Researchers at King’s College London have found significant connections between theobromine, a widely-known plant compound from cocoa, and measures of epigenetic aging, indicating that theobromine may be associated with human aging.
third others. We illustrate that the documented beneficial relationship between health and aging and theobromine intake extends to the molecular epigenetic level in humans. Image credit: Sci.News.
“Coffee and cocoa are popular foods and are linked to lower rates of cardiovascular disease and mortality,” commented lead author Ramy Saad, Ph.D., along with colleagues.
“They contain several significant alkaloids, including theobromine, caffeine, theophylline, paraxanthine, and 7-methylxanthine.”
“Theobromine and 7-methylxanthine are partial metabolites of caffeine, yet both exist in much greater concentrations in cocoa as unprocessed primary metabolites.”
“Theobromine has long been associated with various health benefits and aging. For instance, studies in model organisms have confirmed a link between theobromine and extended lifespan.”
“Moreover, various human cohort observational studies have reported clear links between theobromine intake and multiple aspects of improved health.”
“Nonetheless, the exact impacts of theobromine on health and aging remain unclear, and the molecular pathways behind these effects are largely unknown.”
In the research, scientists analyzed the levels of theobromine in individuals’ blood against blood-based indicators of biological aging.
Across two European cohorts, which included 509 participants from TwinsUK and 1,160 from KORA, individuals with elevated levels of theobromine in their bloodstream exhibited a lower biological age compared to their chronological age.
“Our research discovered a correlation between key components in dark chocolate and prolonged youthfulness,” stated the study’s senior author, Professor Jordana Bell.
“While we’re not advocating for increased dark chocolate consumption, this study sheds light on how common foods might offer insights into healthier, longer living.”
The researchers also explored whether other metabolites found in cocoa and coffee reflected similar associations.
However, they concluded that the effect appears to be unique to theobromine.
Two different assessments were used to measure the biological age of participants.
Some researchers examined chemical alterations in DNA to estimate an individual’s aging rate.
Other scientists assessed the length of telomeres, the protective end caps of chromosomes, as telomere shortening is linked with aging and age-associated diseases.
“This is a fascinating finding, and the next crucial question is: What drives this association, and how can we further explore the interactions between dietary metabolites and the epigenome?” Dr. Saad remarked.
“This strategy could unveil significant discoveries about both common and rare diseases, as related to aging and beyond.”
“This study has uncovered another molecular mechanism through which natural compounds present in cocoa promote health,” noted study co-author Dr. Ricardo Costeira.
“Although further investigation is warranted, the findings highlight the importance of population-level analysis in the fields of aging and genetics.”
of findings Published in a journal on December 10th aging.
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Ramy Third others. Theobromine is associated with delayed epigenetic aging. aging published online on December 10, 2025. doi: 10.18632/aging.206344
Paleontologists have discovered a 66-million-year-old Mosasaurus tooth within the Hell Creek Formation in North Dakota, USA. This find reinforces the idea that mosasaurs, often viewed as marine reptiles, also hunted in freshwater rivers.
Artist’s reconstruction of the Hell Creek Mosasaurus. Image credit: Christopher DiPiazza.
“Mosasaurs were apex predators in marine environments, diversifying during the Late Cretaceous and dominating a range of ecological niches,” stated paleontologist Melanie Dooling from Uppsala University and Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam alongside her team.
“The mosasauridae family is divided into three subfamilies: mosasauridae, plioplatecarpinidae, and tylosauridae, each showcasing unique adaptations that allow them to exploit various ecological opportunities.”
“Although mosasaurid fossils are often linked to shallow marine environments, findings of fossils in estuarine and freshwater settings challenge the notion that they were solely marine creatures.”
In 2022, a significant mosasaur tooth was unearthed from a multi-species fossil site in the Hell Creek Formation.
This area, once part of the ancient Western Interior Seaway, is well-known for a scarcity of marine species, primarily housing fossils of terrestrial and freshwater organisms.
The fossil was found in river sediments alongside an ancient tooth from a tyrannosaurus rex and a crocodile jawbone, indicating a rich ecosystem that included fossilized dinosaurs like edmontosaurus.
This specimen is related to the mosasaurid family prognatodontini, as its surface texture resembles that of other members in this group.
Researchers also studied isotopes within the tooth enamel to deduce the habitat of mosasaurs, discovering oxygen and strontium isotopic signatures indicative of freshwater conditions.
This may imply that mosasaurs preyed on freshwater animals, suggesting they could thrive and hunt away from oceanic environments.
“The carbon isotopes in teeth generally reflect the diet of the organism,” Dr. Dühring explained.
“Many mosasaurs exhibit low 13C values, allowing for deeper dives.”
“The teeth of Mosasaurus, in contrast, have higher 13C values compared to those of all known mosasaurs, dinosaurs, and crocodiles, indicating they likely did not dive deeply and may have occasionally consumed drowned dinosaurs.”
“Isotopic data suggest this mosasaur inhabited freshwater river environments.”
“When we examined two additional mosasaurus teeth from a nearby, slightly older site, we noted similar freshwater isotopic signatures.”
“These analyses indicate that mosasaurs inhabited fluvial environments for about the last million years before their extinction.”
Further examination of older mosasaurus teeth and other fauna from the Western Interior Seaway suggested isotopic concentrations more aligned with freshwater rather than saltwater habitats.
This points to a gradual decrease in salinity in the region over time.
The authors propose that members of Prognathodontini might have been opportunistic predators inhabiting niches similar to modern species, akin to the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), believed to have adapted to freshwater systems in response to the receding salinity of the Western Interior Seaway, gradually moving into the Hell Creek channel.
“We also analyzed fossils from other marine species and found distinct differences,” stated Dr. Per Ahlberg, a paleontologist at Uppsala University.
“Gill-breathing animals possessed isotopic signatures linked to brackish or saltwater, while all lung-breathing organisms did not.”
“This indicates that mosasaurs, which required surface access to breathe, lived in the upper freshwater layer rather than the saltier deeper layers.”
The team’s paper was published in the Journal on December 12, 2025, in BMC Zoology.
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in the midst of chaos others. 2025. King of the Riverside offers a fresh perspective on pre-extinct mosasaurs through a multi-proxy approach. BMC Zuhl 10, 25; doi: 10.1186/s40850-025-00246-y
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope have identified the chemical signature of a protostar with a mass between 1,000 and 10,000 times that of the Sun in GS 3073, an early galaxy with a redshift of 5.55 (approximately 1 billion years post-Big Bang).
A primordial supermassive star in the early universe. Image credit: Gemini AI.
In 2022, it was suggested by astronomers that supermassive stars formed naturally within turbulent flows of rare cold gas during the early universe, thus accounting for the existence of quasars less than a billion years after the Big Bang.
“Our recent finding helps to unravel a cosmic enigma that has persisted for two decades,” stated Dr. Daniel Whalen of the University of Portsmouth.
“GS 3073 offers the first observational proof of these colossal stars.”
“These astronomical behemoths would have radiated intensely for a brief period before collapsing into enormous black holes, leaving behind chemical imprints detectable billions of years later.”
“Much like Earth’s dinosaurs, they were massive and rudimentary, with lifespans spanning just 250,000 years—an ephemeral moment in cosmic time.”
The cornerstone of this discovery involved assessing the nitrogen-to-oxygen ratio in the GS 3073 galaxy.
This galaxy presents a nitrogen-to-oxygen ratio of 0.46, significantly exceeding what can be accounted for by any known type of star or stellar explosion.
“Chemical abundances serve as the universe’s fingerprints, and the pattern from GS 3073 is unlike that produced by typical stars,” remarked Dr. Devesh Nandal, an astronomer at the University of Virginia, Harvard University, and the Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
“This unprecedented nitrogen concentration aligns with a single known source: protostars that are thousands of times more massive than the Sun.”
“This suggests that the first generation of stars included genuine supermassive objects that contributed to the creation of early galaxies and may have planted the seeds for contemporary supermassive black holes.”
The researchers performed modeling of stars with masses between 1,000 and 10,000 solar masses to predict their evolution and the elements they would produce.
They identified a specific mechanism for generating substantial nitrogen. (i) These colossal stars fuse helium, forming carbon in their cores. (ii) Carbon seeps into the outer shell, where hydrogen is undergoing fusion. (iii) Carbon merges with hydrogen, resulting in nitrogen through the carbon/nitrogen/oxygen (CNO) cycle. (iv) Convection disseminates nitrogen throughout the star. (v) Eventually, this nitrogen-rich material is expelled into space, enriching the surrounding gas.
This mechanism spans millions of years during the star’s helium burning phase, leading to the excess nitrogen observed in GS 3073.
The team’s models predict that upon demise, these massive stars do not explode. Instead, they collapse directly into gigantic black holes with masses reaching thousands of solar masses.
Interestingly, GS 3073 harbors an actively feeding black hole at its core, which could potentially be the remnant of one of these supermassive first stars.
