In 2020, the Zwicky Transient Facility observed a location in the night sky that suggested the merging of two stars. This phenomenon was identified as a bright red nova, known as Submin’s Red Nova, or slrn. Two years later, astronomers revisited the same area and discovered indications that the star had engulfed nearby planets, referred to as ZTF SLRN-2020.
Earlier observations made using near-infrared telescopes revealed chemical traces such as titanium oxide and carbon monoxide. The event’s brightness was primarily in low-energy wavelengths rather than visible light, indicating a merger event involving bodies between the masses of Neptune and Jupiter.
The stars in this system are not active; the planet did not actively approach but was instead consumed by the star. This raised questions about the physical mechanisms that caused the interaction. The team examined two scenarios: one where a star expanded during its lifecycle to reach the planet’s orbit, and the other where a planet lost energy and spiraled inward toward the star, a phenomenon termed orbital attenuation.
To evaluate these scenarios, the team conducted follow-up measurements on ZTF SLRN-2020 using instruments onboard the JWST, specifically the Near-infrared Spectrometer and Mid-infrared Instrument. They also performed ground-based observations with the Gemini North Telescope Near-Infrared Imager. By combining data from these instruments, the team obtained a comprehensive understanding of the low-energy light emission patterns from ZTF SLRN-2020, revealing insights into the system’s current structure and dynamics.
Illustration of the ZTF SLRN-2020 system before and after the planet is engulfed. Left: A Sun-like star with an exoplanet akin to Neptune or Jupiter. Right: After the planet’s orbit decayed and it fell into the star, material was expelled, forming a cooler outer dust shell and a hotter inner dust disk. Created by the author using Microsoft PowerPoint.
In their analysis, astronomers identified four key characteristics. The remaining stars displayed a reddish hue, highlighting a significant presence of high-energy electrons in the star’s hydrogen, along with substantial carbon monoxide. There were also traces of phosphine, a compound typically found around gas giants and in the vicinity of young stars. Using computer modeling, the team evaluated which scenarios could realistically produce these observed patterns.
Measurements of star color indicated that ZTF SLRN-2020 is quite similar to the Sun but is roughly 70% of its size. The star is too young to have undergone the expansion associated with its later life stages. Consequently, the planet’s orbit became destabilized, leading to its gradual engulfment by the star. This collision likely released energy, igniting the star’s brightness in 2020 and stimulating the hydrogen in its outer layer.
The team theorized that during the collision, the star would have expelled material from the planet. The emissions of phosphine and carbon monoxide suggested that the ejected material originated from two different layers of dust around the star: a cold outer shell and a hot inner disk. Observations did not reveal any remnants of the planet’s core still orbiting the star, indicating that it was entirely consumed, losing even its outer layers.
The researchers deemed this event a new frontier in physics, as it marks the first observed case of planetary engulfment. The data collected from various instruments can provide future researchers with essential insights when investigating similar instances.
This exceptional footage captures a large group of sharks calmly feeding on decaying corpses off the coast of Hawaii.
The marine White Tip and Tiger sharks displayed no aggressive behavior toward one another or the film crew, and they shared the bloated remains with ease.
Marine biologists at the University of Hawaii Manoa conducted a study on this event, publishing their findings in the Science Journal Frontier of Fish Science.
First Author Dr. Molly Scott stated, “To our knowledge, this is the first study documenting the feeding aggregation of tiger sharks and marine white tip sharks.”
“These species are seldom seen together in the wild due to their vastly different habitats.”
Ocean white tips can grow to lengths of up to 2 meters and are threatened by roaming sharks, although they occasionally visit Hawaii’s Oshima during the spring and summer.
In contrast, tiger sharks can reach lengths of 4 meters and are more coastal, preferring to stay in the same area throughout the year.
According to Scott, witnessing these two species in the same location is “incredibly rare,” especially as they shared the food with no conflict.
“We observed up to 12 small individual sharks feeding intermittently on very decomposed corpses, and we saw no aggressive behavior, whether interspecific or intraspecies,” she noted.
“This amazed me. I expected some aggressiveness when multiple sharks were feeding around these small corpses, but it appeared that each shark understood its role in the social hierarchy.”
It appears that the social order allowed the larger sharks to feed first, except that smaller female tiger sharks tended to dominate the two largest marine white tips.
“Some individuals, like female tiger sharks, may have been either shy or bold about their size,” Scott explained. “They might not have been welcomed to join in, as the feeding order was already established before they arrived.”
The smallest sharks remained just beneath the surface, snacking on scraps.
While all these sharks are primarily hunters, they may engage in cleaning when opportunities arise, such as when they detect a body.
The floating carcass was first spotted in April 2024 by a tourist boat about 10 km off the west coast of Big Island.
The observed feeding lasted 8.5 hours, with at least nine marine white tip sharks and five tiger sharks participating, while a few individuals were in the water the whole time.
“None of the photographers reported any frightening, aggressive, or harmful interactions with the sharks,” Scott remarked. “I hope this presents a new perspective that sharks are not the mindless predators they are often portrayed to be.”
Researchers also aim for this unusual observation to deepen the understanding of shark behavior, particularly their interactions with one another.
Internet Explorer 11 is no longer supported. Please switch to a different browser for an optimal experience.
Climbers ascend Everest using controversial xenon gas
03:46
Currently playing
Australian mother considers cryogenic preservation for her son after tragic loss
06:45
Next in line
Underwater volcanoes along the Pacific coast can erupt rapidly
02:07
Experience zero gravity as the capsule enters space with Blue Origin
00:49
Gail King shares his thoughts on experiencing space travel
04:18
“I traveled to space!”: All-female crew returns from Blue Origin flight
01:58
Hospitals provide sea turtles with a second chance
04:11
Biotech firms claim dire wolves have re-emerged 13,000 years after extinction
02:43
Video reveals a genetically modified wolf in distress, according to the biotech company
00:46
Crops that absorb carbon help mitigate air pollution
02:59
Harvard professors utilize AI to create self-replicating tutors for experiments
03:15
SpaceX initiates FRAM2 missions at the Earth’s poles
01:45
Discovering the world’s first “wool mouse”
01:56
NASA’s Spherex and Punch missions successfully launched on Falcon 9
01:41
Join the science rally protesting funding cuts
01:37
Study shows a “devastating” decline in butterfly populations
02:27
SpaceX loses spacecraft during a test flight
00:58
Planetary Parade: Best spots for viewing
01:26
Lunar Lander poised for launch on SpaceX rocket
01:48
Atomic scientists adjust the “Doomsday Clock” from 89 seconds to midnight
00:55
NBC News Now
Australian actress Claire McCann aims to raise funds to “freeze” her 13-year-old son’s body following his tragic passing from suicide. McCann shared insights with NBC News’ Gaddy Schwartz regarding the future possibilities of cryogenic science, especially in light of her son’s experiences with bullying.May 29, 2025
Climbers ascend Everest using controversial xenon gas
03:46
Currently playing
Australian mother considers cryogenic preservation for her son after tragic loss
06:45
Next in line
Underwater volcanoes off the Pacific coast can erupt rapidly
02:07
Watch: Blue Origin’s crew experiences zero gravity as their capsule reaches space
00:49
Gail King discusses his experiences after spaceflight
04:18
“I journeyed to space!”: All-female crew returns from Blue Origin
Internet Explorer 11 is not supported. Please choose a different browser for the optimal experience.
Currently Playing
Climbers Ascend Everest Utilizing Controversial Xenon Gas
03:46
Next
Australian Mother Contemplates “Cryogenic” Procedure for Late Son After Heartbreak
06:45
Underwater Volcanoes Near the Pacific Coast: Eruptions Can Occur Swiftly
02:07
Watch: Blue Origin Crew Feels Zero Gravity Upon Capsule’s Entry into Space
00:49
Gail King on Not Hesitating to Pierce His Ears Post-Spaceflight
04:18
“I Went to Space!”: All-Female Crews Return from Blue Origin Space Flight
01:58
Hospitals Offer Sea Turtles a Second Chance at Life
04:11
Biotech Firms Claim Extinct Wolf Species Returns 13,000 Years Later
02:43
The Video Depicts a Genetically Modified Wolf, Allegedly by Biotech Company
00:46
Crops Designed to Absorb Carbon Aim to Combat Air Pollution
02:59
Harvard Scholars Utilize AI to Replicate for Tutoring Tests
03:15
SpaceX Initiates FRAM2 Missions at Earth’s Poles
01:45
Exploring the World’s First “Woolly Mouse”
01:56
NASA’s Spherex and Punch Missions Launch from Falcon 9 Rocket
01:41
Protests Against Trump’s Budget Cuts with Science Rally
01:37
Study Reveals “Devastating” Decline in Butterfly Populations
02:27
SpaceX Loses Spacecraft During Test Flight
00:58
Best Viewing Spots for the Upcoming Planetary Parade
01:26
The Lunar Lander Set to Launch on SpaceX Rocket This Month
01:48
Atomic Scientists Move “Doomsday Clock” Closer to Midnight at 89 Seconds
00:55
NBC News Now
Four British climbers ascended Mount Everest within a week, aided by a new controversial treatment known as Xenon Gas. NBC News’ Camila Bernal discusses the ethical concerns raised by critics. May 29, 2025
Currently Playing
Climbers Ascend Everest Utilizing Controversial Xenon Gas
03:46
Next
Australian Mother Contemplates “Cryogenic” Procedure for Late Son After Heartbreak
06:45
Underwater Volcanoes Near the Pacific Coast: Eruptions Can Occur Swiftly
02:07
Watch: Blue Origin Crew Feels Zero Gravity Upon Capsule’s Entry into Space
00:49
Gail King on Not Hesitating to Pierce His Ears Post-Spaceflight
04:18
“I Went to Space!”: All-Female Crews Return from Blue Origin Space Flight
Excavation of Mongolia’s medieval wall system by archaeologists
Gideon Shelach-Lavi et al. 2025
Long before the construction of the Great Wall of China, other significant walls were erected on the Eurasian steppes, not with the intent of safeguarding the Mongolian army. Recent diggings indicate that they were established to regulate movement and to showcase power, similar to modern boundary walls.
The Great Wall of China spans thousands of kilometers, with its longest segment measuring approximately 8,850 kilometers. This section originates from the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD) and served as a physical barrier against Mongol incursions.
In contrast to large fortifications, the earlier systems consist of a network of trenches, walls, and enclosures approximately 4,000 km wide across northern China, Mongolia, and Russia.
This infrastructure was developed between the 10th and 12th centuries by various dynasties, primarily the Jin Dynasty (1115-1234 AD). It was primarily constructed by the people of Siberia and the Zurchen from northeastern China, who were herders.
Gideon Shelach-Lavi from The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, along with his team, has utilized satellite imagery and drones to explore and map these ancient walls. They are now investigating a 405 km section excavated in Mongolia, including one of the enclosures.
The structure features a trench about 1 meter deep and 3 meters wide, with the earth piled on one side, forming a compact earth wall that stands 1-2 meters tall. At intervals, a thick square stone enclosure approximately 30 meters wide was added along the wall.
The purpose of these walls is still unclear, as historical records are scarce, and they were not built at natural geographical divides, according to Shelach-Lavi.
Many historians believed they were constructed to thwart Genghis Khan’s army, which reigned over the Mongol Empire from 1206 to 1227. However, Sherach Ravi asserts that these structures would not have been particularly effective for defense. “They were not designed to repel military invasions,” he states.
Instead, he theorizes that the walls were primarily a demonstration of power — showing that the region was under the control of the Jin Dynasty. The walls allowed for the regulation of people through the enclosure gates, managing the flow of people, goods, and animals. He suggests that even though they may not have stopped armies, the walls might have been effective in preventing smaller attacks.
“The objective seems to be guiding individuals towards these enclosures, allowing for control and taxation,” he explains. “It’s all about monitoring movement, which is not so different from what we observe today.”
The findings at the enclosure also illuminate the lifestyle of the inhabitants. “This is a picturesque area,” remarks Sherach Ravi. “We have uncovered extensive evidence of livestock grazing, hunting, and fishing.”
Moreover, within the enclosure, researchers discovered stone platforms or benches that could have served as stoves or beds for the Han Chinese during the Song Dynasty, who were in conflict with the Jin Dynasty.
This suggests that significant resources went into building and maintaining garrisons, indicating that people lived there year-round and engaged in agriculture. “This is remarkable, as even today, farming activities are minimal in this region,” he notes.
Recent studies indicate that humpback whales often collide with objects due to their surprisingly limited vision.
This gentle giant struggles to discern fine details until it is quite close, which may explain the unfortunate incidents of these animals becoming entangled in fishing nets or crashing into small vessels.
To gain insights into how humpback whales perceive their surroundings, a group of marine biologists examined the left eye of a deceased whale after it had been stranded.
In the study, the researchers found that the rear part of the whale’s eye was considerably thicker than anticipated. This suggests that the distance from the retina to the lens (the eye’s focal length) is much shorter than expected.
A shorter focal length implies that the whale’s capability to resolve finer details is significantly lower than previously believed.
This theory was further supported by the team’s count of the neurons responsible for transmitting visual information to the brain, which revealed a stark contrast.
While a typical human eye has around 40,000 retinal ganglion cells per square millimeter, humpback whales possess only about 180.
Humpback whales are known to collide with small boats as they fail to detect them – Credits: Getty Images/Marnie Griffith
This level of poor vision typically doesn’t hinder whales, but Professor Lori Schweikert from the University of North Carolina Wilmington noted in BBC Science Focus.
“Apart from prey, humans, and some bird species, many animals possess relatively low vision,” says Schweikert.
“However, their visual capabilities are often adequate for their survival needs in their natural habitats. For humpback whales, they may primarily need to recognize large shapes, such as a big school of prey or other swimming whales.”
Humpbacks can identify large objects from a distance, but finer details come into focus only when they are about 45-60 meters away, or within 3-4 lengths of their bodies.
This means whales may struggle to see thin strands of fishing nets.
“At close range, they should be able to identify such structures,” Schweikert adds.
About our experts
Professor Lori Schweicart serves as an assistant professor of biology and marine biology at the University of North Carolina Wilmington. Her research centers on the physiological mechanisms involved in light reception within marine settings.
