migration,” remarks Repasky. “They must escape the primary tumor, navigate barriers to blood vessels, exit the bloodstream, and secure sufficient oxygen and nutrients at secondary sites. By appropriating mitochondria, it appears cancer cells can endure this tumultuous journey,” she adds.
To determine if this process also occurs in humans, researchers examined tumor samples from eight women with metastatic breast cancer. They discovered that tumor cells from distant sites contained, on average, 17% more mitochondria compared to those from breast tumors, suggesting that similar mechanisms are at play in patients, according to Grelet.
Moreover, the team analyzed human prostate tumor samples and observed that cancer cells near nerves contained significantly more mitochondria than those situated further away. “I believe this represents a common mechanism utilized by various tumor types,” asserts team member Gustavo Ayala from the University of Texas Health Science Center in Houston.
The findings indicate that inhibiting mitochondrial transfer could potentially curtail the spread of the deadliest tumors. “We are optimistic that this is achievable, at least for certain tumor types,” Repasky suggests. Ayala mentions that they are working towards developing a drug to facilitate this approach.
Teenager language may make online bullying difficult to detect
Vitapix/Getty Images
The terminology of Generation Alpha is evolving faster than educators, parents, and AI can keep up with.
Manisha Meta, a 14-year-old student from Warren E Hyde Middle School in Cupertino, California, alongside Fausto Giunchiglia from the University of Trent in Italy, examined 100 expressions popular among Generation Alpha, those born from 2010 to 2025, sourced from gaming, social media, and video platforms.
The researchers then asked 24 classmates of Mehta, aged between 11 and 14, to evaluate these phrases along with contextual screenshots. The volunteers assessed their understanding of the phrases, the contexts in which they were used, and if they carried potential safety risks or harmful interpretations. They also consulted their parents, professional moderators, and four AI models (GPT-4, Claude, Gemini, and Llama 3) for the same analysis.
“I’ve always been intrigued by Generation Alpha’s language because it’s so distinctive; relevance shifts rapidly, and trends become outdated just as quickly,” says Mehta.
Among the Alpha generation volunteers, 98% grasped the basic meaning of a given phrase, 96% understood the context of its use, and 92% recognized instances of harmful intent. In contrast, the AI model could identify harmful usage only around 40% of the time, with Claude stumbling from 32.5% to 42.3%. Parents and moderators also fell short, detecting harmful usages in just one-third of instances.
“We expected a broader comprehension than we observed,” Mehta reflects. “Much of the feedback from my parents was speculative.”
Common phrases from Generation Alpha often have double meanings based on context. For instance, “Let’s Cook His” can signify genuine praise in gaming but may also mockingly refer to someone rambling incoherently. “Kys,” once short for “know yourself,” has now been repurposed to mean “kill yourself.” Another phrase that could hide malicious intent is, “Is it acoustic?”
“Generation Alpha is exceedingly vulnerable online,” says Meta. “As AI increasingly dominates content moderation, understanding the language used by LLMs is crucial.”
“It’s evident that LLMs are transforming the landscape,” asserts Giunchiglia. “This presents fundamental questions that need addressing.”
The results were published this week at the Computing Machinery Conference Association on Equity, Accountability and Transparency in Athens, Greece.
“Empirical evidence from this research highlights significant shortcomings in content moderation systems, especially concerning the analysis and protection of young individuals,” notes Michael Veal from University College London. “Companies and regulators must heed this and adapt as regulations evolve in jurisdictions where platform laws are designed to safeguard the youth.”
Training in Bystander CPR may have played a key role in decreasing heart attack fatalities over the last 50 years
Piyamas Dulmunsumphun / Alamy stock photos
Heart attack fatalities in the US have dramatically decreased over the last five decades, while deaths from chronic heart diseases have surged, potentially due to increased longevity.
“Significant strides have been made in reducing cardiac mortality, and we’re witnessing this transformation,” says Sarah King from Stanford University in California.
She and her team analyzed heart disease mortality data from 1970 to 2022, utilizing the American disease control and prevention database to monitor all recorded deaths nationwide.
In 2022, they discovered that heart disease constituted 24% of all US deaths, a decrease from 41% in 1970, significantly aided by nearly a 90% drop in heart attack fatalities, previously the deadliest form of heart disease.
“We’ve made remarkable progress in reducing heart attack deaths over the past half-century,” remarks King. This includes innovations such as cardiac stents, coronary artery bypass surgery, and cholesterol-lowering therapies. King also believes that public health initiatives, including Bystander CPR training and efforts to decrease smoking rates, have contributed to these improvements.
Nonetheless, the rise in mortality from other types of cardiac ailments has surged by 81%, indicating that many chronic conditions are leading to increased deaths. For instance, fatalities from heart failure, arrhythmias, and hypertensive heart disease have surged by 146%, 106%, and 450%, respectively.
“Many of these issues are related to aging,” explains King. “Those who survive heart attacks seem to live longer, giving them more time to develop these chronic heart conditions.”
However, the statistics might overstate changes in cardiac mortality. “Various factors can lead to a person’s death, resulting in potential misclassification and oversimplification,” King warns. For instance, many patients succumb to heart failure following a heart attack. “It’s not a straightforward issue because the underlying reason for that heart failure is often a blockage in the coronary arteries,” she adds.
Still, the majority of heart disease fatalities aren’t directly caused by heart attacks. “Addressing these other causes of increased mortality will be crucial,” King states. “Discovering healthier aging methods will be the next frontier for heart disease.”
Are there any forms of suspended animation? If you consider how animals hibernate during winter, that’s a natural example. However, if we reference the science fiction concept of stasis—where an individual is placed in a pod and frozen to endure an interstellar voyage—then it’s more of a fantasy.
That said, there are several realistic applications, particularly if we can address the challenges of preserving human tissues through freezing.
For decades, the possibility of employing cold temperatures to slow down biological processes has been recognized, and we’ve recently started using this method as a critical life-saving intervention.
For instance, patients experiencing a heart attack can undergo what is formally termed “suspended animation for delayed resuscitation,” wherein they are rapidly cooled to induce hypothermia. This process slows bodily functions and safeguards vital organs, especially the brain, albeit at the cost of disrupting blood circulation.
This approach significantly reduces the chances of brain damage and proves incredibly effective, allowing individuals to survive without treatment for up to 90 minutes.