If validated, this would simultaneously clarify two mysteries: the origin of nitrogen and the formation of black holes.
The study also revealed that this nitrogen signature is exclusive to specific mass ranges.
“Stars below 1,000 solar masses or above 10,000 solar masses do not generate chemical patterns suitable for this signature, indicating a ‘sweet spot’ for such enrichment,” scientists noted.
of study Published in Astrophysics Journal Letter.
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Devesh Nandal others. 2025. A protostar between 1000 and 10,000 MSun created a nitrogen surplus in GS 3073 at z = 5.55. APJL 994, L11; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ae1a63
A novel genus and species of mid-Oligocene nimuravid has been identified from fossil remains unearthed in northern China. This finding enhances our understanding of Nimurabiidae in eastern Eurasia.
Reimagining the life of Taotienimravus songi in a Chinese painting style. Image credit: Yuefeng Song.
Taotienimravus songi inhabited what is now China during the mid-Oligocene period, around 28 million years ago.
This ancient species is part of the Nimuravidae family, an extinct group of saber-toothed hypercarnivores, often referred to as pseudosaber-toothed cats.
“Carnivora demonstrates the broadest range in body sizes among mammals, with the smallest weasel weighing roughly 50 g. Pinnipeds average over 3 tons,” stated Dr. Qigao Jiangzuo of the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences.
“With few exceptions, such as the bear family, large terrestrial carnivores, particularly those exceeding 20 kg, generally maintain a macrocarnivorous diet, targeting large prey of similar size or larger.”
“Often called pseudosabertooths, the Nimurabiidae represents one of the earliest diverging lineages within the Carnivora order, noted for their large size, hypercarnivorous craniodental features, and potentially macrocarnivorous behaviors,” the researchers added.
“The earliest fossils from this family, dating back to the mid-Eocene, belonged to highly specialized species exhibiting cat-like craniodental characteristics.”
“Nimuravidae underwent radiation during the Eocene to Oligocene, with the best-preserved specimens found primarily in North America, where numerous skulls and complete skeletons have been discovered.”
“Eurasia also contains numerous fossil remains, though they tend to be poorly preserved.”
“As the first lineage within Carnivora to develop large body sizes, this family is an excellent model for studying the evolution of early large carnivorous niches in an environmental context vastly different from that of today.”
The skeletal remains of Taotienimravus songi were discovered in the Qingshuiying Formation in northern China.
Specimen analysis indicates that this new species uniquely displays non-saber-toothed morphology with bone-cracking adaptations within the Nimuravidae family.
This animal likely engaged in a killing behavior distinct from other feline carnivores, possibly employing a tearing bite akin to that of hyenas.
“The defining characteristics of the new Nimuravid include exceptionally short and robust upper canine teeth along with a notably wide palatal area,” the paleontologists noted.
“The rostrum is exceedingly wide, probably the widest of any known Nimravid.”
“In contrast to many feline carnivores, the premolars do not diminish in size; rather, they increase, eliminating the gap between the canines and cheek teeth.”
“This contrasts with most feline carnivores, which almost invariably exhibit diastema.”
“We interpret this absence of a gap as an indicator of a strong canine bite, allowing for deep penetration into prey.”
Phylogenetic analysis positions Taotienimravus songi within the Nimravinae, creating a sister lineage to those in Europe and North America, such as Nimravus and Dinahelurus.
This clade shares a close relation to the European lineage encompassing Iofelis, Denailictis, and Quercyllus.
“The increase in size within Nimuravidae seems to align with the extinction of another carnivorous group, Oxyaenidae, during the Paleogene,” the researchers stated.
“The initial emergence of large carnivorous traits within the Carnivora order likely reflects competitive interactions driven by ecomorphic dynamics.”
“Nimuravidae effectively occupied ecological niches unavailable to Felidae, probably due to the lack of competition within Carnivora for much of their evolutionary history.”
“This study emphasizes the impact of both abiotic and biotic factors in shaping niche availability for these animals and underscores the need to discuss niche evolution and change within this framework.”
A study detailing this discovery was published on November 26, 2025, in Proceedings of the Royal Society B.
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Qigao Jiangzuo et al. 2025. A new ecomorph of the Nimravidae and the exploration of early large carnivores within the order Carnivora. Proc Biol Sci 292 (2059): 20251686; doi: 10.1098/rspb.2025.1686
At its core, a star is formed when gravity gathers matter tightly enough to facilitate nuclear fusion in its center while also ensuring it doesn’t generate enough energy to disintegrate. The equilibrium between the gravitational forces pulling inward and the radiative forces pushing outward is referred to as: hydrostatic equilibrium. This balance constrains the size that stars can attain. This limit is known as the Eddington mass limit, which is believed to range between 150 and 300 solar masses.
When stars rotate, they have an enhanced ability to maintain their structure because a rotating body generates a force directed inward from its outer edges. This force is called centripetal force. As the star spins, it applies a centripetal force that acts alongside gravity, balancing the radiation pressure. Recently, a group of scientists investigated how the rotation of giant stars impacts their lifetimes throughout cosmic history. Massive stars contribute significantly to key cosmic phenomena, and understanding their end stages can shed light on the universe’s formation, including the creation of black holes and supernovae.
The researchers employed grid-based modeling software called the Geneva Stellar Evolution Code, also known as Genec. This tool helped simulate stellar behavior and long-term evolution based on initial characteristics. GENEC treats a star as a multi-layered system and tracks the movement of matter across these layers over time.
Two primary variables in their simulations were the star’s rotation status and its initial mass, which ranged from 9 to 500 solar masses. The researchers indicated that current science portrays very massive stars, those exceeding 100 solar masses, as inherently unstable and unpredictable. To clarify this, the team analyzed results for these colossal stars, utilizing 2other models.
To understand how the fates of giant rotating stars have evolved, the researchers examined the ratio of stars containing elements heavier than hydrogen and helium ( metallic). They argued that since the early universe after the Big Bang had few metals, the modern universe must contain significantly more, allowing metallicity to serve as a proxy for stellar evolution. By analyzing spinning stars with low metallicity, they sought insights into the lifespan of the early universe’s rotating stars.
Following the GENEC simulations, the researchers observed distinct differences in the fates of rotating versus non-rotating stars. Spinning massive stars were more likely to collapse into black holes while being less prone to massive supernova eruptions or transitioning into dense neutron stars. The research indicated that very massive, non-rotating stars with low metallicity tend to explode as supernovae, whereas those with high metallicity collapse into black holes.
The researchers proposed that this intricate relationship arises because rotating stars tend to have more of their material mixed, increasing the fusion potential in their cores. However, this rotational dynamic can also lead to the ejection of more outer material, ultimately reducing the fusion resources available in the core.
An additional complicating factor arises from the frequent occurrence of multiple massive stars in close proximity, forming a binary system. In these scenarios, stars can exchange mass, either gaining or losing material. The researchers suggest that because massive stars in binary systems may shed mass before their lifetimes conclude, their model could underestimate the frequency of massive stars evolving into neutron stars rather than exploding or collapsing into black holes.
In summary, the team concluded that rotation intricately influences star evolution. While rotation increases the likelihood of a massive star undergoing certain outcomes, such as collapsing into a black hole, factors like composition and initial mass significantly affect its destiny. Acknowledging the multitude of variables, the researchers emphasized that the next phase in understanding massive stars’ fates should focus on identifying stars in binary systems.
The flow of melted snow creates channels through a glacier cave at the Morteratsch Glacier in Switzerland.
Lander Van Tricht
Currently, approximately 1,000 glaciers are disappearing each year, and if nations fulfill their carbon emission reduction goals, this could escalate to 3,000 glaciers lost annually by 2040.
Over the past two decades, at least 4,000 glaciers have melted. Lander Van Tricht and researchers at ETH Zurich in Switzerland utilized climate models to forecast the fate of the globe’s 211,000 glaciers in the coming century under various global warming scenarios.
If current climate targets remain unchanged, the planet is predicted to warm by 2.7 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels this century. This projection implies that 79% of the world’s glaciers will vanish by 2100. Conversely, if humanity manages to limit climate change to 2 degrees Celsius, 63% of glaciers will disappear.
“While we are destined to lose many glaciers, we still have the potential to protect a significant number,” observes David Rounce, who conducted research at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
If countries fail to meet their emissions targets and global warming escalates to 4°C, a staggering 91% of glaciers will be lost.
The forecast for glacier melting is predicted to accelerate sea level rise this century by 25 centimeters. Additionally, it will diminish the summer snowmelt water supply that many regions depend on for irrigation. Approximately two billion individuals live in watersheds nourished by mountain snow and ice, with many residing near rivers originating from Himalayan glaciers.
Moreover, melting ice poses a higher risk of flooding caused by sudden water releases from glacial lakes. In a 2023 incident in India, flooding resulted in the deaths of 55 individuals.
Previous studies have indicated that even if warming is restricted to the Paris Agreement’s most ambitious goal of 1.5 degrees Celsius, half of all glaciers will still melt this century. The recent research suggests that up to 55% may be lost at this level of warming.