The Birch Glacier triggered an avalanche of ice, snow, water, and rocks as its edge collapsed.
Jean-Christophe Bott/EPA-EFE/Shutterstock
Many glaciers in the Swiss Alps separated from the mountains, resulting in debris, mud, and ice crashing down onto the village of Blatten.
Authorities had been warning for weeks about the potential collapse of the Birch Glacier due to visible cracks in the ice. Earlier this month, both residents and livestock were evacuated from Bratten, a village situated in the valley beneath the glacier, which houses around 300 individuals.
Webcams and drone footage captured on the 28th show massive clouds of debris swirling through the Alpine valley as the glacier gives way, with immense flows of mud and rock blanketing the hillside and much of the village.
A press briefing in a nearby settlement on May 28th reported one person missing, though there were no immediate casualties. Much of Bratten is now covered beneath debris. The glacial collapse also registered as a 3.1 magnitude earthquake on the Richter scale, according to seismic data.
Images from the location indicate that, in addition to the village, vast expanses of forest have been devastated, which has dammed the nearby Lonza River, heightening the risk of floods in the area.
“Nature is more powerful than humanity. Those living in the mountains understand this. However, today we witnessed an exceptional event. It’s deeply disturbing to see the aftermath,” reported a Swiss news outlet.
As global temperatures rise, Alpine glaciers are becoming increasingly unstable. Official statistics show that in Switzerland, glaciers lost 10% of their volume between 2022 and 2023.
The melting of glaciers leads to the collapse of rocks and ice, resulting in debris flows into the valleys below. Research indicates that climate change is contributing to an increase in small rockfalls and landslides in the Alps.
However, further investigation is necessary to understand the specific events that transpired in Blatten, as stated by Mylène Jacquemart from ETH Zurich, who will assess the extent of the glacier failures and the underlying reasons. “Clearly, incidents similar to Bratten are rare. This is a complicated sequence of processes,” she elaborated.
Jack Mart emphasized the challenge of detecting changes in the frequency and severity of significant landslides.
“The alterations induced by climate change in the alpine regions (such as increased melting, reduced snow cover, warmer temperatures, and more rain than snow) negatively affect rock stability,” she noted. “Yet, could this series of events have occurred without climate change? It’s possible. A crucial question in hazard management is whether there is a noticeable rise in the frequency of certain events. Are occurrences that previously happened every decade now becoming more frequent?
Recent studies reveal that these pests have been accompanying humans since they ventured out of caves approximately 60,000 years ago, possibly earning the title of “the first true urban pest.”
Researchers indicate that understanding the symbiotic relationship between bed bugs and blood-sucking parasites could enhance predictive models for the spread of pests and diseases as urban populations swell. This finding was detailed in a study published in the journal Biology Letters on Wednesday.
Through genetic analysis, Virginia Tech researchers have found that the populations of bed bugs that fed on humans began to dwindle until the last ice age around 20,000 years ago.
At this point, the two lineages began to diverge.
“The most thrilling part is the resurgence of human-associated strains and a rise in effective population,” stated Lindsay Miles, the study’s lead author and a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Entomology at Virginia Tech. News Release from Wednesday.
Bed bug populations also surged approximately 12,000 years ago when humans began forming large settlements that evolved into cities like Mesopotamia. The study noted that furniture and blood-sucking pests such as rats and cockroaches became domestic nuisances.
The research indicated a decline in the bat bedbug.
The analysis of demographic patterns “offers compelling evidence that human-associated lineages closely followed the demographic history and movement of modern humans toward the first city,” concluded the researchers.
“Bed bugs shared living spaces with early humans, and as humans migrated, they took along a subset of the population, leading to reduced genetic diversity in those strains associated with humans,” explained Warren Booth, an associate professor of urban entomology at Virginia Tech.
The team observes an “effective population size,” which refers to the number of breeders contributing to the next generation, allowing them to glimpse past trends, according to Miles.
The earliest human civilizations emerged around 10,000 years ago, creating optimal conditions for the “proliferation of pests in communal cities,” as noted by Miles and Booth in the study results.
Envisioning a specific action is a strategy effectively employed by athletes to achieve outstanding results.
Adrian Dennis/AFP via Getty Images
This article is part of a special series exploring the fundamental possibilities of human imagination. Click here for more details.
Are you feeling anxious about upcoming events? Picture a magical anti-anxiety pill in front of you for a moment, and let it dissolve your nerves. Visualize the package, feel yourself taking the pills from the foil, and then imagine bringing it to your mouth, dropping it, and recalling the sensation of swallowing.
These were the instructions given by Jens Gaab, a colleague at the University of Basel in Switzerland, in a recent study investigating the potential of the placebo effect. University students preparing for exams were instructed to practice this visualization twice a day for three weeks.
Surprisingly, it proved effective. Participants who engaged in this mental exercise reported reduced test anxiety compared to a control group who had to monitor their anxiety levels as the trial approached. “And they performed significantly better,” Gaab notes. It is now widely recognized that placebo pills can alleviate symptoms, and the findings from Gaab and his team indicate that such effects can be achieved through mere imagination. This is only one of the many incredible ways in which our imagination can enhance our health, happiness, and success. So, how can we maximize these advantages?
Why does visualization work?
The effectiveness of visualization is well-documented in sports science. “Multisensory imagery can be a game changer…
RNA is believed to have been crucial in the initiation of life
Shutterstock/nobeastsofierce
The quest to decipher how dormant molecules might have sparked life brings researchers closer to their goal. A team has developed a method using partially replicable RNA molecules, suggesting that genuine self-replication could eventually be achieved.
RNA is a pivotal molecule in the discussion of life’s origins, as it can store information like DNA and catalyze reactions akin to proteins. While neither function is perfect on its own, the dual capability has led many scientists to theorize that life originated with self-replicating RNA molecules. “This was the molecule that governed biology,” says James Atwater from University College London.
Nonetheless, engineering self-replicating RNA molecules is a challenging task. RNA can form double helices similar to DNA, which can also be copied in a similar manner. By separating the two helices and adding RNA nucleotides to each strand, one could theoretically produce two identical helices. However, the binding between RNA strands is so strong that it complicates their separation for replication.
Recently, Attwater and his team found that a trio of RNA nucleotides (triplets) can be tightly bonded, preventing the strands from re-zipping. “Three is the sweet spot,” Attwater elaborates, noting that longer combinations are prone to errors. Thus, in their methodology, the team mixed RNA enzyme double helices with the triplet sequences.
By acidifying the solution and heating it to 80°C (176°F), the helices can be separated to allow for triplet pairing. When the solution is then made alkaline and cooled to -7°C (19°F), the highly concentrated liquid remaining as water freezes activates the RNA enzymes, which then bind the triplets together to form new strands.
Currently, researchers have succeeded in replicating RNA enzymes of up to 30 nucleotides in length from an original strand of 180 nucleotides. They believe that enhancing enzyme efficiency could lead to full replication.
Attwater highlights that this “very simple molecular system” possesses intriguing characteristics. One is the potential correlation between triplet RNA sequences and the triplet code that dictates protein sequences in modern cells. “There may be a connection between the biological mechanisms employed for RNA replication and the way RNA is utilized in present-day biology,” he explains.
Additionally, the team has identified that the triplet sequences most likely to facilitate replication exhibit the strongest bonding. This suggests that the earliest genetic code may have consisted of this set of triplets, which adds another layer of interest.
Researchers contend that the conditions required to support this process might naturally occur. Given the need for freshwater, it’s likely that such processes transpired on land within geothermal systems.
“The materials we see today can be found on Earth. Icelandic hot springs display a mixed pH, similar to what we use,” Attwater notes.
“RNA nucleotide triplets convey highly specific functional information in every cell,” remarks Zachary Adam from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. “This research is captivating as it may indicate a purely chemical role (rather than informational) for RNA nucleotide triplets that could predate the emergence of living cells.”
The Gobi Wall is a 321 km long edifice constructed from soil, stone, and wood, located in the Gobi Highlands desert of Mongolia. It represents the least understood segment of the medieval wall system that extends from China to Mongolia. In a recent study, archaeologists sought to uncover information about the builders, purpose, and timeline of this structure. Their findings indicate that the principal structure and its usage evolved during the Xi Xia dynasty (1038-1227 CE), a time notable for its sophisticated frontier defense systems and significant geopolitical transformations.
Aerial drone photograph depicting preserved stone segments of the Gobi walls traversing the hillside. Image credit: Golan et al. , doi: 10.3390/land14051087.
Stretching 321 km through Mongolia’s highland desert, the Gobi Wall forms part of a comprehensive wall system that once extended across China to Mongolia.
Previously, its origins, functions, and historical significance remained largely uncharted.
“The medieval wall system spans roughly 4,000 km across the vast territories of northern China and Mongolia, making it a distinct segment of Siberia,” remarked Professor Gideon Sheraha Ravi from Hebrew University and his collaborators.
“It stands out as one of East Asia’s most expansive yet mysterious architectural structures.”
“In recent years, numerous projects have delved into various sections of this wall line, yielding substantial research findings.”
“Such studies have established that this extensive system of earthen walls was constructed by different empires from the 10th to the 13th centuries.”
“Among the various parts of the system, the segment within the Gobi Desert in southern Mongolia is the least explored and, as of yet, unrecognized.”
“Our investigation concentrates on a 321-km segment of this wall line in the Omnogovi region of Mongolia, which we refer to as the Gobi Wall.”
In this study, Professor Shelach-Lavi and his co-authors uncovered new insights into the building and purposes of the wall.
They found that the wall and its associated garrison were primarily constructed during the Xi Xia period (1038-1227 CE), a dynasty governed by the Tangot peoples in western China and southern Mongolia.
This era is marked by the growth of frontier defense strategies amid considerable geopolitical upheaval.
Contrary to conventional perspectives that view walls solely as defensive constructions, this research emphasizes the multifaceted roles of the Gobi walls in boundary integration, resource regulation, and imperial governance.
While the main construction and habitation phases align with the Xi Xia dynasty, the research also refuted evidence for consistent habitation of this remote area from the 2nd century BC to the 19th century AD.
The fortress comprises a plunging earth foundation bolstered by stone and wooden reinforcements, showcasing the adaptive use of local materials within this arid, isolated setting.
Additionally, ecological and spatial assessments from this study indicate that the wall routes were strategically selected based on resource accessibility, particularly water and timber.
The fort’s location and garrison positioning utilized natural geographical features such as mountain paths and sand dunes to enhance the wall’s effectiveness.
“This study challenges long-held beliefs regarding the empire’s frontier systems in Asia,” stated Professor Sheraha Ravi.
“The Gobi Wall was not merely a barrier, but an adaptive mechanism for regulating movement, commerce, and territorial authority in a demanding environment.”
This finding sheds light on how environmental adaptation and state power interacted within medieval empires, offering broader insights into ancient infrastructure and its relevance to contemporary political and ecological contexts.
“This study advocates for a wider rethinking of medieval frontiers, not just as static defensive barriers, but as dynamic management frameworks,” asserted the archaeologist.
“The Gobi Wall illustrates the Xi Xia Statecraft model, which uses architectural endeavors to manage population dynamics and territorial delineations.”
“Such an understanding aligns with a theoretical framework that perceives frontiers as zones of control and interaction, rather than rigid dividers, prompting a broader comparative analysis throughout Eurasia.”
The findings were published in a paper in the journal land.
____
Dangoran et al. 2025. Exploring the Gobi Wall: Archaeology of a large medieval frontier system in the Mongol Desert. land 14(5): 1087; doi: 10.3390/land14051087
Greenhouse gas emissions have led to a temperature rise of 1.44°C from pre-industrial levels
Chris Conway/Getty Images
Experts now warn that the world may experience its first year with warming exceeding 2°C by the decade’s end.
Each year, researchers at the Met Office, the UK’s National Weather Service, analyze observational climate data and collaborate with global agencies to forecast the climate for the next five years.
Their projections indicate that by 2029, the average annual temperature could surpass 2°C above pre-industrial levels, a significant and alarming point in the climate crisis.
“Just a few years ago, this seemed implausible,” stated Adam Scaife during a Met Office briefing. He labeled such an occurrence as “entirely unprecedented.”
The objectives of the 2015 Paris Agreement aim to limit global warming to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, with an additional target of restricting the increase to below 1.5°C. These goals require stability in temperature rise for decades.
Last year marked the initial instance of temperatures exceeding the 1.5°C benchmark, attributed to escalating emissions and strong El Niño conditions. There exists an 86% probability that at least one of the next five years will breach this threshold. Global to 10 Years Climate Update produced by the United Nations World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has revealed this information.
Additionally, there is a 70% probability that the average warming will surpass 1.5°C in the 2025-2029 timeframe, up from a 47% chance in the 2024 report on the 2024-2028 period. Scaife remarked, “These new forecasts imply we are close to experiencing a year with an average increase of 1.5°C being typical.” “These numbers are alarming.”
According to estimates from the WMO/MET office team, there’s about a 1% chance of seeing warming above 2°C. “While it’s a rare event, it’s not impossible,” said Leon Hermanson, during a Met Office update. “It’s not the scenario we want, but it is what science predicts.”
Scaife emphasized that if the average annual temperature exceeds 2°C, a “perfect storm” of elements will likely be necessary. These may include a robust El Niño that drives heat from the Pacific, intensifying warming across Eurasia, alongside a positive Arctic oscillation.
However, despite the currently low odds, the likelihood of experiencing a 2°C year is projected to rise sharply over the coming years unless there is a marked decrease in greenhouse gas emissions.
It has only been a decade since the Met Office and WMO first affirmed the potential for temperatures to exceed 1.5°C. At present, the world is perilously close to breaching this threshold, with the report estimating that the long-term average temperature is currently 1.44°C above pre-industrial levels.
“Where we stood at 1.5°C back in 2015 is now where we find ourselves at 2°C,” remarked Hermanson. “If current trends continue, that probability will increase rapidly.”
Chris Hewitt of the WMO stated that there remains a chance to avert the direst consequences of climate change. “Every fraction of a degree matters,” he emphasized, pointing out the need for drastic emission reductions to approach the 1.5°C target.
The recently identified Transneptunian object, which was named in 2017, stands out as one of the most prominent objects in our solar system, measuring approximately 700 km in diameter, thus qualifying as a dwarf planet.