This form of suspended animation entails dropping body temperature to approximately 59°F (15°C), compared to the usual 98°F (37°C). Temperatures below this threshold can result in cellular death.
Once the temperature dips below freezing, the large volume of water within cells turns problematic. Ice forms and expands, creating sharp crystals that can damage delicate cells and blood vessels.
Those who have suffered frostbite can attest to the harmful effects of extreme cold on body tissues. Completely freezing a person would be fatal.
Nevertheless, we successfully freeze human embryos, which can remain frozen for as long as 19 years before being thawed and developing into healthy infants.
The suspended animation envisioned in science fiction remains a distant reality – Illustration credits: Daniel Bright
Embryos typically freeze at an early stage when they consist of only a few cells, and they survive thanks to prior preparation. Protective agents are used to draw out water and prevent the formation of ice crystals.
These embryos are then rapidly frozen in a tank of liquid nitrogen at -196°C (-320°F), allowing for prolonged storage in suspended animation.
North American Wood Frog employs a similar strategy to survive winter. As the temperature drops, it can inundate its cells with glucose (a natural antifreeze), effectively freezing itself until both heart and brain functions cease.
The frog’s organs are encased in ice, yet the glucose inhibits ice crystals from forming within its tissues.
As temperatures rise, it gradually thaws and resumes normal activity. This process is a complex challenge for humans; every body part would necessitate risky water extraction and chemical solutions.
Hibernation represents a different strategy. Small rodents, such as mice and hedgehogs, permit their body temperatures to drop significantly, leading to a marked decrease in breathing and heart rate.
Larger mammals don’t need to reduce their body temperatures as drastically. For example, American black bears may drop from 36°C to 30°C (96°F to 86°F), reducing their metabolic rate by about 25%. This is usually sufficient to avert bone and muscle loss resulting from prolonged inactivity.
Being frozen is far from ideal, and for large mammals, it may be more advantageous than suspended animation through a hibernation-like state.
This article responds to the inquiry (from Safia Hall via email) regarding whether suspended animation has ever been realized.
Please feel free to email your questionsto Question @sciencefocus.com or message us onFacebook,Twitter, or Instagram(don’t forget to include your name and location).
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Thirst is something we all encounter, and it can be quite uncomfortable. It’s also an early indicator of dehydration, which can escalate rapidly. Depending on factors like age, health, and environment, even mild to moderate dehydration can occur within just a few hours, leading to symptoms such as fatigue, dizziness, and confusion. If left unaddressed for 24 hours, severe dehydration can lead to critical issues such as shock and seizures.
Hidden dehydration (or hypochronic dehydration) is a more subtle condition that may arise from prolonged mild dehydration, affecting both physical and mental well-being.
Could this be the reason behind that frightening afternoon slump?
The Impact of Hidden Dehydration
As the name implies, hidden dehydration can be an insidious state, and you might be experiencing its effects without realizing the cause.
According to NHS guidelines, fatigue is one of the primary symptoms associated with hidden dehydration.
Symptoms include: Dark urine Dry mouth Dizziness Headaches Lack of concentration
The human body is composed of around 60% water. The brain and heart contain about 73% water, while muscle tissues are made up of 75% water. Dehydration leads to lower blood volume and blood pressure, reducing blood flow to the brain, which contributes to fatigue. After lunch, many individuals naturally feel a drop in energy. However, inadequate hydration throughout the day can amplify this slump.
The NHS advises that adults should drink 6-8 glasses of water (1.2-2 liters) daily. Although staying hydrated is key, how much do we know about the quality of the water we consume?
Why Water Quality Matters
In the UK, we are fortunate to have high standards for drinking water recognized globally. Nonetheless, it still contains hard minerals like calcium and magnesium, which are harmless but may affect the taste for some individuals.
A consistent supply of fresh water can indeed help you meet your hydration goals as advised by the NHS.
“Installing a water filter is one of the simplest methods to enhance your tap water quality,” states Waterdrop Filter. “A filter can eliminate impurities and improve taste.”
What Is Reverse Osmosis?
Reverse osmosis is a purification method used by Waterdrop filters. Water is pushed through a semi-permeable membrane to remove various impurities, including:
Lead, arsenic, and mercury Chlorine and fluoride Microorganisms Dissolved salts and minerals
The Waterdrop filter offers two reverse osmosis systems: the X16 and the A2. The X16 features an 11-step process with a 0.0001μm RO membrane that effectively reduces TDS, PFOA, PFOS, chlorine, fluoride, arsenic, lead, and more. With a flow rate of 1,600 gallons per day, it is ideal for larger households. Note that it requires electrical installation under the sink, and it comes equipped with LED lights and energy-saving modes for water safety.
The A2 is a compact countertop system ideal for individuals or smaller households. This system includes a five-stage process with a 0.0001 μm RO membrane to minimize TDS, PFOA, PFOS, chlorine, fluoride, lead, and arsenic. It features temperature controls ranging from 10°C to 95°C, along with a touch control screen for customizable temperature and volume settings.
Elevate your hydration habits by maintaining consistent water intake throughout the day, especially if you struggle with brain fog and fatigue during the afternoon.
Researchers have found that endangered species of killer whales in the Pacific Northwest utilize tools crafted from kelp for mutual care.
A new study published in Current Biology reveals that scientists observed the Southern resident whales producing tools by tearing bull kelp and rolling it between each other during social interactions.
Drone footage captured the kelp being pushed against a companion, revealing a whale engaged in an extended grooming session.
“What’s particularly remarkable is that although this behavior appears to be common, despite the regular drone observations over these whales for nearly 50 years, it has never been documented.” stated Lead author Dr. Michael Weiss from the Whale Research Center in Friday Harbor, Washington.
The endangered Southern resident population has fewer than 80 individuals residing in the Salish Sea, situated between British Columbia and Washington.
While tool use is well recognized among primates, elephants, and birds, it remains scarce in marine species.
Weiss and her team observed this behavior across various age groups and social units, noting that whales are more inclined to groom relatives or older companions.
Two whales interact by rubbing against each other. These scrubs may serve hygienic functions. – Whale Research Center, NMFS NOAA permit 27038
Whales with greater amounts of dead skin participated more frequently in this behavior, suggesting a connection to hygiene.