The study also outlines the annual glacier loss rate by region. This rate is expected to peak around the mid-century and then decline as smaller glaciers disappear, leaving behind larger ones, particularly in the North and South Poles.
“Large ice takes time to melt, so they will take longer to disappear,” Van Tricht explains.
According to current climate goals, western Canada and the continental United States are likely to lose nearly all their glaciers by 2100. This is a significant setback for tourism, as Montana’s Glacier National Park is expected to lose the majority of its glaciers, although some may endure as small glaciers or ice remnants, based on future studies from the U.S. Geological Survey.
Similarly, the Alps are projected to be largely devoid of glaciers. Local communities are already holding glacier funerals, chronicling the stories of global glacier losses at a dedicated website. In 2019, around 250 individuals, including professors from ETH Zurich involved in this research, trekked to the remnants of the Pizol glacier.
They gathered not only to bid farewell but also to convey to the public that “we are connected to the glacier,” stated Matthias Hass. “When they are gone, it will be a significant loss for us.”
Witnessing the solar eclipse in Menan, Idaho in 2017
Natalie Behring/Getty Images
As the year comes to a close, I find joy in marking my calendar in anticipation of the astronomical events ahead. My highlights for 2026 include a lineup of planetary alignments, various eclipses, and the frequent meteor showers visible across both hemispheres, barring any special notes.
January continues with active solar flares, promising darkened skies in the Northern Hemisphere and ample chances to see the aurora borealis. The Quadrantids meteor shower will peak on January 3, but be aware that the full moon that night may hinder visibility of some of the dimmer meteors.
Throughout January, Jupiter will be shining brightly when it reaches opposition, situating it directly opposite the Sun from Earth’s perspective. This is an excellent opportunity to view this magnificent planet using binoculars or a telescope.
On February 28, you’ll have the chance to view a remarkable six-planet alignment, featuring Mercury, Venus, Neptune, Saturn, Uranus, and Jupiter all visible together shortly after sunset.
A total lunar eclipse will grace parts of North and South America, Asia, Australia, and the Pacific Islands on March 2 and 3. As the moon slips into Earth’s shadow, it will take on a darker, red hue, earning the title Blood Moon.
Noteworthy meteor showers on the calendar include the Lyrids peaking on April 22, the Perseids on August 12, the Leonids on November 17, and the Geminids on December 14.
Alongside these showers, don’t miss the total solar eclipse on August 12. Observers in select locations will see the moon blocking the sun entirely, reminiscent of the scene captured in Menan, Idaho, in 2017.
The totality phase, when the sun is completely obscured by the moon, can last up to 2 minutes and 18 seconds. This solar spectacle will be visible in northern Spain, the Balearic Islands, parts of Russia, Greenland, and Iceland, while a partial solar eclipse will be observable from many other regions worldwide. Following this, a partial lunar eclipse, or Blood Moon, is slated for August 28.
If you possess a powerful telescope, mark September 25 as the prime opportunity to observe Neptune, as it will be at its closest to Earth, fully illuminated by the Sun. Additionally, on October 4, Saturn reaches opposition, making it the optimal time for observing Saturn and its rings through small telescopes all night.
Concluding 2026 are two supermoons; the Beaver Moon on November 24 and another supermoon gracing the sky on Christmas Eve. Enjoy your stargazing experiences!
In 2025, science faces numerous challenges, ranging from vaccine skepticism within the U.S. government to the ongoing global inertia in addressing climate change. Those who value logic and empirical evidence must rally against this growing adversity. New Scientist not only highlights these issues but also celebrates the awe and curiosity elicited by space exploration.
As you prepare to indulge in the joyful festivities represented in our Double Vacation issue, it’s essential to recognize the threats encountered by those passionate about science. The past year has been riddled with stark instances of scientific principles being distorted and misapplied.
The degradation of U.S. scientific integrity under President Donald Trump is glaring, even for those outside the country (see “Donald Trump and Elon Musk jeopardize science in 2025”). For many years, the U.S. has been a significant funder of scientific research, benefiting both the nation and many others. However, that narrative shifted dramatically this year. By severely cutting funding (or, in Elon Musk’s case, going as far as using a chainsaw), numerous breakthroughs will remain undiscovered, essential medicines will go untested, and technological advancements will stagnate, ultimately impoverishing us.
While government funding is crucial, it’s not the sole source. Two articles this year underscore the risks inherent in relying on corporate interests for scientific funding. If you are a regular reader of New Scientist, you may have encountered Colossal Biosciences, a U.S. company that claims to work on “de-extinction” of endangered species (see “De-extinction of endangered species captivated 2025, yet fell short of expectations”). One of their most talked-about acts this year was the introduction of genetically modified gray wolves named Romulus, Remus, and Khaleesi.
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Results may take time, but science exists to serve, save, and delight us all. “
Colossal asserted that these were the first extant dire wolves since their extinction 10,000 years ago—a claim fervently endorsed by global media despite backlash from independent scientists. In the ongoing struggle between fact and spectacle, it seems the latter continues to prevail.
A similar scenario unfolded in a British documentary that aired in November, entitled Hitler’s DNA: The Dictator’s Blueprint. Although the scientists succeeded in identifying and sequencing the genome of the infamous dictator, the sensationalistic interpretations asserting potential schizophrenia or autism cast doubt on the credibility of their findings. While the documentary and its distressing headlines have faded, the scientific paper that would allow us to critically assess the study’s conclusions is still forthcoming.
On another front, progress in climate action is evident. Science and public policy have been effectively aligned since the Paris Agreement, which was designed to limit global warming to below 1.5°C. Unfortunately, it appears this goal is not being realized.
The Paris Agreement includes a “ratchet” mechanism aimed at holding nations accountable for making new commitments every five years to combat climate change. Regrettably, about 95% of countries failed to meet their deadlines by February, with only around 60% making progress before the COP30 climate summit in Belem, Brazil, in November.
The retreat didn’t stop there. As we approached the end of 2024, we urged Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva to “take the stage with solemn world leaders who have concrete plans to improve and publicly recognize the failures of the COP process thus far.” Yet, countries could not even reach a consensus on the inclusion of “fossil fuels” in the final COP30 document.
But let’s shift focus from the gloom for a moment. After all, it’s a festive time, and there’s much to celebrate! Another significant theme of 2025 is the centennial of quantum mechanics, extensively covered in our special issue in April. The year concludes with the exciting revelation that a thought experiment conceived by Einstein and Bohr has come to fruition (see “Quantum experiment resolves century-long tension between Einstein and Bohr”). This certainly confirms the strangeness of quantum mechanics!
Other delightful news in 2025 includes the ongoing success of GLP-1 medications not only aiding weight loss but also treating a myriad of conditions (see “The transformative potential of GLP-1 drugs skyrocketed in 2025”) and, in perhaps a playful twist, individuals being able to perceive entirely new colors (see “New colors witnessed by people for the first time in 2025”).
This issue offers an enticing array of content to please both your palate and your intellect during the holiday season. If you’re in the mood for a fresh take on Charles Dickens, explore “How Three Imaginary Physics Demons Tear the Laws of Nature Apart,” which tells the tale of three demons haunting a physicist. As you unwind after another frenetic year, consider a novel approach to meditation for those with limited time (see “Too Busy to Meditate? Microdosing Mindfulness Packs Major Health Benefits”). Learn about the top careers in science at the Touch and Tickle lab, with insights on “What the Evolution of Tickling Reveals About Being Human.” Finally, why not quench your thirst with the world’s oldest beer (see: “Did ancient peoples begin farming to increase their beer consumption?”)?
As we set our sights on 2026 and the challenges that lie ahead, let’s not forget the immense power and wonder that science holds. Despite skepticism and negativity, scientific research and the knowledge it imparts remain unrivaled in understanding and improving our world. Though it may take time to witness results—much like the century-spanning gap between Einstein and Bohr’s debate and its resolution—science exists to serve, save, and bring joy to us all.
Here’s to hoping for better fortune in the coming year, or at the very least, a more advantageous outcome from random chance.
Disney stated that its AI image generator Midjourney was developed using films like ‘The Lion King’
Maximum Film/Alamy
Since the launch of ChatGPT, OpenAI’s generative AI chatbot, three years ago, we’ve witnessed dramatic shifts across various aspects of our lives. However, one area that remains unchanged is adherence to copyright law. We still strive to uphold pre-AI standards.
It’s widely recognized that leading AI firms have developed models by harvesting data from the internet, including copyrighted content, often without securing prior approval. This year, prominent copyright holders have retaliated, filing various lawsuits against AI companies for alleged copyright violations.
The most notable lawsuit was initiated in June by Disney and Universal, claiming that the AI image generation platform Midjourney was trained using their copyrighted materials and enabled users to produce images that “clearly included and replicated Disney and Universal’s iconic characters.”
