Utilizing data gathered by NSF’s Gemini South Telescope and NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope, astronomers have identified methane signatures (CH4), water (H2O), and silane (SiH4) in the cold brown dwarf gas WISEA J153429.75-104303.3 (shortened to W1534). Silanes are predicted to act as significant reservoirs of silicon, the element responsible for the large clouds of gas that surround giant worlds, but their presence had remained undetected until now, masked by the development of deep silicate clouds in the observable atmosphere.
This artist’s illustration depicts a brown dwarf with an atmosphere filled with gas and dust clouds. Image credits: Noirlab/NSF/Aura/R. Proctor.
The W1534, referred to as the accident, is situated approximately 50 light years from Earth in the Libra constellation.
This brown dwarf was likely formed between 100 and 120 billion years ago and ranks among the oldest brown dwarfs discovered to date.
First identified in 2020 by citizen scientists participating in the Backyard Worlds: Planet 9 Citizen Science Project, its unusual light profile captivated astronomers.
Using two of the world’s most advanced terrestrial and space-based telescopes, astronomers examined its atmosphere to analyze its properties and composition.
The survey commenced with NSF’s Noirlab Astronomer Sandy Leggett capturing near-infrared images of W1534 with a Gemini South telescope in Chile, part of the International Gemini Observatory.
This initial work laid the groundwork for further explorations using Webb, guided by Noirlab Astronomer Aaron Meisner.
“W1534 is quite faint, and Gemini South is the only ground-based telescope capable of detecting it,” Dr. Meisner stated.
“The Gemini discovery paved the way for Webb’s observations by revealing the deeper atmospheric layers of this mysterious object and enabling us to determine the exposure time necessary to gather useful near-infrared data on its composition.”
Within W1534’s atmosphere, the team uncovered the crucial signature of silane, a compound formed from silicon and four hydrogen atoms.
Planetary scientists have long theorized the existence of this molecule within gas giants, attributing potential significance to its role in cloud formation within the atmosphere.
Despite extensive searches, its atmospheric presence has remained elusive in our solar system’s gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn, although thousands of studies on brown dwarfs and gas giants orbiting other stars have occurred.
This marks the first discovery of silanes in any brown dwarf, exoplanet, or solar system object.
The absence of this molecule in all but one singular brown dwarf suggests intriguing insights into the chemistry occurring in such an ancient environment.
“Often, it is these extreme objects that help us understand the average,” remarked Dr. Jackie Faherty, a researcher at the American Museum of Natural History.
The presence of silanes in W1534’s atmosphere implies that in very ancient objects, silicon is capable of bonding with hydrogen to form lighter molecules that can ascend to the upper layers of a gas giant’s atmosphere.
In contrast, more recently formed objects, such as Jupiter and Saturn, result in silicon bonding with readily available oxygen, producing heavier molecules that settle deeper into the atmospheric layers.
The evidence gleaned from W1534’s atmosphere further validates astronomers’ comprehension of gas giant cloud formation and sheds light on how primitive conditions influence atmospheric composition.
Moreover, it indicates that worlds formed billions of years ago display characteristics distinctly different from those formed during the early solar system.
“The formation and detection of silanes highlight an essential relationship among composition, cloud formation, and atmospheric mingling in cold brown dwarfs and planetary atmospheres,” the authors concluded.
Engraved face from the Amiens-Renancourt 1 site in France
Stephen Lancelot/In-Rap
Ancient miniature statues, dating back 27,000 years in northern France, may offer insights into how hunter-gatherers styled their hair.
Discovered in 2021 at the Amien Lannancoeur 1 site, located about 140 kilometers north of Paris, the findings have only recently been reported by researchers.
The statues feature long hair styled in a braided grid pattern, indicative of hair nets and intricate hairstyles. This contrasts with figures from Central and Eastern Europe, where hairstyles tend to be shorter and cover the head more extensively, according to Olivier Touse from the University of Liege, Belgium, who was not part of the research team.
The distinct hairstyles seen in these statuettes may represent local fashion trends. “This could highlight cultural specifics that are rarely expressed outside of these unique human portrayals,” states team member Clement Paris from the National Institute of Preventive Archaeology in France.
Radiocarbon dating of the Amiens-Renancourt 1 rock formations indicates that the figurine is approximately 27,000 years old, belonging to the Greybettian era, which spanned from 33,000 to 26,000 years ago across Europe. Following this period, the population of hunter-gatherers left northwest Europe for nearly 10,000 years due to the extreme cold and arid conditions of the last glacial maximum, explains Touzé.
“The elaborate hairstyles and decorative elements underscore the care put into crafting this statue,” remarks Gregory Abrams from the University of Ghent, Belgium, who was not involved in the study.
The excavation site also revealed various scrap fragments and over a dozen additional figurines, including Venus statuettes representing women. “This indicates active production of figurines at the site,” notes Touse.
Nevertheless, the significance of the statue remains elusive. “Prehistoric beliefs and myths leave scant evidence,” points out Paris. “Even when such statues are found, their meanings are often enigmatic.”
Neanderthals, ancient humans, cave art: France
Join new scientist Kate Douglas on a captivating journey through time as she uncovers the prominent Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites of southern France, spanning from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Engraved face from the French Amien Lannancourt 1 site
Stephen Lancelot/In-Rap
Miniature sculptures estimated to be 27,000 years old from northern France may offer insights into how ancient hunter-gatherers styled their hair.
The figurine was unearthed in 2021 from a site known as Amien Lannancoeur 1, located roughly 140 kilometers north of Paris, and has recently been analyzed by researchers.
Notably, the long hair appears to be braided in a grid pattern, possibly representing hair nets or distinct hairstyles. This contrasts with figures found in Central and Eastern Europe, where hairdos are typically short and cover the majority of the head, according to Olivier Touse from the University of Liège, Belgium, who did not participate in the study.
The statuette’s distinctive hairstyles may indicate the period and local fashion trends. “This might represent a cultural uniqueness that would not have been highlighted without these scarce human representations,” states team member Clement Paris from the National Institute of Preventive Archaeology in France.
Radiocarbon dating of the rock layers at Amiens-Renancourt 1 indicates that the sculpted figure dates back to approximately 27,000 years ago and belongs to the Greybettian period, which spanned from 33,000 to 26,000 years ago across Europe. Following this era, the hunter-gatherer population vacated Northwest Europe for nearly 10,000 years due to the severe cold and arid conditions of the last Ice Age’s peak, notes Touzé.
“The intricate decoration and well-defined hairstyles underline the attention devoted to the craftsmanship of this statue,” remarks Gregory Abrams at the University of Ghent, Belgium, who was not involved in the study.
Other excavations at the site have uncovered several small fragments and over a dozen additional figurines, including Venus figurines that depict women. “This site has historical significance regarding sculptural production,” states Touse.
Yet, questions linger about what these figurines reveal about their creators. “Prehistoric thoughts and myths leave minimal evidence,” comments Paris. “And even when these statues provide insight, their significance remains obscure.”
In a recent study, researchers examined the ancient microbial DNA of 483 mammoths, preserved for over a million years. This included 440 newly analyzed unpublished samples from Steppe Mammoths dating back 1.1 million years. Through metagenome screening, contaminant filtering, damage pattern analysis, and phylogenetic inference, they identified 310 microorganisms linked to various mammoth tissues.
Ginet et al. Partial genome reconstruction of erysipelothrix, representing the oldest confirmed host-related microbial DNA from the oldest mammoth samples. Image credit: Ginet et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.08.003.
“Envision a mammoth tooth from a million years ago,” stated Dr. Benjamin Ginette, a postdoctoral researcher at Stockholm’s Paleogenetic Centre and the Swedish Museum of Natural History.
“Imagine if it still harbors traces of ancient microorganisms that existed alongside this mammoth?”
“Our findings push the boundaries of microbial DNA research beyond a million years, unlocking new avenues for understanding how host-associated microorganisms evolved in tandem with their hosts.”
The team discovered six microbial groups consistently linked to mammoth hosts, including relatives of Actinobacillus, Pasturella, Streptococcus, and erysipelothrix. Some of these microbes may have been pathogenic.
For instance, one Pasturella bacteria identified in this study is closely related to the pathogens responsible for a fatal outbreak among African elephants.
Given that African and Asian elephants are the closest living relatives of mammoths, these results raise concerns about whether mammoths could also be susceptible to similar infectious diseases.
Remarkably, scientists have reconstructed a partial genome of erysipelothrix from a Steppe Mammoth that lived 1.1 million years ago, marking the oldest known host-related microbial DNA ever recovered.
This advances our understanding of the interactions between ancient hosts and their microbiota.
“As microorganisms evolved rapidly, acquiring reliable DNA data spanning over a million years has felt like tracing a path that continually rewrites itself,” noted Dr. Tom van der Bark of the Paleobiological Centre and the Museum of Natural History in Sweden.
“Our discoveries illustrate that ancient artifacts can retain biological insights far beyond the host genome, offering a perspective on how microorganisms influenced Pleistocene ecosystem adaptation, disease, and extinction.”
Determining the exact impact of the identified microorganisms on mammoth health is challenging due to DNA degradation and limited comparative data, but this study provides an unparalleled view into the microbiota of extinct megafaunas.
The findings suggest that multiple microbial lines coexisted with mammoths for hundreds of thousands of years, spanning vast geographical areas and evolutionary timescales, from the extinction of woolly mammoths on Lengel Island over a million years ago to their decline around 4,000 years ago.
“This research opens a new chapter in understanding the biology of extinct species,” says Professor Love Darren, a researcher at the Swedish Museum of Natural History and the Paleogenetic Centre at Stockholm University.
“Not only can researchers study the mammoth genome itself, but they can also begin to explore the microbial communities that cohabited with it.”
This study was published this week in the journal Cell.
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Benjamin Ginet et al. Ancient host-related microorganisms recovered from mammoths. Cell published online on September 2, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.08.003
Following the Cretaceous Mass Extinction, ancient penguin relatives rapidly diversified
Mark P. Witton/Science Photo Library
Four newly discovered fossil species in New Zealand demonstrate the significant diversity of early penguins, characterized by their long, dagger-like beaks for catching prey.
The latest findings provide “an unexpected insight into the early evolution of penguins,” states Gerald Mayle at the Senckenberg Research Institute in Germany.
The fossils were unearthed from the Waipara Greensand Formation in Canterbury, New Zealand, a region recognized for flourishing after the mass extinction that eradicated non-avian dinosaurs, preserving some of the early avian species that diversified.
“A notable aspect of ancient New Zealand is the lack of terrestrial predators, which enabled early penguins to lose their ability to fly,” explains Mayle. This absence of predators might also clarify why certain early penguins reached sizes as large as humans, he remarks.
In total, Mayr and colleagues detailed four new species, showcasing a remarkable variety of shapes and sizes. Many fossils reveal previously unknown skeletal characteristics; one specimen boasted an exceptionally long back toe, along with an incredibly intact skull and beak.
“Fossils with beaks that provide insight into avian diets are exceedingly rare among penguins from earlier epochs [23 million years ago],” says Tatsuro Ando, who was not part of the study at the Japanese Paleontology Museum.
Present-day penguins feature varied beak shapes tailored to their specific prey, which can include krill and small fish, as well as invertebrates like squid, Ando explains. While these beaks can be short, thick, or curved, they do not compare to those seen in early penguins.
“It appears that ancient penguins utilized their long beaks to grasp their prey,” says Mayle. After impaling the fish, they likely surfaced to toss it into the air and catch it, he adds.
Over a span of approximately 20 million years, penguins evolved to lose their elongated, slender beaks. This change was likely an adaptation to prolonged underwater periods. As they transitioned to a more aquatic lifestyle, their feeding strategies and beak structures also evolved.
The newfound fossils underscore the significance of New Zealand as a “cradle of penguin evolution,” remarked Mayle, indicating that the earliest penguins diversified and spread globally to regions including New Zealand, Antarctica, South Africa, and South America.
The latest study presents paleoenvironmental models indicating how tidal dynamics played a crucial role in the early evolution of Sumerian agriculture and sociopolitical intricacies.
Cylinder seal impression from the Uruk era circa 3100 BC. Image credit: Louvre Museum.
The earliest known network of city-states, intricately linked by common cultural practices and economic ties, emerged in southern Mesopotamia approximately 5,000 years ago.
The prosperity of this urban center, collectively referred to as Schmer, was fundamentally based on agriculture, supported by extensive irrigation systems.
The urbanization of Schmah, following the long-standing rural Ubaid culture, was part of a process that began at least prior to the millennium during the Uruk period (6,000-5,200 years ago).
The concurrent rise in population, innovation, and professional specialization during this time led to the formation of a state system with a complex economy, interlinking urban centers with their rural surroundings.
This “Sumerian takeoff” could not have happened in the challenging, arid tropical region between the Arabian and Iranian deserts without access to the perennial freshwater provided by the Euphrates and Tigris rivers.
However, questions remain about how, and when, labor-intensive large-scale irrigation became prevalent in the area, and how the abundance of water transformed into social prosperity.
“Our findings indicate that Sumer was literally built upon the rhythm of water, culturally,” states Dr. Lviv Giosan, a researcher at Woods Hole Marine Facilities.
“The cyclical tidal patterns and the morphodynamics of deltas—how landscapes evolve over time due to dynamic processes—were intricately woven into Sumerian mythology, innovation, and daily life.”
This research reveals that between 7,000 to 5,000 years ago, the Persian Gulf was expanding inland, with tides pushing freshwater into the lower Tigris and Euphrates twice daily.
Scholars propose that early communities harnessed this reliable hydrology through short canals to irrigate crops and cultivate dates, allowing for high-yield farming without the need for vast infrastructure.
As the river created a delta at the bay’s head, tidal access to the interior was obstructed.
The subsequent loss of tidal influence may have sparked ecological and economic crises, necessitating a significant social response.