The findings underscore the cultural identity of Southern residents and emphasize the necessity of conservation efforts. It remains uncertain whether this tool-assisted grooming is exclusive to this group or if it occurs in other whale populations.
Weiss remarked, “It was incredibly thrilling to discover that whales are not just utilizing tools but employing them in ways previously unreported in marine mammals.”
I woke up with a multitude of itchy red bites. And? Most likely, it’s those pesky mosquitoes that are causing the irritation. While they aren’t the sole culprits for the marks left behind, the redness is actually a reaction to the saliva from those tiny, blood-sucking insects.
Globally, there are around 3,500 mosquito species, including 36 in the UK and over 200 in the US, with only the females being the notorious bloodsuckers.
Mosquitoes are widely recognized as nuisances. Even in regions like the UK and the US, where concerns over diseases such as malaria, dengue, and Zika are minimal, it’s important to be aware of their potential threats.
However, Professor James Logan urges us to take these creatures seriously. He is the Dean of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine’s (LSHTM) School of Disease Control and the CEO of Arctech.
“As climate change progresses, more mosquitoes capable of transmitting diseases are encroaching closer to the UK and the US, including not just malaria-carrying mosquitoes but those that spread dengue as well,” he states.
“Currently, there are no active disease outbreaks, but that won’t be the case for long. It’s not a question of ‘if,’ but rather ‘when.’”
According to Logan, the US is “even further ahead” in this regard, with cases of dengue, malaria, and the West Nile virus on the rise.
In May 2025, the UK Health Security Agency reported the first detection of the West Nile virus within British mosquitoes.
Regardless of potential disease threats, mosquito bites tend to be a common nuisance every summer, with scant scientific evidence to support any immediate concerns.
In the UK, the National Health Service (NHS) has noted an uptick in visits to pages about “insect bites and stings,” indicating a rise in the number of people reporting bites in recent years.
“The warmer weather might encourage mosquito reproduction and activity, leading to more of them being around,” Logan mentions.
Read more:
Physical barriers like mosquito nets, window screens, and appropriate clothing can help protect against bites. – Credit: Holly Wilmes
Why do mosquito bites itch?
As the weather heats up, the mosquito population rises—so what makes their bites so bothersome?
It all boils down to the mosquito’s mouthparts, slender and needle-like, designed for sucking.
“Mosquitoes are drawn to your scent, warmth, and moisture. When they alight on you, they insert their mouthparts into your skin,” Logan explains. “The tip of the mouthpart navigates around, seeking a blood vessel, and once it finds one, it feeds from there.”
In the process of feeding, these unwelcome intruders inject saliva into your bloodstream to prevent clotting and numb pain, allowing them to go undetected.
However, the chemicals they inject can trigger an allergic response, resulting in those itchy red welts.
“When bitten by a particular mosquito species for the first time, the reaction is generally mild,” states Logan. “With repeated bites, your body becomes sensitized, and the reactions may become stronger. Continuous exposure can further adapt your immune system.”
Your immune system treats substances like mosquito saliva as threats, prompting white blood cells to produce antibodies. Consequently, your body reacts with redness or swelling during subsequent encounters.
This process is known as sensitization, akin to how allergies develop. Fortunately, regular exposure—termed desensitization—can reduce your response over time.
In seasonal regions, the intermittent summer exposure to mosquitoes means our bodies take longer to acclimatize.
How to keep mosquitoes at bay
Now that we’ve identified the problem, how can we prevent mosquito bites? While closing windows and donning long clothing are effective strategies, they may not be appealing during hot summer days.
You might consider installing insect screens or mosquito nets in your sleeping areas.
“Removing breeding grounds is also crucial,” Logan advises, as mosquitoes thrive in stagnant water—anything deeper than a bottle cap can serve as ideal breeding conditions. Ensure to cover water sources such as flowerpots, buckets, and bird baths, and eliminate any trash or recyclables that might gather water.
In addition, wearing insect repellents is advisable. Logan praises DEET (N,N-diethyl-M-toluamide) as “one of the best repellents available,” affirming its safety when applied according to product instructions.
If you prefer a natural alternative, consider using Lemon Eucalyptus oil, noted also as OLE or PMD. Other options include IR3535 and picaridin.
Some essential oils have shown promise; a 2023 study found that clove, cinnamon, and geraniol oils can be effective.
Despite this, Logan cautions, “reliance solely on natural solutions may not be sufficient.”
If you’re willing to invest further, consider “impregnated” clothing—this doesn’t refer to anything sensational but involves fabric treated with insect repellents or insecticides, typically permethrin.
“We also have plug-in devices that distribute pesticides throughout our homes,” Logan adds, “which can eliminate pests like spiders and flies that venture inside.”
Since mosquitoes are attracted to our body odor, changing our scent can deter them – Credit: Jaromir via Jetty
What to do if bitten
If you’ve already fallen victim to a mosquito bite, here are some tips to manage the situation.
“The first rule is not to scratch,” Logan advises, acknowledging the challenge. “Scratching only risks infection.”
In severe cases, mosquito bites could lead to serious infections, sepsis, or even limb amputation, Logan warns.
If a bite is particularly bothersome, you may consider over-the-counter antihistamines or hydrocortisone creams, although their effectiveness can vary.
“They may work wonders for some, while others experience little relief,” he notes. “Antihistamine creams need to be applied immediately after being bitten due to the rapid production of histamine.”
“Unfortunately, many people delay addressing the bite, making timely intervention essential.”
In summary, Logan emphasizes:
Read more:
About our experts
Professor James Logan serves as the Director and Head of Disease Management at the London School of Hygiene (LSHTM). He is associated with Arctech, a spinout from LSHTM. His research focuses on using sensors, insects, and other wildlife as biosensors for disease diagnostics and developing nature-inspired tools for disease surveillance. His team was the first to identify the connection between body odor and malaria infection.
Recent findings from researchers at Ruhr-University Bochum, Ankara University at Prince Edward Island, and Bari Aldo Moro University reveal that two-thirds of domestic cats (Felis Catus) tend to sleep on their left side. This orientation provides them with a left field of vision, allowing the right hemisphere of their brain to have an unobstructed view of impending approach, while protecting their body.
Isparta et al. We propose that the significant left-side preference in cat sleep may have evolved alongside hemispheric asymmetry related to threat assessment. Image credits: Noah Dustin von Weissenfrue / Gleb Kuzmenko / Isparta et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.04.043.