The proceedings are still underway, with Midjourney’s recent response in August asserting, “The limited monopoly granted by copyright must yield to fair use,” suggesting that the outcome would be transformative, permitting AI companies to educate models with copyrighted works.
Midjourney’s statements highlight that the copyright debate is more complex than it might seem at first glance. “Many believed copyright would serve as the ultimate barrier against AI, but that’s not entirely true,” remarks Andres Guadams from the University of Sussex, UK, expressing surprise at how little impact copyright has had on the progress of AI enterprises.
This is occurring even as some governments engage in discussions on the matter. In October, the Japanese government made an official appeal to OpenAI, urging the company behind the Sora 2 AI video generator to honor the intellectual property rights of its culture, including its manga and beloved video games like those from Nintendo.
Sora 2 is embroiled in further controversy due to its capability to generate realistic footage of real individuals. OpenAI recently tightened restrictions on representations of Martin Luther King Jr. after family representatives raised concerns about a depiction of his iconic “I Have a Dream” speech that included inappropriate sounds.
“While free speech is crucial when portraying historical figures, OpenAI believes that public figures and their families should ultimately control how their likenesses are represented,” the company stated. This restriction was only partially effective, as celebrities and public figures must still opt-out from having their images utilized in Sora 2. Some argue this remains too permissive. “No one should have to tell OpenAI if they wish to avoid being deepfaked,” states Ed Newton Rex, a former AI executive and founder of the campaign group Fairly Trained.
In certain instances, AI companies face legal challenges over their practices, as highlighted by one of the largest proposed lawsuits from the past year. In September, three authors accused Anthropic, the firm behind the Claude chatbot, of deliberately downloading over 7 million pirated books for training its AI models.
A judge reviewed the case and concluded that even if the firm had utilized this material for training, it could be considered a sufficiently “transformational” use that wouldn’t inherently infringe copyright. However, the piracy allegations were serious enough to warrant trial proceedings. Anthropic ultimately decided to settle the lawsuit for at least $1.5 billion.
“Significantly, AI companies appear to be strategizing their responses and may end up disbursing a mix of settlements and licensing deals,” Guadams noted. “Only a small number of companies are likely to collapse due to copyright infringement lawsuits,” he adds. “AI is here to stay, even if many established players may fail due to litigation and market fluctuations.”
Green hydrogen offers numerous potential applications
Bernat Armangue/Associated Press/Alamy
Hydrogen, the most prevalent element in the universe, generates energy when it reacts with oxygen, producing only water as a by-product. This is why it is being hailed by politicians as a versatile solution to combat climate change, potentially powering the multitude of vehicles and industries that currently depend on fossil fuels.
However, 99% of the hydrogen in circulation today is “gray” hydrogen, derived from processes that decompose methane or coal gas, subsequently releasing carbon dioxide. To attain net-zero emissions, many nations are now pivoting towards “blue” hydrogen, which captures this CO2 before releasing it into the atmosphere, or “green” hydrogen, generated by using renewable energy to split water molecules.
UN Secretary-General António Guterres has remarked that green hydrogen represents a significant opportunity for Western nations to contend with China in the clean technology sector This was articulated at a press briefing on December 3rd.
The challenge is that low-carbon hydrogen costs at least double that of gray hydrogen. To boost production and reduce prices, government incentives are essential. While the European Union and others are backing the sector, former President Donald Trump has begun to dismantle proposed low-carbon hydrogen initiatives. This effort is ongoing in the US via a $7 billion initiative.
As a result of these obstacles, the analytics company BloombergNEF has revised its prediction for low-carbon hydrogen production down to just 5.5 million tonnes by 2030, amounting to around 5% of current gray hydrogen usage. Experts suggest that, given the limited availability of supplies, governments and organizations ought to concentrate on utilizing clean hydrogen where it is most beneficial for both the environment and the economy.
“Hydrogen can do nearly everything, but that doesn’t mean it should,” states Russell McKenna from ETH Zurich, Switzerland.
Recent studies conducted by McKenna and his team evaluated the CO2 emissions associated with producing and transporting low-carbon hydrogen for projects globally in 2000, contrasting it with the CO2 emissions this hydrogen could displace. Their findings indicate that hydrogen could significantly impact the climate in the manufacturing of steel, biofuels, and ammonia.
Conversely, employing hydrogen for road transport, electricity generation, and home heating sees limited emissions reductions.
Steel
In a blast furnace, coke made from coal serves the dual purpose of generating heat to melt iron oxide ore and supplying the carbon needed for chemical reactions that remove oxygen from the ore. Therefore, merely heating the metal using renewable electricity is insufficient. The reaction requires a carbon alternative, and hydrogen can produce water instead of CO2.
“The current technology allows for the production of iron from iron ore at an industrial scale without CO2 emissions, and that technology is hydrogen,” asserts David Dye from Imperial College London. “Any alternative would require substantial advancements in technology.”
Green steel startup Stegra is in the process of establishing a facility in northern Sweden, which aims to be the first carbon-neutral steel factory by the end of 2026, utilizing electric furnaces and green hydrogen generated from local river water. Similar projects are also being developed in Europe, Asia, and North America.
Nevertheless, generating green hydrogen and powering arc furnaces demands affordable renewable electricity. This year, the multinational steel producer ArcelorMittal declined a €1.3 billion subsidy aimed at transitioning two German steel mills to hydrogen, citing elevated electricity costs.
Ammonia
Crops require nitrogen in the form of nitrates to thrive, yet the soil contains limited nitrates. In the early 20th century, chemists Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch created a process that combines nitrogen, abundantly available in the air, with hydrogen to synthesize ammonia, which can then be transformed into various fertilizers.
This innovation fueled the agricultural revolution and the expansion of the global population, and today, hydrogen is primarily utilized in oil refining and ammonia production. Approximately 70% of all ammonia is used as fertilizer, while the remainder is employed in producing plastics, explosives, and other chemicals.
“You can’t electrify this… because it’s a chemical reaction requiring that input,” explains McKenna. “Thus, we need hydrogen, but it has to be decarbonized.”
Countries like Saudi Arabia are beginning to construct facilities that will leverage solar and wind energy to produce hundreds of thousands of tons of green ammonia, primarily for export. Simultaneously, a startup is working on compact, modular plants to generate green hydrogen and ammonia directly at US agricultural sites. However, at present, all these methods depend on governmental funding and tax incentives.
Alternative Fuel
Ammonia can also be burned in engines. While passenger vehicles and many trucks can efficiently operate on electricity, long-range transport methods, such as large trucks, ships, and airplanes, face challenges with battery storage and charging. Hydrogen holds potential as a key element in generating low-carbon fuels for this segment.
Research led by McKenna and his team has identified that manufacturing hydrotreated vegetable oils is one of the most advantageous applications of hydrogen. This involves treating used cooking oil with hydrogen to break down fats into combustible hydrocarbons.
Both ammonia and hydrotreated vegetable oil are being explored as substitutes for marine heavy fuel oil, which contributes to 3% of global emissions. The aviation sector, with a comparable carbon footprint, may also transition to ammonia.
Since hydrogen is produced independently of oil and closely resembles kerosene, it could also be harnessed to create synthetic aviation fuel compatible with existing aircraft.
In the long term, research teams at institutions like Cranfield University in the UK are conceptualizing aircraft featuring powerful tanks designed to store compressed hydrogen. Hydrogen and ammonia, which generate nitrogen oxide pollution when combusted, could alternatively be combined with oxygen in fuel cells, resulting in electricity and water. Ultimately, a fuel cell-powered aircraft represents a significant objective. Phil Longhurst from Cranfield University remarks.
“Hydrogen is the cleanest, zero-carbon fuel accessible, so it’s essentially the holy grail,” he concludes.
In the tech sector, there are few instances that can be dubbed “big bang” moments—transformative events that reshape our understanding of technology’s role in the world.
The emergence of the World Wide Web marked a significant “before and after” shift. Similarly, the launch of the iPhone in 2007 initiated a smartphone revolution.
November 2022 saw the release of ChatGPT, another monumental event. Prior to this, artificial intelligence (AI) was largely unfamiliar to most people outside the tech realm.
Nonetheless, large-scale language models (LLMs) rapidly became the fastest-growing application in history, igniting what is now referred to as the “generative AI revolution.”
However, revolutions can struggle to maintain momentum.
Three years post-ChatGPT’s launch, many of us remain employed, despite alarming reports of mass job losses due to AI. Over half of Britons have never interacted with an AI chatbot.
Whether the revolution is sluggish is up for debate, but even the staunchest AI supporters acknowledge that progress may not be as rapid as once anticipated. So, will AI evolve to become even smarter?
What Exactly Is Intelligence?
The professor posits that determining if AI has hit a plateau in intelligence hinges on how one defines “intelligence.” Katherine Frik, Professor of AI Ethics at Staffordshire University, states, “In my view, AI isn’t genuinely intelligent; it simply mimics human responses that seem intelligent.”
