Could there be hydrogen under Mount Grison in Switzerland?
Thomas Stoyber/Alamie
Mountain ranges may serve as a significant source of clean energy in the form of unexplored hydrogen. Previous investigations hinted at the presence of “geological” hydrogen underground, but researchers have now pointed to mountains as potential reservoirs.
“Some minerals can react with water to produce hydrogen, serving as a source of sustainable green energy,” explains Frank Zwarn from the Helmholtz Geoscience Centre in Germany.
While a plethora of minerals exists on Earth, most are located at great depths in the mantle. However, during the formation and elevation of mountain ranges, certain mantle materials can be brought nearer to the surface, where they might interact with water through a process called meandering.
To understand the potential for hydrogen generation, Zwaan and his team modeled the uplift process and assessed the mantle material reaching areas with optimal temperatures and adequate circulating water for this reaction to occur. Their findings support the notion that large quantities of hydrogen could form below these mountains.
Serpentine minerals also exist in the ridges of the Central Sea, which some speculate may have played a role in the origin of life. However, Zwaan notes that the hydrogen created there is unlikely to remain trapped due to temperatures below 122°C (252°F), as bacteria can consume the trapped hydrogen. In contrast, it can be drilled from deeper areas of higher temperature below the mountains.
“I wouldn’t want to inhabit that area, but it’s ideal for preserving hydrogen,” Zwaan stated at the European Geoscience Union conference in Vienna last week. “There may be an additional opportunity to drill into what is known as a hydrogen kitchen, the zone where hydrogen is generated.”
The model’s outcomes are corroborated by preliminary findings from studies on various mountain ranges. For instance, Gianreto Manatschal from the University of Strasbourg in France confirmed evidence of hydrogen production beneath the Grison region of the Swiss Alps. However, he emphasized that there remains much to learn. “Our research is merely the beginning,” he remarked.
Notably, some hydrogen has been reported to be seeping from beneath the Northern Pyrenees, according to Alexandra Robert at the University of Toulouse, France. This research is still in its formative stages.
Medieval scribes fill a volume called veterinarians with illustrations and descriptions of fantastic creatures. Manuscripts containing representations of these animals also relied on the beast zoo. These and other volume covers were made from calf, goat, sheep, deer and pig skins.
Most of these skins were removed before they were converted to book bindings. However, the medieval manuscript sets in northeastern France have a distinctive finish. The weathered cover is covered with hair.
Matthew Collins, a biofactorologist at the University of Copenhagen and Cambridge and author of the new study, said: However, it turns out to be difficult to pinpoint the source of hairy leather.
These furry books appear to be at home at the Hogwarts Library, but were originally written by Clairvaux Abbey, a hub of the Cistercians, the orders of the Catholic monk Ks. Founded in the Champagne Adennes region of France in 1115, the monastery was located in one of the largest monastery libraries in medieval Europe.
Approximately 1,450 volumes of the monastery’s extensive corpus survive. Approximately half of these manuscripts remain in the original, fragile bindings. Many were tied in Romanesque style in the 12th and 13th centuries, parchment was placed between wooden boards fixed with thread and cord.
At Clairvaux Abbey, these Romanesque books were often housed in secondary covers, bristled with fur. Traditionally, this creepy leather was thought to be made from wild boars and deer. However, the hair follicles of some manuscripts do not match the fur of either mammal.
Dr. Collins and his colleagues examined the hairy covers of 16 manuscripts once housed at Clairebaud Abbey. Researchers rubbed the sides of the leather meat with an eraser and carefully removed the crumb-sized sample. We then used various techniques to analyze the protein sequences and bits of the ancient DNA of leather.
Their findings published in the journal on Wednesday Royal Society Open Sciencereveals that the book is tied to seal skins, not to local land mammal skins. Some books are tied up in the skin of harbor seals, and at least one came from harp seals. Comparing them to modern DNA suggests that the origins of Scandinavian and Scottish seals, or as far as Iceland and Greenland.
These different territories were once connected by complex medieval trading networks. During the Middle Ages, Scandinavian traders harvested walrus ivory and fur from Greenland and sent them to mainland Europe. Clairebaud and his monks were far more inland from these coastal front posts, but the monastery was near a trafficked trade route.
The discoveries shed light on medieval society, according to Mary Wellesley, a fellow at the London Institute of Historical Studies, who specializes in medieval manuscripts and was not involved in new papers.
“The small details of the manuscript can tell you a lot about the world that created them,” Dr. Wellesley said. “It’s a common assumption that people didn’t move around, but these monasteries are part of this incredible network of goods, books and ideas.”
Seals were a valuable product for meat, dull, waterproof skin. This could be made into boots or gloves. Some records even claim that Sealskin was used to pay church taxes. Coastal communities in Scandinavian and Ireland used Sealskin to bind books, but this practice was far more unusual in the mainland Europe.
However, Cistercian monks apparently liked Sealskin’s books. Examples of these furry manuscripts have been found in other Abbeys, descendants of Clairevaux. These monks used this material to combine the most important documents, including historical information about the Cistercians, historical information about St. Bernard.
According to Dr. Collins, the fur color of the seal may explain the preference of the monks for using animal skins. The cover of the manuscript is now yellowish-gray or spotted brown, but was once wrapped in the white fur of a seal puppy. This shade matched the best of the monks’ dissatisfaction.
“In medieval Europe, you really don’t have anything white or white,” said Dr. Collins. “It must have been very magical.”
The seal itself appears to resemble the magical entity of the monk ks. In medieval veterinarians, seals are labelled “sea calves,” resembling dogs that have raised fish tails.
New genus and species of Titanosaurus have been identified from fossilized sites found in the Hayeg Basin, Transylvania, western Romania.
The artist's impression of the lithotrothian dinosaur herd (right). Image credit: Abelov/CC by 3.0.
The newly identified species was alive Haeg IslandA large subtropical land located in the Thetis Sea about 70 million years ago (Cretaceous).
dubbing uriash kadicithe animals belong to Lithostrotiaa group of titanosaurus dinosaurs containing many armored species.
“The sauropod dinosaurs on Titanosaurus include the largest animal walking on land, with a huge species of over 60 tons,” says Paleoliths at the Museum of Fool Naturkunde, a Livenitz Installation Fool Evolution. said Dr. Veronica Dees Diaz, a scholar. colleague.
“By the late Cretaceous, Titanosaurus had achieved almost global distribution.
“Despite the rich and global fossil record, the evolutionary relationships of Titanosaurus are less known, limiting our understanding with this diverse megaharbibaud (the only group of sauropods is , the only group to survive the latest Cretaceous period).
“European giants in particular have been largely ignored in phylogenetic analysis,” they said.
“This neglect comes mainly from the historical advantages of the Gondwana species and the rarity and imperfection of Laurasian artefacts, particularly from Europe.”
“However, this began to change with the combination of reassessment of existing species and specimens and the discovery of new sites with distinct partial skeletons.”
“As a result, the fossil records of the most recent Cretaceous European sauropods are increasingly important for biogeographical scenarios, and rich evolutionary history is increasingly recognized for increasing incorporation into phylogenetic analysis. It is beginning to make clear.
Holotype of uriash kadici It was discovered in the formation of density in the Hayeg Basin, Romania.
Dinosaurs are estimated to weigh between 5 to 8 tons and their body length is close to 12 m.
“uriash kadici It is the largest titanosaurus species known from the Ha eg basin, exceeding the maximum reached by most other late Cretaceous European Titanosaurus. Abitosaurus (Estimated at 14 tons and 17.5 m long)”, the paleontologist said.
The existence of large giants such as ” uriash kadici It is worth noting and requires explanation as it appears to contradict, or at least weaken, the supposed behavior of “island domination” over these faunas. ”
uriash kadici It coexists with three other Titanosaurus species. Majarosaurus Dax, PaluditiTan nalatzensis and Petrustitan Hungarian.
The diversity was probably even higher, as evidenced by the substantial amounts of fossils involved.
“Our phylogenetic analysis shows that these Transylvanian titanosaurus exhibit particularly close relationships with Gondwana species. Majarosaurus Retrieved as a member or relative of the Saltasauria family. Palditian Affinity with lognkosauria and the Spanish Titanosaurus that were almost the same era Lohuecotitan; Petrustitan It is most closely related to early branched eutitanosaurian species in South America. and Uriash We share a unique feature with Gondwanan Titanosaurs,” they said.
“These analyses also reinforce the paleobiogeographic hypothesis that the latest Cretaceous European giants were members of the Gondwana lineage that invaded the old regions during the ages of Valemia and Albia.”
“Since the first discovery, Majarosaurus Dax The island's dwarfs have been identified as star sauropods, proposed as explanations for the small size of this species and other dinosaurs on Hayeg Island. ”
“on the other hand Palditian and Petrustitan It is also a small body sauropod. Uriash It is several orders of magnitude heavier and represents one of the largest Titanosaurus species found in the Late Cretaceous period of Europe. ”
“We have shown that the existence of this body size disparity is ecologically excluded from body size reduction due to competition with small-body titanosaurus, or as evidence that some lineages and small We interpret it as evidence that it occurred early in stratigraphically among the giants of the body. Hayeg Island has descendants of existing dwarf ancestors.”
“In contrast to some previous studies, signs of titanosaurus leaving the body size, including swapping the War star species for larger-sized species during the top Cretaceous period of the Transylvanian region. I can't see it.”
Discovery of uriash kadici Reported in a paper It was released this month Journal of Systematic Palaeontology.