“Sleep represents one of the most vulnerable states for animals, particularly during deep sleep when vigilance to threats is notably diminished.”
“Domestic cats act as both predators and prey (to animals like coyotes), averaging 12-16 hours of sleep per day.”
“This implies they spend around 60-65% of their lives in highly susceptible states.”
“To minimize the risk of becoming prey, cats tend to rest in elevated locations, where they can better see approaching threats while remaining concealed.”
“In such elevated spots, predators can typically only approach from below.”
“Thus, resting at height affords cats a sense of safety, comfort, and a vantage point to observe their surroundings.”
The authors of this study examined 408 publicly available YouTube videos featuring individual cats lying on their sides in clear sleep positions, ensuring unbroken sleep durations of at least 10 seconds with full visibility from head to tail.
Only original, unedited videos were considered; those that were low resolution, obscured, duplicated, or altered (such as mirror images or selfies) were excluded.
The findings showed that 266 cats (65.1%) exhibited left-oriented sleep positions, while 142 demonstrated a significant left-sided bias as a population, compared to the 34.8% that slept on their right side.
“A cat that sleeps on its left side gains awareness of its environment upon waking with a left field of vision processed by the right hemisphere,” explained the researchers.
“This hemisphere is critical for spatial awareness, handling threats, and coordinating quick escape responses.”
“When a cat awakens after sleeping on its left side, visual cues regarding predators or prey are relayed directly to the right hemisphere of the brain.
“This suggests that favoring the left side while sleeping might be a strategic survival behavior.”
The Vera C. Rubin Observatory is a groundbreaking scientific facility, funded collaboratively by the NSF and the US DOE Scientific Bureau. Explore new images showcasing a glimpse of the observatory’s decade-long mission to unravel some of the universe’s greatest enigmas.
This composite image integrates 678 individual photos captured by the NSF-DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory over a span of just over 7 hours, showcasing the Trifid (top right) and Lagoon Nebulae. Image credits: Rubinobs/Noirlab/SLAC/NSF/DOE/AURA.
The Vera C. Rubin Observatory is named in tribute to the renowned American astronomer Vera C. Rubin, who provided crucial evidence for the existence of elusive dark matter.
Investigating the characteristics of dark matter, dark energy, and other monumental cosmic phenomena is central to the observatory’s mission.
Located atop Cerro Pachón in Chile, the observatory benefits from an optimal environment with dry air and exceptionally dark skies, making it one of the world’s premier observation sites.
Equipped with an 8.4-meter telescope that houses the largest digital camera ever constructed, the facility is supported by a robust data processing system.
In the latter half of 2025, the observation deck will embark on its primary mission: a legacy study of space and time. Each night, we will systematically scan the sky, capturing every observable change.
This approach yields a detailed time-lapse record of the cosmos at ultra-high resolution.
It brings the heavens alive, revealing immense possibilities for billions of scientific discoveries.
The imagery uncovers asteroids and comets, pulsating stars, supernovae, distant galaxies, and cosmic events that have never before been documented.
“The Vera C. Rubin Observatory illustrates the United States’ commitment to leading international basic science, showcasing remarkable achievements that arise when different facets of national research collaborate,” stated an expert.
“This observatory represents an investment in our future, laying the groundwork for the knowledge that today’s youth will cultivate tomorrow.”
“The Vera C. Rubin Observatory records more data about space than all optical telescopes in history combined,” commented Dr. Brian Stone, acting NSF Director.
“Through this exceptional scientific facility, we are investigating many of the universe’s mysteries, including the enigmatic dark matter and dark energy that fill our cosmos.”
“We are entering a golden era of American science,” remarked Dr. Harriet Kang, acting director of the DOE’s Department of Science.
“The Rubin Observatory symbolizes what can be accomplished when the federal government endorses a tool that leads world-class engineers and scientists.”
“This facility will propel discovery, inspire future innovators, and unleash America’s scientific excellence.”
The Rubin Observatory is also the most efficient solar system discovery tool ever created.
It captures approximately 1,000 images of the southern hemisphere sky each night, enabling a complete survey of the visible southern sky every three to four nights.
This capability will assist millions in detecting hidden asteroids, comets, and interstellar objects.
The observatory represents a paradigm shift in planetary defense, helping to identify potential threats to Earth or the Moon.
“The unveiling of the first images from the observatory heralds a new era in astrophysics,” remarked Dr. Patrick McCarthy, director of NSF’s NOIRLab.
“We congratulate the Rubin Observatory team on this monumental accomplishment and anticipate the initiation of a legacy study of space and time that may transform our comprehension of the universe.”
Yellow spotted tropical night lizard (Lepidophyma flavimaculatum)
Dante Fenolio/Science Photo Library
A unique and elusive group of lizards remains today, recognized as the only terrestrial vertebrates to withstand the catastrophic Chicxulub asteroid impact, which likely resulted in the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs.
The Xantusiid Night lizard is known as an ancient lineage, surviving for tens of millions of years. However, Chase Brownstein from Yale University and his team proposed that this lineage might have originated earlier than previously estimated.
The end of the Cretaceous period was marked by a colossal asteroid strike near the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico, creating craters wider than 150 kilometers and leading to the extinction of most animal and plant species globally.
Today, the night lizard—despite its name, not actually nocturnal—continues to inhabit Cuba, Central America, and the southwest region of the United States.
Brownstein and his researchers utilized previously published DNA sequencing data from Xantusiids to construct evolutionary trees for these groups. They integrated findings from skeletal anatomy of current species and fossil records, allowing them to estimate the lineage’s age and the quantity of offspring produced by the ancestral night lizard.
The team identified a shared ancestor that lived deep within the Cretaceous period, dating back over 93 million years, likely producing only one or two clutches of offspring.
“It’s highly probable that these ancient populations were situated close to the impact site, much like their modern counterparts,” remarks Brownstein. “It’s as though the distribution of Xantusiid lizards encircles the impact zones.”
According to fossil records, Brownstein argues that it is improbable for ancient night lizards to have simply returned to the affected areas later.
“Our reconstructions suggest that the common ancestors of living species most likely originated in North America, as the fossil evidence of Xantusiids is relatively continuous on both sides of the boundary layer,” he adds.