The extensive efforts for irrigation and flood management that followed ultimately characterized Schmer’s golden age.
Dr. Reed Goodman, a researcher at Clemson University, remarked:
“The Mesopotamian delta was distinct. Its constantly shifting land spurred some of the earliest intensive agriculture in history and led to ambitious social experiments, driven by that restless land.”
In addition to environmental factors, this study also investigates the cultural impact of this aquatic foundation, linking Mesopotamia to the Sumerian pantheon’s flood myth.
“The key conclusions of this research highlight what we discovered in Ragash,” notes Dr. Holly Pittman, director of the Ragash Archaeology Project at the Penn Museum.
“Rapid environmental changes fueled inequality, political integration, and the ideology of the world’s first urban societies.”
Leveraging ancient environmental and landscape data, new samples from historic Ragash archaeological sites, and detailed satellite imagery, the authors reconstructed what Sumerian coasts may have looked like long ago and envisioned how its inhabitants adapted to their ever-changing environment.
“Our work underscores both the opportunities and risks associated with social transformation in response to significant environmental crises,” Dr. Giosan added.
“It is always fascinating to uncover genuine history hidden within mythology, and interdisciplinary research like ours plays a crucial role in revealing it.”
oThe most captivating trend in game design is NE’s approach of utilizing familiar mechanics and genres to delve into real power systems and challenge them. Future deck-building games are set to engage players interested in political activism. No compensation is guaranteed. Additionally, these games aim to educate players about Southeast Asian politics. Mythmatch, while appearing as a puzzle game rooted in ancient Greece, also offers a charming and accessible take on community-building and challenging capitalism.
You embody Artemis, the goddess of hunting, who must navigate the ingrained sexism of Mount Olympus, all while confronting a company encroached upon by the High Tech Brothers. In a rebellious spirit, she chooses to assist the people of Ithaca in constructing a new, more progressive world. You achieve this by traversing a compact environment and merging items with animals to forge new creatures and tools for aid. For instance, if you land on Earth, an accidental mishap could crush a tank belonging to the moon goddess Serene, prompting you to combine moon fragments to reconstruct the celestial vehicle. However, one shard may fall into a greenhouse, requiring you to solve a puzzle for access.
Ithaca…mythmatch. Photo: Team Artichoke
The game combines storytelling adventures, social simulation elements, and match-3 puzzles. “Ultimately, we’ve drawn more from automation games like Factorio, but here, automation happens through connections with NPCs rather than machinery construction,” explains Moo Yu, founder and creative director of Artichoke. “At Mount Olympus, we find inspiration in various arcade-style games, from money puzzle exchangers to Overcooked, and even Super Autopet.”
Featuring a diverse cast of characters and engaging scripts, the game emphasizes the importance of building friendships and creating supportive communities. “The theme of belonging really resonated with me,” Yu shares. “Having struggled with friendship and finding my community, I realized there weren’t many games addressing rejection and the quest for family, so I started with a concept that explored shifting goals and the perpetual rejection by the gods of Olympus.”
Team Artichoke, a small studio comprised of 10 staff members, most of whom are part-time, is led by Yu, a veteran previously with Media Molecule and Mind Candy, who co-developed bikes with Hit Adventure Knights. When asked about the key influences behind Mythmatch, he mentions three films: Kung Fu Panda, Amelie, and particularly Legally Blonde, the Reese Witherspoon comedy that, while visually styled as a rom-com, cleverly critiques the legal profession. “We aimed to build a caricature world that provides breathing space to tackle more serious topics,” he explains. “[On the surface, it’s cute, but there’s a gritty layer throughout.] So while the game may not literally resemble a Legally Blonde world, I aimed to encapsulate the atmosphere created by a vibrant color palette, ensuring there’s also a layer of complexity.”
Hence, Mythmatch employs a core gameplay loop found in casual genres like match-3 and merge games, but with a fundamental message around power and belonging. Yu views this blend as vital to the indie gaming landscape in 2025. “We aspire to develop a small game that melds fresh narratives and mechanics, showcasing how creative storytelling can thrive even with limited resources,” he states. “I hope funding constraints become less significant, yet I remain inspired by what creators can achieve with what they have at their disposal.”
Cow teeth dating back 5,000 years could provide new insights into the construction of Stonehenge.
Utilizing advanced isotopic analysis, researchers examined the jawbone, which was first discovered at the southern entrance of Stonehenge in 1924, a location of significant ritual importance.
The findings indicate that the cow spent its early years on terrain that existed more than 400 million years ago, beneath the massive stones.
“This is the first evidence linking the timing of the cow’s life to the movement of the bluestones, which are connected to both Wales and Stonehenge,” said Professor Jane Evans, the study’s lead author, in an interview with BBC Science Focus. “The insights from a single tooth tell a larger narrative than I had anticipated.”
The bluestones of Stonehenge are smaller standing stones that contrast with the larger Sarsen stones, which were transported over 200 km (125 miles) from the Preseli Hills in southwest Wales.
The journey of these stones remains one of archaeology’s great mysteries. Were they carried on sleds, floated down rivers, or perhaps moved with the assistance of animals?
Researchers sliced the teeth into nine layers, each capturing a chemical signal reflecting a brief period in the cow’s life.
Oxygen and carbon isotopes revealed a dietary transition over roughly six months, from stored winter feed to summer grazing. Strontium analysis indicated that the cow’s diet came from diverse geological sources, implying that either the cow moved to the food or vice versa.
However, the lead isotopes presented a more unexpected finding. Their makeup suggested the geological settings of Wales, while unusual spikes indicated that lead stored in the skeleton was released during pregnancy.
This lead would have been incorporated into the skeleton earlier in the cow’s life. In essence, while its life concluded at Stonehenge, it likely began in Wales, mirroring the journey of the stones.
Subsequent tests confirmed that the animal was female, and she may have been pregnant or nursing when the tooth section formed.
Together, these findings enhance our understanding of the logistics involved in transporting the massive stones of Stonehenge, weighing approximately 4.5 tons (5 tons) over several hundred kilometers.
Rather than just a group of men carrying stones, the existence of cows—potentially pregnant and possibly providing milk—suggests a larger community engaged in their transport.
“We may theorize that the cow could have been used to pull loads,” Evans noted. While this specific animal might not have moved stones, it indicates that Neolithic people potentially utilized “beast of burden” techniques in the region.
“This study offers important new perspectives on the life history of this remarkable cow, which was interred at a vital site at Stonehenge’s entrance,” said Richard McGwick, a co-author of the research and professor of archaeological sciences at Cardiff University.
“It reveals unprecedented details about the animal’s distant origins and its arduous journey. Although grand narratives dominate studies of significant archaeological sites, this focused biographical approach to a single animal introduces a fresh dimension to the story of Stonehenge.”
Evans mentioned that further investigations could be conducted on other animal remains found in and around the monument.
For now, this cow’s teeth provide compelling evidence that the journey of Stonehenge’s stones may have involved both animals and humans.
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About our experts
Jane Evans is an honorary researcher and emeritus professor for the UK Geological Survey at the University of Leicester and the University of Nottingham. She is an isotopic geochemist specializing in isotopic system origins and their applications to archaeological dietary problems.
Archaeologists have performed the inaugural systematic, interdisciplinary examination of the structure, methods, and contents of 51 “Phoenician Oil Bottles” discovered on Motia Island, located off the western coast of Sicily, Italy. Their findings imply that these bottles were likely produced and filled in aromatic Phoenicia during the 8th to 6th centuries BCE and distributed throughout the Western Mediterranean.
A selection of ‘Phoenician Oil Bottles’ (750/740-550/530 BC) from Motia, Italy. Image credit: A. Orsingher.
The Phoenicians utilized aromatic substances in diverse manners. Often burned alongside ceramic, metal, or stone supports, these substances enhanced both indoor and outdoor environments, indicating the performance of various ritual practices.
Commonly depicted in Phoenician iconography are stereotypical images of smoke rising from fragrant burners before sacred figures and symbols.
Moreover, the ornamental or floral designs of the incense indicate a clear connection between scent and the function of the vessel.
Among the Phoenician ceramics linked to fragrant substances, a category of small, simple vessels known as “Phoenician oil bottles” is particularly noteworthy.
While not part of standard production, these jugs, dating from the 8th to 6th centuries BCE, typically feature narrow openings with thick, outwardly-rolled rims, a short, bulging neck that tapers, a single vertical handle, and spherical to oval bodies with either rounded or pointed bases.
Excluding notably large examples from the Teatrocomico of Cadiz, Phoenician oil bottles usually have a height of 11.5-14 cm with a maximum diameter of 8.5-10 cm until the mid-8th century BCE.
After this period, the height decreased to around 9.5 cm, the body shrank to approximately 6.5 cm, and handle sizes diminished, making them difficult to grasp.
These simple, slow-fired jugs have been unearthed from various settings across the Atlantic and Mediterranean regions, including graves, households, sanctified areas, pottery workshops, and shipwrecks, indicating their widespread use.
The small island in western Sicily, Italy, currently produces the highest quantity of these vessels.
“Their extensive distribution throughout the Mediterranean implies that these containers served multiple purposes,” states Dr. Adriano Orsinger, a researcher at CompCances University in Madrid and the Institute of Biblical Archaeology.
In a recent study, Dr. Orsingher and his team analyzed ceramic compositions to trace the origins of the “Phoenician oil bottles.”
Subsequent evaluations of organic residues within the vessels provided insights into their original contents and purposes.
The findings indicate that these bottles were produced in southern Phoenicia, specifically between present-day Beirut and the Carmel region.
Organic residues were found in eight of the 51 vessels, showing traces of plant-based lipids and pine and mastic resins, strong indicators of light oil formulations.
“Our research confirms that these ceramic vessels were employed to transport aromatic oils,” asserts Dr. Sylvia Amikorn, a researcher at the University of Tübingen.
“These oils were not mere commodities. They acted as cultural connectors and embodiments of identity during the Phoenician migration in the Mediterranean,” Dr. Orsingher remarked.
“By carrying familiar scents, they served as tools for memory, enhancing shared practices and olfactory experiences among dispersed communities.”
The Iron Age Mediterranean was characterized by intense mobility, trade, and cultural interconnections.
Phoenicians, celebrated as seafarers, traders, artisans, and settlers, played a pivotal role in this connectivity, establishing communities far from their Levantine homelands.
Central to Phoenician cultural practices was the production and utilization of aromatic substances, for both local consumption and export.
This study urges a reevaluation of historical transitions, trade, and cultural attributions experienced in the ancient world.
“Ancient mobility should be reconsidered not only as the movement of people and goods but as a cycle of sensory, olfactory, and memory traditions,” Dr. Orsingher emphasized.
“The significance of fragrance is intertwined with identity, making its role in migration, reconciliation, and cultural exchange often underestimated, yet crucial.”
“Our findings highlight the potential of interdisciplinary science to uncover the intangible aspects of antiquity,” Dr. Amikorn remarked.
“Investigating the contents and uses of these vessels offers a unique perspective on how scents connected life, landscapes, and identity in the ancient Mediterranean,” Dr. Ouger added.
“Innovative research methodologies continue to yield unexpected insights into the past,” proclaimed Carla Paulman, a professor at the University of Tübingen.
“This study demonstrates that even elusive evidence like ancient scents can be accessed through interdisciplinary approaches, opening new avenues into the ancient sensory and cultural realm.”
Survey results were published in Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory.
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A. Orsingher et al. 2025. Home scent: Motia’s Phoenician oil bottle. J Archaeol Method Theory 32, 59; doi:10.1007/s10816-025-09719-3
A collaborative team of paleontologists from New Zealand and Australia has identified a new, extinct species of Shelduck from Holocene fossil bone deposits located in the Likov Chatham Islands.
The artistic reconstruction of rēkohu Shelduck (Tadnarekov) highlights the dark feathers typical of island-dwelling birds. Image credit: Sasha Votyakova/Te Papa.
The rēkohushelduck (Tadnarekov) is a newly described species that inhabited the Chatham Islands, a remote archipelago situated 785 km east of the New Zealand mainland.
“The archipelago comprises Chatham Island, Rangihautepit, Mangere, Tapua, and various smaller islands,” explained the researchers.
“These islands were completely submerged during the late Miocene and early Pliocene epochs.”
“Subsequent geological activities resulted in their re-emergence roughly three million years ago.”
According to the research team, the ancestors of the Rēkohu Shelduck reached the Chatham Islands around 390,000 years ago, during the late Pleistocene.
“While this may seem like a brief period, it’s long enough to influence species development,” Dr. Lawrence noted.
“At that time, the Rēkohu Shelduck exhibited shorter, more robust wings and longer leg bones, adaptations that impacted flight capability.”
“These evolutionary changes resulted from various factors, such as ample food availability, a lack of ground predators, and windy conditions, making flight less necessary.”
“If you don’t use them, you lose them; wings start to diminish,” remarked Dr. Pascare Lube from University of Otago.
“Flying is energy-efficient, so if it’s not essential, why expend the effort?”
“More robust leg bones support increased muscle mass and strength for takeoff, which is crucial when wings are small.”
The researchers utilized ancient DNA analysis and bone morphology to characterize the rēkohushelduck, a cousin of the Paradise Shelduck (Tadorna variegata) native to New Zealand.
Rēkohu Shelduck spent a majority of its time on the ground and became extinct prior to the 19th century.
“The discovery of rēkohushelduck bones in early Moriori Midden deposits indicates that hunting likely contributed to its extinction prior to European contact and the subsequent Māori settlements in the 19th century,” the scientists reported.
Their study was published in the July 2025 issue of The Linnaean Society’s Journal of Zoology.