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Veronica Dies Dias et al. 2025. The Romanian sauropod dinosaur revision reveals high titanosaurus diversity and body size disparities on Hayeg Island of Titanosaurus, affecting the biogeography of Titanosaurus. Journal of Systematic Palaeontology 23(1): 2441516; doi: 10.1080/14772019.2024.2441516
In 1836, European scientists discovered a unique animal in the Amazon River. It resembled an eel, was a few feet long, and had lungs filled with air, leading anatomists to believe it was a reptile.
A year later, another specimen was found in Africa and initially declared an amphibian based on its heart structure. After 30 years of debate, scientific consensus concluded that they were fish, breathing air through lungs rather than gills. Thus, the lung fish was identified.
In situations where they cannot access the water’s surface to breathe, West African lung fish (Protopterus Annectens) have the ability to do so. Their tiny eggs do not provide enough oxygen, but these lung fish have adapted to survive in swamp and river environments, enduring seasonal changes.
Lung fish create burrows in mud, forming mucus-filled chambers where they remain motionless without eating until the rains return, entering a dormant state. This survival tactic can last for several months in the wild, with some lung fish reported to have stayed dormant for up to four years.
The evolution of lung fish dates back over 400 million years, yet many mysteries still surround these creatures, particularly regarding their lung connections to other fish-like features.
Various fish species, such as Bitile and Bow Fin, possess lungs but lack swim bladders. The question of which organ evolved first remains unresolved, highlighting the complexities of evolutionary biology.
Pulmonary fish are often considered the closest living relatives of amphibians -Credit: Albert Guerello
In fish embryos, both swim bladders and lungs develop from intestinal pockets, suggesting a shared evolutionary link. Research indicating a blood system connection further supports the theory that lungs may be older organs than swim bladders, which likely developed later and underwent revisions.
Scholars have long debated whether lung fish, as some of the oldest living fish species, represent a common ancestor linking all vertebrates, including mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians.
Another enigmatic group, the coelacanths, are closely related to lung fish in recent studies, but share a closer link to bony fish like tuna and herring than to terrestrial vertebrates such as humans.
There are currently six species of lung fish in existence, with four originating from Africa. The Australian lung fish, known as Metosera, holds the title of the oldest living fish in captivity, with individuals like Grandad in Chicago’s aquarium reaching ages of over 100 years.
For more fascinating science facts, visit our ultimate fun fact page.
Please envision the setting. It’s Halloween, and you decide to take a daring walk through a cemetery on the edge of town.
As the sounds of trick-or-treaters fade away, a dense fog creeps in and envelops the tombstones. It already has the vibe of a scene from Scooby-Doo, but things are about to escalate.
You trip and tumble, landing face-first in the debris, where you come across a decaying hand protruding from the ground. The digits are contorted. Long, gnarled nails. You attempt to scream, but the sound gets stuck in your throat.
Where is Velma Dinkley when you require her? Then you take another look and realize it’s not a hand after all. It’s a dead person’s finger (Xylaria polymorpha). It may appear to be on the end of a deceased person’s arm, but it’s actually a fungus.
Dead Man’s Finger Reaching Out of the Ground – Credit: Nik Taylor
A brief introduction to fungi: Fungi cannot consume food like animals or produce food like plants or algae. Instead, they secrete enzymes that break down nearby organic matter, releasing nutrients that they can absorb.
Unfortunately, despite its zombie-like appearance, this fungus decomposes dead wood, not bodies. It emerges from the decaying roots of hardwood trees like beech and oak. Hence the first part of its Latin name “Xylaria” which means “grows on trees.”
The second part of the Latin name, ‘polymorpha,’ means “various shapes” and reflects the fact that this fungus changes its appearance over time. When it sprouts in the spring, it forms clusters of three to six pale to dark gray “fingers,” each with a pale “claw” at the top.
However, when mature in winter, each finger can reach up to 10 cm (4 in) tall and be dark brown to blue-black in color. This has led to descriptions likening it to a decaying finger, burnt wood, or a mummified penis. Fungi spread by producing spores as they cannot move, and in this case, the fingers act as the fruiting bodies.
Like many fungi, X. polymorpha has two modes of reproduction: asexual and sexual. Asexual reproduction results in genetically identical copies of the fungus. It occurs in spring when the fungus releases spores called conidia from its surface.
On the other hand, sexual reproduction involves the release of ascospores through an upper opening. When ascospores from different parents fuse, a new genetically distinct fungus is produced.
Despite its odd and somewhat grotesque appearance, this fungus provides a food source for various invertebrates that feed on its nutrient-rich remains.
But refrain from trying to consume it yourself. A 2018 study found that this eerie-looking fungus contains toxins similar to those found in deadly mushrooms like the death cap. Consume it, and you might end up in the graveyard!
Explore our fantasticfun factsand other captivating science articles.
Melting ice in the Rocky Mountains has led to the discovery of a 5,900-year-old white bark pine forest. Scientists discovered more than 30 trees during an archaeological survey on Wyoming's Beartooth Plateau at about 3,100 meters above sea level, 180 meters above the current tree line.
This, he says, “allows us to learn about past conditions at high altitudes.'' Kathy Whitlock at Montana State University. Japanese white pine (Albicari pine) These plants needed to grow during warmer weather, she says, because they don't currently grow at this elevation.
To understand the history of the lost forests, Whitlock's team analyzed tree rings and used carbon dating to find out how old the forests were. They discovered that the tree lived between 5,950 and 5,440 years ago, a time when temperatures were steadily dropping.
Data from ice cores in places like Antarctica and Greenland suggest that these temperature drops were influenced by centuries of volcanic eruptions in the Northern Hemisphere. These produced enough aerial deposits to block sunlight and lower global temperatures until the environment became too cold for these high-altitude trees to survive.
Although the newly discovered tree was lying flat, it was in exceptional condition, indicating that it was rapidly preserved after death. Although there is no evidence of avalanche cover, there are traces consistent with the current expansion of the ice sheet.
Climate models suggest that more continuous volcanic eruptions occurred in Iceland 5,100 years ago, causing further temperature drops, team members say Joe McConnell at the Desert Research Institute in Nevada. These temperature drops led to the expansion of the ice belt, and “the fallen trees were buried in the ice and protected from the elements for the next 5,000 years,” he says.
Only in recent decades have temperatures warmed enough to free trees from their ice cellars. The current tree line is “likely to shift upward as temperatures rise in the coming decades,” Whitlock said.
“This discovery was made possible thanks to anthropogenic climate change. Rising temperatures are exposing areas that have been buried under ice for thousands of years,” she says. “While discoveries like this are scientifically interesting, they are also a sad reminder of how vulnerable alpine ecosystems are to climate change.”
“This study is a very elegant and careful use of a rare 'time capsule' that tells us not only about these mountain forests 6,000 years ago, but also about the climatic conditions that allowed them to exist.” '' he says. Kevin Antukaitis at the University of Arizona.
These trees are not the first such finds that researchers have unearthed from Rocky Mountain ice. Previous research had found “fragments of wooden shafts used for arrows and darts,” Whitlock said. One of the shafts has been radiocarbon dated to be more than 10,000 years old, “which tells us that people have been hunting in high-altitude environments for thousands of years,” she says.
High-resolution UAV-based aerial survey of the massive Bronze Age fortress Domanissis Gora in Georgia, South Caucasus, reveals the extent of a large external fortification system and settlements that are largely undocumented in the region. The exceptional size of D. gora helps add a new dimension to population assembly models in Eurasia and other regions.
Aerial photo of the Domanisis Gora ruins. It shows where two canyons meet. Excavation work on the inner fortress in 2023 is visible in the foreground. Image credit: Nathaniel Erb-Satullo.
Fortified settlements in the South Caucasus appeared between 1500 and 500 BC and represent an unprecedented development in the region’s prehistory.
Located on the border between Europe, the Eurasian steppe and the Middle East, the Caucasus region has a long history as a crossroads of cultures with a unique regional identity.
In a new study, archaeologists focused on Domanisis Gora, a 60-80 hectare fortified settlement in Georgia that is exceptional in its preservation and size.
Dr. Nathaniel Erb Satullo of the Cranfield Institute of Forensic Sciences at Cranfield University and his colleagues wrote: “The fortifications of Domanisis Gora consisted of a double-walled fortified core and a much larger outer shell with additional fortifications. “There is,” he said.
“Two steep-sided gorges, 60 meters deep in places, supplement the defensive walls.”
“Previous research had noted that the site had an unusually large walled enclosure, but the site had not been systematically mapped.”
The researchers used the DJI Phantom 4 RTK drone, which can provide less than 2 cm relative position accuracy and very high-resolution aerial imagery.
To obtain high-precision maps containing man-made features, each feature in the aerial images was carefully checked to confirm its identity.
To understand how the landscape at the site has evolved, the orthophotos were compared to 50-year-old photos taken by a Cold War-era reconnaissance satellite that was declassified in 2013.
This gave scientists much-needed insight into which features are recent and which are old.
The team was also able to assess which areas of the ancient settlement were damaged by modern agriculture.
All of these data sets were integrated into geographic information system (GIS) software to help identify patterns and changes in the landscape.
“The drone takes approximately 11,000 photos and uses advanced software to combine these photos with a high-resolution digital elevation model and orthophotos, which show every point as if looking directly down. We created a composite photo,” said Dr. Elvusaturo.