For her, the answer to whether AI is as smart as ever is affirmative—because AI has never truly been intelligent, nor will it ever be.
“All that can happen is that we improve our programming skills so that these tools generate even more convincing imitations of intelligence. Yet, the essence of thought, experience, and reflection will always be inaccessible to artificial agents,” she observes.
Disappointment in AI stems partly from advocates who, since its introduction, claimed that AI could outperform human capabilities.
This group included the AI companies themselves and their leaders. Dario Amodei, CEO of Anthropic, known for the Claude chatbot, has been one of the most outspoken advocates.
AI chatbots are helpful tools, but they lack true intelligence – Credit: Getty
The CEO recently predicted that AI models could exceed human intelligence within three years, a claim he has previously made but was ultimately incorrect.
Frik acknowledges that “intelligence” takes on various meanings in the realm of AI. If the query is about whether models like ChatGPT or Claude will see improvements, her response may differ.
“[They’ll probably] see further advancements as new methods are developed to better replicate [human-style interaction]. However, they will never transcend from advanced statistical processors to genuine, reflective intelligence,” she adds.
Despite this, there is an ongoing, vibrant debate within the AI sector regarding the diminishing effectiveness of AI model improvements.
OpenAI’s anticipated GPT-5 model was met with disappointment, primarily because the company marketed it as superhuman before its launch.
Hence, when a slightly better version was released, reactions deemed it less remarkable. Detractors interpret this as evidence that AI’s potential has already been capped. Are they right?
Read More:
Double Track System
“The belief that AI advancements have stagnated is largely a misconception, shaped by the fact that most people engage with AI through consumer applications like chatbots,” says Eleanor Watson, an AI ethics engineer at Singularity University, an educational institution and research center.
While chatbots are gradually improving, much of it is incremental, Watson insists. “It’s akin to how your vehicle gets better paint each year or how your GPS keeps evolving,” she explains.
“This perspective overlooks the revolutionary transformations happening beneath the surface. In reality, the foundational technology is being reimagined and advancing exponentially.”
Even if AI chatbots operate similarly as they did three years ago for the average user who doesn’t delve into the details, AI is being successfully applied in various fields, including medicine.
She believes this pace will keep accelerating for multiple reasons. One is the enormous investment fueling the generative AI revolution.
London’s water-cooled servers symbolize the AI boom, with computing power predicted to increase tenfold in two years – Image courtesy of Getty Images
Tech companies are investing heavily in data centers to process AI tasks.
In 2021, prior to ChatGPT’s debut, four leading tech firms — Alphabet (Google’s parent company), Amazon, Microsoft, and Meta (the owner of Facebook) — collectively spent over $100 billion (£73 billion) on the necessary infrastructure for these data centers.
This expenditure is expected to approach $350 billion (£256 billion) by 2025 and to surpass $500 billion (£366 billion) by 2029.
AI companies are constructing larger data centers equipped with more dependable power resources, and they are also becoming more strategic regarding their operational methodologies.
“The brute-force strategy of merely adding more data and computing power continues to show significant benefits, but the primary concern is efficacy,” Watson states.
“The potency of models has increased tremendously. Tasks that once required extensive and massive systems can now be performed by less voluminous, cheaper, and faster systems. Capacity density is also growing at an incredible rate.”
Techniques such as number rounding or quantizing inputs to the LLM (which involves reducing information precision in less critical areas) can enhance model efficiency.
Hire an Agent
One dimension of “intelligence” where AI continues to evolve is the area of “agentic” AI, particularly if understood as “efficiency.”
This involves modifying AI interactions and behavior, an endeavor still in its infancy. “Agent AI can handle finances, foresee needs, and establish sub-goals toward larger objectives,” explains Watson.
Leading AI firms, including OpenAI, are incorporating agent AI tools into their systems, transforming user engagement from simple chats to collaborative AI partners, enabling users to complete tasks independently while managing other responsibilities.
These AI agents are increasingly capable of functioning autonomously for extended periods, and many assert that this signifies growth in AI intelligence.
However, AI agents pose their own set of challenges.
Research has revealed potential issues with agent AI. Specifically, when an AI agent encounters seemingly harmless instructions on a web page, it might execute harmful commands, leading to what’s termed a “prompt injection” attack.
Consequently, several companies impose strict controls on these AI agents.
Nonetheless, the very prospect of AI carrying out tasks on autopilot hints at untapped growth potential. This, along with ongoing investments in computing capabilities and the continuous introduction of AI solutions, indicates that AI is not stagnant—far from it.
“The smart bet is continued exponential growth,” Watson emphasizes. “[Tech] leaders are correct about this trajectory, but they often underestimate the governance and security challenges that will need to evolve alongside it.”
This weekend, the yearly Geminid meteor shower is set to reach its peak, providing stargazers with an opportunity to witness what is often regarded as the most impressive and reliable shooting star event of the year.
Although the meteor shower has been active for over a week, it is anticipated to hit its peak activity on Saturday and Sunday nights. As reported by NASA.
Shooting stars can be observed in both the northern and southern hemispheres. However, the Geminid meteor shower tends to be brighter and more frequent in the northern hemisphere due to its trajectory in the night sky.
Under perfect conditions with clear skies and little light interference, skywatchers may be able to see as many as 120 Geminid meteors per hour, according to NASA.
The Geminid meteor shower is famed for its vibrant, colorful fireballs that blaze across the night sky.
For optimal viewing, venture outside between midnight and early morning local time, and gaze towards the eastern sky in the direction of the constellation Gemini.
When the moon rises, it will be just 26% illuminated, which means it won’t disrupt this year’s Geminid meteor shower experience.
Meteor showers occur when Earth travels through clouds of small rocks, dust, and debris, which ignite upon entering the planet’s atmosphere. While most meteor showers are linked to comet debris, the Geminid meteor shower is derived from debris left by an asteroid known as 3200 Phaethon.
The Geminid meteor shower showcases striking colors ranging from yellow and red to even greenish hues, attributed to the chemical makeup of the asteroid debris.
On November 26, 2025, astronomers utilized the Gemini Multi-Object Spectrograph (GMOS) on the Gemini North Telescope located on Mauna Kea, Hawaii, to capture images of the interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS. Recent observations demonstrate how this comet has evolved since its closest approach to the Sun.
This image, taken with GMOS on the Gemini North Telescope, depicts 3I/ATLAS traveling among stars and galaxies. Operating as part of the International Gemini Observatory, it is funded in part by NSF and managed by NSF’s NOIRLab. Image credit: International Gemini Observatory / NOIRLab / NSF / AURA / B. Bolin / J. Miller & M. Rodriguez, International Gemini Observatory & NSF’s NOIRLab / TA Rector, University of Alaska Anchorage & NSF’s NOIRLab / M. Zamani, NSF’s NOIRLab.
3I/ATLAS reached its closest approach to the Sun, termed perihelion, on October 30, 2025.
Having emerged from behind the Sun, this interstellar body was observed near Zania, a triple star system situated in the Virgo constellation.
On November 26, 2025, researcher Bryce Bolin from Eureka Scientific, along with colleagues, obtained new images of the comet as part of a public outreach initiative by NSF NOIRLab in partnership with Shadow the Scientist.
“Providing the public with a viewing experience under optimal conditions allows for a genuine front-row glimpse of interstellar visitors,” Dr. Bolin stated.
“Offering the public insight into our work as astronomers and our methodologies also serves to demystify science and the data collection process, enhancing transparency in the study of this captivating astronomical entity.”
The 3I/ATLAS image, captured using GMOS, highlights the comet’s coma—a cloud of gas and dust that forms around its icy center when approaching the Sun. Image credit: International Gemini Observatory / NOIRLab / NSF / AURA / B. Bolin / J. Miller & M. Rodriguez, International Gemini Observatory & NSF’s NOIRLab / TA Rector, University of Alaska Anchorage & NSF’s NOIRLab / M. Zamani, NSF’s NOIRLab.
The recent GMOS image comprises exposures taken through four different filters: blue, green, orange, and red.
“During the exposure, the comet remains stationary in the center of the telescope’s field of view,” the astronomers explained.
“However, the background stars shift in relation to the comet, creating colorful streaks in the final image.”
“Initial images of the comet from the Shadow the Scientist session at Gemini South, Chile, exhibited a red hue.”
“In contrast, the new images released today display a subtle greenish glow.”
“This phenomenon results from light emitted by gases in the comet’s coma containing diatomic carbon, a reactive molecule made of two carbon atoms that emits light at green wavelengths. This gas evaporates as the comet heats up.”
“What remains uncertain is how comets behave as they move away from the Sun and cool down.”
“Many comets respond slowly to the Sun’s heat, as it takes time for the warmth to penetrate the comet’s interior.”
“Such delays could accelerate the evaporation of new compounds or potentially lead to the comet’s disintegration.”
Astronomers utilizing ESA’s XMM-Newton Observatory have captured X-ray images of 3I/ATLAS, the third confirmed interstellar object to traverse our solar system, following 1I/Oumuamua and 2I/Borisov.