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Nicholas J. Lawrence et al. 2025. Ancient DNA and morphometrics reveal a new species of Shelduck, an extinct island inhabitant from the Rēkohu Chatham Islands. The Linnaean Society’s Journal of Zoology 204 (3): ZLAF069; doi: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaf069
A dramatic reconstruction of early modern Homo sapiens in Africa
BBC/BBC Studios
human Available on BBC iPlayer (UK); US PBS (September 17)
Based on my observations, science documentaries often fall into two categories, akin to French and Italian cuisines. (Hear me out before you judge that comparison.) The first category employs intricate techniques for a deep experience. The second is more straightforward, allowing the content to shine naturally.
Both documentary styles can yield impressive results in their own ways. human, a five-part BBC series exploring the roots of our genus, Homo, undoubtedly fits into the latter category. It weaves together compelling stories, stunning visuals, and the charismatic presence of paleontologist Ella Al Shamahi, inviting viewers to embark on a heartfelt journey through six million years of our human history. No flashy add-ons are necessary.
The first episode delves into complex inquiries. When exactly did our species emerge? Multiple perspectives yield varying answers. Was it 300,000 years ago when humans began to exhibit features resembling ours? Was it when our skulls, according to Al Shamahi, transformed to become softer and more spherical? Or, more poetically, when we developed remarkable traits like intricate language, abstract thought, and cooperative behavior?
“
The series intertwines fascinating narratives, stunning visuals, and the captivating presence of Ella Al Shamahi. “
It’s an engaging episode, particularly when the narrative shifts to other extinct human species. For instance, Al Shamahi’s exploration of Indonesia introduces us to Homo floresiensis, a meter-tall human uniquely adapted to life on Flores. The discovery of these “hobbits” in the Liang Bua Caves two decades ago reshaped our understanding of ancient human biology. Their small brains provide insights into tool use, with their long arms and short stature diverging from other human species.
Episode three highlights the fate of our most famous relative, the Neanderthals. As we spread into Europe and Asia, they adapted to colder climates but ultimately faced extinction.
Throughout the series, Al Shamahi showcases amazing paleontological discoveries made over recent decades (many of which you may have read about in New Scientist). For instance, rainbow feathers from birds like the red kite have garnered interest regarding their significance to Neanderthals. Meanwhile, the perikymata—a growth line in tooth enamel—affirms that H. sapiens experienced extended childhoods, leveraging our cognitive capacity.
Over just five episodes, human cannot cover every aspect of our evolutionary story. Yet, it illuminates how H. sapiens has been shaped by climate influences, the flora and fauna that provide for us, other human species, and collaborative nomadic groups that shared skills, knowledge, and DNA, allowing us to thrive and eventually build cities.
This dimension of H. sapiens portrays humanity as the ultimate survivor, capable of progression and dominance over the Earth. In contrast, human offers a more humble narrative, emphasizing our species alongside our ancient relatives.
Tracking Human Evolution Gain insights behind the scenes of the new BBC series human with Ella Al Shamahi on NewsCientist.com/Video
In a captivating and poignant narrative, Ella Al Shamahi addresses the inadequate frontline science conducted in regions perceived as inhospitable to Western researchers. Discover Neanderthal skeletons exhibiting severe disabilities unearthed in present-day Iraq—a striking reminder of the discoveries we’ve overlooked.
Bethan Ackerley is a sub-editor at New Scientist. She has a passion for science fiction, sitcoms, and all things eerie. Follow her on Twitter @inkerley
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Thousands of years ago, ancient Homo sapiens embarked on a perilous journey, traversing the icy expanses of the Bering Straits into the uncharted territories of the Americas. Recent research indicates that these migrants may have brought with them an extraordinary gift – MUC19 genes inherited from Denisovans, which could have played a pivotal role in helping humans adapt to the challenges of their new environments.
The concept of artist Peng Denisovan walking under the bright sun during the Pleistocene of Taiwan. Image credit: Cheng-Han Sun.
The modern human genome harbors a few archaic variants that are the remnants of past interbreeding events with Neanderthals and Denisovans.
While many of these variants are neutral, certain archaic mutations found in modern humans are believed to be targets of positive natural selection, possibly essential for human adaptation as they expanded into new lands.
The populations in the Americas encountered diverse environments, creating numerous opportunities for natural selection to favor archaic variations in these new settings.
This new research, spearheaded by a team from the University of Colorado, Boulder, and Brown University, focused on a gene known as MUC19, which aids in the production of proteins that form saliva and mucosal barriers in the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts.
The researchers found that a Denisovan variant of MUC19 exists in the DNA of modern Latin Americans with Indigenous American ancestry, as well as in individuals excavated from archaeological sites across North and South America.
The prevalence of this gene in modern human populations suggests it was under significant natural selection, indicating that it conferred survival or reproductive advantages to those who carried it.
Although the specific benefits remain unclear, given the gene’s involvement in immune processes, it may have provided an enhanced defense against pathogens encountered by early settlers in the Americas.
“From an evolutionary perspective, this discovery illustrates how ancient interbreeding can produce effects that persist today,” stated Professor Emilia Fuerta Sanchez of Brown University.
“Biologically, it identifies genes that seem to be adaptable, though their precise functions are yet to be elucidated.”
“We hope this will spur further research into the actual roles of this gene.”
Limited information exists about Denisovans, who inhabited Asia between 300,000 and 30,000 years ago, with our knowledge primarily derived from small fossils found in Denisova Cave, two jawbones discovered in Tibet and Taiwan, and an almost complete skull unearthed in China this year.
Fossils from Siberian fingers contained ancient DNA, facilitating the search for genetic similarities between Denisovans and modern humans.
Previous studies have indicated that the Denisovan-derived gene EPAS1 may have contributed to the remarkable adaptations of Sherpas and other Tibetans.
In the current study, researchers compared Denisovan DNA with the most recent genomes obtained from the 1,000 Genomes Project, a global study on genetic variations.
They found that Denisovan-derived MUC19 variants are prevalent among Latino populations with Indigenous American ancestry.
The researchers also investigated DNA from 23 individuals excavated from archaeological sites in Alaska, California, Mexico, and other parts of the Americas, finding that Denisovan-derived variants were also common in these ancient peoples.
The authors conducted several independent statistical tests demonstrating that Denisovan MUC19 genetic mutations have reached unusually high frequencies in both ancient indigenous populations and present-day indigenous peoples, indicating genes that are situated on long stretches of archaic DNA.
They also revealed that the gene likely crossed over from Denisovans to another archaic population.
“These findings reveal that past interbreeding has introduced new and potentially advantageous genetic variations into human lineages,” Professor Fuerta Sanchez remarked.
“New genetic variations typically arise through slow evolutionary processes.”
“However, these interbreeding events were a sudden means of introducing a plethora of new variations.”
“In this instance, the novel genetic reservoir seems to have aided modern humans migrating to the Americas and may have bolstered their immune systems.”
“Clearly, this gene was advantageous for these populations.”
“We hope that recognizing the significance of these genes will inspire new investigations into their functions to uncover fresh biological mechanisms, particularly relating to coding genetic variants that modify protein sequences.”
Fernando A. Villania et al. 2025 MUC19 Genes: The evolutionary history of recurrent variants and natural selection. Science 389 (6762); doi:10.1126/science.adl0882
The newly identified dragonfly species, Corduladensa asorni, found in Alberta’s Dinosaur Regional Park, represents Canada’s sole Mesozoic dragonfly, bridging a significant 30 million-year gap in the evolutionary lineage of dragonflies.
Corduladensa asorni. Image credit: Alex Anderson.
The fossilized wings of Corduladensa asorni were uncovered in 2023 by undergraduate students at McGill University during a vertebrate paleontology field course at Dinosaur State Park.
“We were digging in areas where numerous leaf fossils had been found, breaking the rocks,” explained Andre Mueller, a paleontologist from McGill University.
“When we uncovered the partial wings, we were astonished, as we didn’t anticipate discovering insects in that location.”
Due to its remarkable characteristics and unique anatomy, Corduladensa asorni led researchers to establish a new family called Cordualadensidae.
“This marks the first dragonfly from the age of dinosaurs identified in Canada,” noted Mueller.
“Its wingspan was comparable to that of a human hand, and although it was small, it played a crucial role in the Cretaceous ecosystem.”
Fossil wings of Corduladensa asorni. Image credits: Mueller et al., doi: 10.1139/cjes-2024-0162.
“This discovery showcases impression fossils, an entirely new method of preserving local insect fossils, effectively doubling our knowledge of insects from the Dinosaur Regional Parks,” stated Dr. Alexandre Demars Potvin from McGill University.
“We have begun to find more insect fossils by broadening our search areas and methodologies.”
“The diversity of insect life during this era would have been far greater than previously believed.”
The discovery of Corduladensa asorni aids in closing a 30 million-year evolutionary gap.
It is also the first known member of a significant group of dragonflies termed Cavilabiata found in North America.
“The wing anatomy indicates that this species was adapted for gliding, a trait associated with today’s migratory dragonflies and likely vital to their success,” commented Professor Hans Larson of McGill University.
“This specimen offers insight into what life in Canada was like 75 million years ago and provides an important new piece of the ecological puzzle in one of the most diverse regions rich in dinosaur fossils.”
The team’s publication was released this month in the Canada Journal of Earth Science.
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Andre S. Mueller et al. A new family of fossil dragonfly (Odonata, Kabilaviata) from the Late Cretaceous (Campanian) Dinosaur Park Formation in Alberta, Canada. Canada Journal of Earth Science Published online on August 1, 2025. doi:10.1139/cjes-2024-0162
This excerpt is from our human stories newsletter, focused on the archaeological revolution—sign up to receive it monthly.
In human stories, I aim to address common questions about human evolution. In February 2021, I tackled a query that many find perplexing—whether Neanderthals and modern humans are distinct species (short answer: species boundaries are ambiguous).
This month, we confront another frequently asked question: Do Denisovans, the extinct human group once prevalent in Asia, have a designated species name? If so, what should that name be?
The debate regarding the “official” name of the Denisovans has been lively since their discovery in 2010. Notably, in June, the skull of Harbin, dubbed the Dragon Man from northern China, was classified as Denisovan through molecular evidence. This marked the first acquisition of a Denisovan skull, giving us insights into their facial features.
While participating in New Scientist discussions, host Rowan Hooper asked why Denisovans lack a species name. Why can’t we refer to them as Homo Denisovanensis, similar to how Neanderthals are called Homo Neanderthalensis?
I preferred a straightforward explanation: insufficient information has hindered a definitive classification of Denisovans. Their DNA shows significant divergence from Neanderthal DNA; yet, we require detailed insights into their anatomy and skeletal structure.
However, this inquiry is multifaceted. First, we must identify which fossils unequivocally belong to Denisovans. This involves analyzing numerous specimens and decades of research, complicating the resolution. Secondly, we need to determine which of the assigned names should take precedence under our classification norms—a legal question that adds to the complexity.
Who’s Included and Who’s Excluded?
A brief reminder about Denisovans: they are an enigmatic group of humans initially identified in 2010 from fragments of a finger bone discovered in the Denisova Cave in Siberia’s Altai Mountains. Genetic analysis revealed they were distinct from both modern humans and Neanderthals. Moreover, many contemporary individuals, especially in Southeast Asia and Melanesia, carry Denisovan DNA.
This suggests that Denisovans were quite widespread in East Asia over the past several hundred thousand years. So, where are the Denisovan fossils?
Fifteen years later, a handful of Denisovan fossils have been actively categorized. For example, mandibles discovered on the Tibetan Plateau were identified through fossil proteins and sediment DNA. Similarly, a jawbone retrieved from the Pengle waterway off the coast of Taiwan was confirmed as Denisovan in April.
Nonetheless, we still lack a complete skeleton. Identifying the Harbin skull as Denisovan brought us closer to understanding their appearance, yet many more discoveries are necessary.
Numerous human fossils in East Asia potentially belong to Denisovans. However, categorizing these remains has proven challenging, as they often do not resemble established species like modern humans, Neanderthals, or even Homo Erectus. If adequate specimens surface, thus confirming their Denisovan identity, our understanding could significantly improve, leading to a formal classification.
But how do we determine which fossils are Denisovan? Ideally, we seek molecular evidence of preserved DNA or protein for comparison with the original Denisovan remnants. However, many fossils remain unanalyzed or inaccessible.
One notable effort to address this issue was a preliminary study submitted by a team led by Xijun Ni from the Chinese Academy of Sciences in March 2024. By comparing 57 human fossils for various physical traits, they constructed familial relationships between these findings.
The team found three primary groups among Eurasian hominins: Modern Humans, Neanderthals, and a third group composed of the original Denisovan fossil, the Tibetan cave jawbone, the Pengle jawbone, and the Harbin skull. This third category appears to represent those we refer to as Denisovans.
This is an intriguing proposition, but others disagree.
A collection of contentious fossils from Hualongdong, southern China, offers a wealth of material: an almost complete skull, 14 teeth, an upper jaw, six isolated teeth, and additional fragments dating back around 300,000 years.
While the NI team classified the Hualongdong specimens as part of the Denisovan group, a study led by Xiujie Wu in July suggested that these teeth did not show clear correlations, proposing instead that they may belong to a different hominin group. Another interpretation could be that the Denisovans at Hualongdong were somewhat disparate from those in other regions.
In the meantime, other intriguing fossils from Asia continue to emerge. Among them are specimens from Dariscal and Jinniushan, both around 260,000 years old, which Ni’s team has suggested might also belong to the Denisovan lineage.
As the list of contending Denisovan fossils grows, we must decide how to categorize them.
The Harbin Skull
Hebei Geo University
Homo — What Does It Mean?
Interestingly, I was part of the team that described the Harbin skull in 2021, and we named it Homo Longhi. So, could that be the name we assign to Denisovans?
However, last year a competing proposition was put forth by Woo and Christopher Beh from the University of Hawaii, who suggested that we should center around fossils from Xujiayao in northern China, proposing to call this new species Homo Jurensis—fossils that would include the original Denisovan findings.