The researchers found that the Domanisis Gora ruins were more than 40 times larger than originally thought, and included a large outer settlement protected by a kilometer-long wall.
“Using a drone, we were able to understand the importance of the site and document it in a way that would not be possible on the ground,” said Dr. Herv Saturo.
“Domanisis Gora is not only an important discovery for the South Caucasus region, but also has broader significance for the diversity of large-scale settlement structures and their formation processes.”
“We hypothesize that Domanicis gora may have expanded through interaction with mobile pastoral groups, with large settlements outside it expanding and contracting seasonally.”
“The site has now been extensively mapped and further research will be initiated to gain insight into areas such as population density and density, livestock movements and agricultural practices.”
The team’s paper was published in a magazine ancient.
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Nathaniel L. Erb-Saturo others. Megaforts of the South Caucasus: New data from southern Georgia. ancientpublished online on January 8, 2025. doi: 10.15184/aqy.2024.197
Credit for my newfound fascination with Ultraviolet (UV) light goes to fellow diarist Kate Blincoe. She recently expressed her excitement over the UV torch I gifted her, and now she sees the world in a whole new light.
UV light is a high-energy, short-wave light that is typically invisible to the naked eye but can be harmful to many organisms. Life on Earth thrived underwater during the late Proterozoic Era until the formation of the protective ozone layer 15 km to 30 km above us.
When a UV torch is pointed at a plant or animal at night, it triggers molecular interactions that result in the emission of lower-energy light within the visible spectrum. This fluorescence transforms ordinary parts of our environment into vibrant psychedelic scenes. For instance, a sandstone wall can appear as a red sheet (algae) intermingled with glowing lime (lichen).
Spiky sphagnum moss under UV light (left) and normal light. Photo: Mark Cocker
Photography capturing UV-induced transformations requires a comparison of before and after images to illustrate the remarkable changes. One such marvel is the metamorphosis of the golden saxifrage, which turns a lightwood embankment into a sparkling meadow of white and green, evolving into a pool of crimson confetti under the UV torch.
One of my favorite sights is the moss on an old quarry surface adorned with prickly foliage. By day, they present a lush bed of greenery, with central florets encircled by drooping side buds like oversized vegetative spiders. However, under UV light, these plants transform into a vibrant ensemble of lavender, aquamarine, turquoise, purple, and pink hues.
Upon receiving these UV-altered images, a friend questioned their significance, akin to how Henry David Thoreau pondered the beauty of a rainbow in December 1855. Thoreau believed that the world’s splendor far surpassed what meets the eye and that every raindrop had the potential to manifest as a rainbow. He asserted that beauty and music were not exceptions but integral aspects of life. The UV torch merely offers a fresh perspective on the divine enchantment surrounding us.
If you want to unsettle climate scientists, simply stand next to them and quietly mention the phrase “tipping point” in their ear. While climate change due to global warming is already concerning, the concept of climate tipping points adds an extra layer of fear. But what exactly are they and why are they causing alarm?
We find ourselves in a unique time where Earth’s average temperature is increasing at a rate at least 10 times faster than ever recorded in geological history. This has led to a surge in extreme weather events, melting ice sheets, and rising sea levels. Despite these clear signs, greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise rapidly, with global temperatures increasing by 1.64°C (nearly 3°F) in the past year alone. As a result, the possibility of irreversible and drastic changes in the climate system becomes more and more likely.
Tipping points are named as such because they require a critical threshold to be crossed before a significant change occurs. Once activated, like a seesaw tipping over, there is no turning back. These moments, as defined by the American Cultural Heritage English Dictionary, are described as “a critical moment in a complex situation where a small influence or development suddenly produces a large or irreversible change.” This holds true for the climate crisis we face.
How things shift
One of the challenges for scientists studying global warming is the unpredictability of tipping points in terms of timing and impact. Additionally, how these points are integrated into climate models can greatly affect predictions of future climate change. The complexity of the climate system suggests that there are numerous tipping points, with nine identified as having the potential to trigger significant global environmental changes.
These include the potential collapse of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets, dieback of the Amazon rainforest, and release of methane from melting Arctic permafrost. Each of these events could have far-reaching consequences, from massive sea level rise to increased carbon levels in the atmosphere.
While some of these tipping points may seem distant, the looming collapse of the Gulf Stream and associated ocean currents presents an immediate concern. Previously considered unlikely, recent data suggests that this crucial system may be on the brink of destabilization sooner than expected, posing a threat to the UK and Northern Europe’s climate stability.
Recent research suggests Antarctic ice sheets may be melting faster than existing models predict – Photo courtesy of Getty Images
The Earth’s great engine
Understanding the significance of AMOC’s collapse requires knowledge of its role as a key component of the global ocean current system. This system, known as the global conveyor belt, transports heat from the tropics to the Arctic, playing a crucial role in global climate and weather patterns.
The sheer scale of AMOC’s operation is astounding, moving millions of cubic meters of water and gigawatts of heat every second. However, disruptions to this system, such as increased freshwater input from melting ice, can hinder AMOC’s ability to function properly, potentially causing a shutdown with severe global consequences.
If AMOC were to fail, global weather patterns would be disrupted, leading to a range of impacts from cooler temperatures in Europe to altered monsoons in Asia and Africa. The effects would be felt globally, with implications for food security, migration patterns, and geopolitical stability.
These relatives are Pterodactylus. This will allow paleontologists to reconstruct the flying reptile’s life history from hatching to adulthood.
holotype specimen of Pterodactylus antiquus. Image credit: Robert SH Smyth & David M. Unwin, doi: 10.1080/14772019.2024.2421845.
Almost 250 years ago, the first pterosaur fossil was discovered in a quarry in northern Bavaria, Germany.
Dubbing Pterodactylus, this 150-million-year-old fossil provides the first evidence of a group of extraordinary flying reptiles that filled the skies of the Mesozoic Era, soaring above dinosaurs on wings spanning up to 10 meters or more.
This first pterosaur was only about the size of a turtledove, but it completely reshaped our understanding of prehistoric life.
Despite being the original “pterodactyl”, Pterodactylus was soon overshadowed, quite literally, in people’s consciousness by the more dramatic appearance of giant pterosaurs. Pteranodon and Quetzalcoatlus attracted attention. but Pterodactylus remained popular among pterosaur scientists.
For centuries, Pterodactylus and other similar pterosaurs in Bavaria are the focus of ongoing scientific research, and much of what we know about pterosaurs, from the shape of their wings and the way they fly to the way they eat and grow. It helps shape the.
But one question always remains. Among these many pterosaurs, which one is the true pterosaur? Pterodactylus And which belong to completely different species?
This confusion has continued for centuries and continues to this day.
Thanks to a new study that analyzed data from dozens of Pterodactylus The mysteries of specimens displayed in museums around the world have been solved, and the true nature of these fossils has finally been revealed.
Paleontologists Robert Smith and Dave Unwin from the University of Leicester shine an intense UV torch on fossil bones to make them fluoresce, allowing them to distinguish one type of pterosaur from another, almost visually. The researchers succeeded in revealing the details of tiny bones that cannot be seen.
Use Pterodactylus Unique features found in the head, hips, hands, and feet led them to systematically examine other fossils from the same deposits, and to their surprise, they discovered many other fossil examples. Pterodactylus It was “hidden” among what is believed to be another species of pterosaur.
“By examining many fossils in collections across Europe, we were able to re-identify more than 40 specimens. Pterodactylus” said Smith.
“UV-excited fluorescence is amazing in the amount of detail it can reveal. Features that were once hidden are now clearly visible.”
Complete your entire concept in the blink of an eye Pterodactylus It has changed dramatically.
With nearly 50 examples confirmed to date, knowledge about this most important pterosaur is exploding.
“We are now able to construct a complete and detailed skeletal anatomy of this important pterosaur,” Dr. Unwin said.
“The soft tissues of more than 20 specimens have been fossilized, allowing us to reconstruct the top of the head, the shape of the body, the webs of the feet, and even the wings.”
“UV-excited fluorescence is a well-known technique, but the difference in this case is that we were able to combine a new, high-quality light source with a systematic ‘catch-all’ approach, which revolutionized our research and will have a significant impact. Understanding pterosaurs.”
of result Published in Journal of Systematic Paleontology.
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Robert S. H. Smith & David M. Unwin. 2024. Re-evaluation of Pterodactylus antiquus and Diopecephalus flathead: Two troublesome classification concepts. Journal of Systematic Paleontology 22 (1): 2421845;doi: 10.1080/14772019.2024.2421845
A dog chased a ball past me at full speed across the open fields of Seascale Beach, Cumbria. The beach is surrounded by a small park, rows of shops, and houses, with tall chimneys and large rectangular buildings visible on a vast industrial site as you walk north.
Close to Seascale Beach is the Sellafield complex, a 2 square mile nuclear facility located 5 km away. Sellafield is home to most of the UK’s radioactive nuclear waste and the world’s largest store of plutonium.
I visited Sellafield earlier this year to learn about the management of Britain’s nuclear waste. It was an eye-opening and expensive lesson in dealing with hazardous material with no clear plan.
Sellafield played a crucial role in producing plutonium during the Cold War. The current cleanup operation involves processing and storing spent nuclear fuel, cooling and stabilizing it, then storing it in silos covered with steel and concrete.
Initially, safe long-term storage was not a priority, leading to waste being disposed of from decades ago. The process of moving waste from dilapidated silos to more modern stores is ongoing.