This XMM-Newton image displays an X-ray visualization of the interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS. The center features a bright red dot against a dark backdrop, resembling a burning lighthouse. Surrounding this core is a soft gradient of purple and blue, forming a slightly rotated rectangular frame divided by a thin horizontal line, indicating the detector gap. Red represents low-energy X-rays, while blue signifies regions with minimal X-rays. Image credit: ESA / XMM-Newton / C. Lisse / S. Cabot / XMM ISO Team.
On December 3, 2025, XMM-Newton tracked the interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS for approximately 20 hours.
During this observation, the interstellar object was about 282-285 million kilometers away from the spacecraft.
XMM-Newton utilized the European Photon Imaging Camera (EPIC)-PN, its most sensitive X-ray camera, to observe the comet.
“This XMM-Newton image highlights the comet radiating in low-energy X-rays. The blue regions indicate voids with nearly no X-rays, while the red areas showcase the comet’s X-ray emissions,” stated members of the XMM-Newton team.
Astronomers anticipated this glow, as gas molecules emitted from comets generate X-rays upon colliding with the solar wind.
“These X-rays can originate from the interaction of the solar wind with gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide, and have previously been detected by telescopes like NASA/ESA/CSA’s James Webb Space Telescope and NASA’s SPHEREx,” added the researchers.
“However, these telescopes possess distinct sensitivities to gases like hydrogen and nitrogen.”
“They are almost undetectable by optical and ultraviolet instruments, such as the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope and ESA’s JUICE camera.”
“This makes X-ray observation an exceptional resource,” they emphasized.
“Researchers will be able to identify and examine gases that are difficult to detect with alternative instruments.”
“Multiple scientific groups suggest that the first observed interstellar object, 1I/’Oumuamua, may have been composed of unusual ices like nitrogen and hydrogen.”
“Although 1I/Oumuamua is currently too distant to study, 3I/ATLAS provides fresh opportunities to investigate interstellar bodies. X-ray observations will supplement other data and assist scientists in understanding the composition of these objects.”
(1) You are invited to join the periodic table. The legendary figures and the elements named after them comprise the 12 Titans (titanium), Prometheus (promethium), and Thor (thorium). Additionally, Nobel laureates and their elemental counterparts include Ernest Rutherford (Rutherfordium), Marie and Pierre Curie (Curium), and Albert Einstein (Einsteinium). The “noble gases” are uncommon gases situated at the far right of the periodic table.
(2) The inscription on the card reads Noel (or more precisely NO)eL). N signifies Newton, O represents the most prevalent blood type, e denotes a mathematical constant, and the L. on the label points to Carl Linnaeus as the namer of the species.
(3) Element 47 has been utilized since ancient days. Silver halide is prevalent in photography, and silver itself is employed in mirrors. Silver ions or compounds are often found in wound dressings for their antibacterial qualities. Silverware contributes calories through the use of utensils like knives, forks, and spoons. If your festive tree displays shiny glass ornaments, the luster likely originates from a fine layer of silver on the inside.
(4) The reference is to the carol of the bells. These figures also highlight astronomer Jocelyn Bell Burnell, physicist John Stewart Bell, and inventor Alexander Graham Bell.
(5) Gingerbread could be a valid guess. Our dishes share the first two letters with the most frequent letters.metric prefix, which is a term that modifies a number by a power of 10, regularly scales up from diminutive (nano) to massive (giga). They include: nano (10-9), micro (10-6), mm (10-3), det (100 – equal to 1), km (equal to 103), mega (106), and giga (109).
(6) These are descriptions of Ada Lovelace, Mary Anning, Hannah Fry, and Mitochondrial Eve. Notably, Mary Anning is the only individual without a palindromic first name. Hence, she will not be returning next year as her name reads the same forwards and backwards.
(7) Integrate the energy symbol E and the unit symbol eV (electronvolt) with Mendel to arrive at Mendeleev. Gregor Mendel demonstrated the inheritance of traits through a sequence of pea breeding experiments in the 1850s and 1860s, while Dmitri Mendeleev formulated the initial periodic table by organizing elements according to their atomic weights.
(8) Three clues pertain to Makemake, Tweet, and Meme. Each of these terms consists of repeating components that decrease by one letter each time, logically succeeding MM (2000 in Roman numerals).
(9) The Christmas pudding is aflame! The brandy should be heated before pouring so that the ethanol vapors from the alcohol do not ignite and scorch the pudding.
(10) The central theme of Grandma’s show was music. Hints include classical, rock, pop, and ultimately, punk and emo.
(11) The answer is cheese. Humans have produced cheese in various forms for over 7000 years. Its flavor and texture arise from the many bacteria, molds, and yeasts that inhabit it.
(12) The answer is bizarre. Each clue leads to a word containing “nuts”: star nuttation, nutria, minute, nutrition. These items might end up in your stocking or be present on the festive table post-dinner.
Colossal Biosciences, which advertises itself as “the world’s first and only anti-extinction company,” has garnered significant attention this year, although much of the buzz is detached from the truth.
Initially, the company made headlines with its woolly rat, allegedly “engineered to express several mammoth-like traits.” Victoria Herridge from the University of Sheffield observed that the long-haired mice featured in media reports were not created through genetic modifications drawing from mammoth DNA; rather, geneticists have been producing long-haired mice for years. Mice with mammoth-related genetic alterations showed less resemblance to their extinct counterparts.
Subsequently, major news broke with a corporate press release. Colossal announced the “resurrection” of the direwolf (Aenocyon Dylas), a wolf-like creature that was extinct in the Americas approximately 10,000 years ago. However, Colossal’s actual achievement was making 20 minor adjustments to the genome of gray wolf cells (Canis lupus), only 15 of which were informed by the direwolf’s genome, resulting in the cloning of these modified cells to create three wolf pups.
With millions of genetic differences existing between both species, this step merely nudges gray wolves closer to their ancient relatives. It remains an incredibly long journey to achieve anything resembling an exact genetic replica akin to something from Jurassic Park.
Most media outlets reported on the de-extinction claims without skepticism. New Scientist had the headline: “No, the direwolf is not coming back from extinction.”
Colossal’s Chief Scientist, Beth Shapiro, tried to provide justification based on appearance, stating “We use the concept of morphological species and assert that if it looks like this animal, then it is that animal,” as reported by New Scientist on April 7th.
Despite genetic distinctions, it remains uncertain if cloned gray wolves truly resemble the extinct species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature’s canine expert group stated on April 18, “There is no evidence that genetically modified animals are phenotypically different from gray wolves or similar to dire wolves.”
In a subsequent interview with New Scientist, Shapiro appeared to acknowledge this fact. “It’s impossible to resurrect the same species that existed. Our animal is a cloned gray wolf with 20 edits,” she clarified. “And we’ve been transparent about that from the start. People informally refer to them as direwolves, which understandably frustrates some.”
Following our article that cited Shapiro, Colossal reaffirmed its assertions: “With these edits, we are reviving the direwolf.”
Colossal Hairy Mouse
huge
However, apart from those directly involved with Colossal, New Scientist reports that no biologist believes the direwolf has truly returned. “As far as I’m aware, there’s no justification for labeling these genetically altered gray wolves as direwolves,” claims Vincent Lynch from the University at Buffalo, New York. “At least within my network, there is complete consensus that these assertions are unfounded.”
Lynch suspects that many people, outside the realm of biology, might accept these claims due to ongoing media portrayals that frequently present them as fact. He and others are concerned that the notion of reviving extinct species could detract from crucial efforts to protect endangered animals.
“People have genuinely bought into these assertions, but forecasting their impact on long-term conservation strategies is quite challenging,” Herridge stated.
In July, Colossal announced intentions to resurrect the flightless moa bird from New Zealand. Critics, including Nick Lawrence, a professor at the University of Otago in New Zealand, remarked that the company might only be able to create something resembling a “Frankenmore” rather than an authentic extinct bird.
Meanwhile, Lawrence, Lynch, Herridge, and other notable critics of Colossal’s de-extinction endeavors have become targets of an enigmatic smear campaign, a situation the company denies involvement in. Anonymous online posts and videos have surfaced, criticizing their expertise and credentials. Lynch stated this is excessive. New Scientist reported on July 31 about an additional attack on Lawrence, published on September 5, while Herridge encountered yet another dubious article.
Even critics concur that Colossal is making impressive progress. However, Richard Grenier, a professor at the University of Oxford, insists that discussions surrounding the de-extinction of endangered species are distractions from the more significant challenge posed by humanity’s growing capability to alter animal genomes on a large scale. “We will need to have another societal conversation regarding what we find acceptable and what we don’t,” he remarked.
“There might be specific instances where such technology could assist in the genetic rescue of bottleneck populations, adding some conservation benefit, but it will always be highly specialized and costly.”
Even if atmospheric carbon dioxide returns to pre-industrial levels and the global temperature decreases, the Arctic is projected to warm by approximately 1.5 degrees Celsius.