This idea’s strength lies in the resemblance of Xujiayao fossils to Denisovan remains, a point also observed by the NI team. However, Bae and Wu aimed to designate the Xujiayao fossils as “type specimens.”
This raises two issues: the classification of fossils and the naming protocols. Let’s examine each aspect separately.
In classification, the Homo Jurensis proposal faces challenges. Bae and Wu classify the Harbin skull as Homo Jurensis or Denisovan, yet it lacks sufficient resemblance to warrant such designation. A study published in June demonstrated molecular evidence clearly linking the Harbin skull to Denisovans. Hence, identifying those fossils as Denisovan would contravene objective realities, making Homo Jurensis seem unfounded.
What about taxonomy? This area is intricate. A crucial factor is the concept of priority, where the first proposed name tends to gain precedence. Hence, Homo Longhi might likely take precedence over Homo Jurensis as it was suggested three years earlier.
Are there alternative names for Denisovans?
The excavators of Denisova Cave never formally classified Denisovans as a distinct species. Anatoly Derebianco, part of that team, suggested the name Homo Sapiens Altaiensis, implying they would serve as a modern human subspecies—yet this proposal lacked formal status, rendering it typically insignificant.
This year, Derebianco has published a series of papers discussing what Denisovans could be. His references include locations in Mongolia, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Iran, referring to them collectively as Homo sapiens denisovan. I remain unsure if formal explanations were provided, as only abstracts were published, and if completed, it occurred post the naming of Homo Longhi.
Lastly, it’s possible that one of the names was assigned to an Asian human fossil within an obscure publication decades ago. If the fossil is ultimately identified as Denisovan, the name takes precedence (assuming it was adequately introduced). Nevertheless, Wu, Bae, Ni, and others assessed this notion in 2023 and concluded that many crucial fossils were not appropriately named. For instance, there was a suggestion to label Dali’s skull as Homo Dariensis, yet such ideas amounted to informal statements rather than formally recognized classifications.
Your head might be swirling from this cascade of names and species classifications, so let’s recap: the critical takeaway is our evolving understanding of Denisovans, which brings us closer to officially designating their name.
Given our comprehension of taxonomic norms and their significance, Homo Longhi could emerge as the official designation. Although I can’t influence the decision, they will always remain Denisovans in my mind.
Recent studies have indicated significant enhancements in daytime alertness, overall sleep quality, and reductions in apnea paralysis index, suggesting that respiratory muscle training using blown shanks (conch) could become a novel approach for alleviating obstructive sleep apnea symptoms in the future.
Upper airway muscle training through shank blowing enhances subjective assessments of daytime drowsiness and sleep quality by improving objective indicators of obstructive sleep apnea severity. Image credit: Sharma et al., doi: 10.1183/23120541.00258-2025.
Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a prevalent sleep disorder characterized by repeated breathing interruptions during sleep due to airway obstructions.
This condition leads to excessive snoring, disrupted sleep patterns, and daytime fatigue, while also heightening the chances of hypertension, cardiovascular issues, and strokes.
Blowing the shell of a conch or shank has been an integral part of Indian culture for centuries.
Recent research revealed that individuals with moderate OSA who engaged in shank blowing experienced improved sleep quality, greater daytime alertness, and fewer nighttime breathing disturbances.
Dr. Krishna Sharma, a researcher at the Eternal Heart Care Center and Research Institute in Jaipur, stated:
“The standard treatment for OSA involves a continuous airway pressure machine (CPAP), which keeps the airways open by delivering airflow through a face mask throughout the night.”
“While effective, many patients find it uncomfortable and struggle to adhere to its use.”
“In my clinical practice, several patients reported feeling more refreshed and experiencing fewer symptoms after regularly practicing shank blowing, a traditional yoga breathing technique that involves expelling air through the conch shell.”
“These insights prompted us to design scientific research to rigorously evaluate whether this ancient technique serves as a substantial treatment for those suffering from OSA.”
The study included 30 participants aged 19-65 diagnosed with moderate OSA, who were evaluated at the Eternal Heart Care Center and labs between May 2022 and January 2024.
Polysonography was utilized for assessment, where participants were monitored during sleep and questioned about their sleep quality and daytime alertness.
They were randomly assigned to either practice blowing conch shells (16 patients) or engage in deep breathing exercises (14 patients).
Participants were provided with traditional shanks used in yoga and received in-person training from the research team before commencing home practice.
They were encouraged to practice at home for at least 15 minutes, five days a week. After six months, participants were re-evaluated.
Those practicing shank blowing exhibited a 34% reduction in daytime sleepiness compared to those doing deep breathing exercises.
Additionally, they recorded higher blood oxygen levels during sleep.
“The technique of blowing the shank is distinct,” Dr. Sharma explained.
“It incorporates deep inhalation followed by a powerful, sustained exhalation through tightly pursed lips.”
“This method generates strong vibrations and airflow resistance, which can fortify the upper airway muscles, such as the throat and soft palate.
“The unique spiral design of the shanks may also create acoustic and mechanical effects that assist in stimulating and regulating these muscles.”
“For individuals living with OSA, particularly those who find CPAP uncomfortable, costly, or inaccessible, our findings present a promising alternative.”
“Shank blowing is a simple, low-cost breathing technique that can enhance sleep and mitigate symptoms without reliance on machines or medicine.”
Krishna K. Sharma et al. 2025. Effectiveness of shank blowing on moderate sleep apnea: a randomized controlled trial. ERJ Open Research 00258-2025; doi:10.1183/23120541.00258-2025
Cut marks on the foot bone from El Mirador cave, Spain
iphes-cerca
The discovery of human remains in caves in northern Spain indicates that Neolithic people may have resorted to cannibalism after battles.
Francesc Marginedas from the Catalan Institute of Human Paleoecology and Social Evolution (IPHES) in Tarragona, along with his team, examined fragments from 650 human remains found in El Mirador cave on Mount Atapuerca. These remains date back approximately 5,700 years and belong to 11 individuals.
All examined bones displayed evidence that these individuals had been consumed by other humans. Some exhibited chop markings made by a stone tool, while others showed translucent portions with gently rounded edges. Some of the long bones were fractured open with stones to access the bone marrow, and smaller bones like metatarsals and ribs had clear human bite marks.
This research supports the notion that cannibalistic practices were more prevalent in human history than previously believed.
El Mirador marks at least the fifth significant site in Spain with notable evidence of cannibalism during the Neolithic era, a shift period from foraging to agriculture, according to Margida. “There’s a growing understanding that such behavior was more frequent than we anticipated.”
The motives behind these cannibalistic acts remain unclear. Some archaeological sites show skull cups indicating a ritualistic aspect to cannibalism, while others hint at survival strategies during dire circumstances.
However, Marsidas and his team propose that the findings at El Mirador suggest these acts were linked to warfare. There was a significant amount of animal remains, and no signs of nutritional stress among the humans involved, indicating this early agricultural community was not struggling with food scarcity. Their findings offer no indication of ritualistic behavior, as human bones were found alongside animal remains.
The ages of the individuals ranged from under seven to over fifty, implying that an entire family unit may have been lost to conflict. Radiocarbon dating indicated that all 11 individuals were killed and consumed within a few days.
This evidence reflects patterns of conflict and cannibalism, which have also been noted at two other Neolithic sites: the Von Bregore Caves in France and Helxheim in Germany. This period appears marked by instability and violence due to community clashes with neighboring groups and newcomers.
While Margida and his colleagues are uncertain about the reasons behind these cannibalistic practices, historical ethnographic studies suggest that such acts during warfare can serve as a method of “ultimate exclusion.” “We believe that one group attacking and consuming another serves as a humiliating statement,” states Merseydus.
“The thoroughness of the body’s treatment and consumption is remarkable.” Paul Pettitt from Durham University, UK, comments, “The aggressive nature shown in these artifacts, regardless of whether the consumed were relatives or adversaries, mirrors a dehumanization process during consumption.”
Sylvia Bello from the Museum of Natural History in London concurs that this evidence of death likely ties back to conflicts but remains skeptical about the notion of consumption as humiliation. She suggests that cannibalism may stem from aggression and animosity rather than ritualized farewell practices, implying a more complex interpretation. “It could carry ritual significance, even amid warfare,” she asserts.
Neanderthals, Ancient Humans, and Cave Art in France
Join new scientist Kate Douglas on an enthralling exploration of the key Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites in southern France, spanning from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Stone tools unearthed in Sulawesi, Indonesia, crafted by an enigmatic ancient human species
Budianto Hakim et al.
Seven stone tools discovered on Sulawesi, Indonesia, represent the earliest proof of ancient humans navigating the ocean, with an estimated age of 1.4 million years.
These artifacts may shed light on how a diminutive human species known as the “Hobbit” reached neighboring Flores Island.
The first artifact was found embedded in a sandstone outcrop at a location called Calio Budiant Hakim. In 2019, excavations revealed six additional tools on the same outcrop, courtesy of the Indonesian National Research Innovation Agency.
Alongside the stone tools, Hakim and his team also discovered parts of an upper jaw, teeth, and remains of a large species of pig, Celebochoerus, along with fragments from unidentified young elephants.
While researchers couldn’t date the tools directly, sediment analysis combined with fossil pig teeth allowed them to estimate an age range between 1.04 million and 1.48 million years. Previously, the oldest human evidence in Sulawesi was dated to 194,000 years ago.
A least one of the new artifacts appears to be a flake removed from a larger piece, with its edges skillfully shaped, as noted by team member Adam Blum from Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia. While non-human primates such as chimpanzees utilize hammer-like stones to crack nuts, they don’t manipulate flakes to create tools.
“This represents an early form of cognitive ability from a species that has since vanished,” states Brumm. “We don’t ascertain the specific species, but these creations indicate human intellect at the Calio site.”
The distinct hominin species, Homo floresiensis, was unearthed in Flores in 2003. Archaeological findings suggest human presence on the island over a million years ago. However, the means by which these early humans reached the island remains a mystery.
Both Flores and Sulawesi were separated from mainland Southeast Asia by expansive oceanic barriers, even during periods of the lowest sea levels. According to Blum, the distance to Sulawesi is too great for swimming, leading to the conclusion that these early human species likely could not construct maritime vessels.
“It’s conceivable that a rare geological event, such as a tsunami, swept some early humans into the ocean, where they might have clung to floating trees or mats of vegetation, eventually reaching these islands to form isolated populations,” he suggests.
Martin Porr from the University of Western Australia identifies Homo erectus as the most probable candidate for seafaring at that time, given similarities between the tools found in Sulawesi and those associated with this species.
While the new finds support this theory, they raise numerous questions, particularly regarding whether the skills of these early human groups may need to be reassessed.
Led by the late archaeologist Mike Morwood, the team who first identified Homo floresiensis was the first to propose that Sulawesi could be crucial in understanding the ancestry of the Hobbit. As Kira Westaway from Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia mentions, “Sulawesi is positioned along a significant current that flows from Sulawesi to Flores.”
“Even Mike would have been astonished by the discovery of these ancient stone tools,” she remarks. “Though one might argue that seven tools are insufficient to support major claims, they undeniably represent the presence of early human activities.”
Neanderthals, ancient humans, cave art: France
Join new scientist Kate Douglas as she embarks on a captivating exploration of the prominent Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, spanning from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
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3D representation of a tattooed mummy. The upper image uses textures captured under visible light, while the lower image’s textures come from near-infrared photography.
M. Vavulin
The intricate tattoo, featuring motifs of tigers, birds, and mythical creatures, has been uncovered on an ice mummy dating back over 2000 years. This mummified female belonged to the Pasilic culture in Siberia, which is part of the broader Scythian civilization.
Assessing the prevalence of ancient tattoos is challenging, yet some exceptions exist, such as Ötzi “Iceman,” who lived around 3300 BC and was found preserved in ice.
Now, Gino Casparri from the Max Planck Institute for Geoanthropology in Germany and his team studied the remains of semi-nomadic Iron Age herders from the Altai Mountains of Siberia, who passed away in the 3rd or 4th centuries BC. This individual is among the few in the region whose deep burial sites remain frozen, preserving her skin’s dark and dry condition.
Tattoos featured creatures resembling both real and mythical species.
D. Riday
“When observing the mummy with the naked eye, the tattoo remains invisible,” explains Casparri. Hence, his team utilized high-resolution near-infrared imaging to uncover astonishing hidden visuals.
“We see herbivores being hunted by tigers and leopards, and in some cases, birds are depicted,” Casparri remarks. “Given their age and vivid artistic style, Pasilic tattoos are genuinely remarkable.”
One bird resembles a rooster, as noted by team member Aaron Deter-Wolf from the Tennessee Department of Archaeology, highlighting how the tattoos feature a blend of realistic and fantastical animals.
The researchers also uncovered the process behind creating these tattoos. “Our investigations reveal that tattoos were crafted using a direct puncture technique rather than being etched or stitched into the skin,” states Deter-Wolf.
One of the tattoos seems to depict a rooster.
D. Riday
Cross-cultural evidence indicates that the tattooing method used was a technique called hand-poking. In this method, the needle is dipped in ink and punctured into the skin to create dot patterns, with carbon pigments likely sourced from charcoal, soot, or ash.
The tattoos on the right forearm exhibited more intricate designs compared to those on the left, suggesting they may have been created by different artists with varying skill levels, according to Caspari. “Our research indicates that tattooing was not only a widespread practice across the Eurasian steppe over 2000 years ago but also a specialized craft requiring significant expertise and technique,” he concludes.
Ancient Greek bronze jars displayed at the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford have been discovered to contain honey.
American Chemical Society
The findings from the ancient Greek pot located at a shrine near Pompeii serve as evidence of the lasting nature of honey jars.
In 1954, a Greek burial shrine dating back to around 520 BC was uncovered in Pestum, Italy, approximately 70 kilometers south of Pompeii.
The shrine contained eight pots with sticky residues, and their contents remained a mystery since their unearthing.