All cut-out images of 19 detections for 2017 2017. Image credits: Chen et al, arxiv: 2505.15806.
Transneptunian Objects (TNOs) are small celestial bodies that orbit the Sun at distances greater than that of Neptune.
In the 30 years following the discovery of the first TNO outside Pluto, numerous research initiatives have been launched to explore the expansive regions of the outer solar system, resulting in the identification of over 5,000 TNOs to date.
The newly discovered TNO is significant for two main reasons: its unique trajectory and substantial size.
“The object’s aphelion—the furthest point in its orbit from the Sun—is over 1,600 times the distance of Earth’s orbit,” states Dr. Sihao Chen, an astronomer at the Institute of Advanced Research and Boundary Research.
“Conversely, its perihelion—the closest point in its orbit to the Sun—is 44.5 times that of Earth’s orbit, akin to Pluto’s orbit.”
“This extreme trajectory takes around 25,000 years to complete, suggesting a complex gravitational history,” he adds.
“We likely experienced a close encounter with a massive planet, compelling us into this wide orbit,” comments Princeton University astronomer Dr. Elitas Yang.
“There may have been multiple phases in this transition.”
“The object might have initially been ejected into the Oort Cloud, the outermost region of the solar system, which is home to numerous comets.”
“Many extreme TNOs appear to follow similar trajectories, but 2017 OF201 stands out as an anomaly,” remarks Dr. Jiaxuan Li, also from Princeton University.
“This clustering is interpreted as indirect evidence suggesting the presence of another celestial body, often referred to as Planet X or Planet Nine, which could be influencing these objects through gravitational forces.”
“The existence of 2017 OF201 as an outlier in this clustering could potentially challenge this hypothesis.”
Astronomers estimate the diameter of 2017 OF201 to be 700 km, making it the second-largest object on such an extensive orbit.
“2017 OF201 can only be detected about 1% of the time when it is relatively close to us,” Dr. Chen notes.
“The presence of this solitary object implies that there may be around 100 other similar objects with comparable trajectories and sizes.”
Researchers discovered 2017 OF201 as part of an ongoing initiative to identify TNOs and potential new planets in the outer solar system.
The detection involved identifying bright spots in astronomical image databases from the Victor M. Blanco Telescope and the Canada France Hawaii Telescope (CFHT), as well as attempting to trace groups of possible spots that indicate TNO movement across the sky.
Scientists identified 2017 OF201 in 19 different exposures collected over a span of seven years.
“Although advancements in telescopic technology have allowed us to explore distant realms of the universe, much remains to be uncovered within our own solar system,” concludes Dr. Chen.
The team’s paper has been published online at arxiv.org.
____
Sihao Cheng et al. 2025. Discovery of new planet candidates in extremely wide orbits: 2017 OF201. arxiv: 2505.15806
Researchers conducted an extensive study of bone artifacts from 26 Paleolithic caves and rock shelter locations in the Cantabria area of Spain and southwestern France.
173 work (a) and raw (b) taxonomic identification of bone objects: (1) blank, Tito Bastilo, sperm whale. (2) A launch point with a huge base, Islitz and a blue whale. (3) Lassempouy, Fin Whale; (4) Rascaldas, a sperm whale; (5) A launch point with a giant base, Hermitia and a gray whale. (6) Unclear object, St. Michelle, a sperm whale. (7-10) Santa Catalina, raw fragments of fin whale bones. Image credit: McGrath et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-59486-8.
“The largest creatures on Earth, whales were a vital source of nourishment and materials like oil and bone,” stated Dr. Christa McGrath, the lead author and an archaeologist from the University of Barcelona, along with her co-researchers.
“Hence, they are thought to have been instrumental in the survival of various coastal human populations.”
“Nonetheless, tracing the origins of human and near-human interactions is challenging since coastal archaeological sites are particularly prone to the impacts of rising sea levels, complicating the preservation of evidence regarding early human-mammal relationships.”
The authors examined 83 bone tools from various cave and rock shelter locations around the Bay of Biscay in Spain, along with an additional 90 bones from the Santa Catalina Cave in Biscay province.
Utilizing mass spectrometry and radiocarbon dating methods, they identified the species and age of the artifacts.
The earliest two dates were from the Cantabrian sites of Las Caño and Ergeyo, which dated to 20,200-19,600 and 19,600-19,000 years ago, respectively.
“Our findings show that the bones came from at least five large whale species, with the oldest dating back around 19,000-20,000 years,” mentioned Senior author Dr. Jean Mark Petitillon, an archaeologist at Toulouse-Jean-Jalaise University and CNRS University.
“This provides some of the earliest known proof of humans utilizing whales as tools.”
“Zoomorphometry is an effective method for studying past marine mammal diversity, especially when key morphological features are absent in the bone remains and artifacts.
“We identified gray whales that not only existed in Biscay Bay but are now confined to the North Pacific and Arctic oceans.”
“Moreover, chemical analysis of the bones indicates that the feeding patterns of these ancient whales varied slightly from those of contemporary ones, highlighting potential shifts in behavior and marine environments.”
“This discovery not only enhances our understanding of the early human use of whale remains but also illuminates the role whales held in ancient ecosystems.”
The team’s study is set to be published in the journal Nature Communications.
____
K. McGrath et al. 2025. Late Paleolithic whale bone tools in the Bay of Biscay reveal insights into human and whale ecology. Nature Communications 16, 4646; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-59486-8
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope have captured incredible new images of the Galaxy Cluster Abell S1063.
This Webb image illustrates the colossal galaxy cluster Abell S1063. Image credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/Webb/H. Atek & M. Zamani, ESA & Webb/R. Endley.
Abell S1063 is a significant cluster of galaxies located about 4.5 billion light years away in the constellation Grus.
This cluster houses approximately 100 million solar masses, including 51 confirmed galaxies, with potentially over 400 more yet to be identified.
The enormous mass of Abell S1063 bends and magnifies light from galaxies located behind it, an effect known as gravitational lensing.
“Upon closer examination, this dense grouping of massive galaxies is encircled by glowing light streaks, and these warped arcs are the essence of our interest: faint galaxies from the distant past of the universe.”
“Abell S1063 was previously explored by the Frontier Fields program using the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope.”
“It possesses a remarkable gravitational lens. The immense size of these galaxy clusters causes light from the distant galaxies positioned behind them to curve around them, forming the distorted arcs visible here.”
“Similar to a glass lens, it directs light from these remote galaxies.”
“The resulting image, while distorted, is bright and magnified, making it possible for observation and study.”
“This was Hubble’s objective — to investigate the early universe using galaxy clusters as a magnifying glass.”
“The image reveals an astonishing array of structures around Abell S1063, showcasing distorted background galaxies at various distances, along with numerous faint galaxies and previously unseen features,” the researchers noted.
“This image is classified as a deep field. It focuses on a single segment of the sky for an extended period, gathering as much light as possible to detect the faintest distant galaxies that aren’t visible in standard images.”
“It comprises nine distinct snapshots of different near-infrared wavelengths, totaling approximately 120 hours of observation time, enhanced by the gravitational lensing effect. This marks Webb’s deepest observation of a single target to date.”
“Thus, directing such observational capability at a large gravitational lens, like Abell S1063, could uncover some of the earliest galaxies formed in the early universe.”
SpaceX is set to launch the Starship Megarocket on a crucial test flight this Tuesday, following two earlier unsuccessful attempts. Both previous launches ended in failure when the upper-stage vessels exploded in the Gulf of Mexico and parts of the Caribbean, resulting in substantial debris.
The upcoming Non-White Crime Launch, marking Starship’s 9th Test Flight, is scheduled for liftoff from the Starbase facility in Texas, with a launch window opening at 7:30 PM.
Standing at 400 feet, this spacecraft represents the most powerful rocket ever created and comprises two main components: a first-stage booster known as Super Heavy and the upper-stage spaceship. The Megarocket is central to CEO Elon Musk’s ambitions for Mars exploration.
Following Tuesday’s test flight, Musk is anticipated to deliver a presentation from Texas titled “The Road to the Road Beyond the Lifespan.”
Musk has recently shifted his focus back to SpaceX and Tesla, having stepped back from his prominent presence in the Trump administration. Since the start of the current presidential term, he has overseen significant layoffs across the federal government as part of efficiency initiatives.
Future testing will be closely monitored following the two prior failures of Starship. This will be the first flight utilizing the Super Heavy booster from a previous mission, which successfully returned to Earth.
SpaceX aims for Starship to be a completely reusable system. In three previous test flights, the company successfully executed a spectacular “catch” maneuver, returning the Super Heavy booster to the launch tower’s robotic arm.
The Starship’s most recent flight in early March was cut short after mission control lost contact with the upper vehicle approximately nine minutes post-liftoff.
Footage from Florida and the Caribbean revealed a cloud of smoke, with debris scattered across the sky. The Florida airport issued a temporary ground stop due to “space-fired debris.”
In another test on January 16th, the upper-stage vehicle exploded over the Caribbean, with dust and debris falling on the Turks and Caicos islands; fortunately, local authorities reported no injuries or significant property damage.
The Federal Aviation Administration is conducting an investigation into both incidents and confirmed last week that SpaceX must pause flights again, enlarging the hazard zone along the rocket’s path in accordance with updated safety protocols.
While previous flights had a hazard zone extending 885 nautical miles, Tuesday’s mission will see this area expand to 1,600 nautical miles, affecting the Florida Channel and covering both land and water at launch sites in South Texas, including the Bahamas and Turks and Caicos.
In this latest test flight, SpaceX plans to experiment with various “nominal scenarios” using the Super Heavy booster. Consequently, the first stage will not return to the launch site as part of the catch maneuver. According to the company.
Once in orbit, the upper-stage vehicle will attempt to deploy eight simulated Starlink satellites, which are designed to burn up upon re-entering the Earth’s atmosphere. The mission control team will also aim to re-ignite one of the Raptor engines while in space.
Musk envisions using the spacecraft for future Mars missions, but SpaceX officials indicate that humans will likely complete hundreds of test runs before embarking on journeys with the next-generation rocket.
A new “coronal adaptive optics” system has been developed by astronomers at the NSF’s National Solar Observatory and New Jersey Institute of Technology to generate high-resolution images and films by eliminating atmospheric blurring.
This image captures a 16-minute time-lapse film that illustrates the formation and collapse of a complex plasma stream measuring approximately 100 km per 100 km in front of a coronal loop system. This marks the first observation of such flows, referred to as plasmoids, raising questions about the dynamics involved. The image, taken by a Good Solar Telescope at Big Bear Solar Observatory with the new coronal adaptive optics system CONA, showcases hydrogen α light emitted by the solar plasma. While the image is artificially colored, it reflects the real color of hydrogen alpha light, with darker colors indicating bright light. Image credit: Schmidt et al. /njit /nso /aura /nsf.
The solar corona represents the outermost layer of the solar atmosphere, visible only during a total solar eclipse.
Astronomers have long been fascinated by its extreme temperatures, violent eruptions, and notable prominence.
However, Earth’s atmospheric turbulence has historically caused blurred images, obstructing the observation of the corona.
“Atmospheric turbulence, similar to the sun’s own dynamics, significantly degrades the clarity of celestial observations through telescopes. Fortunately, we have solutions,” stated Dr. Dark Schmidt, an adaptive optics scientist at the National Solar Observatory.
CONA, the adaptive optics system responsible for these advancements, corrects the atmospheric blurring affecting image quality.
This cutting-edge technology was funded by the NSF and implemented at the 1.6-meter Good Solar Telescope (GST) located at Big Bear Solar Observatory in California.
“Adaptive optics function similarly to autofocus and optical image stabilization technologies found in smartphone cameras, fixing atmospheric distortions rather than issues related to user instability,” explained Dr. Nicholas Golsix, optical engineer and lead observer at Big Bear Solar Observatory.
The second film depicts the rapid creation and collapse of a finely detailed plasma stream.
“These observations are the most detailed of their kind, highlighting features that were previously unobserved, and their nature remains unclear,” remarked Vasyl Yurchyshyn, a professor at the New Jersey Institute of Technology.
“Creating an instrument that allows us to view the sun like never before is incredibly exciting,” Dr. Schmidt commented.
Another film captures the dynamic movements across the solar surface, influenced by solar magnetism.
“The new Collar Adaptive Optical System closes the gap from decades past, delivering images of coronal features with resolution down to 63 km. This is the theoretical limit achievable with the 1.6 m Good Solar Telescope,” Dr. Schmidt stated.
“This technological leap is transformative. Discoveries await as we improve resolution tenfold,” he emphasized.
The team’s findings are detailed in a published paper in today’s issue of Nature Astronomy.
____
D. Schmidt et al. Observation of fine coronal structures with higher order solar adaptive optics. Nature Astronomy Published online on May 27, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41550-025-02564-0
Pre-packaged foods like pasta and rice are staples in a balanced diet, but items like potato chips and sugary snacks are clearly less healthy. For many processed packaged foods, label claims can muddle the lines between what is genuinely nutritious and what isn’t.
Recent studies indicate that ultra-processed foods can elevate the risk of over 30 health issues, including cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, as well as mental health concerns. Therefore, the degree of processing and its effects on our bodies should be increasingly scrutinized.
While every food contributes to a healthy, balanced diet, not all foods hold the same nutritional value. It’s vital to approach your nutritional plan without solely relying on the claims made on food labels; consider how these foods fit into the broader context of your life and your goals, taking into account your unique health needs, financial situation, work commitments, and other life pressures.
Additionally, there’s no need to panic over headlines that warn of a “50% increased risk” of a disease from certain foods. While this sounds alarming, such statistics represent relative risks for the general population, not the individual.
This implies that these figures are not absolute; they depend on variables like the quantity of food consumed, frequency of intake, dietary diversity, and overall health risks.
Nutrition doesn’t exist in isolation, but understanding evidence, avoiding exaggerations, and considering context can help us make healthier choices. Below are some commonly misunderstood supermarket products.
“Premium” Ready Meals
Prepared meals such as lasagna, shepherd’s pie, and curry often labeled as “Finest” or “Best” are marketed as convenient shortcuts to balanced nutrition. Although the ingredient lists may seem appealing, including pasta, meat, cheese, and spices, cooking these dishes at home from scratch remains a more nutritious choice.