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A recent report by the National Board of Audit highlighted that Sellafield is still in the early stages of the cleanup mission, expected to last until 2125 with an estimated cost of £136bn, showcasing uncertainty about the exact tasks and timeline.
The plan for the most dangerous nuclear waste is to bury it deep underground in a geological disposal facility (GDF). Finding a suitable location involves not just solid rock but also a willing community.
Three communities are currently in discussion about building a GDF facility, with experts believing it to be the best option. Several countries are also working on similar facilities.
The complexity of site selection may delay the facility’s opening until the 2040s or 2050s, amidst a push for new nuclear power to reduce emissions and reach net zero.
As we navigate through the challenges of nuclear waste management, experts like Professor Claire Corkhill from the University of Bristol play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of radioactive waste.
About our expert Professor Claire Corkhill
Claire is Professor of Mineralogy and Radioactive Waste Management in the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Bristol.
Her work has been published in magazines material, nature, and ceramics.
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Archaeologists used a laser-based detection system to discover more than 6,500 Pre-Hispanic structures in Campeche, Mexico, including a previously unknown Mayan city named Valeriana.
Details of the main ruins of Valeriana in Campeche, Mexico. Image credit: Auld-Thomas others., doi: 10.15184/aqy.2024.148.
“Our analysis not only revealed a complete picture of densely populated areas, but also revealed a lot of variation,” said Tulane University doctoral student and Northern Arizona University professor. Lecturer Luke Old-Thomas said.
“What we found was not only rural areas and small settlements, but also a town where people had long been actively farming amidst the ruins, right next to the only main road in the area. We also found a large city with pyramids.”
“The government knew nothing about it. The scientific community knew nothing about it.”
“This is an exclamation point after the statement that, no, we haven't discovered everything. Yes, there's still a lot to discover.”
lidar technology It uses laser pulses to measure distance and create a 3D model of a specific area.
This allows scientists to scan vast tracts of land from the comfort of their computer labs, discovering anomalies in the landscape that turn out to be pyramids, family homes, and other examples of Mayan infrastructure. It's done.
“With LIDAR, we can map large areas very quickly and with very high accuracy and level of detail, so we can say, “Wow, there are so many buildings that we don't know about, and they must have a large population.'' ‘It's huge,’ said Old Thomas.
“The counterargument was that lidar surveys were still too constrained to known large sites like Tikal, thus creating a distorted picture of the Maya lowlands.”
“What if the rest of the Maya region is much more rural and what we've mapped so far is the exception rather than the rule?”
The team's results provide compelling evidence of a Maya landscape that was more complex and diverse than previously thought.
“Rider teaches us that, like many other ancient civilizations, the Lowland Maya built a diverse tapestry of towns and communities on a tropical landscape,” said Marcello Canuto, a professor at Tulane University. “I'm grateful for that,” he said.
“Some areas have vast expanses of farmland and are densely populated, while others have only small communities.”
“Nevertheless, we can now see how much the ancient Maya modified their environment to support a long-lasting and complex society.”
a paper The findings were published in the journal October 29, 2024. ancient.
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luke old-thomas others. 2024. Running out of space: Environmental riders and the crowded ancient landscape of Campeche, Mexico. ancient 98 (401): 1340-1358;doi: 10.15184/aqy.2024.148
The veil of mystery surrounding the Treasury Monument in Petra, Jordan has been lifted once again.
Beneath an ancient building carved out of rock, archaeologists discovered a hidden tomb containing 12 relatively well-preserved human bones and a vast array of grave offerings.
A similar tomb was discovered more than 20 years ago opposite the famous Treasury Building, also known as Al-Khazneh, one of the Seven Wonders of the World and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Earlier this year, a team of researchers received permission from Jordanian authorities to conduct a week of remote sensing in and around the Treasury, a city center hand-carved into the walls of a desert canyon by the Nabatean people.
“There was always the idea that there might be more graves, but no one has yet been found,” Richard Bates, a geophysicist and professor at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland, said in an email. “The hope was to find an intact grave.”
A joint Jordanian-American team, which also included the Jordanian Department of Antiquities and the Amman-based nonprofit American Research Center, used ground-penetrating radar to detect the cavity and pinpoint its location and depth. Instead of digging straight through, which would have cut through solid rock and damaged parts of the building, Bates said they carefully dug by hand into the cavity from the outside.
Richard Bates. Excavation at the Treasury. Kindly provided by Professor Richard Bates, University of St Andrews
Inside, in the original burial site, are 12 human bones, one of which is clutching the top of a broken pitcher, most likely dating from the 1st century BC. Bates said the bodies likely included both men and women and ranged in age from children to adults. Although that is not confirmed yet.
“No complete burial has ever been found here before, so this discovery could potentially tell us more about the Nabataean kingdom,” Bates said.
The discovery could also provide new insights into the Treasury itself, whose purpose is still unknown.
“Despite its fame, the Treasury Department remains a mystery to us in many ways,” Pierce Paul Creesman, director of the Center for American Studies, said in an email. “Anything we can do to understand it more deeply is important.”
Visited by more than 1 million visitors a year, the Treasury is the most famous of Petra’s iconic monuments. In Steven Spielberg’s 1989 film Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, it was featured as the resting place of the Holy Grail in the film.
The newly uncovered tomb excavation was featured in a two-part episode of the American reality television series Expedition Unknown, which aired on the Discovery Channel.
Bates said there are signs of other cavities in the area that could be graves.
“It’s very likely that more will be discovered, so we need to get the funding back and continue the research,” he said.
We’ve all experienced that familiar feeling of embarrassment when we realize we’ve overlooked something important while being confident in our decisions. Maybe it’s the car in front suddenly stopping at a crosswalk, or someone mistakenly using the term “escapegoat” instead of “scapegoat.”
This phenomenon is due to a hidden bias in our brains that tricks us into believing we have all the necessary information to make decisions without considering crucial details.
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A recent study identified this bias as the “illusion of information sufficiency,” which leads us to act as if we have complete knowledge to form opinions, make decisions, and judge others. This contradiction often results in misunderstandings and conflicts in our lives.
Psychologist Dr. Sandra Wheatley explains that taking shortcuts in decision-making is a way to navigate the complexities of the world. However, this tendency can lead us to make inaccurate judgments when we assume we have all the information we need.
The study involved 1,261 participants who were tasked with deciding whether to integrate two schools or keep them separate. Interestingly, participants who only saw one side of the argument were more confident in their decision-making than those who had access to both perspectives.
This overconfidence in limited information can prevent us from considering others’ viewpoints and understanding that our subjective truth may not always align with objective reality.
Dr. Wheatley emphasizes the importance of questioning sources and remaining open to information that challenges our beliefs when making important decisions or judgments about others.
About our experts
Dr. Sandra Wheatley is a Chartered Psychologist and an Associate Fellow of the British Psychological Society. She specializes in psychology, parenting, social relationships, and digital media.
Mars A recent study indicates that the Earth may be hiding a global ocean beneath its surface, with cracks in rocks potentially holding enough water to form it.
Scientists believe that the water lies about seven to 12 miles (11.5 to 20 kilometers) deep in Mars’ crust, possibly originating from the planet’s ancient surface water sources such as rivers, lakes, and oceans billions of years ago, according to Vashan Wright, the lead scientist at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of California, San Diego.
Despite the presence of water inside Mars, Wright noted that it does not necessarily mean that life exists there.
“However, our findings suggest the possibility of habitable environments,” he mentioned in an email.
The research team combined computer simulations with InSight data, including earthquake speeds, to suggest that groundwater is the most likely explanation. These results were published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences on Monday.
Wright remarked that if InSight’s observations near the equator of Mars at Elysium Planitia are representative of the entire planet, there could be enough groundwater to fill a terrestrial ocean approximately a mile (1 to 2 kilometers) deep.
Tools like drills will be required to verify the presence of water and search for signs of microbial life.
Despite the InSight lander no longer being in operation, scientists are still analyzing the data collected between 2018 and 2022 to gain more insights into Mars’ interior.
Over 3 billion years ago, Mars was mostly covered in water, but due to the thinning of its atmosphere, it lost its surface water, becoming the dry and dusty world we see today. It is believed by scientists that the ancient water either escaped into space or remains hidden underground.
ITonga was plunged into darkness in the aftermath of a massive volcanic eruption in the early days of 2022. The undersea eruption, 1,000 times more powerful than the Hiroshima bomb, sent tsunamis into Tonga’s neighbouring islands and covered the islands’ white coral sand in ash.
The force of the eruption of the Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha’apai volcano cut off internet connections to Tonga, cutting off communications at the very moment the crisis began.
The scale of the disruption was clear when the undersea cables that carry the country’s internet were restored weeks later. The loss of connectivity hampered restoration efforts and dealt a devastating blow to businesses and local finances that rely on remittances from overseas.
The disaster has exposed extreme vulnerabilities in the infrastructure that underpins how the Internet works.
Nicole Starosielski, a professor at the University of California, Berkeley and author of “The Undersea Network,” says modern life is inseparable from the running internet.
In that sense, it’s a lot like drinking water: a utility that underpins our very existence, and like water, few people understand what it takes to get it from distant reservoirs to our kitchen taps.
Modern consumers have come to imagine the internet as something invisible floating in the atmosphere, an invisible “cloud” that rains data down on our heads. Many believe everything is wireless because our devices aren’t connected by cables, but the reality is far more unusual, Starosielski says.