Honey was initially suspected in tests conducted on one of the pots between the 1950s and 1980s by Luciana Carvalho from Oxford University.
Three distinct teams analyzed the residue but concluded that the jars contained animal or vegetable fats mixed with pollen and insect parts, rather than honey.
At that time, researchers depended on significantly less sensitive analytical methods, focusing on solubility tests.
Carvalho and her team started by examining the infrared reflection of the residues to determine their overall composition.
Ancient honey residues from the interior of the pot
Luciana da Costa Carvalho
Initially, it was hypothesized that the contents could be decomposed beeswax due to its outward resemblance and high acidity.
To test this hypothesis, the team employed gas chromatography paired with mass spectrometry, which ultimately unveiled the presence of sugars like glucose and fructose, the primary sugars found in honey.
“We unearthed a remarkably intricate mixture of acids and broken-down sugars,” states Carvalho. “The clear indicator of honey was the detection of sugar at the core of the residue.”
Further examination by Elizabeth Pierce from Oxford University confirmed the presence of a protein called major royal jelly protein, secreted by honeybees, along with the detection of peptide traces from Tropilaelaps Mercedesae, a parasitic mite that consumes bee larvae.
“This parasite is believed to derive from an Asian beehive,” Pierce comments.
Carvalho mentions that the cork seal of the bronze jar eventually failed, allowing air and microorganisms to enter. “We believe these bacteria consumed most of the sugar remnants, leading to the production of additional acids and decomposition products. What was left was an acidic, waxy residue clinging to the walls of the jar.”
“Investigating the honey offerings at the shrines in Paestum elucidates how the people honored their deities and their perceptions regarding the afterlife,” Carvalho explains.
Historic Herculaneum – discover Vesuvius, Pompeii, ancient Naples
The journey through history and archaeology embarks on a fascinating exploration where the past comes alive through Mount Vesuvius and the remains of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Paleontologists from Argentine Patagonia have unearthed parts of the posterior skull from the previously unknown sauropod dinosaur, Levvatissaurus.
Reconstruction of the life of Astigmasaura genuflexa. Image credit: Mattia Yuri Messina.
The newly identified dinosaurs thrived in what is modern-day Argentina during the late Cretaceous period, around 95 million years ago.
This species has been scientifically named Astigmasaura ungflexa and measured approximately 18 meters (59 feet) in length, weighing over 10 tons.
These ancient giants belong to the Rebbachisauridae, a large family of sauropod dinosaurs within the superfamily Diplodocoidea.
“Rebbachisaurids are medium to large, non-selective, ground-level browsers, characterized by highly specialized skulls, elongated axial elements, and gracile appendicular skeletons.”
“Fossils from Levubatisaurus, spanning the early to late Cretaceous, are particularly diverse within the ancient supercontinent Gondwana, with numerous specimens discovered in North Africa and South America.”
“Notably, Patagonia has produced more than half of all known rebbachisaurids, including the earliest forms and the most recent Rebbachisaurus.”
Fieldwork in the El Orejano region of the Huncul Formation in Patagonia, Argentina. Image credit: Flavio Bellardini.
Fossilized remains of Astigmasaura ungflexa were found in the El Orejano area of the Huncul Formation within the Neuquén Basin in Patagonia, Argentina.
The material type of Astigmasaura ungflexa was described by paleontologists.
This new species represents one of the last Levubatisaurus dinosaurs before it went extinct around 90 million years ago.
“Astigmasaura ungflexa shares a variety of traits with other rebbachisaurids, including anterior caudal vertebrae with tall neural spines and tetrameric nerve layers, an asymmetrical neural arch, a mesolaterally compressed proximal tibia, and medially tilted distal condyles and femurs,” the researchers noted.
“Furthermore, Astigmasaura ungflexa displays a unique combination of diagnostic features that set it apart from all other sauropods.”
“This new finding not only enhances our understanding of the previously unexplored caudal and pelvic girdle anatomy of Rebbachisauridae but also indicates greater taxonomic diversity within the family during the late stages of evolutionary history than previously recognized.”
The team’s paper was published online in the journal Cretaceous Research.
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Flavio Berardini et al. 2025. Alongside the Titans: a new Levuvacisaur dinosaur from the Huncul Formation (Upper Cenomanian) of Patagonia, Argentina. Cretaceous Research 176:106188; doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2025.106188
Artist’s interpretation of the encounter between ancient caiman and terror birds
Julian Bayona Becerra
Approximately 13 million years ago, massive predators clashed in a sprawling South American wetland. Fossils of a giant flightless bird discovered in Colombia bear tooth marks from enormous caimans.
Andrés Link from the University of the Andes in Colombia and his team were examining crocodile fossils in the museum’s collection when they identified an unusual bone. This bone belonged to the Forsulhacid bird, commonly referred to as “terror birds.” These predators possessed hooked beaks and muscular legs equipped with sharp claws. The fossilized remains were from the lower limbs of a bird standing 2.5 meters tall, making it one of the largest terror birds ever found.
However, this predator likely faced a grim fate. Initially unearthed in Colombia’s Tatacoa desert by local paleontologist César Perdomo, the bones exhibited four distinct puncture marks.
Link and his research team sought to identify the predator that dared to bite such a formidable bird. They scanned the fossil’s surface to create a digital model of the tooth marks, finding striking similarities to the teeth of ancient predators in the region. The culprit was almost certainly not a mammal.
“There are no signs of gnawing, and the markings are rounded,” Link explains. “The lines closely resemble those attributed to alligators and caimans.”
Terror birds roamed the earth when northern South America was dominated by the Pebas System, a vast network of wetlands interspersed with tropical forests and grasslands. This flooded habitat supported a diverse range of crocodile species, leading the team to link the dental impression to the giant caiman Purussaurus neivensis, estimated to be around 4.5 meters in length.
“Terror birds were undoubtedly apex predators,” remarks Link. “However, this evidence indicates that when they ventured near large bodies of water, they could also fall prey to massive caimans, either in pursuit of prey or while navigating this complex ecosystem.”
The researchers speculate that the bird may have already been deceased when the caiman encountered it, with the tooth marks indicative of scavenging. There are no signs of bone regeneration surrounding the marks. Either way, the encounter proved fatal for the terror bird.
“These types of [tooth] impressions are more prevalent than one might assume,” states Carolina Acosta Hospitalce from La Plata National University in Argentina.
In a study published last year, she and her colleagues discussed tooth marks found on a smaller, older fossil terror bird—about 43 million years old—suggesting that ancient carnivorous marsupials also preyed upon these birds. These markings were also found on the lower limbs, leading Hospitalce to ponder whether this area of the bird’s anatomy is particularly vulnerable to predators.
“[Bite marks] offer fascinating glimpses into past life,” comments Stephanie Drumheller from the University of Tennessee.
When studying ancient environments, she notes there is a tendency to categorize extinct organisms into strict ecological roles. However, food webs can be quite intricate.
“This is an animal that thrived in aquatic environments, while another lived on land, entirely separate from one another. Yet, nature often defies our neat categorizations,” Drumheller observes.
Morrison, a marine creature from the Cambrian period, could represent an early arachnid
Junnn11 @ni075 CC BY-SA 4.0
Research indicates that the brains of ancient sea creatures, dating back over 500 million years, were structured similarly to those of spiders. This challenges past theories that arachnids originated on land.
Morrison reflects a time of significant biological diversity increase, known as the Cambrian Explosion, when various animal groups began appearing in fossil records. These creatures possessed chelicerae, pincer-like mouthparts likely used for tearing into small prey.
Previous beliefs suggested that modern relatives of Morrison, which include horseshoe crabs, were connected to spiders. However, Nicholas Strausfeld and his team at the University of Arizona propose otherwise.
The researchers reexamined specimens of Mollisonia symmetrica, collected in 1925 from British Columbia, Canada, and now housed at Harvard University’s Comparative Zoology Museum. Strausfeld and his colleagues identified a brain structure that had previously been overlooked.
In horseshoe crabs, the chelicerae exhibit a neural connection at the back of the brain; however, in Morrison, this structure was inverted, with chelicerae linked to two neural regions that offered a perspective on the forefront of the nervous system.
Strausfeld notes that this orientation is “characteristic of arachnid brains.” Unlike the brains of crustaceans and insects, which are folded inward, arachnids have crucial areas for planning agile movements situated at the back. This architecture likely contributes to the remarkable agility and speed seen in spiders.
While it was previously thought that arachnids evolved on land, the earliest existing land fossils of obvious arachnids will not appear for millions of years later, according to Strausfeld. “Perhaps the first arachnids inhabited tidal environments, like Morrison, in search of prey,” he mentions.
Mike Lee, a researcher at Flinders University in Adelaide, Australia, who was not involved in the study, suggests that Morrison may now be viewed as a primitive arachnid. “We now recognize it possessed a brain akin to that of a spider, indicating it was an aquatic relative of the early spiders and scorpions,” Lee states.
Nonetheless, he cautions that while researchers strive to extract as much insight as possible from a single fossil, there remains a degree of ambiguity in interpretation. “It’s akin to attempting to piece together a unique Pavlova after it has been dropped,” he explains.
The Pilbara Craton in Western Australia features rocks that date back 3.5 billion years.
Elizabeth Czitronyi / Alamy
Rocks from Australia reveal that tectonic plates were shifting as far back as 3.5 billion years ago, a breakthrough that alters our understanding of the onset of plate tectonics over subsequent hundreds of millions of years.
Currently, along with roughly eight major hard rock plates on Earth’s surface, several smaller plates are interacting with the softer rock layer beneath. When these plates’ edges grind against one another, it can lead to sudden geological upheavals, such as earthquakes, and gradual processes like mountain range formation.
However, there is disagreement among geologists regarding the configurations of these ancient plates and their movements. Some researchers claim to have found indications of tectonic activity as far back as 4 billion years ago when the planet was significantly hotter; others argue that more compelling evidence is noted after 3.2 billion years ago.
Much of this data derives from the chemical compositions of rocks, which suggest past movements. Despite this, records detailing the interactions of early plates remain scarce, which is regarded as critical evidence supporting plate tectonics.
Recently, Alec Brenner and his team from Yale University claim to have uncovered substantial evidence of relative plate movement dating back 3.5 billion years in the eastern Pilbara Craton of Western Australia. They traced the magnetic orientation of rocks aligned with Earth’s magnetic field, observing shifts similar to how a compass needle changes direction when the ground moves.
Brenner and colleagues initially dated the rock using radioisotope analysis, establishing that at certain times, the rock’s magnetism remained unchanged. By observing this magnetization shift, they demonstrated that the rock mass progressively moved at a rate of several centimeters each year. They compared these findings to similarly examined rocks in the Barberton Greenstone Belt in South Africa, which exhibited no such movement.
“This suggests that some type of plate boundary must exist between these two regions to accommodate that relative movement,” remarked Brenner during his presentation at the Goldschmidt Geochemical Conference in Prague, Czech Republic, on July 9.
“Approximately 3.8 billion years ago, the Pilbara plate transitioned from medium to high latitudes, eventually reaching proximity to Earth’s magnetic poles and, possibly millions of years later, to the latitude of Svalbard.”
“If two plates are moving relative to one another, there must be various dynamic interactions happening between them,” noted Robert Hazen from the Carnegie Institute of Science in Washington, DC. “It cannot be an isolated event.”
Nonetheless, multiple interpretations exist regarding the underlying causes of this movement, according to Hazen. The variability in plate movement rates adds to the confusion, and existing data could align with various theories regarding Earth’s interior structure at that time.
At the very least, this discovery indicates the presence of structural boundaries, according to Michael Brown from the University of Maryland. However, he argues that the nature of rock movement appears dissimilar to contemporary understanding of plate tectonics. “Essentially, the Pilbara plate moved to higher latitudes to prevent stagnation, which is atypical within any current plate structural model.”
Brown posits that this aligns with the theory suggesting the Earth’s crust consisted of numerous smaller plates propelled by a thermal mantle plume during that period. He believes the remnants of these small plates examined by Brenner and his team provide evidence of movement; however, due to their limited representation of the crust, they may not accurately reflect broader Earth movements.
Brenner’s team also discovered indications that the Earth’s magnetic field underwent reversals around 3.46 billion years ago. Unlike today’s magnetic field reversals, which occur every million years, these ancient magnetic shifts seemed to happen much more frequently, over spans of tens of millions of years. This could imply a fundamentally different set of energies and mechanisms at play, as noted by Brenner.
Hazen emphasized that the scarcity of magnetic data leads to ongoing debates about the state of Earth’s magnetic field during that era of its evolution. “I believe this discovery raises the bar significantly,” he asserts. “It represents a vital breakthrough in understanding early magnetic reversals, shedding light on the core’s geomechanics in ways previously unexplored.”
Recent images from the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope highlight NGC 1786, a spherical cluster located in the constellation of Dorado.
This Hubble image depicts NGC 1786, a spherical cluster approximately 163,000 light-years away in the Dorado constellation. The color images were created from various exposures captured in visible and near-infrared regions of the spectrum using Hubble’s Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3). Three filters sampled different wavelengths. Colors were assigned by applying distinct hues to each monochromatic image related to individual filters. Image credits: NASA/ESA/Hubble/M. Monelli/M Hözsaraç.
Spherical clusters are ancient star systems, bound together by gravity, typically spanning around 100-200 light-years.
These clusters host hundreds of thousands, or even millions, of stars. The significant masses at the cluster’s core attract stars inward, forming a spherical configuration.
Considered among the universe’s oldest known objects, spherical clusters are remnants from the early Galactic era. It’s believed that all galaxies harbor a population of these structures.
The Large Magellanic Cloud, a neighboring dwarf galaxy located about 163,000 light-years away, possesses roughly 60 spherical clusters, including NGC 1786.
This spherical cluster, also referred to as ESO 56-39, was discovered on December 20, 1835, by the British astronomer John Herschel.