Ready meals frequently contain preservatives and stabilizers, often being overly salty for preservation, safety, and enhanced flavor.
Manufacturers that use fewer ingredients typically do so to cut costs, resulting in dishes that are often unbalanced and lacking in vegetables.
Cooking at home offers the added advantage of incorporating more vegetables and whole grains into your meals. Consider adding veggies to your ready-made meals for better nutrition without sacrificing convenience.
read more:
Plant-Based “Milk”
Plant-based milk alternatives are marketed as “healthier” substitutes for traditional dairy products. However, they are not direct nutritional equivalents.
Dairy products undergo minimal processing, while plant-based alternatives are often highly processed, involving heating, juicing, and extracting, with nutrients like calcium added later but prone to settling at the bottom. If the carton isn’t shaken well, these nutrients often go undetected.
The health benefits of plant-based milk alternatives are still up for debate, as while they are great for those who cannot or choose not to consume traditional dairy, long-term consumption effects haven’t been thoroughly investigated.
Meat Alternatives
Much like plant-based milk, meat substitutes derive their health halo from being “plant-based.” However, it’s worth noting that chips, candy, and beverages can also be made from plants. The true benefit lies in consuming whole foods rather than heavily processed plant-based ingredients.
Reducing meat consumption, particularly processed varieties, is associated with improved overall health, but replacing one unhealthy component with another doesn’t necessarily yield health benefits.
Meal Replacement Drinks
These beverages often claim to deliver complete nutrition within calorie-controlled portions while requiring minimal preparation effort. While they might be useful in specific situations, such as illness or injury, they come with caveats.
While these drinks contain essential nutrients, they often lack natural food’s vital “biological activity,” compounds that promote health. Also, relying heavily on these formulations reduces dietary diversity, key for spreading risk and enjoyment in one’s diet, making it crucial to seek professional guidance for balanced nutrition.
Breakfast Cereals
Breakfast cereals can vary widely in nutrient content. Some are minimally processed and low in sugar, such as oats, while others are sugary and closely resemble dessert items.
This category features a wide range of products. Some bars are heavily processed, high in salt, sugar, and additives, yet context plays a significant role. Replacing whole foods with these bars may not promote health, but if you’re swapping out less healthy snacks, they can present some benefits. For many, the convenience, shelf-stability, and predictability of these bars can be advantageous, though they’re likely not a nutritious daily staple for most people.
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope captured a stunning new image of the Face-On Barred Spiral Galaxy NGC 3507.
This Hubble image illustrates the NGC 3507, a barred spiral galaxy located 46 million light years away in the constellation Leo. Image credits: NASA/ESA/Hubble/D. Thilker.
NGC 3507 is situated approximately 46 million light years from Earth in the Leo constellation.
Also referred to as Hipass J1103+18, Leda 33390, or UGC 6123, this galaxy spans nearly 50,000 light years.
It was discovered on March 14, 1784, by the German-British astronomer William Herschel and is paired with the large spiral galaxy NGC 3501.
A Hubble astronomer explained, “NGC 3507 is classified as a barred spiral because its prominent spiral arms emerge from the edge of the galaxy’s central bar instead of its center.”
“In this image, we focus on NGC 3507, which is alongside its galactic companion NGC 3501, though NGC 3501 lies outside the frame.”
“While the NGC 3507 follows the typical spiral galaxy structure, its companion has a more dynamic appearance as it travels through space.”
“Though both are classified as spiral galaxies, they present themselves differently depending on the observed angle.”
“Features like spiral arms, dusty gas clouds, and vibrant star clusters are vividly displayed for galaxies as distant as NGC 3507 and NGC 3501,” the researchers noted.
“Distant galaxies tend to lack fine details.”
“See if you can identify other distant galaxies in this image; they often appear orange or yellow, showcasing hints of spiral arms with variations from round stars to elongated shapes.”
Along with its distant neighbors, NGC 3507 also features much closer objects, identifiable by four light spikes, which represent a star in the Milky Way, located merely 436 light years from Earth.
A newly identified genus and species of the Eusauropod dinosaur has been discovered from a fossilized partial skeleton, which includes almost complete skulls, located in Ganshu province, China.
Skull of niedu in side view. Image credits: Li et al., doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-03210-5.
The newly recognized dinosaur species existed during the mid-Jurassic period, roughly 165 million years ago.
Named niedu, it is an early representative of the long-necked, exclusively herbivorous dinosaurs known as Eusauropoda.
“Sauropod dinosaurs, which are massive herbivores from the early Jurassic to the late Cretaceous period, have been found across all continents,” stated Dr. Ning Li, a researcher at a Chinese university of Earth Sciences.
“Due to global warming events occurring during the Late Jurassic, Eusauropod has become the sole surviving sauropod lineage.”
“In the middle and late Jurassic, non-neosauropods thrived, including taxa like Schnosaurus, Omeisaurus, and core forms of Mamenchisaurus.
Fossils of niedu were gathered from the base of the Xinhe Formation near Jinchan city in Gansu province, northwestern China.
The specimen comprises five cervical vertebrae and nearly complete mandibles, alongside 29 distinct caudal vertebrae.
The skull of niedu measures approximately 31 cm in length and 12.5 cm in height.
A sauropod dinosaur being chased by two carnivorous dinosaurs. Image credit: Lida Xing.
“Finding a well-preserved skull is uncommon in non-neosauropod eusauropods due to their fragility,” the paleontologist noted.
“The skull of niedu is exceptionally well maintained and nearly complete.”
“However, the left side of the skull shows deformation due to internal compression.”
“Most cranial sutures are clearly visible on niedu,” they added.
According to the researchers, niedu marks the earliest sauropod discovered in Gansu province.
“niedu is significant,” they concluded.
“We also present more information that enhances our understanding of sauropod evolutionary history in northwestern China.”
The paper was published in the journal Scientific Reports on May 23rd.
____
N. Li et al. 2025. A new Eusauropod (dinosaurs, sauropods) from the central Jurassic in China. Sci Rep 15, 17936; doi:10.1038/s41598-025-03210-5
In their recent study, scientist Christopher Hall and his team at the University of Auckland concentrated on neutrophils, a specific type of white blood cell significant for antibacterial defense.
yi du et al. We identified a photoresponsive endometrial timer that regulates time variations in antibacterial activity. Image credit: Summerstock.
The researchers employed zebrafish as a model organism due to its similar genetic composition to humans, and its capability of being raised with a transparent body, facilitating real-time observation of biological processes.
“Previous research has noted heightened immune responses in the morning during the initial stages of active fish,” Dr. Hall explained.
“I believe this reflects an evolutionary adaptation where the host is more vigilant during daylight, thus more prone to encounter bacterial infections.”
Nevertheless, the team aimed to determine how immune responses align with sunlight exposure.
The findings revealed that neutrophils have a circadian clock that activates during the day, boosting their bacterial-killing efficacy.
Most cells in our body maintain a circadian clock to synchronize with external time, thus regulating bodily functions.
Light plays a crucial role in resetting these circadian clocks.
“Given that neutrophils are the first immune cells to respond to inflammatory sites, our results carry significant implications for therapeutic advancements in many inflammatory diseases,” Dr. Hall remarked.
“This discovery opens avenues for developing drugs aimed at neutrophil circadian clocks to enhance our capability to fight infectious diseases.”
Study will be featured in the journal Scientific Immunology.
____
Lucia Yi du et al. 2025. Light-regulated circadian timers optimize the bactericidal function of neutrophils and enhance daytime immunity. Scientific Immunology 10 (107); doi: 10.1126/Sciimmunol.Adn3080
In a study published today in the journal Earth and Planetary Science Letters, paleontologists examined the ratio of two distinct zinc isotopes in the enamel of 19 dental species from early Miocene marine ecosystems, including the Megatooth Sharks Otodus Megalodon and Otodus chubutensis.
Otodus Megalodon became extinct 3.6 million years ago. Image credit: Alex Boersma/PNAS.” width=”580″ height=”421″ srcset=”https://cdn.sci.news/images/2023/06/image_12042-Otodus-megalodon.jpg 580w, https://cdn.sci.news/images/2023/06/image_12042-Otodus-megalodon-300×218.jpg 300w, https://cdn.sci.news/images/2023/06/image_12042-Otodus-megalodon-104×75.jpg 104w” sizes=”(max-width: 580px) 100vw, 580px”/>
Otodus Megalodon became extinct 3.6 million years ago. Image credit: Alex Boersma/PNAS.
Otodus Megalodon was a colossal megatooth shark that inhabited the world’s oceans from 23 to 3.6 million years ago.
It could reach a length of at least 15 meters, making it one of the largest apex marine predators since the Mesozoic Era.
“Otodus Megalodon,” stated Dr. Jeremy McCormack from Goethe University in Frankfurt, “was estimated to require about 100,000 calories per day.”
“Scientists have generally believed that megalodon primarily consumed whales.”
“At least, that’s what it depended on if whales were available for extended periods.”
“However, it seems that Megalodon had a much broader range of prey than previously thought.”
In the recent study, Dr. McCormack and his colleagues investigated the ratio of zinc-64 and zinc-66 isotopes in the dental enamel of 19 fossil species from sediments that are 20.4 to 16 million years old, discovered in the shallow waters of the Burdigalian seaways in what is now southern Germany.
“Zinc is ingested through food, which means the heavier zinc-66 is stored in muscles and organs,” they explained.
“As a result, fish that consume other fish accumulate a high amount of zinc-66. Therefore, those that eat them will have even less.”
“This is why Otodus Megalodon and its relative Otodus chubutensis exhibited the lowest ratios of zinc-66 to zinc-64 at the top of the food chain.”
“Seabreams that fed on mussels, snails, and crustaceans represented the lowest level of our food chain study,” Dr. McCormack noted.
“Following that were smaller shark species, including Requiem sharks, and the ancestors of modern whales, dolphins, and porpoises.”
“Larger sharks, such as sand tiger sharks, occupied higher levels of the food pyramid, with immense sharks like Aralosera coscuspidatus and Otodus sharks containing Megalodon at the top.”
“However, Otodus sharks cannot be distinctly differentiated from lower levels of the pyramid.”
“Megalodons were versatile enough to consume marine mammals and large fish, depending on their availability from both the upper and lower tiers of the food pyramid.”
____
Jeremy McCormack et al. The vegetative ecology of Miocene marine vertebrates reveals the Megatooth Shark as an opportunistic hypercarnivore. Earth and Planetary Science Letters Published online on May 26, 2025. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2025.119392
Slope stripes are prominent dark markings on Martian slopes that naturally form and can fade over decades. Some planetary scientists interpreted these features as evidence of liquid flows, raising the possibility of a currently habitable environment on Mars. However, recent research by Brown and Bern Universities offers alternative explanations, focusing on drying processes associated with wind and dust activities.
This image captures the impact crater in the Sirenum Fossa region of Mars, taken by NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter on March 30, 2015. The crater is about 3,300 feet (1 km) wide, displaying sharp rims and well-preserved features, indicating a relatively recent origin. The steep inner slope is carved into the gully and exhibits a recurring slope system on equator-facing slopes. Image credits: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona/Alfred McEwen.
“A significant focus of contemporary Mars research is understanding active processes on the planet, including the potential presence of liquid water on its surface,” states Dr. Admos Valantinus, a postdoctoral researcher at Brown University.
“In our study, we examined these features but found no evidence of water. Our model supports the idea of a dry formation process.”
The unusual stripes were first identified from images sent back by NASA’s Viking mission in the 1970s.
These stripes typically appear darker than the surrounding terrain, stretching across sloped regions that can extend several hundred meters.
While some stripes endure for years or decades, others appear and disappear more rapidly.
The phenomenon known as recurring slope features (RSLs) tends to manifest in the same locations during Mars’ warmest periods.
The origins of these stripes have fueled much debate among planetary scientists.
Seeking new insights, Dr. Valantinus and his colleague Dr. Valentin Bickel employed machine learning algorithms to catalog as many slope streaks as possible.
After training the algorithm on confirmed sightings of slope streaks, it was used to analyze over 86,000 high-resolution satellite images.
The outcome was the first comprehensive global map of slope streaks on Mars, featuring over 500,000 individual streaks.
“With this global map, we can compare it against a database of various factors such as temperature, wind speed, moisture, and rock slide activity,” said Dr. Bickel.
“This enables us to search for correlations across a vast number of cases to better comprehend the conditions under which these features form.”
This extensive analysis indicated that slope stripes and RSLs are generally not linked to conditions that would suggest the presence of liquid or frost, such as specific gradient directions, significant surface temperature fluctuations, or high humidity levels.
Instead, the authors posited that both features are likely to form in areas with moderate wind speeds and dust deposition, consistent with arid origins.
Researchers concluded that these stripes likely arise when fine layers of dust suddenly slide down steep slopes.
Variability in triggering factors was noted. Slope stripes are observed more frequently near recent impact craters where shock waves can disturb loose surface dust, while RSLs tend to be more prevalent in areas affected by dust devils and rockfalls.
Collectively, these findings raise new questions about the viability of slope stripes and RSLs as indicators of habitable environments.
This research holds significant implications for future Mars exploration efforts.
While a habitable environment may seem like an appealing exploration target, NASA aims to be cautious in this regard.
Earthly microorganisms potentially present on spacecraft could contaminate Mars’ habitable zones, complicating the search for extraterrestrial life.
This study suggests that the risk of contamination at slope streak locations is relatively low.
“This demonstrates the advantage of a big data approach,” noted Dr. Valantinas.
“It helps eliminate certain hypotheses from consideration before launching a spacecraft for exploration.”
The results were published on May 19, 2025, in Nature Communications.
____
VT Bickel & A. Valantinas. 2025. The streaks on the slopes of Mars are dry. Nature Communications 16, 4315; doi:10.1038/s41467-025-59395-w
Venus is one of the four terrestrial planets in our solar system. Geologists suggest that the geological activity on Venus today mirrors that of Earth around 4.5 billion years ago, shortly after Earth’s formation. The Ishtartera Highlands of Venus is a vast region comparable in size to Australia, marked by a rich crust and encircled by a long mountain range that reaches approximately 10 km (or 6 miles) in height, rising about 4 km (or 2.5 miles) above Venus’ surface. These highlands bear a resemblance to the Tibetan Plateau, the planet’s largest plateau, standing roughly 4.5 km (or 3 miles) high and spanning about 2.5 million square kilometers (or 1 million square miles).