Numerous night lizard species inhabit rock crevices and possess a slow metabolism akin to other survivors of mass extinction, like turtles and crocodiles. “This likely enabled them to endure the aftermath of the impact,” states Brownstein.
Nathan Law from the University of Sydney expresses amazement at their survival. “These lizards resided near the asteroid’s impact site; despite the asteroid’s devastating effects within hundreds of kilometers, they managed to survive.”
Remarkably, they achieved this despite lacking many common characteristics typically associated with mass extinction survivors. “Species that endure these extinction events tend to be small, reproduce rapidly, and have extensive geographical ranges,” explains Law. “Conversely, these lizards generally have slower reproduction rates and appear to cover a minimal range.”
Paracetamol, also known as acetaminophen, is a pain reliever traditionally produced from a diminished supply of fossil fuels, such as crude oil. Every year, thousands of tons of fossil fuels, alongside numerous drugs and chemicals, are utilized to transport painkillers to manufacturing facilities. Professor Stephen Wallace from the University of Edinburgh and his team discovered that E. coli bacteria can transform molecules derived from waste plastic bottles into paracetamol.
Johnson et al. Reporting the reorganization of phosphate-catalyzed loss of biocompatibility in bacteria E. coli Activated acylhydroxamate is transformed into primary amine-containing metabolites in living cells. Image credit: Johnson et al. , doi: 10.1038/s41557-025-01845-5.
The issue of plastic waste is increasingly pressing, making the quest for sustainable plastic upcycling solutions a priority.
Metabolic engineering combines organic chemistry with the exploitation of biological cell chemical reaction networks to create new small molecules.
However, it remains uncertain whether these reactions can be effectively combined to convert plastics into useful products.
“Our research indicates that polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic is not merely waste, but can be converted by microorganisms into valuable new products with potential applications in disease treatment,” stated Professor Wallace.
In their study, Professor Wallace and co-authors found that a specific type of chemical reaction, known as loss rearrangement, occurs within living cells and is catalyzed by internal phosphates in E. coli.
This reaction produces nitrogen-containing organic compounds that are vital for cellular metabolism.
The researchers demonstrated that chemical processes can decompose PET plastic to yield starting molecules for further reactions, allowing cellular metabolism to regenerate these plastic-derived molecules.
Additionally, they discovered that this plastic-derived compound can serve as a precursor for paracetamol production in E. coli, achieving a yield of 92%.
This finding may mark the first instance of paracetamol synthesized from E. coli waste materials.
Future research will focus on exploring how other bacteria and types of plastics can yield beneficial products.
“Thus, biocompatible chemistry should be viewed as a complement to early enzyme design research and non-biological chemistry engineering, integrating collaboratively as a tool for biological cells to enhance potential synthetic chemistry within biological systems,” the scientists noted.
The team’s study was published in the journal Nature Chemistry on June 23, 2025.
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NW Johnson et al. Relocation of loss of biocompatibility in E. coli. Nat. Chem. Published online on June 23, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41557-025-01845-5
Medical advances have changed childbirth – potentially enough to affect human evolution
Fatcamera/Getty Images
Research involving over 8,000 participants across three nations indicates that women’s pelvises have become narrower over the last 150 years. While several factors contribute to this change, it offers fresh insights that could prompt researchers to reevaluate the so-called “obstetric dilemma,” which pertains to the evolutionary constraints surrounding pelvic size.
The exact drivers of this change and its implications for health remain unclear. Nonetheless, a continued reduction in pelvic size could heighten the likelihood of requiring cesarean sections.
Maciej Henneberg, from the University of Adelaide, Australia, and his team revisited an existing dataset featuring 1,247 Australian women born from 1900 to 1984. They discovered that pelvic width decreased by 0.42 mm annually. In Poland, the pelvic width of 3,486 women reduced by 0.47 mm each year from 1880 to 1970, while in a sample of 320 Mexican women, the decline was 0.42 mm annually from 1900 to 1970.
“I find this compelling, considering that these regions, despite differences in height, show similar evolutionary trends,” remarks Philip Mitter Ecker from the University of Vienna, Austria.
“The dataset is impressive,” adds Leah Betty from University College London.
Henneberg posits that these findings suggest modern medical practices diminish the effects of natural selection on human pelvises. Historically, a baby too large or a birth canal too narrow often resulted in fatal outcomes for both mother and child. However, the introduction of safe, effective cesarean sections has lessened this evolutionary pressure, potentially leading to further narrowing of the birth canal and pelvis.
Mitteroecker agrees that cesarean sections are influencing the evolutionary forces at play in human birth anatomy. He predicts this trend may result in even narrower pelvises, as highlighted in his 2016 analysis, stating it represents the latest chapter in a long-standing narrative.
“Midwifery has ancient roots, uniquely human,” he explains. For thousands of years, women have supported each other during childbirth. This cultural tradition has mitigated selection pressures on the pelvis and birth canal, demonstrating how our actions influence our biological evolution. “In a way, cesarean sections are an extreme manifestation of this,” Mitteroecker concludes.
However, Betty remains skeptical that cesarean sections are the primary cause of the recent changes in pelvic width. She highlights that humans have also experienced increased height during the same period, likely due to improved nutrition and healthcare rather than evolutionary gene alterations.
“Diet plays a significant role in determining pelvic structure,” Betty notes. When undernourished, developing bodies prioritize certain organs, particularly the brain, over others. With adequate nutrition now available, bodies may be reallocating resources, leading to variances in proportions. “Different body proportions are certainly a possibility,” she observes.
Understanding the factors behind these changes is crucial for comprehending the challenges of human childbirth. However, the nature of this dilemma is still debated. In a 2024 study, Mitter Ecker and colleagues suggested that pelvic floor mechanics could be a significant contributor to narrowing, potentially heightening pressure on the pelvic floor and elevating the risk of incontinence.
It’s also feasible that both factors are at play. An April study involving 31,000 participants associated wider pelvises with easier childbirth, yet identified slower walking speeds and increased risk of pelvic floor conditions.
The implications of this dilemma extend beyond childbirth. Betty notes that competitive sports during childhood may also influence pelvic size, emphasizing that various environmental factors, including temperature, can affect the pelvis. Other studies tie the evolving obstetric dilemma to rising obesity rates, which may result in larger babies. Ultimately, a combination of these factors likely explains the observed changes, prompting researchers to classify the issue as a “multifactorial pelvis” challenge.