An undersea internet cable laid on the ocean floor. Photo: Mint Images/Getty Images/Mint Images RF
Nearly all internet traffic — Zoom calls, streaming movies, emails, social media feeds — reaches us through high-speed fibre optics laid beneath the ocean. These are the veins of the modern world, stretching for around 1.5 million kilometres beneath the surface of the ocean, connecting countries through physical cables that conduct the internet.
Speaking on WhatsApp, Starosielski explains that the data transmitting her voice is sent from her phone to a nearby cell tower. “That’s basically the only radio hop in the entire system,” she says.
It travels underground at the speed of light from a mobile phone tower via fibre optic cable on land, then to a cable landing station (usually near water), then down to the ocean floor and finally to the cable landing station in Australia, where The Guardian spoke to Starosielski.
“Our voices are literally at the bottom of the ocean,” she says.
Spies, Sabotage, and Sharks
The fact that data powering financial, government and some military communications travels through cables little thicker than a hose and barely protected by the ocean water above it has become a source of concern for lawmakers around the world in recent years.
In 2017, NATO officials reported that Russian submarines were stepping up surveillance of internet cables in the North Atlantic, and in 2018 the Trump administration imposed sanctions on Russian companies that allegedly provided “underwater capabilities” to Moscow for the purpose of monitoring undersea networks.
At the time, Jim Langevin, a member of the House Armed Services Committee, said a Russian attack on the undersea cables would cause “significant harm to our economy and daily life.”
Workers install the 2Africa submarine cable on the beach in Amanzimtoti, South Africa, in 2023. Photo: Logan Ward/Reuters
Targeting internet cables has long been a weapon in Russia’s hybrid warfare arsenal: When Russia annexed Crimea in 2014, Moscow cut off the main cable connection to the peninsula, seizing control of the internet infrastructure and allowing the Kremlin to spread disinformation.
Global conflicts have also proven to wreak unexpected havoc on internet cable systems: In February, Iran-backed Houthi militants attacked a cargo ship in the Red Sea. The sinking of the Rubimaa likely cut three undersea cables in the region, disrupting much of the internet traffic between Asia and Europe.
The United States and its allies have expressed serious concerns that adversaries could eavesdrop on undersea cables to obtain “personal information, data, and communications.” A 2022 Congressional report highlighted the growing likelihood that Russia or China could gain access to undersea cable systems.
It’s an espionage technique the US knows all too well: in 2013, The Guardian revealed how Britain’s Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) had hacked into internet cable networks to access vast troves of communications between innocent people and suspected targets. This information was then passed on to the NSA.
Documents released by whistleblower Edward Snowden also show that undersea cables connecting Australia and New Zealand to the US were tapped, giving the NSA access to internet data in Australia and New Zealand.
Despite the numerous dangers and loud warnings from Western governments, there have been few calls for more to be done to secure cable networks, and many believe the threat is exaggerated.
The 2022 EU report said there were “no published and verified reports suggesting a deliberate attack on cable networks by any actor, including Russia, China or non-state groups.”
“Perhaps this suggests that the threat scenarios being discussed may be exaggerated.”
One expert speaking to the Guardian offered a more blunt assessment, describing the threat of sabotage as “nonsense”.
TeleGeography map of undersea internet cables connecting the US, UK and Europe. Photo: TeleGeography/https://www.submarinecablemap.com/
The data bears this out, showing that sharks, anchors and fishing pose a bigger threat to the global Internet infrastructure than Russian espionage. A US report on the issue said the main threat to networks is “accidental human-involved accidents.” On average, a cable is cut “every three days.”
“In 2017, a vessel accidentally cut an undersea communications cable off the coast of Somalia, causing a three-week internet outage and costing the country $10 million per day,” the report said.
An Unequal Internet
But for many experts, the biggest risk to the internet isn’t sabotage, espionage or even rogue anchors, but the uneven spread of the globe-spanning cable infrastructure that ties together the world’s digital networks.
“There aren’t cables everywhere,” Starosielski said. “The North Atlantic has a high concentration of cables connecting the U.S. and Europe, but the South Atlantic doesn’t have as many.”
“So you’re seeing diversity in terms of some parts of the world being more connected and having multiple routes in case of a disconnection.”
As of 2023, there are more than 500 communication cables on the ocean floor. Map of the world’s submarine cable networks These are found to be mainly concentrated in economic and population centres.
The uneven distribution of cables is most pronounced in the Pacific, where a territory like Guam, with a population of just 170,000 and home to a U.S. naval base, has more than 10 internet cables connecting the island, compared with seven in New Zealand and just one in Tonga, both with a population of more than 5 million.
The aftermath of the 2022 Tonga eruption spurred governments around the world to act, commissioning reports on the vulnerabilities of existing undersea cable networks while technology companies worked to harden networks to prevent a similar event from happening again.
Last month, Tonga’s internet went down again.
Damage to undersea internet cables connecting the island’s networks caused power outages across much of the country and disruption to local businesses.
For now, economic fundamentals favor laying cables to Western countries and emerging markets where digital demand is surging. Despite warnings of sabotage and accidental damage, without market imperatives to build more resilient networks, there is a real risk that places like Tonga will continue to be cut off, threatening the very promise of digital fairness that the internet is based on, experts say.
Scientists have made a groundbreaking discovery in the Pacific Ocean that challenges our understanding of Earth’s history and the origin of life. They have found evidence of oxygen production in the deep, lightless depths of the ocean.
The results of this study published in Nature Chemistry challenge the traditional belief that oxygen on Earth is solely produced through photosynthesis.
Lead by Professor Andrew Sweetman, researchers from the Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS) made this discovery while exploring the depths of the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, between Hawaii and Mexico.
Named “dark oxygen,” this mysterious phenomenon occurs at depths where light cannot penetrate. The researchers discovered the potential source of this oxygen production while studying polymetallic nodules on the ocean floor, rich in precious metals used in electronics.
These nodules may have the ability to split seawater into hydrogen and oxygen through seawater electrolysis. This finding has significant implications for deep-sea mining activities and the protection of marine habitats.
Director of SAMS, Professor Nicholas Owens, described this discovery as one of the most exciting in marine science, prompting a reevaluation of the evolution of complex life on Earth.
This alternative source of oxygen production challenges the conventional view that cyanobacteria were the first oxygen producers on Earth. It calls for a reconsideration of how complex life evolved and the importance of protecting deep-sea habitats.
To learn more about the experts involved in this research, visit the About the Experts section below.
About the Experts
Andrew Sweetman: Research Group Leader for Benthic Ecology and Biogeochemistry at the Scottish Institute for Marine Science, with extensive experience in deep-sea ecology research.
Nicholas Owens: A marine scientist and Council Member of the Scottish Association for Marine Science, involved in environmental science research and education.
For more information, continue exploring this fascinating discovery and its implications for Earth’s history and marine ecosystems.
We don’t tend to dwell on the fact that we exist in three dimensions. Front to back, left to right, up to down – these are the axes along which we move through the world. When we try to imagine something else, we usually conjure up the most outlandish science fiction images of portals in the fabric of space-time and parallel universes.
But serious physicists have long been fascinated by the possibility of extra dimensions. Despite their intangibility, extra dimensions hold the promise of solving some big questions about the deepest workings of the universe. And just because they’re hard to imagine and even harder to observe doesn’t mean we can rule them out. “There’s no reason they have to be three-dimensional,” says David Schneider, a physics professor at the University of California, San Diego. Georges Obie At Oxford University. “It could have been two, it could have been four, it could have been ten.”
Still, there comes a time when any self-respecting physicist wants hard evidence. That’s why it’s so exciting that over the past few years, researchers have developed several techniques that may finally provide evidence of extra dimensions. For example, we might be able to detect gravity leaking into extra dimensions. We might see subtle signatures of it in black holes, or we might find its signature in particle accelerators.
But now, in an unexpected twist, Ovid and his colleagues claim that there is an extra dimension that is fundamentally different from any previously conceived. This “dark dimension” hides ancient particles whose gravity could solve the mystery of dark matter, the force that is thought to have shaped the universe. Crucially, this dimension is relatively…
TOny, who is in his 50s, recently did a quick calculation of how much time he’s spent watching porn in his life. “The results were horrifying,” he says. Eight years. “It’s hard to even think about. The frustration is intense.”
Tony saw his first “hardcore” movie on VHS in the 1980s, when he was 12 years old. It was in his 20s that he first got online, which turned his habit into a “full-blown addiction.” For the past 30 years, he’s managed to maintain a double life: he works in care, has friendships and relationships with men and women. But there’s one side of him he keeps completely secret.
“So far, I’ve only told three people about this: two therapists, and now you,” he says. “I’ve kept it a complete secret from everyone I’ve ever known. I’m very careful to cover my tracks, even in relationships. My lack of interest in sex with my partner might be the only thing that makes her wonder.”
Tony has tried many times to stop watching porn but has never been able to go more than a month without it. He’s tried cutting down, banned masturbation, blocked porn sites, and tried to quit completely. But “the addict’s brain is very cunning and manipulative,” he says. He also tried therapy, but found it difficult to keep up with the costs long-term.
Still, Tony is grateful for one thing: he was young before the internet. “At least I had a normal youth. Parties, shows, adventures with friends. I had a girlfriend. I had a sex life. A guy like me doesn’t have that chance now.”