While the Tibetan Plateau and the Ishtar Terra Highlands exhibit similar topographical features, researchers suspect that their formation processes differ significantly. Evidence suggests that the Tibetan Plateau emerged from the collision of tectonic plates on Earth, whereas Venus lacks a structured plate system. An examination of the geophysical aspects of the Ishtar Highlands revealed that it is underpinned by buoyant rocks. Scientists theorize that this buoyant rock could be remnants from the magmatic processes that formed the thick crust, though this remains uncertain. Understanding how Venus’ highlands formed is crucial for gaining insights into the evolution and transformation of rocky planets like Earth.
Previous research has primarily concentrated on Venus’ magmatism or structural dynamics to elucidate the development of the highlands, yet no models have effectively integrated these processes. Fabio Capitanio and his colleagues sought to create such a model. Geodynamic model.
To evaluate the large-scale processes responsible for the formation of the Ishtar Highlands, the team employed a geodynamic model that had previously simulated the formation of Earth’s thick crust. This model, known as a 3D Cartesian Model, was modified to cover an area of 3,650 x 3,650 km (or 2,268 x 2,268 miles) and extend 730 km (or 453 miles) deep, approximating the characteristics of the Ishtar Highlands.
The parameters for each model, including density and viscosity, were based on Earth’s conditions but adjusted for Venus’ higher surface temperature, which is around 450°C or 840°F. They executed 34 simulations of the Ishtar Highlands over a billion years, tracking changes in elevation, gravity characteristics, and temperature over time. This modeling successfully replicated the altitude and gravitational features observed in the Ishtar Highlands.
Subsequently, the team analyzed various model outcomes to identify how these features evolved over time. They determined that the most accurate simulations of Venus’ highlands corresponded to the outermost layer of the planet’s structure, known as the lithosphere, which is estimated to be 10 to 50 times thicker than that of Earth. In this model, extremely hot rocks from within the planet rise, resulting in a gradually thinner lithosphere.
The team clarified that as the strong lithosphere of Earth stretches, it can create slight openings, leading to the formation of volcanoes that release small amounts of lava on the surface. In contrast, as Venus’ weaker lithosphere stretches, it can fracture over much larger areas. When the lithosphere breaks apart, the rock that has accumulated pressure melts and rises to the surface, converting into magma.
The researchers proposed that this stretching and melting scenario could account for the formation of the Ishtar Highlands on Venus. Once the magma in this region solidifies, it forms a new, very thick crust. Unlike the current lithosphere, this new crust behaves like putty, making it challenging to move.
The team suggested that this scenario may clarify the presence of buoyant rocks beneath the Ishtar Highlands. The newly formed crust supports deeper rocks within the thickened Venus, resulting in a higher elevation for the crust. Meanwhile, the older lithosphere, having fractured, compresses the surface of Venus and its surrounding rocks. They postulated that the uplift associated with this process could be responsible for the long mountain range found at the periphery of the Ishtar Highlands.
In conclusion, the researchers indicated that the disintegration of the weak lithosphere and the melting of subsurface rock contributed to the formation of Venus’ highlands. Other highlands on Venus might have developed through similar processes. While the modern plateau on Earth formed differently from the Ishtar Highlands, it supports the idea that early Earth, with its hotter and weaker lithospheres, shares similarities with Venus.
Timeless compositions will shine across the cosmos through a performance by the Vienna Symphony Orchestra. The celestial event, titled Heavenly Saying, is set for May 31 and will be broadcasted via free public screenings in Vienna, Madrid, and New York, commemorating the 50th anniversary of the European Space Agency.
ESA staff have noted that music can be transmitted as radio signals in real-time; however, to circumvent potential technical difficulties, a pre-recorded version from the orchestra’s rehearsal will be aired the day before, with the live performance accompanying it.
Radio signals travel at the speed of light, approximately 670 million miles per hour (over 1 billion kilometers per hour).
As a result, the music would reach the Moon in just an hour and a half, Mars in 4.5 minutes, Jupiter in 37 minutes, and Neptune in 4 hours. Within a day, the signal would be over 15 billion miles (24 billion kilometers) away, as far as NASA’s Voyager 1, the most distant human-made object in interstellar space.
In 2008, NASA also commemorated 50 years by sending The Beatles’ “Across the Universe” into Deep Space. Furthermore, last year, they transmitted Missy Elliott’s “The Rain (Supa dupa Fly)” to Venus.
Music is not only traveling through space; NASA’s Mars Rover has made waves back to Earth. In 2012, flight controllers at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California sent a recording of Will.i.am’s “Reach for the Stars,” which was then broadcasted by the Rover.
This interstellar transmission adds to a legacy of melodies shared between NASA mission control and astronauts since the mid-1960s.
Now it is Strauss’ turn, following its earlier inclusion in the Voyager Golden Records almost fifty years ago.
Released in 1977, NASA’s twin Voyager spacecraft each carry gold-plated copper gramophone records, equipped with styluses and instructions for playback.
These records feature earthly sounds and images alongside 90 minutes of music, curated by the late astronomer Carl Sagan and his committee, which included works by Bach, Beethoven, Mozart, and Stravinsky, among contemporary and indigenous artists.
Notably omitted was Johann Strauss II, whose “Blue Danube” famously accompanied Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 sci-fi film “2001: A Space Odyssey.”
The Vienna Tourism Board, located where Strauss was born on October 25, 1825, aims to rectify this “cosmic oversight” by sending the world’s most renowned waltz into the stars.
ESA’s large radio antenna in Spain, part of the agency’s deep space network, honors this initiative. The dish is directed toward Voyager 1, allowing “Blue Danube” to resonate through the cosmos.
“Music connects us across time and space in a unique way,” stated ESA Director Joseph Ashbacher. “The European Space Agency is sharing the spotlight with Johann Strauss II and inspiring future space scientists and explorers who will one day journey to the anthem of the universe.”
Locating one of the ocean’s most charming mollusks requires a diver with exceptionally keen vision. This tiny sea slug, Costa Sierra Crosimae—commonly referred to as a leaf sheep—reaches only a few centimeters in length, approximately the size of a fingernail. Their exquisite camouflage makes them hard to spot.
Their vibrant green bodies blend seamlessly with the seaweed they inhabit, which also happens to be their primary food source. An incredible transformation occurs when they consume it.
Similar to terrestrial plants, seaweed contains small structures called chloroplasts within its cells, which facilitate the process of photosynthesis. These chloroplasts harness sunlight energy to convert carbon dioxide into sugars.
When the leaf sheep feed on seaweed, akin to sheep grazing in a meadow, they can digest the sugars they consume. Alternatively, they can retain the entire chloroplasts without damaging them and incorporate them into their bodies for later use.
The features along the back of the leaf sheep resemble small leaves and are known as cerata. Each ceratum houses an extension of the sea slug’s digestive system, filled with chloroplasts, giving it a textured appearance.
Remarkably, these engulfed chloroplasts continue to photosynthesize, generating additional sugars. Therefore, as long as these sea slugs dwell in shallow tropical waters with abundant sunlight, they have a sustainable food source.
The scientist who first discovered this species in the early 1990s on Japan’s Kuroshima Island named it Black Himae.
Since then, divers have been diligently searching for the specific type of seaweed that these leaf sheep prefer, which is exclusively Avrainvillea green algae. These delightful sea slugs have been located in Indonesia and the Philippines.
Costasiella Nudibranch (Sheep Nudibranch) can be found in the Philippines and Indonesia. – Photo Credit: Getty Images
Like other sea slugs that maintain various seaweed species, leaf sheep lay their eggs in a meticulous helix, allowing them to hatch into larvae that drift through the water. Initially, the young sea slugs possess small shells before eventually discarding them to live shell-free.
The process of adopting chloroplasts from seaweed is known as keratoplasia, which can be observed in many other types of ocean slugs. For example, the green Elysian sea slugs (found along the British and other European coasts, Elysia viridis) utilize Codium seaweed (also known as the dead man’s fingers).
While these slugs lack the leaf-like projections seen in leaf sheep, they possess two wing-like extensions that unfold to maximize sunlight absorption for their self-sustaining food factories.
In this position, these marine slugs resemble drifting leaves. Another species, Elysia marginata, not only captures chloroplasts but also performs astonishing feats. Similar to geckos that shed their tails, these sea slugs can separate their heads from their bodies.
This process takes several hours, and while the detached body can survive for days, it does not regenerate a new head. Meanwhile, the original head roams for a while before growing a new body.
This behavior of severing the head may have evolved as a drastic but effective method for eliminating parasite-infected bodies.
For inquiries, please reach out to us: Question @sciencefocus.com or MessageFacebook,X orInstagramPage (please include your name and location).
Explore our ultimateFun fact and more fascinating science pages
As we age, flexibility tends to decrease. Clinicians utilize tests like “Sit down and stand” to assess older adults’ ability to rise from a chair, helping to identify risks associated with falls and frailty.
There are numerous factors contributing to decreased mobility as we age. Tendons might cause the joints to tighten, impacting the cartilage between them. Additionally, ligaments typically weaken, and muscle tightness around the joints, along with reduced synovial fluid, can exacerbate the situation.
Our muscle mass doesn’t just stay the same; it diminishes with age, particularly the quadriceps in the front of the thighs, which are crucial for standing up from a chair.
The encouraging news is that these changes can be mitigated. Engaging in regular physical activity is believed to slow down the loss of flexibility while also enhancing bone density, heart health, and mental well-being.
Studies reveal that older adults who remain physically active can achieve a broader range of motion compared to their sedentary peers. The NHS guidelines recommend that older individuals engage in strength, balance, and flexibility exercises at least twice weekly, in addition to 150 minutes of moderate-intensity activity weekly (or 75 minutes of vigorous activity if they’re already active).
If you do exercise regularly, don’t forget to incorporate stretching. Yoga can be beneficial if you’re able to practice it, but even simple stretches can enhance flexibility and be performed while watching TV or chatting on the phone! It’s advisable to consult someone trained to demonstrate proper stretching techniques.
Your diet also plays a crucial role. Consuming adequate proteins helps in muscle building, particularly with nutrients like calcium and vitamin D that support bone density.
While aging does lead to less flexibility and makes standing up more challenging, there are proactive steps you can take to counteract these effects!
Read more:
Questioner: Alexandra Wereck, Cambria
To submit your question, please email Questions@sciencefocus.com (remember to include your name and location)
Sure! Here’s the rewritten content while retaining the HTML tags:
Below the western United States lies a significant, untapped source of clean energy. According to the US Geological Survey (USGS), this potential is substantial.
This research is part of a long-term initiative to chart the nation’s geothermal capabilities, particularly focusing on the expansive basin regions that encompass Nevada, Utah, California, Idaho, Oregon, and Wyoming.
USGS projects that these geologically active states hold the potential to generate reliable and consistent geothermal energy of up to 135 gigawatts, provided new technologies can harness this underground resource. To put this in perspective, the typical U.S. household consumes about 1 kilowatt of electricity continuously, meaning that 135 gigawatts can fulfill the stable energy demands of nearly 135 million homes.
“The evaluation of USGS energy resources is geared towards the future,” stated Dr. Sarah Ryker, the acting director of USGS. “We emphasize undiscovered resources that have yet to be fully explored and developed, starting our work in the Great Basin due to its geothermal activity history.”
Currently, geothermal energy comprises less than 1% of the electricity in the U.S., predominantly sourced from conventional hydrothermal systems, where naturally heated water rises through permeable rocks.
Nonetheless, USGS findings suggest a much richer energy reservoir exists. This indicates that heat is trapped in dense, impermeable rock formations buried deep underground.
Geothermal systems generate electricity by circulating and heating liquids – USGS
To access these “enhanced geothermal systems” (EGS), engineers must drill deeper, sometimes reaching depths over 6 km (3.7 miles), fracturing the rock to allow water to circulate and capture heat.
This heated water can then be raised back to the surface to produce electricity, offering a constant, weather-independent energy source.
To estimate the potential energy available, USGS researchers have combined underground temperature maps, heat flow data, and sophisticated techniques for measuring extraction efficiency and energy conversion. They collaborated with the US Department of Energy (DOE), state geological surveys, and academic institutions nationwide.
Dr. Ryker stressed that this research offers a multitude of benefits beyond just energy generation. “Natural resources play a vital role in sustaining the national economy, and historically, we have advanced the technology for mapping and characterizing these resources.”
The large basins of Nevada and surrounding states showcase potential geothermal energy, indicated by colors ranging from green to red – USGS
However, advancing EGS technology presents substantial challenges. Although pilot projects have shown promise within the Great Basin, commercial-scale fortified geothermal plants are not yet operational in the U.S.
One of the primary hurdles is cost, which the U.S. Department of Energy aims to address through the Enhanced Geothermal Shot™, a program targeting a 90% reduction in technological costs by 2035.
The USGS’s efforts are not limited to the Great Basin. The agency plans to shift its focus to the Williston Basin in North Dakota, another region that may hold geothermal potential.
Should these efforts succeed, geothermal energy could emerge as a crucial component of America’s low-carbon future.
Advanced Artificial Intelligence (AI) has simplified the process of creating digital doppelgangers.
For decades, AI tools have been programmed to generate faces. The face was chosen as a primary focus for testing capabilities due to multiple factors.
Firstly, the structure and layout of human faces are relatively consistent, making them ideal for early AI learning. There is also an abundance of facial images available online, providing more data for AI to train on.
Importantly, the choice to focus on facial recognition stemmed from its familiarity. Humans are highly skilled at recognizing and interpreting faces, while assessing the accuracy of AI-generated images of landscapes or buildings can pose challenges.
This is why studies showcasing AI’s ability to create hyper-realistic synthetic faces have continually garnered significant attention.
Consequently, AI has evolved into a facial recognition expert. Today, it can analyze live video footage, precisely identify facial features, and transition seamlessly between different pre-learned faces, including those of celebrities and public figures.
Moreover, users can adjust lighting and create exaggerated facial expressions. The “Deepfake” technology successfully mimics these effects.
Additionally, with a collection of images showing faces from various angles, AI has the capability to generate double the number of faces, enabling overlays on existing images. With such doppelgänger technology, anyone can effectively become you.