A narrower pelvis poses health implications, complicating vaginal births and potentially increasing the need for cesarean deliveries. “Nobody knows how long it will take to reach a point where natural childbirth ceases to exist,” remarks Renata Henneberg, one of the researchers on this new study and Maciej Henneberg’s wife.
Conversely, a narrower pelvis may reduce the incidence of pelvic floor issues, which can be quite severe. Childbirth can have long-lasting, detrimental effects on women’s lives,” Betty cautions.
Predicting future trends is complex, given the multitude of interacting factors. While fewer children may lead to decreased injury risks, later childbirth may counteract this. “Many changes are occurring simultaneously,” she reflects.
Bolivian archaeologists have unearthed an ancient complex located approximately 215 km (130 miles) southeast of the historic Tiwanak site. This large modular structure, featuring integrated sunken courtyards, bears a striking resemblance to the terraced temples of Tiwanak, indicating significant national investment.
Isometric reconstruction of the Paraspata temple rendered with a 3 m high wall. Image credits: Capriles et al., doi: 10.15184/aqy.2025.59.
The ancient society near the southern shore of Lake Titicaca was once among the most influential civilizations in Bolivia.
Known as Tiwanak, this society is regarded by archaeologists as one of the earliest instances of Andean civilization and a precursor to the Inca Empire, yet it mysteriously vanished around a millennium ago.
“Much remains enigmatic about the Tiwanak civilization,” remarked Pennsylvania archaeologist Jose Capriles.
“Their society disintegrated around 1000 AD, long before the Incas seized control of the Andes in the 15th century.”
“At its zenith, Tiwanak showcased a well-organized social structure, leaving behind architectural remnants like pyramids, terraced temples, and monoliths. While most of these artefacts are found around Lake Titicaca, Tiwanak’s influence extended much farther, though the exact boundaries of its control remain debated.”
“The newly uncovered temple complex is situated about 215 km south of the historically recognized Tiwanak site, known to local indigenous farmers but inadequately studied by researchers due to its unassuming setting.”
“However, the site’s location is quite strategic.”
During the Tiwanaku period, it linked three major trade routes across diverse ecosystems, with the fertile highlands around Lake Titicaca to the north.
This has led researchers to conclude that the site must have been significant in connecting communities.
“People traveled, traded, and erected monuments at pivotal points across the arid mountainous terrain,” Dr. Capriles said.
“Upon discovering an unmapped rectangular area, we employed various techniques to visualize the region.”
“The function of the site was unclear, so I integrated different satellite images.”
“We also carried out a series of UAV missions to capture high-resolution images.”
“Using photogrammetry—a method that constructs 3D models from photographs—we achieved a more detailed visualization of the structure and its surrounding landscape.”
Stone alignments identified an ancient temple named Palaspata, derived from the local terminology.
This temple complex spans roughly 125 m in length and 145 m in width, featuring 15 rectangular enclosures surrounding a central courtyard.
The layout seems to align with rituals that coincide with the sun’s zenith, particularly when it is directly above the equator.
Paraspata Temple. Image credits: Capriles et al., doi: 10.15184/aqy.2025.59.
Using the information gathered, researchers created reconstructions to visualize what the ancient Palaspata temple may have looked like.
The temple’s surface contained numerous fragments of Kelcups, which were used for consuming chicha, a traditional corn beer, during agricultural festivals and ceremonies, suggesting the temple was a key trade hub.
This highlights that corn was cultivated in the Cochabamba valley, indicating the temple’s role in facilitating connections among various culinary traditions on its elevated grounds, thereby enhancing access to an assortment of products.
“The temple likely served a spiritual function, as evidenced by the interconnections that managed trade and harvest distribution within designated ritual spaces,” noted Dr. Capriles.
“Most economic and political dealings were likely mediated through divinity, since this was a common framework for fostering cooperation among disparate individuals, as religion often serves as a unifying force among different groups.”
“The discovery was a revelation, even for local inhabitants,” commented Jas Ventura Guaralo, the mayor of Caracoro, where the site is located.
“The archaeological findings at Palaspata are vital as they unearth significant aspects of local heritage that have been largely ignored.”
“This discovery is crucial for our community, and we regard its documentation as invaluable for boosting tourism and showcasing the region’s rich history.”
The team’s paper was published today in the journal Ancient.
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Jose M. Capriles et al. 2025. Gateway to the East: Palaspata Temple and the southeast expansion of Tiwanak. Ancient 99 (405): 831-849; doi: 10.15184/aqy.2025.59
Members of the genus Metatherian Swaindelphys were previously identified in the Swain Quarry in southern Wyoming and the Nasimiento Formation in the San Juan Basin, New Mexico, and are now also found in the Black Peaks Formation in West Texas.
Reconstructing the life of Swaindelphys. Image credit: Kristen Tietjen.
The newly identified species thrived in Texas during the Ale-Nocene period, around 60 million years ago.
It has been designated Swaindelphys Solastella; these animals were significantly larger than related species, yet still about the size of a modern hedgehog.
It belonged to Metatherian, a group encompassing living marsupials and their extinct relatives.
“We’ve dedicated a lot of effort to uncovering this world,” remarked Kristen Miller, a doctoral student at the University of Kansas.
Fossil remains of Swaindelphys Solastella were uncovered in the Black Peak Formation within Big Bend National Park, West Texas.
“The earliest fossil mammals from the Big Bend during the Ale Holocene epoch were initially documented decades ago,” stated Professor Chris Beard of the University of Kansas.
“However, our mission is to uncover some of the smaller, more elusive fossil mammals that inhabited Big Bend during that era.”
“The new fossil we are describing holds significance as it represents the largest marsupial ever identified from the Ale Holocene in North America, in terms of body size.”
“This isn’t surprising considering that everything tends to be larger in Texas.”
The distribution patterns of Swaindelphys may provide insights into the natural features and barriers that limited the geographical spread of species during this time, including early primates.
“During the Ale New Century, the climate would have been warmer, likely leaning towards tropical,” Miller explained.
“Instead of the desert landscape seen today, there would have been more vegetation, possibly alongside numerous rivers and streams.”
“These fossils are found in what are referred to as river sediments, stemming from ancient river systems.”