It is also expected that the region will receive about 0.1 millimeter of extra precipitation daily, regardless of the implementation of large-scale carbon dioxide removal (CDR) strategies.
“These findings emphasize the irreversible aspect of climate change in the Arctic, even with aggressive CDR efforts,” the researchers stated in their publication.
Current atmospheric CO2 levels are roughly 1.5 times greater than pre-industrial levels, resulting in a warming of 3°C or more. A study published in March revealed that even if extra carbon dioxide were removed, sea ice coverage would still average 1 million square kilometers less.
In a new investigation, researchers led by Xiaodong from the Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing utilized 11 distinct climate models to assess the likelihood of continued Arctic warming. The findings also indicate that precipitation is likely to increase, according to Michael Meredith from the British Antarctic Survey, who was not part of the study.
The primary reason for this persistent warming is that oceans, which have absorbed 90% of the heat from global warming, will continue to warm the Arctic for centuries, even when atmospheric temperatures decrease. This situation will likely be amplified by feedback mechanisms, such as diminishing sea ice, which causes the open ocean to raise air temperatures.
“Even if the atmosphere continues to cool, the oceans will lag behind and counteract this trend,” Meredith remarked.
Many experts express skepticism about whether CDR methods, including tree planting and mechanical CO2 extraction, can significantly lower atmospheric CO2 levels due to the financial and energy challenges, a process that could take thousands of years.
Dong et al. examined a theoretical scenario where atmospheric CO2 levels quadrupled from pre-industrial amounts over 140 years, decreased for another 140 years, and then remained at pre-industrial levels for 60 additional years.
The study also reviewed two potential real-world climate scenarios: one in which humanity immediately reduces emissions, and another where emissions remain high but CDR efforts ramp up quickly starting in 2070. In these scenarios, similar to the theoretical model, the Arctic was found to be approximately 1.5 degrees Celsius warmer with precipitation increasing by an additional 0.1 mm per day by 2100.
The models forecast a decrease in temperatures and precipitation in the waters just south of Greenland and Iceland, contrasting with other regions in the Far North. This suggests a decline in the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), which is responsible for transporting warm surface water from the tropics to this area. This current is already weakening as global ocean temperatures rise, a trend that might lead to colder winters in Europe over time.
Climate-related effects, such as thawing permafrost and melting of the Greenland ice sheet, are likely to persist but were not included in this study’s models.
“The Greenland ice sheet is expected to behave as observed, meaning it will continue to lose mass and contribute to sea level rise,” stated Mark Selles from the US National Snow and Ice Data Center.
While the study indicates that the Arctic will remain warm for centuries, it is anticipated that it will eventually cool over the course of many more centuries or even millennia.
There may have been ancient tides on Mars, suggesting the presence of larger moons capable of influencing the planet’s waters. Currently, Mars has two small moons that aren’t sufficient for this theory.
Suniti Karunatilake and researchers from Louisiana State University discovered signs of tidal activity in Gale Crater’s sedimentary layers.
By examining these layers, they inferred the nature of the tidal cycles and the potential moon responsible for them. If such a moon existed, it would have been significantly larger than Phobos, Mars’ biggest moon, yet still smaller than Earth’s moon. The two current Martian moons might be remnants of a larger satellite.
Mr. Karunatilake is set to present the findings at the upcoming American Geophysical Union meeting in New Orleans, Louisiana.
The sedimentary rocks that supported their conclusions were captured by NASA’s Curiosity rover, displaying alternating layers of varying thicknesses and colors. These strata are termed rhythmite, indicating that they were formed by winds or ocean currents of fluctuating strength. In tidal scenarios, sand is transported back and forth, covered by fine mud when the tide recedes.
The rhythm of strong winds leaves thin, dark lines indicative of “mud drapes,” which “resemble Earth’s tidal patterns closely,” notes team member Priyabrata Das, also from Louisiana State University.
To bolster their hypothesis, Ranjan Sarkar from Germany’s Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research utilized a standard mathematical technique called the Fourier transform to evaluate the layered structures in Martian rocks. This analysis revealed additional periodicity in layer thicknesses, implying that both the sun and a past moon may have influenced the tides.
This analysis may validate the idea initially put forth by Rajat Mazumdar from the German Institute of Technology in Oman. In 2023, Mazumdar suggested that layered formations observed by NASA’s Perseverance rover in Jezero Crater could indicate tidal activity. Unfortunately, the resolution of these images was insufficient for Fourier analysis. Enthused by the Gail rhythmite findings, Mazumdar emphasizes that rhythmite on Earth is strong evidence of tidal conditions.
However, skepticism remains. The lakes in Jezero and Gale craters, sized at 45 kilometers and 154 kilometers respectively, are considered too small to exhibit significant tidal flooding. Nicholas Mangold, a member of NASA’s Perseverance Mars team at the Institute for Planetary and Earth Sciences in Nantes, France, argues that larger moons wouldn’t have left tidal traces in these locations.
Christopher Fed, a professor at the University of Tennessee working with NASA on the Curiosity mission, also finds the notion of a larger moon problematic, suggesting that tidal-like patterns could emerge from varying river inflows instead.
Nevertheless, Sarkar believes a tidal connection is feasible. “The ocean might have linked to Gale, and even subsurface porosity could create tides. Mars’ surface is extensively cracked and crated, meaning porosity isn’t an issue,” he argues.
As climate change continues to undermine the icy habitats crucial for polar bear survival, new studies indicate that these bears are swiftly altering their genetic makeup to adapt.
This species is being compelled to cope with the increasingly harsh conditions of a warming Arctic, marking what scientists believe to be the first documented instance of rising temperatures prompting genetic adaptations in a mammal.
Research conducted by the University of East Anglia in the UK revealed findings: published in Friday’s issue of the journal Mobile DNA, which offers a rare glimmer of hope for these animals.
“Polar bears are sadly projected to face extinction this century, with two-thirds of their population potentially gone by 2050,” Alice Godden, the study’s lead author, shared with NBC News.
“We believe our findings genuinely provide a flicker of hope: a chance to reduce carbon emissions, mitigate climate change, and allow bears more time to adapt to significant changes in their habitats.”
Building on previous research from the University of Washington, Godden’s team studied blood samples from polar bears in northeastern and southeastern Greenland. In the comparatively warmer southern region, genes associated with heat stress, aging, and metabolism showed different behavior compared to those in the north.
“Essentially, this indicates that various groups of bears are modifying different segments of their DNA at varying rates, with this activity seemingly linked to their specific environmental and climatic contexts,” Godden mentioned in a university press release.
He remarked that this is the first indication that a distinct population of a species has been driven to “rewrite its own DNA,” suggesting this process is a “desperate survival mechanism” against disappearing sea ice.
The Arctic Ocean has consistently recorded unusually high temperatures in recent years, as reported by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Monitoring data suggests.
Researchers assert that rising ocean temperatures are diminishing the vital sea ice foundation that bears rely on for hunting seals, leading to isolation and food shortages.
Godden explained to NBC News that the genetic changes emerged as the bears’ digestive systems adapted to food scarcity, including a lack of prey, plant life, and low-fat diets.
“Access to food poses a critical challenge for these bears everywhere, particularly in the South,” she notes. “This may indicate that their physical structure and composition are also evolving in response to warmer surroundings.”
The lead researcher stated that her team targeted the southern bear group as the region’s warmer climate provides insights into what other bear populations may experience later this century if current climate trends persist.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature estimates around 26,000 polar bears currently exist globally. Known scientifically as Ursus maritimus, or “sea bear,” these animals are classified as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, believed to be at “high risk of extinction in the wild.”
The research “doesn’t imply that polar bears are at a reduced risk of extinction,” Godden stated. However, she added this finding “could provide a genetic framework for how polar bears may swiftly adapt to climate change.”
Godden further urged, “We all need to take action to reduce our carbon footprint and create opportunities to protect and expand this incredible and vital species.”
These stunning and enigmatic images were captured by scientists and photographers, like Felice Frankel, during her everyday life. Take a moment to see if you can guess what they depict before reading further. We will unveil the details beneath each photo.
The primary image is featured in Frankel’s latest publication, Amazing Moments: Uncovering the Hidden Science Around Us. Each close-up shot, many taken with her smartphone, is paired with an explanation of the scientific process highlighted. “It’s akin to a guessing game,” she notes.
So, what’s the answer? The primary image at the beginning of this article features an opal. The blue lines present are mineral veins. When light passes through the stone, it diffracts, and the size of the silica spheres along with their spacing determine the colors observed.
The above image was taken while Frankel sautéed peppers, where condensation formed on the pot lid. These small droplets acted as lenses, transmitting the colors of the peppers through the lid to the camera.
The above photo captures a high-resolution image of a 5 cm mineral agate sample. Its intricate pattern showcases a layer of silica.
Frankel was captivated by the glowing copper pot depicted above. When copper is heated and exposed to air, it oxidizes, resulting in vivid copper compounds that create beautiful colors.