All statistics on pornography use in the UK and globally have skyrocketed due to the widespread use of mobile phones: in May 2023 alone, around 13.8 million people, a third of all internet-using adults, viewed pornography online. According to Ofcom
Of these, two-thirds were male. Although pornography companies do not report (or acknowledge) statistics on underage viewers, on average, children in the UK first see pornography at age 12. In a recent study, the Children’s Commissioner for England said: Much of what young people see is violent and extreme.
You’ve probably experienced this feeling before: after a long and exhausting day, all you want to do is curl up and sleep. But instead of allowing you to rest, your brain decides it’s time for some mischief, leaving you wide awake with thoughts racing through your mind.
So why does this happen? Why does our brain keep us awake when we’re most in need of sleep? The answer may lie in the fact that we’re just too tired to sleep.
If you’ve heard of this concept before, it’s often associated with babies who become “over-fatigued” when kept awake for too long, leading to stress and sleep disturbances.
However, the same phenomenon can occur in adults when unchecked emotions interfere with the body’s ability to shut down for sleep. And the longer you stay tired, the harder it becomes to fall asleep.
Fortunately, there are ways to break this cycle. In the following sections, we’ll not only explore what excessive fatigue is, but also share three simple, scientifically-backed steps to help you overcome excessive fatigue for good.
Excessive fatigue ruins your sleep
Being excessively tired is a paradoxical situation. When you’re physically and mentally drained, your brain is actually in a state of hyperarousal, making it difficult to relax and fall asleep.
This hyperarousal state hinders the body’s natural sleep mechanisms, particularly the buildup of sleep pressure.
Sleep pressure refers to the increase in neurochemicals and hormones that signal your body’s need for sleep as you stay awake throughout the day.
According to Professor Matt Jones from the University of Bristol, “As sleep pressure builds up, the brain may also become more excitable, with neurons in the cerebral cortex firing at an increased rate.”
By maintaining hyper-vigilance and allowing intrusive thoughts to dominate your mind, you disrupt the brain’s ability to reset the sleep pressure system, making it harder to fall asleep.
Furthermore, chronic fatigue and sleep deprivation can exacerbate this cycle by feeding troubling thoughts that persist into the following night.
In a recent study, individuals with insomnia were found to ruminate more about past embarrassing events than healthy sleepers, leading to longer sleep onset times.
Additionally, insomniacs may become hypersensitive to bodily sensations like their own heartbeat, further inhibiting their ability to fall asleep.
Dr. Jones explains, “Insomnia creates a heightened awareness of irrelevant information, placing undue strain on the brain and hindering the natural process of sleep onset.”
If you find yourself feeling overly tired and mentally restless when trying to sleep, it indicates that key brain areas are still in a state of hyperarousal, preventing you from processing the events of the day.
According to Dr. Alex Scott of Keele University, modern society’s difficulty in regulating emotions and processing experiences often leaves individuals unable to positively address their emotions, leading to rumination and anxiety at bedtime.
To combat excessive fatigue and improve sleep quality, Scott recommends three simple strategies:
1. Stop counting sheep
Contrary to popular belief, focusing on falling asleep can actually make it more difficult to do so. Rather than forcing yourself to sleep, Dr. Scott suggests acknowledging that sleep is an automatic process that can’t be rushed. Instead of counting sheep, focus on processing your emotions through activities like journaling.
2. Keep a worry diary
Keeping a worry journal before bed can help you identify and address troubling thoughts that may be contributing to your inability to sleep. By writing down your worries and potential solutions, you can externalize and process these concerns, allowing your mind to relax and prepare for sleep.
3. Set a Bedtime Timer
To create a buffer between daily activities and bedtime, set a bedtime alarm to allow time for relaxation and decompression. Engaging in calming activities like reading or meditation before bed can help ease mental fatigue and promote restful sleep.
About our experts
Professor Matt Jones: A neuroscientist at the University of Bristol specializing in sleep science, memory, and decision-making.
Dr. Alex Scott: A psychology lecturer at Keele University whose research focuses on the role of sleep in mental health.
Is removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere one of the best weapons against climate change? Climeworks, a Swiss company, believes so, as they have recently unveiled the world’s largest direct carbon capture and storage plant.
The new facility, Mammoth, will be located in Hellisheiði, Iceland, and will be nine times larger than Climeworks’ original plant, Orka. Mammoth’s goal is to extract 36,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere annually, equivalent to removing approximately 8,600 cars from the road.
Powered by renewable energy, Mammoth captures carbon dioxide from the air and transports it to a facility where it is combined with water and injected deep underground. The carbonated water reacts with porous basalt rocks, transforming them into solid carbonate minerals that securely sequester the carbon underground for thousands of years.
The Mammoth Power Plant aims to have 12 of its 72 heat collection containers installed and fully operational by the end of 2024.
Climeworks co-founders and co-CEOs Christoph Gevaert and Jan Wurzbacher oversee the early stages of construction of the mammoth factory. Photo courtesy of Climeworks
Swiss mechanical engineers and Climeworks founders Christoph Gevaert and Jan Wurzbacher introduced the concept of a direct air capture plant in 2015. Since then, the company has expanded rapidly, with Orka and Mammoth just the beginning of their efforts to reduce atmospheric carbon levels.
Construction of the foundations for the maintenance floor at the Mammoth factory in Hellisheiði, Iceland, December 2022. Photo courtesy of Climeworks
Keeling Curve, a daily measurement from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, shows an atmospheric concentration of CO2 around 427 ppm, well above pre-industrial levels below 300 ppm.
An aerial view of the Mammoth Climeworks carbon capture plant as it nears its launch in December 2023. Photo: ClimeworksWorkers at the Mammoth factory monitor progress shortly after the start of operations in May 2024. Photo courtesy of ClimeworksA worker stands next to a nearly completed CO2 collection container tower in December 2023. Photo courtesy of Climeworks
Climeworks is developing third-generation direct air capture technology for a large-scale facility in the US, paving the way for additional carbon capture plants worldwide.
Collector containers at Climeworks’ Mammoth Factory in Hellisheiði, Iceland, May 2024. Photo: Climeworks
By expanding with facilities like Orka and Mammoth, Climeworks aims to achieve megatonne-scale carbon removal capacity by 2030 and gigatonne-scale capacity by 2050.
While the impact on atmospheric carbon levels remains uncertain, the technology is expected to play a significant role in shaping the planet’s future over the coming decades.
Rendering of Climeworks’ proposed third-generation carbon capture plant in the United States. Photo courtesy of Climeworks
Music and physics are two disciplines that transcend mere study to become intertwined aspects of human creativity. This hidden harmony between music and physics has been acknowledged by luminaries such as Albert Einstein, who expressed a longing for music had he not pursued physics.
As someone who navigates both fields, I have uncovered deeper connections between them. My journey began in the Bronx, where the worlds of hip hop and science collided in unexpected ways. Later, while studying at Imperial College London, I witnessed the fusion of artistic expression and scientific inquiry in Brian Eno’s studio.
This intersection between art and science inspired me to explore further and led me to write the book “Physics Jazz.” Through this exploration, I delved into the commonalities between music and physics, from improvisation to quantum uncertainty.
My passion for sharing these discoveries prompted the creation of the course “Jazz in Modern Physics” at Brown University, bridging the gap between disciplines and offering students a new way to appreciate the symphony of the universe through mathematics and melody.
Believing in the transformative power of education, I founded the “Sound + Science” after-school program to provide underserved students with an opportunity to explore the fusion of music and physics through hands-on experimentation and collaboration.
This fusion of art and science celebrates human ingenuity and the interconnectedness of the universe. In embracing this harmonious blend, we can unlock the mysteries of the universe and delve into the depths of the human soul.
Our dogs have been our companions for thousands of years. Every wag of a tail, flick of an ear, and furrowed brow speaks volumes if you know how to interpret them.
Despite thinking we know our dogs well, research suggests that dogs are actually better than humans at reading body language. To help us understand dog communication better, we sought advice from experts in animal behavior, such as Dr. Zazie Todd. Learn more about the hidden meaning behind your dog’s behavior, from their nose to their tail, ears to paws.
Understanding Dog Facial Expressions
Humans often rely on facial expressions to understand each other, but can we do the same with dogs? Some dogs have very expressive faces, which can help us interpret their emotions. A relaxed jaw and slightly open mouth can be the equivalent of a “smile” in dogs, while a grinning dog may be signaling aggression. It’s important not to anthropomorphize too much, as dogs may have different expressions than humans.
In some cases, what may seem like a “guilty look” from a dog may actually be their fear of getting scolded. Research has shown that dogs may not fully understand their actions but are responding to the owner’s potential reaction. Eye contact and ear positioning can also reveal a lot about a dog’s feelings and intentions.
Signs of Stress in Dogs
While it’s easy to spot when a dog is happy, signs of anxiety or fear can be harder to detect. Yawning, licking lips, and other subtle cues may indicate stress in dogs. Understanding these signals can help prevent misunderstandings and improve communication between you and your pet.
Interpreting Dog Posture
Dog posture can reveal a lot about their emotions. A low, hunched body may indicate fear, while a playful “play bow” posture signals a desire to engage. Observing your dog’s body language can help you understand their intentions and mood better.
Decoding Tail Wagging
Tail wagging is a common form of communication for dogs. A big, loose wag can indicate happiness, while a stiff, vertical tail may signal stress or aggression. Pay attention to the direction of the wag to better understand your dog’s emotions. Research has shown that the direction of the wag can reflect the dog’s mood.