The discovery of Swaindelphys Solastella is detailed in a paper released this month in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
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Kristen Miller et al. Implications of biogeographical and biostratigraphic novel species. Swaindelphys (Mammals, Metatheria) from the Black Peaks Formation, Big Bend National Park, Texas. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, published online on June 17th, 2025. doi:10.1080/02724634.2025.2500501
In Paterson, New Jersey, over 100 individuals required medical attention during two outdoor graduation ceremonies on Monday, as the heat index soared to 107 degrees. That evening, Mayor Andre Seig declared a state of emergency, leading to the cancellation of all recreational activities due to the extreme heat.
Monday saw record high temperatures exceeding 60 degrees nationwide, with predictions extending from the southeast up to New England throughout the week.
Preliminary daily records were established on Tuesday in New York City (99 degrees), Philadelphia (for the first time since 2012), and Raleigh, North Carolina (100 degrees).
New monthly records for June were set in Boston (101 degrees) and Providence, Rhode Island (100 degrees), while Newark recorded a staggering June high of 103 degrees.
The National Weather Service indicates that the oppressive heat conditions are likely to persist through the evening.
These elevated temperatures are attributed to high-pressure ridges, which are currently parked over the eastern United States. Known as thermal domes, these systems effectively trap heat in the region, leading to prolonged periods of elevated temperatures.
While some relief may arrive towards the weekend, heat and humidity levels are expected to remain elevated over the coming days.
“The most severe cumulative heat impacts are expected on Friday across the eastern Ohio valleys stretching from the Mid-Atlantic to Thursday, resulting in multi-day oppressive heat,” stated the Weather Service.
All individuals are at risk for heat-related illnesses and fatalities, but the excessive heat and humidity—especially over several days—pose a particular risk to children, those with pre-existing health conditions, the elderly, and outdoor workers. These health concerns are increasingly pressing as climate change leads to more frequent, intense, and lasting heat events.
While the eastern U.S. battles the heat dome, a severe storm system could impact parts of Wyoming, Colorado, South Dakota, and Nebraska. Additionally, heavy rainfall and flooding are likely for much of New Mexico and southwestern Texas.
Leonardo da Vinci’s concept for a flying device might have outperformed today’s drones in terms of functionality and noise reduction.
Rajat Mittal, a researcher at Johns Hopkins University in Maryland, along with his team, found that Da Vinci’s “air screws”—which were never actually constructed or tested during his time as a military engineer in 1480—could potentially require less power to achieve the same lift as conventional drone rotors.
The device closely resembles an Archimedes screw, a helical pump that lifts water as it rotates. Although Da Vinci envisioned it being powered by human effort, employing a lightweight electric motor could have enabled it to actually achieve flight.
Mittal’s team created a simulation of the air screw, testing it in a virtual wind tunnel across various rotational speeds and comparing it with traditional drone rotors, including a two-blade variant.
They discovered that the air screws can maintain the same lift while rotating at a slower speed, indicating reduced power consumption.
By measuring the pressure and wind flow around the virtual screw, the team also estimated its potential output.
“I was taken aback,” Mittal remarked. “We initially believed that the spiral screw’s shape would yield terrible aerodynamic performance, but it turns out it might surpass traditional blades.”
Mittal and his team aim to investigate ways to optimize Da Vinci’s design for improved efficiency without sacrificing its distinguishable noise-reducing properties.
As drones become more prevalent in urban settings for deliveries and emergency services, the challenge of noise pollution has prompted researchers to explore alternative rotor designs that generate less noise for similar lift outputs.
“An author can produce the same thrust with a slower rotation, which is exactly what Da Vinci’s design achieves. This will indeed contribute to quieter operations,” noted Cheryl Grace from Boston University, Massachusetts. “It’s not necessary for it to strictly follow Da Vinci’s blueprint, but it’s fantastic that his concept aligns with this idea.”
However, to validate the practicality of Da Vinci’s design in real-world applications, testing its performance during flight—rather than just hovering—and evaluating the impact of rotor weight on its efficiency is crucial, Grace added.
Renaissance science: Italy
Explore the brilliant scientific minds and discoveries of the Renaissance that have positioned Italy as a leader in scientific advancement.
The term “thinking” might evoke memories of certain self-help literature that lacks scientific basis. Yet, emerging studies indicate that our cognitive patterns can significantly shape our lives through their effects on our thoughts, motivation, and behaviors.
This article is part of a special feature that explores how experts perceive some of the most unexpected scientific ideas. Click here for more information.
“We perceive thinking as a belief system regarding how the world operates, which includes our thoughts about ourselves and our surroundings,” states David Jager from the University of Texas at Austin.
Initially popularized by Carol Dweck at Stanford University, this concept emerged from her interest in how beliefs about intelligence affect academic performance.
Some individuals strongly agree with statements in psychological surveys, such as “Your intelligence is fundamentally fixed and does not change significantly.” Such individuals are characterized as having a “fixed mindset.” Conversely, those who resonate more with statements like, “Your intelligence can change significantly throughout your life,” are viewed as having a “growth mindset.”
Dweck’s research demonstrated that individuals with a growth mindset are more likely to persevere after setbacks and embrace challenges beyond their comfort zones.
Crucially, Dweck and her team found that mindset is flexible. For instance, educating individuals about the brain’s inherent plasticity can foster a growth mindset, as shown in this research. Although some replication attempts showed mixed results, the overall effect seems to hold up under varying contexts.
“Interventions are typically more effective when educators cultivate a growth mindset within a nurturing school culture,” Jager explains. I have led several studies in this area.
Building on Dweck’s groundwork, psychologists are uncovering various concepts that could positively influence our well-being and success. At Stanford, Aria Crum has been researching “mindsets regarding stress.” Those who perceive stress as energizing are often better equipped to handle life’s demands compared to those who view stress as debilitating.
Crum likens our mindset to a “lens” that influences our worldview; recent studies indicate that these lenses may have long-term health implications. For instance, research on first responders has shown that individuals who interpret stress as beneficial possess a lower risk of heart disease, regardless of their overall stress levels.
Integrating growth and stress-affirming mindsets can amplify the benefits of both. In a series of studies released in 2022, Yeager revealed that teaching students a “synergistic mindset” improved both mental health and academic achievement. “These two perspectives complement each other,” Jager notes. “They shape your beliefs.”