“Data from the new image is derived from spherical clusters within Milky Way galaxies, including the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, as well as Fornax dwarf spheroidal galaxies,” stated Hubble astronomers.
“Our galaxy contains over 150 of these extensively studied ancient spherical formations.
“Due to its stability and longevity, it acts as a galactic time capsule, preserving stars from the galaxy’s formative stages.”
“While it was once believed that all stars in spherical clusters formed nearly simultaneously, our research on ancient clusters within our galaxy has revealed multiple populations of stars of varying ages,” they further explained.
“To utilize spherical clusters as historical markers, it’s essential to comprehend their formation and the origins of stars from different ages.”
“This observational program analyzed older spherical clusters like NGC 1786 in external galaxies to determine whether they contained multiple star populations.”
“Such studies can provide insights into the original formation mechanisms of the Large Magellanic Cloud as well as the Milky Way galaxy.”
Research conducted by astronomer Matthew Hopkins and his team at Oxford University suggests that 3i/Atlas, the second interstellar comet discovered near our solar system, may have been on its trajectory over 3 billion years ago.
Top view of the Milky Way displaying the predicted orbits of our Sun and 3i/Atlas. Comets are represented by dashed red lines, while the sun is indicated by a dashed yellow line. The comet’s route to the outer thick disc is mostly clear, whereas the sun remains close to the nucleus of the galaxy. Image credit: M. Hopkins / Otautahi Oxford Team / ESA / Gaia / DPAC / Stefan Payne-Wardenaar / CC-SA 4.0.
“All comets formed alongside our solar system, like Halley’s comets, are up to 4.5 billion years old,” Dr. Hopkins explained.
“In contrast, interstellar visitors can be significantly older. Our statistical analyses indicate that 3i/Atlas is very likely to be the oldest comet we’ve observed thus far.”
Unlike 1i/Oumuamua and 2i/Borisov, the two previous interstellar objects that passed through our solar system, 3i/Atlas appears to be on a more inclined path through the Milky Way.
A recent study forecasts that 3i/Atlas is likely to be rich in water ice, as it probably formed around the star of the ancient, thick disc.
“This is an aspect of the galaxy that we’ve never encountered before,” said Chris Lintot, a professor at Oxford University and host of The Sky at Night.
“I believe there is a two-thirds chance that this comet predates the solar system and has been drifting through interstellar space ever since.”
As it nears the Sun, the heat from sunlight activates 3i/Atlas, generating a coma and tail composed of steam and dust.
Initial observations indicate that the comet is already active and may even be larger than any of its interstellar predecessors.
If this is validated, it could influence the detection of similar objects by future telescopes, such as the upcoming Vera C. Rubin Observatory.
Furthermore, it could offer insights into the role that ancient interstellar comets play in the formation of stars and planets throughout the galaxy.
“We’re in an exciting phase. 3i/Atlas is already displaying signs of activity,” remarked Dr. Michele Bannister, an astronomer at the University of Canterbury.
“The gases we might observe in the future, as 3i/Atlas is heated by the Sun, will help us evaluate our models.”
“Some of the world’s largest telescopes are currently monitoring this new interstellar entity. One of them may make a significant discovery!”
Paleontologists have extracted ancient enamel protein sequences from fossilized teeth of epiacaratherium sp., a nasal bacteria that thrived in the High Arctic of Canada between 240 and 21 million years ago (early Miocene). This recovered sequence enabled researchers to ascertain that this ancient rhino diverged from other syoxidants during the mid-Eocene Oligocene period, approximately 410-250,000 years ago. Additionally, the findings illuminate the distinctions between two principal subfamilies of rhinocerotinae and Rhinocerotinae, indicating a more recent division of bone development around 340-22 million years ago.
Reconstruction of three extinct rhinoceros species: foreground features a Siberian unicorn (Elasmotherium sibiricum), accompanied by two Merck rhinos (Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis); In the distant background is a wooly rhino (Coelodonta antiquitatis). Image credit: Beth Zaiken.
Dr. Mark Dickinson and his team from York University investigated the teeth of epiacaratherium sp. They utilized a method known as chiral amino acid analysis, which aids in understanding how these proteins were preserved over time.
By assessing the degree of proteolysis and comparing it with previously studied rhino material, they confirmed that the amino acids originated from the teeth themselves, not from subsequent contamination.
“It’s astounding that these techniques allow us to revisit the past and delve deeper,” Dr. Dickinson remarked.
“Armed with our understanding of ancient proteins, we can now pose intriguing new questions regarding the evolution of ancient life on Earth.”
The rhinoceros holds particular significance as it is currently categorized as an endangered species. Exploring its extensive evolutionary history offers vital insights into how past environmental shifts and extinctions have influenced present biodiversity.
Historically, scientists have depended on the morphology of fossils or, more recently, ancient DNA (aDNA) to reconstruct the evolutionary narratives of long-extinct species.
Nonetheless, aDNA typically does not last more than a million years, constraining its utility in unraveling deep evolutionary history.
Although ancient proteins have been detected in Miocene fossils, previous samples extending back over 4 million years had been constrained to roughly the last 10 million years—full sequences were necessary for robust reconstructions of evolutionary lineages.
The latest research significantly broadens this temporal scope, indicating that proteins may endure across extensive geological timescales under optimal conditions.
“Success in analyzing ancient proteins from such old specimens provides fresh perspectives for scientists globally, who possess remarkable fossils in their collections,” stated Dr. Fazeera Munier of York University.
“This crucial fossil aids our understanding of the distant past.”
The results were published in the journal Nature this week.
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RS Patterson et al. Phylogenetically significant proteins from the early Miocene era. Nature Published online on July 9, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09231-4
The peculiar plants that existed since the dawn of terrestrial animals can process water to remarkable extremes, resembling water from metstones more than typical groundwater. Not only do they play a crucial role in today’s ecosystems, but their fossilized remnants also provide insights into Earth’s ancient climate and hydrological systems during the age of dinosaurs.
Almost every oxygen atom in water contains eight neutrons, though some rare heavy isotopes possess nine or ten neutrons. When water evaporates, lighter isotopes do so more readily than their heavier counterparts, leading to predictable shifts in their ratios. Researchers can utilize this information to trace the origin of a specific water sample, determining whether it originated from groundwater, fog, or the rate at which it traversed through plants and the humidity levels experienced by those plants in the past.
Nevertheless, due to the minimal presence of heavier isotopes, acquiring reliable data on how these ratios fluctuate can be quite challenging, making it hard for scientists to draw definitive conclusions.
During examinations of water samples from desert flora and fauna, Zachary Sharp from the University of New Mexico and his colleagues discovered discrepancies between the observed data and the anticipated outcomes based on laboratory models.
Sharp and his team believe they have addressed the issue through a remarkable plant known as horsetail, which has been on Earth since the Devonian period approximately 400 million years ago and features segmented, hollow stems. “It’s a tall cylinder with countless holes, evenly spaced, a marvel of engineering,” states Sharp. “We couldn’t replicate this design in our lab.”
As water flows through each segment of the horsetail stem, it undergoes a process of repeated distillation. Sharp and his colleagues collected water samples at various points along the smooth idiot stem (Equisetum) cultivated near the Rio Grande in New Mexico.
By the time the water reaches the top of the stem, its isotopic composition markedly differs from other terrestrial waters. “If you encounter this sample, I suspect it originates from metstone, as it doesn’t come from Earth. [The oxygen isotope ratios],” Sharp remarked during a presentation at the Goldschmidt Geochemical Conference in Prague, Czech Republic, on July 7.
These horsetail analyses enable Sharp and his team to ascertain the variations in the water’s isotopic ratios under near-ideal conditions, allowing them to enhance model accuracy with these values.
By reassessing desert plant data with these refined models, previously inexplicable observations suddenly made sense. Sharp posits that these findings could illuminate other challenging observations, especially in arid regions.
Reaching heights of 30 meters, far surpassing today’s descendants, ancient horsetails provide even more extreme isotopic ratios and could serve as a key to understanding ancient water systems and climates, according to Sharp. Small, sand-like grains known as plant stone threads within horsetail stems can endure to the present day and may feature unique isotopic signatures influenced by atmospheric humidity. This factor affects the evaporation rate. “This could serve as a paleofat meter [humidity indicator]—how fascinating,” Sharp concludes.
The examination of North West Africa (NWA) 16286 reveals a lunar metstone with a distinctive chemical profile, offering new perspectives on the evolution of the moon’s interior and emphasizing the enduring nature of its volcanic activity.
Backscattered electron images of NWA 16286 samples. Image credit: Joshu Asu Nape/University of Manchester.
Discovered in Africa in 2023, NWA 16286 is one of only 31 moon basalts officially identified on Earth.
The distinct composition of the 311-gram metstone, featuring melted glassy pockets and veins, indicates it was likely impacted by an asteroid or metstone on the lunar surface before being ejected and eventually landing on Earth.
A recent study by researchers at the University of Manchester supports the theory that the moon has maintained internal heat production processes responsible for lunar volcanic activity across various stages.
Lead isotopic analyses suggest that these rock formations are the youngest basalt lunar metstones identified on Earth, dating back approximately 2.35 billion years, a time when lunar samples are scarce.
The sample’s unique geochemical profile distinguishes it from those brought back by previous lunar missions, indicating that its chemical characteristics likely result from lava flows that solidified after ascending from the moon’s depths.
“While the moon rocks returned from sample return missions provide valuable insights, they are limited to the immediate areas around those landing sites,” stated Dr. Joshua Snape from the University of Manchester.
“In contrast, this sample could originate from impact craters located anywhere on the moon’s surface.”
“Thus, there is a unique coincidence with this sample. It fortuitously landed on Earth, unveiling secrets about lunar geology without the need for an extensive space mission.”
The sample contains notably large crystals of olivine and is classified as olivine basalt, characterized by medium titanium levels and high potassium content.
Alongside the atypical age of the samples, researchers found that the lead isotopic composition of the rocks—geochemical signatures preserved when the rocks formed—originates from internal lunar sources with unusually high ratios of uranium and lead.
These chemical markers can assist in identifying the mechanisms behind the moon’s prolonged internal heat production.
“The sample’s age is particularly intriguing as it fills a billion-year gap in the history of lunar volcanism,” Dr. Snape noted.
“It is younger than the basalts collected during the Apollo, Luna, and Chang-E 6 missions, yet significantly older than the more recent rocks retrieved by the Chang-E 5 missions in China.”
“Its age and composition indicate that volcanic activity persisted throughout this entire timeframe, and our analysis suggests a potentially continuous process of heat generation from radioactive elements that generates heat over extended periods.
“Moon rocks are a rarity, making it always exciting to acquire samples that stand out from the norm.”
“This specific rock presents new constraints on the timing and nature of volcanic activity on the moon.”
“We still have much to learn about the lunar geological history. Further analyses to trace surface origins will inform where future sample return missions might be directed.”
Researchers have identified protein sequences within the dense enamel tissues of ancient nasal cavities and materials collected from the Burg and Lopelot sites in the Turkana Basin, Kenya.
The Turkana Basin within the East African lift system preserves fossil communities dating back more than 66 million years. Green et al. Powder samples were collected for paleontological skin analysis from the early Pleistocene back to the Oligocene (29 million years ago) from large herbivores. Image credit: Green et al., doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09040-9.
“Teeth are the rocks in our mouths,” stated Dr. Daniel Green, a researcher at Harvard and Columbia University.
“They represent the most complex structures created by animals; hence, it’s possible to find teeth that are 100 million years old, offering geochemical records of animal life.”
“This includes insights into their diets, hydration, and habitats.”
“Previously, we believed that mature enamel, being the hardest part of teeth, should contain very little protein.”
Yet, by employing a novel proteomic technique known as liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), the researchers uncovered remarkable protein diversity in various biological tissues.
“The method comprises multiple stages where peptides are sorted according to size or chemistry, enabling detailed sequential analysis at unprecedented resolution,” explains Dr. Kevin Uno from Harvard and Columbia University.
“Recent findings indicate that there are dozens, potentially hundreds, of different proteins present in tooth enamel,” remarked Dr. Green.
Recognizing that many proteins exist in modern teeth, researchers pivoted towards studying fossils of nasal mesentery and related materials.
As herbivores, these creatures exhibited large teeth to crush their plant-based diets.
“These mammals could have enamels measuring 2-3 millimeters in thickness, providing ample material for investigation,” Dr. Green noted.
“Our discovery — peptide fragments and amino acid chains representing proteins spanning around 18 million years — stands to transform the field.”
“No one has previously identified peptide fragments of such antiquity.”
The oldest published findings to date date back around 3.5 million years.
“The newly identified peptides encompass a diverse array of proteins, representing what is known as the proteome,” Dr. Green remarked.
“One reason we are thrilled about these ancient teeth is that we lack a complete proteome for all proteins that could potentially be extracted from the bodies of these extinct elephants and rhinos, yet we can identify distinct groups.”
“Such collections could yield more information from these groups than from a single protein alone.”
“This research opens a new chapter for paleontology, enabling scientists to reconstruct the molecular and physiological traits of extinct species, moving beyond just bones and morphology,” stated Dr. Emmanuel Nudiemma, a researcher at the National Museum of Kenya.
“These peptide fragments can be utilized to delve into the relationships among ancient animals, much like contemporary methods that map human DNA relations.”
“Though a few animals analyzed in studies are completely extinct without living descendants, in theory, proteins could be extracted from their teeth and added to a phylogenetic tree,” Dr. Green elaborated.
“This information may clarify long-standing debates among paleontologists concerning the relationships among various mammalian lineages, utilizing molecular evidence.”
Survey results Today, I will be featured in the journal Nature.
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Dr. Green et al. Diverse enamel proteomes from rifts of East Africa over 108 million years. Nature Published online on July 9, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09040-9
Protein fragments survived in the extreme environment of Rift Valley, Kenya
Ellen Miller
In Kenya, fossilized teeth from an 18 million-year-old mammal yielded the oldest protein fragment ever discovered, extending the age record for ancient proteins by fivefold.