Best of all, this technology is freely accessible to anyone who knows how to install and operate it on a standard computer.
While creating a digital doppelgänger may require a certain skill level, it’s not difficult to find user-friendly software. However, these advancements raise significant concerns for privacy and verification.
This article addresses the inquiry (submitted by Julian Fisher via email) “How can I easily create my digital doppelganger?”
Please email us with your questionsat Question @sciencefocus.com or reach out viaFacebook,Twitter or InstagramPage (please include your name and location).
Explore our ultimateFun fact and discover more fascinating science content.
US President Donald Trump (left) announces the Golden Dome Missile Defense Shield, joined by US Secretary of Defense Pete Hegseth (right).
Chris Kleponis/Pool/EPA-EFE/Shutterstock
US President Donald Trump has introduced the Golden Dome defense initiative, designed to intercept threats like polar sounds, ballistic missiles, and advanced cruise missiles.
“Once fully operational, the Golden Dome is engineered to intercept missiles launched from around the globe or even from outer space,” Trump stated during a White House announcement on May 20th. Watch here.
However, many experts express skepticism regarding the feasibility of such a comprehensive interception system. Concerns have been raised that, even if successful, the Golden Dome could require over a decade to implement and exceed $50 trillion in costs, potentially exacerbating global nuclear arms races and space militarization.
What is the Golden Dome?
The project is inspired by Israel’s Iron Dome system, which utilizes ground-based missiles to intercept incoming artillery and rockets launched from shorter ranges. In contrast, the Golden Dome aims to safeguard a significantly larger area, with the landmass of the contiguous US being over 350 times that of Israel.
According to Trump and his team, the system should be capable of targeting ballistic missiles fired from distant locations, advanced cruise missiles operating at lower altitudes, and hypersonic missiles traveling at speeds exceeding five times the speed of sound. These could possess nuclear or conventional warheads.
To detect and neutralize threats, the Golden Dome is expected to employ a mix of “space-based sensors alongside air and missile defenses,” as noted by U.S. Secretary of Defense Pete Hegseth in a statement. Essentially, the Golden Dome would represent an umbrella system integrating multiple technologies to combat various threats, as explained by David Berbach in an article with New Scientist.
Nevertheless, many of these defense capabilities are still in development or do not currently exist. For instance, the proposal mentions space-based interceptors in low Earth orbit, which remains a technological hurdle yet to be overcome. Thomas Gonzalez Roberts from Georgia Tech pointed this out.
A similar concept known as Star Wars was initially suggested by President Ronald Reagan as part of his strategic defense initiatives during the Cold War. Trump characterized the Golden Dome as an endeavor to complete “the mission President Reagan initiated 40 years ago.”
How does the Golden Dome function?
Experts in missile defense have likened the challenge of intercepting long-range nuclear missiles to “shooting bullets at bullets,” given that “the targets are minuscule, emit minimal signals, and move rapidly.” Even the most optimistic technical specialists acknowledge that achieving a 100% interception rate is unlikely.
The U.S. already possesses an array of ground-based interceptor missiles located predominantly in Alaska, capable of countering “dozens of oncoming warheads at best,” according to Burbach. He also highlighted that both Russia and China are working on countermeasures to complicate missile detection and interception.
“Interception of subsonic cruise or short-range ballistic missiles launched from just outside the U.S. borders employs established technology, yet effectively implementing those defenses across the nation can be cost-prohibitive,” said Burbach. He further emphasized the difficulty of the Golden Dome’s goal to thwart a significant volume of intercontinental missiles, particularly from China and Russia.
Trump’s vow to shield the Golden Dome against missile strikes from distant points, even from space, “requires a densely packed constellation of space-based missile interceptors in low-Earth orbit that could engage missiles within moments of their launch,” indicated Roberts.
“The number of satellites necessary far exceeds the current constellations launched,” he noted. Presently, the largest constellations consist of about 7,000 Starlink satellites managed by SpaceX.
What is the estimated cost of the Golden Dome?
Trump has suggested a budget of $175 billion for the Golden Dome, though this funding remains unapproved by Congress. The Congressional Budget Office, a nonpartisan agency, has estimated that space-based interceptor systems akin to the Golden Dome may cost upwards of $542 billion.
“It’s uncertain what expenses are incorporated in the $175 billion figure,” noted Patrycja Bazylczyk of the Center for Strategic and International Studies in Washington, DC.
Trump also asserted that the Golden Dome would be “fully operational” by the conclusion of his second term, a claim that experts find dubious. “The three-year timetable is overly ambitious. Realistically, this initiative will take at least a decade or more,” Bazylczyk added.
The timelines could significantly depend on existing military system capabilities. “Notable advancements could arise in the short term, including the deployment of new interceptors, radar systems, space-based sensors, and technology demonstrations,” Bazylczyk mentioned.
Ultimately, considerable challenges exist regarding the rapid deployment of thousands of satellites required for the Golden Dome. Additionally, developing the necessary space-based interceptor technology remains a daunting task.
“Finding a launch schedule capable of supporting a massive satellite constellation emerging in just three years is extremely challenging,” Roberts pointed out. “SpaceX has launched more than any other entity in the history of space operations, raising the question of how to surpass that threshold even more.”
Burbach added, “It seems unlikely that the system will achieve a complete defense against missile attacks. We might attain some limited operational capabilities, but accomplishing this quickly is fraught with difficulties.”
Will the Golden Dome enhance U.S. security?
Currently, an arms race is underway among the U.S., China, and Russia, with each nation enhancing its space-based capabilities to modernize and grow their nuclear arsenals and military strength.
Should the Golden Dome effectively bolster U.S. air and missile defenses, it might lessen adversaries’ confidence in their missile capabilities, possibly altering strategic calculations and discouraging them from launching attacks, according to Bazylczyk.
In contrast, the Golden Dome could potentially “contribute to instability” by signaling distrust towards nuclear adversaries, indicated Roberts. China’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs responded to Trump’s announcement, arguing that the Golden Dome carries a “strongly offensive implication” and could spur an arms race in space. Likewise, a Kremlin spokesperson suggested that the Golden Dome might restart discussions on nuclear arms control between Russia and the U.S.
In response to the system, both China and Russia “may attempt to destroy or disrupt U.S. satellites,” posited Burbach. Both nations have already developed missiles capable of targeting satellites, and they have demonstrated the capacity to jam or hack into satellite systems. In February 2024, U.S. intelligence agencies alerted that they intended to develop space weapons capable of using nuclear detonations to incapacitate or obliterate satellites.
Moreover, these countries could increase their missile arsenals and create more versatile weapons equipped with decoys, Burbach noted. He pointed out that Russia is already advancing technologies like underwater intercontinental nuclear torpedoes designed to evade space-based interception.
Currently, only two species of sloths exist, but in the past, numerous species roamed the Earth, including one with a nose resembling a bottle and another akin to the ancestors of modern armadillos. Most of these extinct sloths were too massive to inhabit trees. The largest of them all – a member of the genus Megatherium – reached the size of an Asian bull elephant, weighing around 3.63 tons (8,000 pounds).
The ancient sloths inhabited a variety of environments – trees, mountains, deserts, northern forests, and open savannas – leading to wide differences in size among sloth species. Image credit: Diego Barletta.
“They resembled Grizzly Bears but were five times larger,” noted Dr. Rachel Nalducci, collection manager for vertebrate paleontology at the Florida Museum of Natural History.
In a recent study, Dr. Nalducci and her team examined ancient DNA and compared over 400 fossils from 17 museums to explore how and why extinct sloths achieved such sizes.
The size difference ranges significantly between the massive Megatherium and the more modestly sized Shasta Sloth, which thrived on cacti in the arid regions of North America.
Conversely, the sloths adapted for tree climbing were uniformly small, averaging around 6 kg (14 lbs), with ground-dwelling sloths like them averaging about 79 kg (174 lbs).
Ground sloths had a strong affinity for caves, where their size played a crucial role in finding and creating shelters.
The moderately sized Shasta Sloths ventured into the depths of geological lungs formed by wind and water, creating magnificent canyons.
The larger sloths were not limited to pre-existing caves; using their sizeable claws, the largest known mammalian claws (whether extinct or extant), they could carve out their shelters from bare earth and rock. Evidence of their nests can still be found today, with claw marks adorning the cave walls.
Other factors influencing size variations likely include climate, interspecies interactions, and metabolic rates.
To accurately analyze these factors, a substantial amount of diverse data was required.
The authors integrated fossil shape data with DNA from both living organisms and extinct species to construct sloth lineages dating back over 35 million years.
With this foundation established, they incorporated findings from decades of research about the habitats sloths occupied, their diets, and their behavioral patterns.
Paleontologists maintain a keen interest in the evolution of size, collecting extensive data from numerous museum fossils for their analyses.
Sloth size differences are significantly shaped by the habitats they inhabited, which were also influenced by climate change.
“This research, employing evolutionary models across various scenarios and accounting for all these factors, is a considerable undertaking unlike anything previously attempted,” remarked Dr. Nalducci.
The sloth lineage witnessed dramatic life-altering changes as Earth’s climate evolved.
The earliest recognized sloth, Pseudoglyptodon, inhabited Argentina around 37 million years ago.
Analysis from the research team suggests that early sloths were likely small, ground-dwelling creatures, about the size of a Great Dane.
Throughout evolution, sloths occasionally adopted semiarboreal lifestyles.
However, not all sloths remained tree dwellers; the largest species, including Megatherium and Mylodon, likely evolved from tree-adapted ancestors but ultimately thrived on the ground.
Amidst this mixture of arboreal and terrestrial creatures, sloth size remained relatively stable for about 20 million years, regardless of their activity preferences until a significant geological event occurred.
A great rift opened between present-day Washington and Idaho, extending through parts of Oregon and Nevada, releasing magma.
This process left a staggering 600,000 cubic miles of volcanic material in the Pacific Northwest, still observable today along the Columbia River, where flowing water has sculpted basalt into distinct columns.
These formations exhibit a unique hexagonal shape, resulting from the magma’s cooling and cracking processes.
The volcanic activity that formed these structures occurred over a slow burn spanning approximately 750,000 years, aligning with a period of global warming known as the mid-Miocene climate optimum.
Greenhouse gases released by these volcanic eruptions are presently thought to be a primary factor in that period of warming.
As a response, sloths began shrinking in size, possibly due to warmer temperatures leading to increased rainfall, which expanded forest habitats, offering more room for smaller species.
Size reduction is a common adaptive strategy among animals coping with heat stress, as recorded in various fossil records.
After volcanic activity ceased, the world remained warm for nearly a million years before returning to a longstanding cooling trend that persists today. Sloths also adapted, growing bulkier as temperatures decreased.
Arboreal and semiarboreal sloths were inherently limited by their need for tree proximity, but ground-dwelling sloths roamed freely in diverse terrains.
They trekked up the Andean mountains, traversed open savannas, migrated through deciduous forests in North America, and built homes in Canada and Alaska’s boreal forests.
There were even sloths adapted to marine environments. Thalassocnus thrived on dry land between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean, sourcing food from the ocean to survive in such harsh conditions.
“They developed adaptations analogous to those of the Manatee,” Dr. Nalducci explained.
“Their dense ribs aided buoyancy, and elongated noses facilitated foraging for sea grass.”
These varied environments posed unique challenges that ground sloths creatively navigated.
“Such adaptations would have conserved energy and water, enabling more efficient movement through resource-limited habitats,” Dr. Nalducci remarked.
“In open grasslands, protection is crucial, and increased size offers some degree of safety.”
“Some ground sloths also had sparse bone structures embedded in their skin, akin to pebbles.”
Moreover, larger body sizes played a vital role in helping sloths endure the cooling climate.
They reached their peak size during the Pleistocene Ice Age, just before their eventual disappearance.
“Around 15,000 years ago is when notable population declines began,” Dr. Nalducci observed.
While debates continue regarding the reasons for sloth extinction, it coincided with human arrival in North America around the same time, leading to significant declines in sloth populations.
Ironically, the very size that provided protection from typical predators and insulated them from cold climates also contributed to their downfall.
Fast but well-defended, ground sloths proved difficult prey for early humans.
Tree-dwelling sloths observed the devastation unfold below from the safety of their heights, yet they too faced losses.
Two Caribbean sloth species managed to survive until about 4,500 years ago, after their terrestrial relatives had vanished elsewhere.
Humans reached the Caribbean around the same time the Egyptians were constructing pyramids, resulting in the quick extinction of Caribbean sloths.
“Paleoclimate changes cannot solely account for the rapid extinction of ground sloths beginning around 15,000 years ago,” the researchers asserted.
“Their sudden disappearance indicates human-driven factors were likely at play in the decline and extinction of sloths on Earth.”
Study published in the May 22nd, 2025 edition of the journal Science.
____
Alberto Boscani et al. 2025. The appearance and end of giant sloths. Science 388 (6749): 864-868; doi: 10.1126/science.adu0704
This article is based on a press release from the Florida Museum of Natural History.
On May 20, 2025, Donald Trump unveiled the Golden Dome, marking one of the most ambitious and contentious defense projects in US history.
The $175 billion initiative that Trump aims to implement before his term ends in January 2029 seeks to establish a comprehensive missile defense system designed to guard the United States against nuclear threats, including intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and advanced weaponry.
Inspired by Israel’s Iron Dome, the proposal envisions a global network of both terrestrial and space-based detectors and interceptors, enabling the destruction of enemy missiles in the atmosphere before they reach US soil.
While the administration has yet to clarify the operational details, critics argue that the concept is not only impractical but could also foster dangerous instability.
A New Era for Space
“The Golden Dome is reminiscent of a rebranded Strategic Defense Initiative,” says Dr. Michael Mulbihill, a researcher at Teesside University specializing in the geopolitical and technical ramifications of space weaponization. BBC Science Focus. “There are numerous political dynamics at play.”
The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), proposed by President Ronald Reagan in the 1980s, aimed to create a US missile defense system using lasers, satellites, and other space-based technologies to intercept incoming Soviet missiles. Eventually, the project was abandoned due to concerns over its technical feasibility and astronomical costs.
Critics warn that the Golden Dome could revive similar flawed thinking, leading to severe ramifications for space security.