Understanding Vocalizations
Barking and growling are essential forms of vocal communication for dogs. Different sounds can convey various emotions or intentions. Research has shown that dogs can use growls to express their size and feelings honestly in different situations. Understanding your dog’s vocalizations can help you better respond to their needs.
About Our Expert
Zazie Todd is an animal behavior expert and award-winning author. She founded Pet Psychology in 2012 to explore how science can improve the happiness of cats and dogs. With over 50,000 monthly visitors, Companion Animal Psychology is a valuable resource for pet owners.
In the UK, there are over 11 million people aged 65 and above, a number expected to rise to 13 million, constituting 22% of the population in a decade. This demographic change has drawn attention to often overlooked health issues, particularly in women: osteoporosis and bone fractures.
Globally, over 8.9 million osteoporotic fractures occur annually, equating to one osteoporotic fracture happening every three seconds somewhere in the world.
But why does bone health deteriorate with age? Our bones house specialized cells known as osteoblasts that generate new bone tissue. Conversely, osteoclasts are cells at the other end of the skeletal cycle responsible for dissolving old, damaged bone tissue and replacing it with fresh, healthy tissue.
The balance of activity between these cell types is crucial for bone health. Up to the age of 30, osteoblast activity generally exceeds osteoclast activity, resulting in more bone formation than loss. However, as individuals reach 35, osteoclast activity becomes dominant, leading to a gradual decline in bone quality and density.
Most concerning is the rapid decrease in estrogen production in postmenopausal women, which triggers increased osteoclast activity due to reduced osteoblast numbers and extended osteoclast lifespans. This change is believed to contribute to osteoporosis development.
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When a certain level of bone density loss occurs, osteopenia may develop, leading to extremely low bone density and increased fracture risk, potentially progressing to osteoporosis. This condition is often referred to as “bone thinning,” but it results from changes in bone density, microstructure, and quality that compromise bone strength.
Unfortunately, both osteopenia and osteoporosis are typically asymptomatic until a fracture occurs, making diagnosis incidental. Various risk factors may contribute to the development of these conditions, including smoking, thyroid disease, diabetes, and certain medications like steroids.
Preventive measures for bone health should be initiated early. A balanced, calcium-rich diet is crucial, with dairy products serving as primary sources of calcium. Individuals with restricted dairy intake may need calcium supplements, emphasizing the importance of vitamin D production through sunlight exposure or supplementation.
While calcium and vitamin D are essential for bone health, engaging in bone-straining exercises, especially resistance training, can stimulate osteoblast activity, preventing osteoporosis progression. Exercise not only enhances bone mineralization but also improves muscle strength, balance, and posture, reducing the risk of falls and fractures.
For menopausal women, exercising efficacy in promoting bone mineralization hinges on adequate calcium and vitamin D intake, making supplementation vital. Additionally, various medications are available to treat or slow osteoporosis progression, with estrogen therapies recommended for menopausal women, particularly those with premature ovarian insufficiency.
Education and awareness about bone health can significantly impact prevention and proper management of osteoporosis, especially as societies aged. Addressing these issues is crucial as we navigate the future of an aging population.
A mother manatee (pictured above) swims up to a cave diver in a flooded cave in Quintana Roo, Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. Klaus ThiemannThey captured amazing photos of these endangered mammals living in unique, unexplored habitats. “Of course I think she's looking at me,” Tyman says. “But in reality, she's probably seeing what's on camera.”
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Carved into the limestone by flowing water, this cave system is thought to be up to 16,000 kilometers long and connects coastal and inland cenotes, freshwater-filled sinkholes created when cave roofs collapse. is. Timan and his fellow divers have been exploring this system (pictured above) to photograph manatees, which, unlike humans, can easily navigate passages.
Although manatees have likely lived in the area for generations, it is estimated that fewer than 250 manatees exist in the Mexican Caribbean, Tiemann said. Timan is concerned that nearby construction projects are endangering aquatic species in the area. A new railway line will further develop this popular tourist destination (pictured above). Construction can impede the flow of water through the system, starving it of oxygen and trapping manatees. Wastewater from surface runoff and sewage systems degrades the water quality of local aquifers.
Although the coastal area is protected as a manatee sanctuary, it does not extend as far inland as the manatees were photographed. So while the discovery of manatees in a relatively pristine cave system is good news, these habitats may not remain pristine for very long.
Its mauve, suction cup-covered arms gently unfold to grab an egg shaped like an elongated ping-pong ball. A jet of water from a siphon next to the octopus's head ensures that the unhatched cubs get enough oxygen.
From a distance, she is surrounded by hundreds of females, living up to her nickname. The pearl octopus (Muusoctopus robotus) resembles a spherical gem that sits on the ocean floor. This is the largest known assemblage of eight-armed molluscs on Earth, numbering approximately 20,000 individuals, and has been witnessed by people all over the world in astonishingly high resolution. “Oceans” episode BBC series Planet Earth III.
This view would have been amazing enough even if it were from shallow water, including tropical coral reefs and kelp forests. But these octopus mothers tend to their eggs in freezing cold and darkness, about 2 miles below the surface. of the deep sea.
“The fact that there is life there is amazing in itself,” says the producer and director. Will Ridgeon They spent two years photographing the octopus, collaborating with scientists and technicians at California's Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI).
The aptly named pearl octopus rears its eggs in an octopus garden surrounded by flower-like anemones. – Credit: Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
The octopus farm, as the site is now known, is located on a hill in the eastern Pacific Ocean, 160 km (100 miles) southwest of Monterey Bay, near a giant underwater mountain called Davidson Seamount. This place was discovered during his expedition in 2018. live streamed over the internet.
It was the first time I had ever seen so many creatures in one place, let alone in the deep sea. (Octopuses are notoriously solitary animals and tend to be cannibalistic when kept together in captivity.) ).
Ridgeon watched the livestream of the discovery and immediately knew it was a story to be filmed in a new BBC series.he teamed up with Dr. Jim Barrya senior scientist at MBARI, began regularly visiting octopus farms in 2019 to learn more about why so many octopuses congregate in certain areas.
“The question is, why is it there?” Barry says. Barry and his colleagues gathered specialized tools and began a series of detailed studies. They created a photomosaic of his 2.5-hectare (about 27,000 square feet2) portion of the property and stitched together high-resolution images that allowed them to count the octopus population.
They also installed time-lapse cameras on the ocean floor, taking close-up photos every 20 minutes at a time for months to show what the octopuses were doing, and Barry's team gradually expanded the octopus park's largest began to unravel some of the mysteries.
Octopus farm location. – Image credit: MBARI
work remotely
Ridgeon took part in an expedition to an octopus farm early on. Initially, filming took place during lockdown, so he participated via live video link from his bedroom in Bristol, England (with occasional interruptions from his five-year-old daughter).
Once COVID-19 restrictions allowed, Ridgeon joined Barry and his team aboard MBARI's vessel, the research vessel Western Flyer. However, no one visited the octopus farm directly. All surveys and filming were done using a car-sized remotely operated vehicle (ROV) equipped with a camera and a robotic arm.
The dive began around 6 a.m., and the ROV was lowered into the ocean through a hole in the Western Flyer's hull called the moonpool. “It's very James Bond,” Ridgeon says. The descent to the octopus garden can take up to two hours, and the ROV will remain there all day.
The pilot controls the ROV via a cable connected to a control room on the ship on the ground, and everyone watches the video feed to see what's happening below.
Researchers survey the octopus farm from the Western Flyer's ROV control room. – Credit: Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
“You forget you're looking at a screen,” Ridgeon says. “You think you're there,” says the MBARI engineer. He worked with the BBC to find the ideal camera setup to photograph the octopus garden. It was not possible to use footage from a camera fixed to the ROV due to too much vibration.
“I think the BBC will do a little bit about that.” [shivering]“But not as much as we had,” Barry says. ROVs “shudder” not because of the cold temperatures of the deep ocean, but because the thrusters must be activated constantly to ensure they stay close to the ocean floor (ROVs are positively buoyant, so if they fail they will ). .
To get around this, Barry and Ridgeon used a separate 4K camera mounted on a specially designed stand that could be placed on the ocean floor.
“I think that's the secret behind the images,” Ridgeon says. Unlike the ROV cameras used by scientists, which can only reach within a few meters of objects on the ocean floor, the 4K camera's focal length of about 20 centimeters (7 to 8 inches) allows it to precisely navigate between octopuses. can be captured.
But it was difficult to use. It took up to 40 minutes to get into position, and the team had to hope it wouldn't fall over and the action would happen in front of it. Ridgeon operated the camera from the ship using his PlayStation controller, which MBARI engineers adapted for the job. “At first it's like trying to film him with his hands tied behind his back,” Ridgeon said.
Another challenge with deep-sea photography is light. “Put the light as far away from the camera as possible, ideally around the sides so it’s three-quarters backlit. [the scene]That way, there are no reflections from any debris in the water,” explains Ridgeon.
The octopus garden provides insight into the life and reproduction of molluscs. – Credit: Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
Those “fragments” are marine snow. These are organic particles that constantly rain down from the shallow ocean above. Marine snow is made up of dead plankton and their feces stuck together by microbial glue, and is the main food source for deep-sea animals. However, it makes filming difficult as the movie can look like it was shot in a snowstorm.
To see through the snowstorm and achieve the desired three-quarters backlighting effect, the MBARI team built a lighting system that the ROV could hold on its side, away from the camera. “That's how we got some really great shots,” Barry says.
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Accelerate development
As Barry's investigation and BBC filming progressed, the team made some surprising discoveries. First, no medium-sized octopus ever visited this location, and there were no signs of it feeding. It was only a fully grown adult octopus.