Daniel Green at Harvard, alongside Kenyan scientists, unearthed diverse fossil specimens, including teeth, in Kenya’s Rift Valley. Volcanic activity facilitated the preservation of these samples by encasing them in ash layers, enabling the age dating of the teeth to 18 million years. Nonetheless, it remained uncertain whether the protein in the tooth enamel endured.
The circumstances were not promising—Rift Valley is “one of the hottest places on Earth for the past 5 million years,” Green observes. This extreme environment presents “significant challenges.” Despite this, earlier research has detected tooth enamel proteins, albeit not from such ancient samples. To assess the longevity of protein traces, Green employed a small drill to extract powdered enamel from the teeth.
These samples were sent to Timothy Creland at the Smithsonian Museum Conservation Institute for analysis. He utilized mass spectrometry to categorize each molecular type in the sample by differentiating them by mass.
To his surprise, Creland uncovered sufficient protein fragments to yield significant classification insights. This identified the teeth as belonging to the ancient ancestors of elephants and rhinos, among other evidence. Creland expresses enthusiasm for demonstrating that “even these ancient species can be integrated into the Tree of Life alongside their modern relatives.”
While only a small amount of protein was recovered, the discovery remains monumental, asserts Frido Welker from the University of Copenhagen, Denmark. He emphasizes that growing protein and gaining insights into this ancient fossil is a “tremendous breakthrough.”
Unlike other tissues such as bone, sampling teeth is crucial for uncovering fragments of ancient and valuable proteins like these. “The sequence of enamel proteins varies slightly,” notes Creland.
The dental structure may have played a role in preserving proteins for such an extended period. As teeth are “primarily mineral,” these minerals assist in protecting enamel proteins through what Cleland describes as “self-chemical processes.” Furthermore, the enamel comprises only a small fraction of protein, aiding in its preservation, roughly 1%. “Whatever protein is present, it’s going to persist much longer,” Green asserts.
The endurance of protein fragments in Rift Valley suggests that fossils from other locales may also contain proteins. “We can genuinely begin considering other challenging regions of the planet, where we might not expect significant preservation,” Cleland comments. “Microenvironmental discrepancies may promote protein conservation.”
Beyond studying proteins from these specific periods, researchers aim to explore samples from various epochs. “We’re looking to delve deeper into history,” Cleland mentions. Green adds that analyzing younger fossils could offer a “baseline of expectation” for the number of conserved protein fragments compared to those from ancient specimens.
“We’re only beginning to scratch the surface,” Cleland concludes.
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Current forest die-offs due to global warming resemble those from the Permian and Triassic extinction events.
Ina Fassbender/AFP via Getty Images
Following a dramatic increase in carbon dioxide levels 252 million years ago, the death of forests resulted in enduring climate alterations, with the greenhouse effect persisting for millions of years.
Researchers striving to comprehend this phenomenon, which triggered the largest mass extinction in Earth’s history, caution that ongoing greenhouse gas emissions may lead to similar outcomes.
The extinction events of the Permian and Triassic are believed to have been triggered by extensive volcanic activity in what is now Siberia, elevating atmospheric CO2 concentrations.
The planet’s surface temperature soared by as much as 10°C, with average temperatures in the equatorial regions climbing to 34°C (93°F)—a rise of 8°C above the current average.
Although some scientists have recently posited that these mass extinction events may have limited effects on terrestrial ecosystems, Andrew Meldis from the University of Adelaide expresses confidence that life was nearly extinguished 252 million years ago.
“Small pockets of life might survive mass extinctions in isolated enclaves, but many areas within the Permian-Triassic fossil record reveal a complete ecosystem collapse,” notes Meldis.
He and his team scrutinized the fossil record to investigate why the Super Greenhouse event, which drives mass extinction, lasted five million years—far longer than the 100,000 years predicted by climate models.
The findings revealed that vast expanses of forests, originally with canopies of around 50 meters, were supplanted by resilient underground flora, typically ranging from 5 cm to 2 meters in height. Additionally, peat marshes, significant carbon storage ecosystems, vanished from tropical areas.
Employing computer models of Earth’s climatic and geochemical systems, researchers indicated that the depletion of these ecosystems contributes to elevated CO2 levels persisting for millions of years. This predominantly occurs because vegetation plays a crucial role in weathering, the mechanism that extracts carbon from the atmosphere and sequesters it in rocks and soil over extensive timescales.
With atmospheric CO2 levels rising rapidly, the parallels to the present are striking, asserts Meldis. As temperatures escalate, tropical and subtropical forests may find it increasingly challenging to adapt, potentially surpassing thresholds where vegetation ceases to maintain climate equilibrium.
Meldis explains that simply restoring former ecosystems will not lead to a “ping-pong effect.” He emphasizes that the atmosphere cannot be swiftly rejuvenated after the loss of the equatorial forest.
“You’re not transitioning from an ice house to a greenhouse and then back; the Earth will find a new equilibrium, which may differ significantly from prior states,” he elaborates.
Catlin Maisner, a researcher at the University of New South Wales—who was not involved in the study—describes reconstructing these events as analogous to “trying to assemble a jigsaw puzzle with many missing pieces,” yet acknowledges the team’s arguments as “plausible.”
However, she notes considerable uncertainty regarding oceanic processes during this period. “The ocean harbors far more carbon than land and atmosphere combined, and we still lack a comprehensive understanding of how marine biology, chemistry, and physical circulation were affected during that event,” cautions Meissner.
Archaeologists have discovered a collection of 35 wooden tools, including drilling sticks and pointed hand tools, at an early Paleolithic site in Gantanquin, southwestern China. These findings indicate that the humans who utilized these tools focused on creating implements for excavation and processing rather than for hunting purposes.
Wooden tools found on the Gangtankin property in China. Image credit: Liu et al. , doi: 10.1126/science.adr8540.
While early humans have crafted wood tools for more than a million years, such artifacts are exceedingly rare in archaeological records, particularly from the early to mid-Pleistocene epochs.
The majority of ancient wooden tools have been uncovered in Africa and Western Eurasia, with notable specimens like spears and throwing rods found in Germany and the UK, alongside structural elements from Zambia and wooden plaques and excavation rods from sites in Israel and Italy.
For years, the Bamboo hypothesis has suggested that early East Asian populations largely depended on bamboo for toolmaking, though there is limited archaeological evidence supporting organic material-based tools in this region.
In a recent study led by Dr. Jian-Hui Liu and colleagues from the Yunnan Cultural Relics and Archaeology Institute, a diverse array of artifacts from the Gantangqing site was analyzed.
Among these were 35 wooden artifacts displaying clear signs of intentional shaping and use, along with indications of wear, suggesting they were deliberately crafted by humans.
These tools, made from pine, included probable hook-like implements used for cutting plant roots, varying from large, double-handed excavation sticks to smaller portable tools.
“In comparison to other prominent prehistoric wooden tool sites in Europe, Gantankin is characterized by a variety of medium-sized hunting equipment as well as a broader scope of handheld tools primarily designed for excavating and processing plants,” the researchers noted.
“The sophistication of these wooden tools emphasizes the significance of organic artifacts in understanding early human behavior, especially in contexts where only stone tools might suggest a more ‘primitive’ technological landscape.”
A study detailing these findings was published today in the journal Science.
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Jian-Hui Liu et al. 2025. Wooden tools from Gantankin in southwestern China, dating back 300,000 years. Science 389 (6755): 78-83; doi: 10.1126/science.adr8540
Approximately 100 million years ago, dinosaurs might have congregated to engage in a mating dance in a tidal area near Denver, Colorado. Recent research published in Cretaceous Research indicates that numerous intriguing scrape marks found in the stones of Colorado’s renowned dinosaur ridges are identified as Leks, potentially the largest known dinosaur mating display sites.
“Leks, or ‘Keeping Arena,’ refers to a location where numerous individuals come together to showcase courtship behaviors to attract mates,” stated Dr. Caldwell Bunting, the lead author of the study, in a conversation with BBC Science Focus.
Many contemporary birds, including knots and feathers—descendants of dinosaurs—exhibit similar behaviors, noted Bunting.
The hypothesis that dinosaurs engaged in such rituals was initially suggested by paleontologist Dr. Martin Lockley, who had observed comparable marks in the vicinity. This new study significantly strengthens that hypothesis, uncovering over 30 different scrape marks across various sediment layers.
These scratches found on Colorado’s dinosaur ridges may have been created during mating displays akin to those of modern birds. – Getty
The marks can be classified into two types: broad, shallow bowl-like impressions and narrow scrapes. It appears many were produced during movements involving rotation and kicking actions by both feet.
Drone imagery from the 2019 US Geological Survey and subsequent follow-up surveys enabled the team to map the site accurately, as access to the area was strictly controlled.
“This was a remarkable discovery,” remarked Bunting, who collaborated with Lockley until his passing in 2023.
“Our excitement was palpable. Upon reviewing the drone footage, we immediately spotted scuffs covering the entire screen. It truly felt like a ‘Eureka!’ moment for me.”
While the exact species responsible for these markings remains uncertain, Bunting speculates that based on nearby fossil footprints, Acrocanthosaurus—a predator similar to T. Rex—and ostrich-like ornithomimids could be possible contenders.
Bunting argues that it’s improbable T. Rex would engage in similar courtship behaviors, as such rituals necessitate complex social dynamics likely associated with group herding and movement.
Bunting aims to revisit other possible LEK sites in western Colorado to reassess initial interpretations of the scuff marks found there.
If verified, these marks could provide significant insights into the reproductive behaviors of dinosaurs, revealing not only their mating practices but also their competition for partners.
Read more:
About our experts
Dr. Caldwell Bunting is an alumnus of Old Dominion University. His research has appeared in journals such as Sedimentary Geology and Cretaceous Research.
A global consortium of researchers has successfully sequenced the complete genome of adult male Egyptians from over four millennia ago, predating the unification of Egypt and enriching our understanding of the early dynastic period and prior kingdoms.
The Nevamun hunt in the swamp with his wife and daughter is part of a mural from Chapelle, the tomb of Nevamun in the New Kingdom, in 1350 BC. Image credit: Werner Forman Archive/Bridgeman Images.
Dr. Pontus Skoglund from the Francis Crick Institute stated:
“While Ancient Egypt offers a rich tapestry of history and archaeology, the challenges of DNA preservation have rendered the genomic records of early Egyptian ancestors largely unparalleled.”
“Recent advances in genetic technology have enabled us to transcend these barriers and mitigate DNA contamination, giving us the first genetic insights into potential migrations of Egyptian populations during this era.”
In this research, scientists obtained and sequenced DNA from individual teeth belonging to Nuway rats from a village located 265 km south of Cairo.
Through analysis of the genetic code, they discovered that a significant portion of the individual’s ancestry traced back to ancient populations in North Africa.
The remaining 20% of ancestry linked to ancient peoples from the fertile crescent, particularly from a region known as Mesopotamia (roughly corresponding to modern Iraq).
These findings provide genetic proof that populations migrated to Egypt, intermingling with the local populace—previously revealed only through archaeological artifacts.
However, researchers caution that additional genomic sequences are required to fully comprehend the variations among Egyptian ancestors during this period.
By examining the chemical markers found in teeth related to diet and environmental factors, they concluded that these individuals likely grew up in Egypt.
They also analyzed skeletal remains to estimate age, gender, height, and gather insights into their ancestry and way of life.
These markers indicated that the skeleton exhibited muscle markings suggestive of prolonged occupations, such as pottery or other trades requiring similar movements.
“By piecing together the evidence from this individual’s DNA, bones, and teeth, we were able to construct a detailed portrait,” remarked Dr. Adeline Mores Jacobs from Liverpool John Moores University.
“We anticipate that future DNA samples from ancient Egypt will enhance our understanding of this migration from West Asia.”
“This individual’s life story is remarkable,” noted Dr. Linus Girdland Flink, co-author from Liverpool John Moores University.
“He lived and died during a pivotal moment in ancient Egypt, with his skeleton excavated in 1902 and subsequently donated to the World Museum in Liverpool.”
“We are beginning to uncover this individual’s story, revealing ancestral connections to the fertile crescent and illustrating the intermingling of diverse groups during this time.”
“The skeletal markings provide significant clues about his personal life and lifestyle. His pelvic bones are enlarged, showing extensive activity, and his arms exhibit signs of repetitive motion, while his right foot displays notable arthritis.”
“These findings suggest a connection to ceramics, possibly involving the use of ceramic wheels in ancient Egypt.”
“Nonetheless, the elevated burial status associated with his remains is not typically expected for potters, indicating he may have achieved a higher social standing.”
Fresco from the Theban Necropolis showcasing an ancient Egyptian potter
DeAgostini/Getty Images
In a groundbreaking discovery, researchers sequenced the complete genome of an ancient Egyptian individual for the first time. The DNA was sourced from the remains of an elderly man, possibly a potter, who lived over 4,500 years ago.
The analysis revealed that this ancient Egyptian had inherited roughly 20% of his DNA from ancestors residing in the fertile crescent, situated more than 1,000 kilometers east of Egypt. This indicates a connection between Egyptian and Mesopotamian cultures, despite the considerable distance.
The remains were unearthed in the early 1900s from Nuweyrat, a necropolis located near Beni Hasan, Egypt. They were discovered within a ceramic vessel placed in the tomb of Iwage. Currently, these remains are housed at the World Museum in Liverpool, England.
“We successfully dated this individual’s remains using radiocarbon analysis,” states Adeline Morez Jacobs from Liverpool John Moore University. He lived between 2855 and 2570 BC, making him one of the earliest individuals from ancient Egypt, whose history spans from 3150 to 30 BC.