Although space has historically supported military operations through satellites for tracking, communication, and navigation, it hasn’t typically been viewed as a battlefield. In fact, the Outer Space Treaty explicitly prohibits the use of outer space for hostile purposes.
However, the Golden Dome might change that paradigm.
“This initiative could serve as a catalyst for the weaponization of space, prompting the development of various systems that have emerged in recent years,” warns Mulvihill.
The concern isn’t solely about US weapons in orbit; it extends to potential responses from other nations, such as Russia, raising the specter of an extensive orbital arms race.
Fueling an Arms Race
Critics like Mulvihill underscore that space-based missile shields could ultimately backfire, making the world less safe. The logic is straightforward: if one side creates a defense system capable of intercepting missiles, the opposing side is likely to retaliate by increasing its missile arsenal to overwhelm those defenses.
“This has been a consistent issue with anti-ballistic missile systems,” Mulvihill points out. “They can be overloaded, as seen in the 1960s and ’70s when both the US and USSR significantly increased their warhead counts.”
All defense systems come with inherent limitations. The Cold War taught us that the goal is often to amass enough warheads to ensure that at least some can reach their targets.
According to Mulbihill, the Golden Dome poses a risk of repeating this cycle on an even larger scale.
read more:
Low Earth Orbit: A Crowded Space
Implementing the Golden Dome would require thousands of new satellites. This space component could involve Starlink-like megaconstellations equipped with interceptor missiles to target ICBMs during the initial launch phase.
That isn’t just ambitious—it’s hazardous.
A 2024 study published in Nature’s Sustainability estimated that there could be over 100,000 low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellites by 2034. According to NASA, there are already more than 25,000 objects greater than 10cm in size, along with approximately 500,000 smaller fragments.
Even in the absence of weapons, navigation in space is becoming increasingly challenging. The addition of thousands of military satellites could dramatically heighten the risk of collisions and debris.
“If one of these interceptors malfunctions or detonates, it doesn’t just result in the loss of a single satellite; it can render entire orbits unusable for years,” warns Mulvihill.
He provides a stark analogy: “In naval warfare, when a ship sinks, the battlefield is abandoned. In space, the debris remains, circling the Earth at incredibly high speeds.”
A rocket launched from Gaza is intercepted on October 9, 2023, by the Israeli Iron Dome near Ashkelon, Israel.
Is the Golden Dome Feasible?
In addition to the geopolitical and environmental concerns, the Golden Dome faces fundamental operational challenges that could hinder its effectiveness.
While it may be capable of intercepting slower threats such as drones and short-range missiles, the difficulties presented by ICBMs are significantly greater.
“Interdicting an ICBM during its boost phase is extraordinarily challenging,” says Mulvihill. “Those missiles are launched from locations that could include central China or central Russia.”
To achieve global coverage within such a limited window, a tremendous number of space-based interceptors would be necessary.
According to a February 2025 Report from the American Physical Society (APS), over 1,000 orbital weapons would be essential to intercept even North Korean ICBMs during their boost phase. For 10 missiles launched in quick succession, around 10,000 interceptors would be required.
The costs entailed would be astronomical, and vulnerability to anti-satellite attacks from countries like Russia adds another layer of complexity. Reports suggest that such developments pose severe risks.
The APS report concludes with cautionary insight: “Even relatively modest numbers of nuclear-armed ICBMs present substantial challenges for creating reliable and effective defenses.”
“An extensive review of published literature highlights that many key challenges identified in developing and deploying efficient ballistic missile defenses are likely to remain unresolved beyond the 15-year timeframe we studied.”
Not Just Another Iron Dome
While the Golden Dome draws its name and inspiration from Israel’s Iron Dome, the comparison is misleading.
“People tend to focus on the success of the Israeli Iron Dome, but we must remember that it’s designed to protect against much lower-altitude projectiles and even some handheld rockets,” asserts Mulvihill. “ICBMs operate in an entirely different arena.”
Despite the ambitious plans for the Golden Dome, Mulvihill remains doubtful about its viability as a serious defense mechanism.
“It seems more like a spectacle fueled by political motives and opportunism from the aerospace industry,” he concludes.
About Our Experts
Michael Mulbihill is a researcher at Teesside University focused on sociotechnical and astrophysical phenomena stemming from nuclear deterrence and space technology. He also serves as the deputy convener for the Military War and Security Research Group and is a member of the Space Cooperative Working Group of the British Association for International Studies.
Traskasaura Sandrae, a 12 m long Erasmosaurus (a type of plesiosaurus) that inhabited the Cretaceous Sea 85 million years ago, showcases an unusual combination of primitive and advanced traits, setting it apart from other Erasmosaurus. This distinctive set of adaptations enabled the marine reptile to hunt its prey from above.
Traskasaura Sandrae. Image credit: O’Keefe et al., doi: 10.1080/14772019.2025.2489938.
The first Traskasaura fossil was unearthed in 1988 within late Cretaceous strata in the Haslam Formation on Vancouver Island, Canada.
Since then, additional fossils have been excavated from the same layers, including isolated right humeri, as well as components of the chest, guard bones, limbs, and a preserved juvenile skeleton.
Initially described in 2002, the fossil gained recent prominence when it was adopted as the official crest fossil of British Columbia.
“Fossils of Prisiosaurus have been recognized in British Columbia for decades,” states Professor F. Robin O’Keefe from Marshall University.
“Nevertheless, despite its designation as a fossil in 2023, the identity of the organisms that produced it has remained enigmatic.”
“Our recent research published today will finally clarify this enigma.”
“I comprehend the scientific uncertainty surrounding this taxa.”
“It exhibits an odd mix of primitive and advanced features. Notably, the shoulders are unlike any other plesiosaur I’ve encountered, and I’ve seen quite a few.”
With the naming of Traskasaura Sandrae, the Pacific Northwest can finally claim a distinct Mesozoic reptile.”
“Thus, this area, known for its rich contemporary marine biodiversity, was once home to a variety of extraordinary marine reptiles from the dinosaur age.”
In the original description of the fossil in 2002, experts were hesitant to classify a new genus based solely on the discovered adult Erasmosaurus skeleton.
The skeletal remains presented a relatively limited number of discernible traits.
However, the newly discovered, well-preserved partial skeleton allowed the research team to illuminate much about the Erasmosaurus morphology found in the Pantledge River, ultimately categorizing it as a new genus and species.
Traskasaura Sandrae possessed a notably lengthy neck, with at least 36 well-preserved cervical vertebrae, comprising at least 50 bones in total.
“And there is no significant knowledge yet; Traskasaura Sandrae boasts an impressive array of autodynamic bones that exhibit its strong ability to swim downward,” remarked Professor O’Keefe.
“This peculiar blend of features is linked to its hunting techniques. It utilizes this capability for descending swimming to ambush its prey from above.”
“The prey included abundant ammonites known from the region.”
Survey results will be published in Journal of Systematic Palaeontology.
____
F. Robin O’Keefe et al. 2025. Taxonomy of a remarkable new Erasmosaurus from the Santonian of Vancouver Island: British Columbia’s official province fossil name. Journal of Systematic Palaeontology 23 (1); doi:10.1080/14772019.2025.2489938
On Friday, President Donald Trump enacted four executive orders designed to ease and broaden regulations surrounding nuclear production.
The orders focus on overhauling the Department of Energy’s nuclear energy research, facilitating the construction of reactors on federally owned land, reforming the Nuclear Regulation Authority, and accelerating U.S. uranium mining and enrichment efforts.
Alongside Trump, CEOs from various nuclear energy firms—such as Joseph Dominguez of Constellation Energy, Jacob DeWitt of Oklo, and Scott Nolan of General Substances—joined President Pete Hegses and Secretary of Interior Doug Burgham during the signing of the orders.
President Donald Trump displays an executive order he signed on May 23, 2025, in the Oval Office at the White House. Get McNamee/Getty Images
Before the signing, Burgham remarked that this initiative “reverses over 50 years of excessive regulation on the industry,” and he added that “each of these will address another challenge that has hindered progress.”
Trump referred to the nuclear energy sector as “dynamic,” asserting to reporters, “It’s a dynamic industry. It’s a tremendous industry. It needs to be handled correctly.”
A senior administrator briefing reporters prior to the signing indicated that one executive order aimed at permitting nuclear reactors on federal land is designed to meet rising electricity demands linked to AI technology. They emphasized that “safe and reliable nuclear energy will provide power to vital defense installations and AI data centers.”
The executive order also seeks to expedite the review and regulatory processes for nuclear reactor construction and operation. The fourth order stipulates that the Nuclear Regulation Authority must make licensing decisions for new reactors within an 18-month timeframe, according to officials.
This new timeline aims to “reduce regulatory obstacles and shorten licensing periods” for nuclear reactors.
Dominguez commended the president’s initiative to streamline the nuclear regulation framework, noting, “Historically, regulatory delays have plagued our industry.”
“We often spend too long seeking approval and addressing irrelevant questions instead of the crucial ones,” he added.
Nuclear energy is viewed as a means to transition away from fossil fuels and lower greenhouse gas emissions since it generates electricity without the combustion of coal, oil, or natural gas.
Despite the tripling of solar and wind energy production in the U.S. over the last decade, there remain concerns that current energy sources will struggle to meet soaring energy demands.
Just before the president signed the executive order in his elliptical office, Heggs informed reporters, “We are integrating artificial intelligence across the board. If not, we cannot keep pace. We cannot afford to fall behind. Nuclear energy is essential to powering this.”
Recent reports have projected a 25% increase in U.S. electricity demand by 2030 (compared to 2023), with a staggering 78% rise by 2050, largely due to the surge in AI technology.
Even with the regulatory framework advancing, it may take years to complete the construction and enhancement of nuclear infrastructure. Furthermore, nuclear energy involves significant risks when compared to other green energy alternatives, requiring long-term plans for managing and disposing of hazardous waste, and risks related to potential core meltdowns or terrorist attacks that could release radioactive materials into the environment.
Additionally, Trump signed a fifth executive order on Friday aimed at “restoring trusted scientific rigor as the cornerstone of federal research,” according to officials.
Michael Krazios, head of the White House Office of Science and Technology, informed reporters that this executive order “ensures continued American strength and global leadership in the fields of science and technology.”
Panda Keeper assesses health of giant panda Xi May’s turnips at Wolong Nature Reserve
Ami Vitale
These photographs from the Earth Photo 2025 competition convey a vivid, thrilling, and surprising narrative about our planet’s climate and biodiversity.
In photographer Ami Vitale’s image Pandamonium, we see a giant panda keeper examining the health of panda cubs in Ulong National Nature Reserve, Sichuan Province, China. The keeper’s attire is designed to minimize human impact on these bears. Following this, there’s another captivating shot by Sue Flood titled Craveter sticker, captured on a glacial ice floe in the waters south of the Antarctic Peninsula. Such images can unveil the area’s grandeur to those unable to visit.
Crabeater Seals in the Southern Ocean near the Antarctic Peninsula
Sue Flood
From Paradise, La Palma – The photo below depicts the aftermath of the 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption on this Spanish Canary island. A resident is seen redoing their garden, clearing away lava that destroyed mature palm trees and replacing them with new plants.
La Palma, Canary Islands. Two Years Post-Cumbre Vieja Eruption
Jonathan Browning
The concluding image below features Vincenzo Montefinese’s Lost Oasis, taken in Tinzouline, Draa Valley, Morocco. Here, an individual is seen adjusting solar panels that operate the water pump for irrigating nearby palm trees. Due to climate change and water scarcity, the valley’s oases have diminished by two-thirds over the past century, prompting farmers to illegally dig wells to access groundwater.
Tinzouline, Draa Valley, Morocco
Vincenzo Montefinese
The featured images were curated by New Scientist photo editor Tim Bodhis and David Stock, the director of editorial videos. The winners will be announced on June 16th, and the Earth Photo 2025 exhibition will take place at the Royal Geographical Society in London from June 17 to August 20, followed by a tour across the UK.
Rangers safely transport Tasmanian devils during flooding at Aussie Ark Sanctuary
Aussie Ark
Conservation personnel are racing to safeguard a crucial population of Australian wildlife following unprecedented rainfall in New South Wales that resulted in the loss of four lives.
The Australian Ark Sanctuary in Barrington Tops, New South Wales spans 400 hectares, providing a secure environment for Tasmanian Devils (Sarcophilus harrisii), brush-tailed rock wallabies (Petrogale penicillata), Eastern quolls (Dasyurus viverrinus), long-nosed potoroos (Potorous tridactylus), and broad-toothed rats (Mastacomys fuscus). These animals are protected from natural predators like cats and foxes. The sanctuary acts as an insurance policy for these species in the event that wild populations face extinction.
Since 2010, around 500 Tasmanian devil joeys have been born at the facility, with approximately 50 being reintroduced into specially designated wild areas. Over the coming years, it is anticipated that more of these animals will be released back into their natural habitat to help restore the Tasmanian devil populations on the Australian mainland.
This week, a severe low-pressure weather system hit parts of New South Wales, resulting in a record storm. In a matter of days, the sanctuary received over 400 millimeters of rain. Despite its elevation of 1,200 meters on a mountain, the park experienced flash floods that compromised fencing meant to protect against wildlife and posed risks to the animals housed in small enclosures.
Tim Faulkner from Aussie Ark reported that many animals in breeding enclosures had to be relocated to emergency centers equipped with veterinary clinics. However, a major challenge remains as about one kilometer of the sanctuary’s 10-kilometer perimeter fence has been damaged, with some sections completely washed away by the floods.
“We have approximately one kilometer of fencing affected, with corner posts compromised and sections washed out, resulting in damaged strainer wires,” Faulkner explained. “The electric hot wire is completely down, so you can’t rely on it. Test your defenses.”
Flood-damaged fence at Aussie Ark Sanctuary
Aussie Ark
Despite the damaged fencing, Faulkner’s team is on constant watch to monitor the affected sections. To date, no native species are believed to have escaped, and no wildlife has been found within the sanctuary itself.
“There’s an influx of water, squeezing, pressure, and flooding through every tiny crack on the mountain. I dread to think about the wildlife impacted by these immense floods outside our sanctuary,” Faulkner expressed.
Known as Verve-102, this treatment could revolutionize heart attack prevention and significantly lower LDL cholesterol levels (often referred to as “bad” cholesterol) with a single injection.