However, it’s crucial to understand that mindset research is sometimes misinterpreted. The researchers do not advocate the notion that positive thinking can yield miraculous outcomes. “To clarify, the growth mindset does not suggest that someone with the right mindset and education can become an Einstein or Beethoven,” Dweck writes in her book, Thinking: The New Psychology of Success, “rather, it implies that an individual’s true potential is unknown and not fixed.”
Fostering a growth mindset shouldn’t merely be about offering constant praise for every effort. It often requires establishing high expectations. “This may involve difficult conversations, but it’s also about guiding someone to meet those standards,” asserts Jager. “It can be challenging.”
Thus, unlike self-help advocates, a positive mindset won’t promise instant wealth. However, it prepares us to exert the effort needed to reach our aspirations and navigate the emotional hurdles along the journey.
Explore additional stories in this series through the links below:
Metaphysics often faces undue criticism. “Many people consider it a waste of time,” states philosopher Stephen Mumford from Durham University, UK, and author of Metaphysics: A Very Short Introduction. “Are they simply arguing over trivial matters, like how many angels can dance on the head of a pin?”
This viewpoint is understandable. Classical metaphysics—originating from the Greek term “meta”—has often grappled with peculiar questions. For instance, what constitutes a table? What shape does color assume? We utilize logical tools like “reductio ad absurdum” to derive conclusions solely from inference. This method seeks to demonstrate the validity of a claim by highlighting absurdities within its negation, quite different from the empirical observations that characterize scientific inquiry.
This article is part of our concept special, exploring how experts view some of the most intriguing scientific ideas. Click here for more information.
Nonetheless, the notion that metaphysics is merely an abstract discipline disconnected from reality is rebutted by Mumford:
Indeed, modern science has encroached upon areas once deemed exclusive to metaphysics, including the nature of consciousness and the implications of quantum mechanics. It’s becoming increasingly evident that both domains are interconnected.
To understand this interplay, one must recognize that everyone inherently possesses metaphysical beliefs, asserts Vanessa Seyfert, a philosopher of science at the University of Bristol, England. For instance, many believe in the existence of objects even when they are not being observed, despite the absence of robust empirical evidence to support this claim.
Moreover, “naturalized metaphysics” emerges from this discussion. Unlike traditional metaphysics, which remains speculative, this version is grounded in scientific understanding, according to Seyfert. “We observe what science reveals about our universe and consider whether we can accept it as literal truth.”
This contemporary metaphysics serves a crucial role for science, as it probes the foundational assumptions behind our understanding of the universe. “In many instances, metaphysical beliefs form the basis upon which empirical knowledge is constructed,” explains Mumford.
Causality—the principle that every effect has a cause—is a prime example. Despite the fact that causality itself is not directly observable, it is a belief we universally hold. “Essentially, the entirety of science operates on this metaphysical premise of causality,” he remarks.
These days, scientists routinely engage with deeply metaphysical concepts, ranging from chemical elements to space and time, as well as the very laws of nature, thereby intensifying the scrutiny of these ideas.
“We can critically evaluate our metaphysical assumptions or choose to overlook them for their validity,” says Mumford. “However, ignoring them means we make unexamined assumptions.”
One notable intersection of science and metaphysics exists in quantum mechanics, which delves into the atomic and subatomic realm. While it stands as a highly successful scientific framework, addressing its implications requires physicists to confront metaphysical queries, such as the interpretation of quantum superpositions.
In this realm, competing interpretations of reality exist without being testable through conventional experiments. It’s increasingly clear that scientific advancement hinges on confronting these hidden assumptions. In response, some researchers are revitalizing the notion of “experimental metaphysics,” aiming to assess the consistency of metaphysical beliefs that prioritize various interpretations of quantum theory.
“Ultimately, you cannot engage in physics without also grappling with metaphysical inquiries,” states Eric Cavalcanti, a prominent proponent of this perspective at Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia. “Both aspects must be addressed simultaneously.”
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Climate change might be even more severe than previously estimated
kapook2981/getty images
The Earth’s climate appears to be more responsive to the pollution caused by greenhouse gases than previously assumed, making it harder to keep global temperature increases below 2°C.
This is concerning news for global efforts to combat climate change, according to Gunnar Myhre from Cicero International Climate Research Centre in Norway.
Researchers have long been aware that releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere can lead to climate warming with widespread consequences. However, the extent of potential warming due to these emissions remains uncertain. Specifically, how sensitive is the Earth’s climate to this pollution?
The primary uncertainty arises from how clouds react to warming atmospheres, as shifts in cloud systems could exacerbate warming through feedback loops.
Most predictions regarding warming by the century’s end are derived from climate models that incorporate various sensitivity assumptions. The model utilized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change indicates that if atmospheric concentrations double compared to pre-industrial levels, warming could range between 2°C and 5°C, prompting organizations to adopt a median estimate of 3°C.
Myhre and his team sought to align climate model predictions with satellite data showing the Earth’s energy imbalance—a measure of excess heat within our climate system, reflecting its sensitivity levels.
They discovered that less sensitive climate models, which suggest that the Earth’s climate is more resistant to greenhouse gas emissions, did not align with satellite data collected since the turn of the millennium. According to Myhre, models asserting that the Earth’s climate is less resistant to these gases are “more common.” He added, “Models predicting minimal warming are increasingly rare.”
The findings challenge the reliability of climate models forecasting warming below 2.9°C with doubled greenhouse gas concentrations. Instead, the data imply that warming beyond this threshold is more probable for the same level of pollution.
This has been corroborated by recent record-high temperatures observed both on land and in the sea since 2023, described as “strong climate feedback” in the atmosphere by Myhre.
A more sensitive climate necessitates a quicker reduction in emissions to maintain the same temperature trajectory. In essence, the world must accelerate decarbonization efforts to meet its climate commitments.
Johannes Kuas from the University of Leipzig in Germany argues that the study presents a “very plausible contention” that the Earth is indeed more sensitive to global warming than some models suggest, stating it “reduces the margin” for model estimations that scientists should follow. “It highlights the urgent need for political action against climate change,” he emphasized.
Richard Allen from the University of Reading in the UK notes that “natural climate change” could also be part of the narrative, by pointing out that satellite records date back only to 2001. Nevertheless, he describes the study as “rigorous” and adds, “there is further evidence that simulations predicting less warming are increasingly unrealistic in the long-term.”
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