Both the skeleton and DNA confirm that the individual was male. Signs of arthritis and other physical indicators suggest he was between 44 and 64 years old. “He was likely in his 60s at the time of death, which is quite advanced for that period,” says Joel Eilish at Liverpool John Moore University.
The man’s social status remains uncertain. “He might have been buried in a manner associated with the upper class,” observes Ireland. However, his skeletal structure indicates a struggle with physical activity. Evidence suggests he frequently looked down or leaned forward, and that he sat on hard surfaces for extended periods. Researchers speculate that his probable profession was as a potter, based on preserved representations of various ancient Egyptian occupations.
Using samples collected from his tooth roots, the team was able to sequence the entire male genome. Previously, only partial genomes from three ancient Egyptians who lived in the region over 1,000 years ago had been achieved.
“There are few genetic sequences available from ancient Egypt,” remarks Shirly Ben-Dor Evian from Haifa University, Israel.
This scarcity is largely attributed to the warm climate, which accelerates DNA degradation. “The conditions are simply too hot,” avers team member Pontus Skoglund from the Francis Crick Institute in London, referring to the sequence as a ‘long shot.’
“We speculated that pot burials would create a stable environment, complementing the rock-cut tombs where these burials occurred,” explains Linus Girdland-Flink from the University of Aberdeen, UK.
As expected, around 80% of the genetic lineage of this male individual corresponds to North African ancestry. However, the remaining 20% aligns with populations from the fertile crescent covering parts of modern-day Iraq, western Iran, Syria, and Turkey.
There are multiple theories regarding this finding, according to Ben-Dor Evian. “Explorers often speculate about these connections,” she comments. Even after agriculture became prevalent, “there always existed a segment of the population that remained nomadic or semi-nomadic,” which may account for DNA migration between the fertile crescent and Egypt.
Archaeological evidence has previously indicated a link between ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. “A significant cultural connection existed between the two, sharing artistic motifs,” states Ireland, noting that items like Lapis Lazuli were traded between the regions.
This connection might also have influenced the inception of writing systems. “Initial writing appeared almost simultaneously in both areas,” he explains, “with the development of Mesopotamian and Egyptian hieroglyphics taking place just 300 years apart.”
“Was it a local invention originating in both regions? [or] Did they influence each other in some manner?” queries Ben-Dor Evian. “This theory could suggest interaction through the movement of individuals.”
Modern rendition of garum, a fermented fish sauce dating back to Roman times
Alexander Mychko / Alamy
Garum, a type of fermented fish sauce, was a favored condiment throughout the Roman Empire. Recent analyses of ancient DNA extracted from the production vats have uncovered the specific fish species used in this staple seasoning.
This Roman fish sauce was widely appreciated for its intense salty and umami flavors. However, philosopher Seneca famously remarked that one variant had a price “as audacious as that of rotten fish.” There were various types, including a liquid known as Garum or Liquamen, and a thicker paste called Allec. The preparation involved fermenting fish and plant materials, complicating the identification of the fish species used.
According to Paula Campos from the University of Porto, Portugal, “The small, fractured bones and the acidic conditions contribute significantly to the degradation of DNA.”
Campos and her team conducted DNA sequencing on bone samples dating back to the 3rd century AD, sourced from a Roman fish sauce production facility in northwestern Spain. They compared numerous overlapping DNA sequences against the complete fish genome, allowing them to confidently identify the species involved.
This analysis revealed that the remaining fish was predominantly European sardines, aligning with previous visual identifications at other Roman fish processing sites. Additional fish species such as herring, whiting, mackerel, and anchovy have also been identified in various garum production locales.
This finding indicates that “even degraded fish remains” can yield identifiable DNA, suggesting that “it could enhance our understanding of regional variations in the main ingredients of historical fish sauces and pastes,” noted Analisa Marzano, a colleague from the University of Bologna, Italy, who was not involved in the study.
The research shows a comparison of ancient and modern sardines, indicating less genetic mixing among sardine populations across different marine regions in ancient times. This knowledge “may help us gauge the impact of human-environment interactions over the centuries,” Marzano explained.
For future studies, Campos and her colleagues intend to analyze additional fish species from other Roman garum production sites. “We’re broadening our sampling to verify if the results are consistent throughout the Roman Empire,” she added.
Emotions can manifest as physical sensations—be it a surge of anger, a flutter of excitement, or waves of joy, our feelings often have a tangible presence in our bodies.
This phenomenon arises from the interplay between our mental and physical states.
For instance, experiencing anxiety on a first date may trigger a fight-or-flight response, leading to the release of hormones like adrenaline, which elevate heart rate and tense muscles, allowing you to perceive sensations in your chest and throughout your body.
Both positive and negative emotions can influence various bodily functions, including digestion, breathing, perspiration, skin sensitivity, salivation, blood circulation, body temperature, facial tension, and more.
That’s why we often refer to “gut feelings” and “nervous energy.” These physiological shifts can significantly impact our emotions, creating a continual feedback loop connecting our body and mind.
In 2013, a Finnish researcher conducted a study in which individuals mapped out how different emotions corresponded to specific body areas.
While each person’s emotional experience is unique, common sensations can often be found in specific regions. For example, anger typically resonates in the chest and hands, while happiness is prominently felt in the chest and face.
Over time, our perceptions of where we feel emotions in our bodies may have evolved.
A follow-up study in 2024 examined the emotional mappings of people in ancient Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) by analyzing a million words from historical texts to discover connections between emotions and body parts.
Researchers noted some parallels with present-day emotional responses. For instance, pride was linked to the heart by Mesopotamians, while happiness was most closely associated with the liver, and anger was related to the feet.
These distinctions may stem from Mesopotamian cultural beliefs surrounding the body, wherein the liver was viewed as the central organ of the soul’s essence.
This article addresses the inquiry from Elisevarn of Sheffield: “Why do we feel emotions in different parts of our body?”
For any questions, please email us atQuestion @sciencefocus.com or reach out viaFacebook,Twitter, orInstagramPage (please include your name and location).
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Paleontologists have unearthed a new species of large passerine birds based on fossilized remains from the Bannockburn Formation near St. Bathans in Otago, New Zealand.
Australian Magpie (Gymnorhina Tibicen), adults and juveniles, in Tabeumi, Fiji. Image credits: Charles J. Sharp, https://www.sharpphotography.co.uk / CC by-sa 4.0.
The newly identified bird inhabited New Zealand during the early Miocene period around 19 million years ago.
It has been named St. Batan’s Caloun (MioStrepera Canora), closely related to the Australian Magpie (Gymnorhina Tibicen) found in New Zealand today, likely exhibiting an entirely black plumage.
“We’ve experienced a lot of excitement and hard work,” shared Dr. Paul Scofield, senior curator at the Canterbury Museum.
“We probably haven’t encountered a member of this large magpie family for just five million years.”
“New Zealand’s ecosystem has undergone significant transformations over millions of years, welcoming diverse species throughout various eras,” noted Dr. Trevor Worthy, a researcher at Flinders University.
“There’s a notion that we should strive to restore New Zealand to its pre-European ecosystem.”
“However, that ecosystem had been in a constant state of flux for millions of years.”
“By the time humans arrived, Aotearoa had already lost much of the floral diversity that once thrived.”
“There were limited tree seeds available, but the decline of the choloun and other pigeons indicates this loss.”
“Different plant and animal groups emerged between 2.6 million and 11,700 years ago.”
“Even more have come since humans began to inhabit the land.”
“New Zealand’s pre-European ecosystem isn’t inherently better or worse than any other period in the past.”
“The fossil record hints at the absence of a utopian state and encourages us to celebrate the diversity present today.”
The fossilized remains of MioStrepera Canora were found at the St Bathans fossil site, which was once located at the bottom of a vast prehistoric lake.
“The research revealed that the Miocene bird population in New Zealand bears surprising similarities to contemporary Australian birds,” Dr. Scofield mentioned.
“New Zealand was vastly different during the Miocene, between 200,000 to 5 million years ago.”
“If you walked through New Zealand’s forests during that time, you would have seen abundant eucalyptus, laurel, and casuarinas, much like the forests of Australia today.”
“The most significant factor shaping New Zealand’s current landscape was the extinction of many plants and animals that thrived in warmer climates, following a rapid cooling that began around 13 million years ago.”
“It was likely not the only bird call you would have heard in ancient New Zealand.”
The discovery of MioStrepera Canora is detailed in a paper published in the journal Palz.
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Worth it et al. A large-scale clastatin passerine (Aves, Artamidae, Cracticinae) from the early Miocene of New Zealand. Palz published on June 25th, 2025. doi:10.1007/s12542-025-00736-x
Ancient artifacts crafted from mammoth tusks are the earliest recognized boomerangs
Talamo et al., 2025, PLOS One, CC-BY 4.0
The earliest known boomerang could be over 22,000 years older than previously believed, indicating it was crafted during a time when early humans exhibited a rise in artistic expression.
In 1985, archaeologists discovered a 72-centimeter ivory boomerang buried beneath six layers of sediment within the Obwazwa Cave in Poland. Further analysis of sediment revealed bone beads from Homo sapiens, made from nearby thumb bones, antlers, fox teeth, and pendants. In the 1990s, radiocarbon dating estimated the thumbs to be 31,000 years old, while surprisingly, the boomerang dated only to 18,000 years ago—thousands of years younger than the associated crafts.
Sarataramo at the University of Bologna suspects contamination. “Even minor amounts of modern carbon from adhesives and maintenance can skew radiocarbon dates by tens of thousands of years,” she explains. The analysis of carbon-nitrogen ratios in the thumbs indicated collagen changes, suggesting that the samples were not suitable for reliable radiocarbon dating.
Redoing the dating on the contaminated boomerang would have wasted resources and unnecessarily harmed significant artifacts, according to Taramo. Instead, she and her team re-dated the human thumb bones and 13 nearby animal bones, using statistical modeling to reconstruct the timeline. Their findings indicated that the entire sediment layer—along with the boomerangs and thumb bones—dated to approximately 39,000 to 42,000 years ago.
“In a way, this serves as a reminder for museums; if you discover something extraordinary, avoid covering it with glue or any repair materials prior to completing thorough analysis,” she asserts.
This new timeline suggests that the ivory boomerang predates the second oldest known wooden boomerang created by Australian Indigenous peoples. Unlike other simpler throwing tools, like the 300,000-year-old wooden artifact found in Schoningen, Germany, the boomerang has a curved, aerodynamic design, although it may not always return when thrown, according to Taramo.
While it’s likely that these ancient boomerangs could fly, their size and construction likely meant they did not return to the thrower. They may have held symbolic or ritual significance, potentially related to their placement alongside the thumb bones within a decorative stone ring, which featured intricate carvings and reddish pigments, along with a smooth polished surface.
This discovery provides insight into the cognitive abilities and craftsmanship of early humans during a remarkable period of artistic growth, known as the early Aulignacian, which began around 40,000 years ago. This era saw the emergence of iconic artifacts, including mammoth ivory figurines, rock art, and aesthetically refined tools in Europe, notes Taramo.
Dating back either 12 or 800 years ago, wild wallabies were caught and transported by canoe to nearby islands located dozens of kilometers away.
The Sahuru natives—a group of marsupials from a prehistoric landmass that eventually broke into Australia and New Guinea—likely accompanied human explorers and traders to the islands in Southeast Asia, providing food, decorative fur, and tools made from bones. This animal import is recognized as one of the earliest known instances of animal translocation, with established colonies thriving over millennia, according to Dylan Gaffney at Oxford University.
“This aligns with a broader understanding of how early humans managed, transported, and raised animals more deliberately than previously assumed. They didn’t merely endure in these tropical environments; they actively transformed them,” says Gaffney.
Research pertaining to species translocation typically prioritizes European explorers, who notably introduced invasive rabbits to Australia in the 18th and 19th centuries and reintroduced horses to the Americas in the late 1400s and early 1500s.
However, in the 1990s, two types of marsupial bones were identified—Phalanger Orientalis Breviceps or Phalanger Breviceps, along with Bandicoot bones (Echymipera Kalubu)—from the Eastern Islands of New Guinea, and Brown Forest Wallabies (Dorcopsis Muelleri) found on an island west of Halmahera, roughly 350 km from Sahuru’s ancient shores.
Based on the age of nearby charcoal remains and the sediment layers, research teams estimate that the Wallabies arrived around 8,000 years ago, while other species date back to between 13,000 and 24,000 years ago.
The specifics of how these animals arrived on the islands remain unclear—whether by human transport or natural means. To explore this, Gaffney and his colleagues examined a new archaeological site in Indonesia’s Rajaanpat Islands.
There, thousands-of-years-old skeletons indicate that the colony of brown forest wallabies thrived on the island about 4,000 years ago, though the reasons behind this are still uncertain.
Radiocarbon dating in a cave inland revealed evidence of wallabies being hunted and cooked as far back as 13,000 years ago, further supported by findings from another island to the west that dates back 5,000 years.
The team also uncovered several bone tools utilized in hunting and textile work, suggesting human activity at least 8,500 years ago.
In investigating how these animals arrived on distant islands, the team employed computer modeling that accounted for the sea levels and environmental conditions of that era.
This modeling supports the theory that humans transported the animals via canoes, Gaffney explains. Without human assistance, Wallabies would have struggled to survive the treacherous oceanic journey that could have lasted over 24 hours, relying on vegetation rafts for days to reach the islands. While swimming to nearby islands is conceivable, it’s uncertain whether forest wallabies (modern or ancient) possessed the ability to swim.
In contrast, canoe trips would have taken only a few hours to a couple of days, a timeframe that likely would have been manageable for breeding animals.
These findings underscore a sophisticated understanding of species movement by humans well before the era of European colonial expansion. Tom Matthews, who was not involved in the research and is from the University of Birmingham, UK, states, “We frequently assume that these introductions began within the last 500 years, but the evidence indicates that humans were reshaping their ecosystems long before then.”
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