While statins can achieve similar cholesterol reductions, they typically require daily administration.
“This is the future,” stated Professor Riyaz Patel, an academic from the University of London and a doctor at Barts Health NHS Trust involved in the trial – BBC Science Focus.
“This is not a fantasy; it’s reality. We are actively implementing it. I was providing this treatment to my patient during the exam.”
Unlike statins, which gradually lower cholesterol, Verve-102 aims for a one-time alteration by “turning off” a specific gene called PCSK9 in the liver. This gene is crucial in managing the levels of LDL cholesterol that the liver can detect and eliminate from the bloodstream.
In simpler terms, a reduction in PCSK9 means less LDL in the bloodstream.
“The results are stunning,” Patel remarked. “This drug disables a small segment of your DNA, and your LDL cholesterol will be permanently 50% lower thereafter. That’s a game-changer!”
Cholesterol builds up in blood vessel walls, leading to plaque formation that can obstruct blood flow.
Elevated LDL cholesterol levels heighten the risk of this buildup, prompting millions (over 40 million in the US and over 7 million in the UK) to take daily medications like statins for cholesterol management.
The VERVE-102 clinical trial included 14 participants with familial hypercholesterolemia, a genetic disorder that heightens the risk of heart disease, heart attacks, and strokes due to extremely high LDL cholesterol levels.
Initial outcomes from Verve-102 injections show that all participants reacted positively to the treatment with no severe side effects.
Responses varied by dosage. The lowest dose group experienced an average LDL reduction of 21%, while the intermediate group showed a 41% reduction, and the high-dose group saw a 53% reduction.
Remarkably, one individual in the high-dose group achieved a 69% reduction in LDL cholesterol after receiving Verve-102.
Dr. Eugene Braunwald, a distinguished medical professor and Hershey’s professor of medicine at Harvard Medical School who did not take part in the study, noted that the preliminary data is “promising” and indicates “the potential for a new era in cardiovascular disease treatment.”
Verve is actively recruiting participants for further stages of clinical trials involving even higher Verve-102 doses in the UK, Canada, Israel, Australia, and New Zealand. The final results are expected to be revealed in the latter half of 2025.
Read more:
About our experts
Professor Riyaz Patel is a consultant cardiologist and clinical academic scholar at University College London (UCL) and Barts Health NHS Trust. He is a fully funded clinician scientist with the British Heart Foundation and serves as a professor of cardiology at UCL, where he investigates the causes of heart disease, focusing on cardiovascular risks and the genetics of coronary heart disease. He has established and led new cardiovascular prevention services at Barts Heart Center.
Stroke, dementia, and subsequent depression. These are significant issues that become more prevalent as we age—often overlooked, yet surprisingly frequent in our older population.
Moreover, the abundance of information available today makes it challenging to determine effective preventative measures. Are these conditions purely genetic? Do they stem from our environment? Or can we actually enact changes that make a difference?
Recent research published in the Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry offers encouraging insights and a clear starting point.
Led by Dr. Sanjurasin from the Brain Care Lab at Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, the study systematically reviewed data on modifiable lifestyle factors linked to the three critical brain conditions.
The team discovered 17 interconnected risk factors associated with stroke, dementia, and subsequent depression—all of which are within an individual’s capacity to change.
“These are actionable steps that everyone can incorporate into their lives,” Shin explained in an interview with BBC Science Focus. “For example, dietary choices, physical activity, or adhering to blood pressure medications prescribed by a doctor—all factors influenced by socioeconomic conditions that may not be easily altered.”
Instead, the emphasis is placed on daily habits that can be reshaped, such as diet, sleep, exercise, social connections, and mental engagement.
17 Modifiable Risk Factors for Brain Health
This study outlines 17 overlapping factors impacting the risks of stroke, dementia, and consequent depression, which encompass both protective and risk-enhancing behaviors. They can be categorized based on quality and context, such as dietary choices and social engagement.
Here’s the complete list:
Protective Factors:
Low or very low alcohol consumption
Regular engagement in cognitive activities like reading, puzzles, and acquiring new skills
A nutrient-rich diet comprising vegetables, fruits, dairy, fish, and nuts
Moderate to high levels of physical activity
A strong sense of community
Extensive social networks or substantial social involvement
Risk-Increasing Factors:
Hypertension
Elevated Body Mass Index (BMI)
Hyperglycemia
High cholesterol levels
Hearing impairment
Kidney disease or renal dysfunction
Chronic pain affecting daily activities
Symptoms of depression
Diet high in lean meats, sugary beverages, sweets, and sodium
Sleep disorders or prolonged sleeping periods
History of smoking
Feelings of loneliness or social isolation
Chronic stress or stressful life events
Each factor was associated with at least one of the three conditions explored in the study, and often with two or three. While certain factors, like kidney dysfunction and hearing loss, may not intuitively seem linked to brain health, their impacts can be significant.
Noteworthy Findings
To pinpoint the most influential risk factors, Singh’s team reviewed 182 meta-analyses from the last two decades and selected the 59 most reliable. They calculated the impact of each factor using disability-adjusted life years (DALYS), which measures the burden of conditions, and assigned normalized scores.
One risk factor rose to prominence: hypertension.
“People often associate blood pressure with heart health,” Singh noted. “However, our review highlights it as the most critical factor for brain health. It’s essential to monitor your blood pressure and understand your numbers. If elevated, consult your doctor and adhere to prescribed treatment.”
Hypertension is known to harm small blood vessels in the brain and contribute to the development of all three conditions. However, it’s not the sole important factor.
The study also underscores that kidney dysfunction, hyperglycemia, depressive symptoms, poor sleep, obesity, smoking, and chronic stress negatively affect brain health. These risk factors tend to compound one another.
Blood pressure is the most significant modifiable risk factor for stroke, dementia, and subsequent depression. – Getty
Healthy Choice Menu
The encouraging news is that these factors are interconnected. Addressing one area can often lead to improvements in others.
However, this doesn’t mean that an all-at-once overhaul is necessary. Singh cautions against attempting to tackle everything simultaneously. “Our aim is to suggest gradual changes; bombarding someone with all 17 factors can be overwhelming. We encourage individuals to select what resonates with them and work on that—other improvements will often follow.”
Indeed, motivation presents a significant challenge. “Behavioral science indicates that maintaining lasting changes is difficult.” Other obstacles, like time constraints and financial means, can also impede habit formation.
A potent strategy is to involve others. Whether walking with friends, cooking healthy meals with a partner, enrolling in classes, or engaging in activities that blend lifestyle changes with social connections, you’re more likely to stay committed.
“We strongly advocate for collaborative exercise,” Singh emphasizes.
Read more:
When to Start
Some risk factors are more critical at specific life stages. For instance, hypertension during middle age seems particularly detrimental to long-term brain health. Nonetheless, it’s never too late to make changes.
And what if you’re starting later in life? Don’t wait.
“You’re never ‘too old.’ Addressing modifiable risk factors is beneficial at any age. Whether you’re 20 or 80, everyone can take steps, however small, to better brain health.”
Notes on Limitations
This study presents a robust framework for prevention, but it does not demonstrate causality. It relies on observational studies, which can indicate associations but do not establish direct cause-effect relationships.
As Dr. Anya Topiwara, a consultant psychiatrist at Oxford University who did not participate in the study, remarked in an email to BBC Science Focus: “It’s important to recognize that this paper examines associations rather than experimental findings. Hence, due to various biases, one cannot directly infer causation between risk factors and disease.”
For example, while alcohol consumption may appear protective in moderate quantities, it can mislead. “Individuals with higher socioeconomic status or education levels tend to drink moderately. These individuals are typically healthier and less likely to face dementia diagnosis and perform better on memory assessments.”
In essence, some correlations may stem from other underlying variables, like education, income, and healthcare access.
A Message of Hope
Despite the limitations, the overall outlook is optimistic. Singh emphasizes that the findings aim to empower rather than overwhelm. “This is a hopeful paper. There are numerous controllable factors that can lower your illness risk.”
“Based on estimates, up to 45% of all dementia cases could potentially be prevented by managing modifiable risk factors, alongside 80% of strokes and 35% of later-life depression. There’s a lot you can do to maintain a healthy and happy brain.”
So whether it’s taking a walk, learning something new, monitoring your blood pressure, or cooking a meal with a friend, the core message is simple: start where you can. Your efforts may yield more benefits than you realize.
About Our Experts
Sanjurashin is a physician scientist and Oxford-trained epidemiologist, whose expertise merges clinical medicine, epidemiology, behavioral science, and global health innovation. She became a professor at Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School by the age of 28. Singh founded Singh Lab within Brain Care Labs, where she and her team are innovating scalable, evidence-based interventions aimed at preventing stroke, dementia, and subsequent depression.
Anyatopiwarra earned her medical qualification at Oxford University and subsequently specialized in elderly psychiatry. In 2017, she completed her DPhil in Psychiatry centered on an MRC-funded study, “Predicting MRI abnormalities using longitudinal data from the Whitehall II study.” In 2019, Topiwala received the Wellcome Trust Clinical Research Career Development Fellowship to investigate how physical mechanisms related to alcohol consumption impact brain health.
In the early days of scientific exploration, researchers observed natural phenomena and began to unravel the mysteries behind how lightning forms.
These brief yet incredibly bright bursts of radiation, referred to as Terrestrial Gamma Ray Flashes (TGF), were identified by a research team at Osaka University in Japan during a lightning event.
Interestingly, TGFs are typically observed in space, associated with supernovae and black hole jets. This raises the question: how does lightning produce the energy required to generate them?
Recent papers published in the journal Advances in Science potentially provide answers. While scientists previously believed that TGFs were caused by the rapid acceleration of electrons, testing this theory has proven challenging. The radiation often occurs in the final microsecond and is concealed by cloud cover.
This is why researchers involved in the new study employed innovative techniques to observe thunderstorms, utilizing a multi-sensor system that includes optical, radio frequency, and high-energy radiation sensors.
“The multi-sensor observations conducted here are unprecedented,” stated Dr. Harufumi Tsuchiya, the senior author of the paper. “While some mysteries persist, this approach has significantly deepened our understanding of these intriguing radiation burst mechanisms.”
So, what did they find? Collectively, the sensors unveiled two channels of charged particles known as the discharge pathway—one descending from the thundercloud to the TV tower, and the other ascending from the tower.
The scientists observed the formation of TGFs occurring 31 microseconds before the two pathways converged, resulting in a highly concentrated electric field where electrons accelerated at nearly the speed of light.
Once the two pathways merged, the burst continued for an additional 20 microseconds, yielding a lightning strike of -56 kiloamperes. (Don’t let the negative sign confuse you—it merely indicates the direction from cloud to ground. This current is exceptionally high, typical of lightning.)
Wada Yutaka, the lead author of the study, remarked, “The opportunity to examine extreme processes such as TGFs stemming from lightning enhances our understanding of the high-energy dynamics present in Earth’s atmosphere.”
According to a recent study, out of 186 countries, only Guyana is capable of producing sufficient food for itself without relying on foreign imports.
This study, published in Natural Food, assessed how effectively countries can supply their populations with seven food groups: fruits, vegetables, dairy products, fish, meat, plant-based proteins, and starchy staples.
Globally, the research revealed that 65% of countries produce meat and dairy in alignment with their population’s dietary needs.
It also determined that Guyana, situated in South America, stands as the sole country achieving complete self-sufficiency, while China and Vietnam can sufficiently produce food across six out of the seven food groups.
However, only one in seven individuals in the surveyed countries was deemed self-sufficient in five or more categories.
Surrounded by lush greenery, Guyana was identified as the only nation in this study that produces enough food to nourish its people across all seven food groups. – Credit: Jonas Stehl, Nature Food 2025, doi: 10.1038/S43016-025-01173-4 Data published
Meanwhile, there is a global deficiency of nutrient-dense plants, as fewer than half of the countries involved in the study produce adequate plant-based proteins, such as beans, chickpeas, lentils, nuts, and seeds, as well as sufficient starchy carbohydrates and vegetables.
Europe and South America tended to be closer to achieving self-sufficiency compared to other regions. In contrast, small island nations, countries in the Arabian Peninsula, and low-income nations were more likely to depend on food imports.
Six nations—Afghanistan, the United Arab Emirates, Iraq, Macau, Qatar, and Yemen—produced inadequate food groups to be categorized as self-sufficient.
“Low self-sufficiency is not inherently negative,” stated Dr. Jonas Stehl, a researcher from Göttingen and the first author of the study, in an interview with BBC Science Focus. “There are effective and often advantageous reasons why a country may not meet all its food production needs.”
For instance, a country may lack sufficient rainfall, quality soil, or stable temperatures necessary for growing adequate food for its population.
Stehl added that importing food from suitable regions can also be cost-effective.
“However, low levels of self-sufficiency can compromise a country’s ability to respond to sudden global food supply shocks, such as droughts, conflicts, and export bans,” he noted.
A team from the University of Göttingen in Germany and the University of Edinburgh in the UK conducted the study, evaluating the food output of various countries.
The researchers compared this data to the nutritional needs of each nation’s citizens, referencing the World Wildlife Fund’s Livewell Diet.
The Livewell Diet recommends “a flexible eating pattern that emphasizes plant-based protein sources, consumes vegetables, legumes, whole grains, and limits foods high in fat, salt, and sugar.”
The Covid-19 pandemic and the onset of the Russia-Ukraine conflict have sparked discussions about the merits of self-sufficiency, as these global crises have disrupted consistent food supplies to importing countries.
Stehl concluded that “the increased attention on national food self-sufficiency may signal broader political changes.”
Read more:
About Our Experts
Dr. Jonas Stehl is a doctoral researcher at the University of Göttingen in Germany, focusing on the food system and its implications for sustainability, nutrition, and health from a global viewpoint. He is part of an interdisciplinary research training group named Sustainable Food Systems. Stehl’s research interests include development, health, the environment, group economy, nutrition, and food security.
This website uses cookies so that we can provide you with the best user experience possible. Cookie information is stored in your browser and performs functions such as recognising you when you return to our website and helping our team to understand which sections of the website you find most interesting and useful.
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Strictly Necessary Cookie should be enabled at all times so that we can save your preferences for cookie settings.