They were here to breed and for no other purpose. It may be called an octopus farm, but this place is definitely an octopus farm. The researchers also collected evidence that incubating females use on-site hot springs to speed up the development of their offspring.
For octopuses, there is a strong relationship between temperature and hatching time. The colder it is, the longer it will take and the more dangerous it will be. This is because there are scavengers that prey on unborn, unprotected octopus eggs.
Temperature studies have shown that the seawater surrounding each octopus nest can reach 10°C (50°F), much warmer than the 1.6°C (34°F) seawater just a few meters away. It was shown. By observing specific octopuses (identifiable by scratch and scar patterns) in the field, Barry and his colleagues determined that their eggs take an average of 1.8 years to hatch.
During this time, the female does not move but is constantly fighting off predators and guarding her approximately 60 eggs. “Once you plant an egg on a rock, that's it. You can't leave that spot,” Barry says. At just under two years, it's not the longest parenting period for an octopus. This record is given to another species that other MBARI scientists discovered nearby, Graneledon boreopafica, clinging to the sides of Monterey She Canyon 1.4 km (just under a mile) deep. I did.
Researchers watched one female incubate her eggs for four and a half years, longer than any other recorded animal. However, she was growing her eggs in water that was much warmer than the octopus park's ambient temperature of 1.6 degrees Celsius. Without the hot springs, the eggs in the octopus garden would take more than 10 years to hatch. When this site was discovered, biologists were surprised to find octopuses nesting there.
But geologists were fascinated by warm water seeping through the ocean floor, something they had never seen before. These springs are much cooler than the red-hot hydrothermal vents that form at the edges of tectonic plates where new molten ocean floors are created.
Although the enormous pressure will not cause the water to boil, the temperature around the vent can reach hundreds of degrees. These were first discovered in his 1970s, and plumes of hydrothermal water rise up to hundreds of meters in the water column, making them relatively easy to detect with temperature probes. In contrast, hot springs are more difficult to find because they form away from these tectonically active regions and have much cooler temperatures.
But geologists believe they could exist in the thousands and are highly stable, likely remaining in the same location for hundreds or even thousands of years. Therefore, biologists believe that more octopus farms may be established around these springs.
birth and death
In the final scene of the “Octopus Garden” episode Planet Earth III, a cluster of tiny sucker-like arms appears beneath the brooding female, then a wobbling young octopus swims away into the darkness like a mini-umbrella. More chicks follow and begin life at sea.
No one knows where they're going…yet. “That's what I want to understand next,” Barry says. The hatchlings are large for a newborn octopus, at about 6 cm (2 inches), so they have the best chance of survival. But as anyone who has seen the Octopus documentary knows, this comes at a heavy cost to mothers.
“These mothers are trying so hard to protect their bloodlines, and they're just dying out,” Barry says. Her father died a few years ago, shortly after mating. On the screen, we see the women's eyes cloudy and their bodies wrinkled. Ridgeon saw what happened next, but she decided it was not suitable for an evening television audience.
Dead octopuses are quickly attacked by scavengers such as fish, snails, sea anemones, and shrimp. For Barry, this is another important part of his discovery at the octopus farm. The nesting season is asynchronous, with octopuses hatching and mothers dying throughout the year. Approximately 9 each day. The female octopus' body nourishes the rest of the ecosystem and helps supplement the energy input from marine snow by 72 percent.
Graneledon boreopafica (a species of octopus that incubates eggs in cold water) has a 4.5 year rearing period, which holds the record for the longest rearing period of any animal. – Credit: Alamy
“This is clearly a huge food subsidy for the local ecosystem,” Barry says. “That wouldn't happen in shallow water,” he added. Because there is a lot of food around. But in the more barren depths, nothing goes to waste.
The BBC has finished filming at the octopus farm, but Barry's research continues. One of the things he wants to know is the age of the sea anemone. These are giant orange flower-like animals that make the octopus garden look like a real garden.
Barry studies sea anemones, which live for decades in shallow coastal waters, and finds that deep-sea species can survive for centuries, in contrast to octopuses, which are relatively short-lived. That's what I'm thinking.
“They're like sentinels that just sit there while the octopus cycles,” he says. There are many more questions Barry would like to answer. “Are octopuses confined to this breeding form in warm areas, or are they able to breed elsewhere with cooler ambient temperatures? Is there fidelity to specific nest sites? ?Will they return to their place of birth?'' he asks.
No one knows how far the octopuses travel before they reach the garden or how they found them, but Barry said he was surprised by the large number of dead and dying octopuses floating around. I suspect I smelled it. “We'll definitely be back,” he says.
Groundbreaking research led by Professor Motoki Shiga has unraveled the complex atomic structure of glass, revealing its unique patterns and anisotropy. This research paves the way for advanced exploration of glass materials using AI and machine learning techniques.Credit: Motoki Shiga
Glass is an essential material in our daily life and serves a variety of purposes, such as insulating our homes and forming the screens of our computers and smartphones. However, its widespread historical use stands in contrast to the scientific mystery posed by its disordered atomic structure. This puzzling arrangement of atoms complicates efforts to fully understand and manipulate the structural properties of glasses. Therefore, designing effective functional materials from glass remains a difficult challenge for scientists.
Advances in glass research
To further elucidate the structural regularities hidden in glassy materials, the research group focused on the ring shape of the chemically bonded glass network. A research group including Professor Motoki Shiga of Tohoku University’s unprecedented scale data analysis center has developed a new method to quantify the three-dimensional structure of the ring and the symmetry of the structure, “roundness” and “roughness.”
Spatial atomic density around rings of silica crystal (left) and glass (right). Blue and red regions indicate areas with high density of silicon and oxygen atoms, respectively.Credit: Motoki Shiga et al.
Breakthroughs and future directions
“Structural units and structural order beyond chemical bonds have long been inferred through experimental observations, but until now scientists have avoided identifying them,” Professor Shiga says. “Furthermore, our successful analysis contributes to the understanding of phase transitions such as vitrification and crystallization in materials and provides the necessary mathematical explanations to control the structure and material properties of materials.”
Looking to the future, Shiga and his colleagues plan to use these techniques to devise procedures for exploring glass materials, procedures based on data-driven approaches such as: machine learning And AI.
Reference: “Ring-derived anisotropy of local structural order in amorphous and crystalline silicon dioxide” by Motoki Shiga, Akihiko Hirata, Yohei Onodera, and Hirokazu Masai, November 3, 2023. Communication materials. DOI: 10.1038/s43246-023-00416-w
byInstitute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of SciencesDecember 16, 2023
A groundbreaking study investigated the complex relationship between Earth’s surface temperature and emitted longwave radiation, revealing deviations from the expected quaternary pattern. This research improves our understanding of climate sensitivity and the factors that influence it, such as greenhouse gases and atmospheric dynamics. Credit: SciTechDaily.com
Climate science research has revealed new insights into the relationship between surface temperature and emitted longwave radiation, challenging traditional models and improving our understanding of Earth’s climate sensitivity.
Want to know what causes Earth’s climate sensitivity? Recent research shows Advances in atmospheric science. We investigate a complex relationship that transforms the relationship between surface temperature and outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) from fourth-order to sublinear. Led by Dr. Jie Sun florida state university this study elucidates the hidden mechanisms that shape Earth’s climate and provides new insights into why the relationship between temperature and OLR deviates from the fourth-order pattern described by the Stefan-Boltzmann law. Masu.
Stefan-Boltzmann law and climate dynamics
What is the Stefan-Boltzmann law? Atmospheric greenhouse gases create a contrast between surface heat release and OLR, which is related to the fourth power of surface temperature.
Professor Hu Xiaoming of Sun Yat-sen University, corresponding author of the study, explained: This allows the relationship between surface temperature and OLR to follow a quartic pattern, since the radiation-emitting layer is lowered. ”
Diagram showing two main processes: sublinear surface temperature and outgoing longwave radiation (OLR). Left: Increased meridional surface temperature gradient due to the greenhouse effect of water vapor. Right: Poleward energy transport reroutes part of the OLR from warmer to colder regions. Credit: Ming Cai and Xiaoming Hu
Factors affecting surface temperature and OLR
This study reveals how various factors influence surface temperature and OLR. The water vapor greenhouse effect acts as a magnifying glass, amplifying temperature differences across the Earth’s surface without changing the latitudinal variation of the OLR. This suppresses the nonlinearity between OLR and surface temperature.
Polar energy transport, on the other hand, acts as an equalizer to harmonize temperature differences across different regions of the Earth. One of the by-products of this global heat redistribution is the rerouting of OLR from warmer to colder regions, which acts to reduce the differences in OLR between different regions. This further suppresses nonlinearities.
“Understanding these complex climate interactions is like deciphering a puzzle. Each piece brings us closer to deciphering the complexity of Earth’s climate,” said Ming Kai, a professor at Florida State University. Masu.”
By uncovering these relationships, scientists are learning more about Earth’s climate and how its complex components regulate overall climate sensitivity, i.e., not just the rate of energy output, but also where the output occurs to make significant progress in understanding.
Reference: “Sublinear relationship between planetary outward longwave radiation and surface temperature in a gray atmosphere radiative-convective transport climate model” Jie Sun, Michael Secor, Ming Cai, Xiaoming Hu, November 25, 2023. Advances in atmospheric science. DOI: 10.1007/s00376-023-2386-1
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