In the concluding image above, oil leaking from the car forms a thin layer atop the puddle. Light reflects off the top and bottom of this oil layer, which varies in thickness, creating a spectrum of colors due to these reflections.
Quantum particles now have an extended capacity to carry useful information.
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The intriguing phenomenon of quantum superposition has enabled scientists to surpass the limitations imposed by fundamental quantum mechanics, equipping quantum objects with properties advantageous for long-term quantum computing.
For over a century, physicists have wrestled with the challenge of distinguishing between the minuscule quantum world and the larger macroscopic universe. In 1985, physicists Anthony Leggett and Anupam Garg introduced a mathematical assessment for determining the size threshold at which an object transcends its quantum characteristics. Quantum objects are recognized by remarkably strong correlations of their properties over time, akin to surprising connections between actions of yesterday and tomorrow.
Objects that achieve a sufficient score in this assessment are classified as quantum, with the scores traditionally held back by a value known as the temporal Zirelson limit (TTB). Theorists believed that even distinctly quantum objects could not surpass this threshold. However, Arijit Chatterjee and his colleagues from the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research in Pune have discovered a method to significantly exceed the TTB using one of the most basic quantum elements.
They centered their research on qubits, the essential building blocks of quantum computers and other quantum information systems. While qubits can be produced through various methods, the team utilized a carbon-based molecule incorporating three qubits. The first qubit was employed to control the behavior of the second “target” qubit over time, with the third qubit employed to extract properties from the target.
Though three-qubit configurations are generally believed to be constrained by the TTB, Chatterjee and his team discovered a method to push the target qubits beyond this limitation dramatically. In fact, their technique resulted in one of the most significant deviations from mathematical plausibility. The key was for the first qubit to govern the target qubit while it was in a state of quantum superposition, where it can effectively embody two states or actions that seem mutually exclusive. For instance, in their experiment, the first qubit directed the target qubit to rotate both clockwise and counterclockwise simultaneously.
Qubits are usually susceptible to decoherence over time, diminishing their capacity to store quantum information. However, after the target qubit surpassed the TTB, decoherence set in, yet the ability to encode information persisted five times longer due to its time-controlled behavior influenced by superposition.
According to Chatterjee, this resilience is advantageous in any context requiring precise qubit control, such as in computational applications. Team member HS Kartik from Poland’s University of Gdańsk mentions that procedures in quantum metrology, including accurate sensing of electromagnetic fields, could benefit significantly from this level of qubit control.
Rakura and their colleagues from China’s Sun Yat-sen University indicate that this research not only has clear potential for enhancing quantum computing practices but also fundamentally broadens our comprehension of how quantum objects behave over time. This is significant because immensely surpassing the TTB indicates that the properties of the qubit are highly interconnected at two divergent time points, a phenomenon absent in non-quantum entities.
The substantial breach of the TTB strongly demonstrates the extent of quantum characteristics present throughout the three-qubit configuration and exemplifies how researchers are advancing the frontiers of the quantum domain, says Karthik.
A recent study conducted by researchers at the University of Zurich indicates that the compositions of Uranus and Neptune might be less icy than previously assumed.
Uranus could be classified as an ice giant (left) or a rock giant (right), depending on the assumptions of the model. Image credit: Keck Institute for Space Studies / Chuck Carter.
“Uranus and Neptune remain poorly understood, making the designation of ice giants too simplistic,” states Dr. Luca Morf, a student at the University of Zurich.
“Models based on physical data incorporate too many assumptions, while empirical models fall short in complexity.”
“Our approach combines both methodologies to create an interior model that is unbiased, yet physically coherent.”
The research commenced with a stochastic density distribution inside the planets.
Subsequently, the team calculated the gravitational fields of the planets in alignment with observational data to infer their likely compositions.
The process was iterated to achieve the closest alignment between the model and the empirical data.
Employing a new, unbiased yet fully physical framework, scientists have revealed that the internal compositions of the solar system’s ice giants are not restricted to ice alone.
“We initially proposed this concept nearly 15 years ago, and now we possess a numerical framework to substantiate it,” remarked Professor Ravit Held of the University of Zurich.
“This expanded spectrum of internal compositions suggests both planets could be rich in water or minerals.”
The study also sheds light on the enigmatic magnetic fields of Uranus and Neptune.
In contrast to Earth’s defined north and south magnetic poles, the magnetic fields of Uranus and Neptune exhibit greater complexity, featuring multiple poles.
“Our model introduces a so-called ‘ionized water’ layer that generates magnetic dynamos that account for the observed non-dipolar magnetic fields,” noted Professor Held.
“Moreover, we discovered that Uranus’ magnetic field has a more profound origin compared to that of Neptune.”
While the findings are promising, some ambiguities linger.
“A significant challenge is that physicists still have limited understanding of how materials behave under the extreme pressure and temperature conditions in planetary cores, which could influence our conclusions,” Morf added.
Notwithstanding the uncertainties, these new findings open avenues for possible internal composition scenarios, challenging longstanding assumptions and informing future materials science research under planetary conditions.
“Depending on model assumptions, both Uranus and Neptune have the potential to be classified as rock giants or ice giants,” Professor Held remarked.
“At present, the data is insufficient to differentiate between the two, highlighting the necessity for dedicated missions to Uranus and Neptune to uncover their true natures.”
A paper detailing this research was published in this week’s journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.
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Luca Morf and Ravit Held, 2025. Ice or rock? Convection or stability? New interior models for Uranus and Neptune. A&A 704, A183; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202556911
Recent findings from the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope indicate that TOI-561b is enveloped by a dense gas blanket above its global magma ocean.
This artist’s concept illustrates TOI-561b and its stars. Image credit: NASA/ESA/CSA/Ralf Crawford, STScI.
TOI-561 is a luminous star located 280.5 light-years away in the constellation Sextant.
This star is approximately 10 billion years old and has about 80% of the Sun’s mass and size.
It is also known as TYC 243-1528-1 and belongs to a rare category of stars known as the galaxy’s thick disk stars.
TOI-561 hosts at least three exoplanets (TOI-561b, c, and d) and is among the oldest and most metal-poor planetary systems discovered in the Milky Way.
The inner planet, TOI-561b, is classified as a super-Earth with an orbital period of just 0.44 days.
Its mass and radius are 3.2 and 1.45 times that of Earth, with a density of 5.5 g/cm³, consistent with its rocky composition.
“What distinguishes this planet is its notably low density,” remarked Dr. Johanna Teske, an astronomer at the Carnegie Institution for Science.
“It is not significantly bloated, yet it is less dense than would be expected for an Earth-like composition.”
One potential reason for the low density, astronomers suggest, is that it may possess a relatively small iron core and a mantle composed of less dense rock compared to Earth’s.
“TOI-561b is exceptional among ultrashort-period planets as it orbits a substantially older (twice the age of the Sun), iron-poor star within the thick disk region of the Milky Way,” Teske added.
“It likely formed under a vastly different chemical environment than the planets in our solar system.”
Researchers also posit that TOI-561b is encircled by a thick atmosphere, possibly giving it an apparent size larger than its actual one.
Although small planets subjected to intense stellar radiation for billions of years are not anticipated to possess atmospheres, some are exhibiting characteristics beyond mere rocky surfaces or lava.
To investigate the possibility of TOI-561b having an atmosphere, they employed: Webb’s NIRSpec (near infrared spectrometer). This device measures the planet’s daytime temperature through near-infrared brightness.
The technique tracks the decrease in brightness of the star-planet system as the planet transits behind its star, similar to methods used for detecting atmospheres of rocky worlds like the TRAPPIST-1 system.
If TOI-561b were devoid of an atmosphere and comprised entirely of bare rock, daytime temperatures would approach 2,700 degrees Celsius (4,900 degrees Fahrenheit).
However, NIRSpec observations indicate that the planet’s dayside temperature is closer to 1,800 degrees Celsius (3,200 degrees Fahrenheit), indicating it remains extremely hot, but considerably cooler than anticipated.
Emission spectra captured by Webb in May 2024 illustrate the brightness of different wavelengths of near-infrared radiation emitted by the exoplanet TOI-561b. Image credits: NASA / ESA / CSA / Ralf Crawford, STScI / Johanna Teske, Carnegie Institute for Science, Earth and Planets / Anjali Piette, University of Birmingham / Tim Lichtenberg, Groningen / Nicole Wallack, Carnegie Institute for Science, Earth and Planets.
To interpret these findings, the researchers evaluated multiple scenarios.
A magma ocean could redistribute some heat; however, without an atmosphere, the night side is likely solid, limiting heat transfer from the day side.
There may be a thin layer of rock vapor above the magma ocean’s surface, but this alone could cause less significant cooling than observed.
Dr. Anjali Piette, an astronomer at the University of Birmingham, stated, “We truly require a thick atmosphere rich in volatiles to account for all observations.”
“Strong winds could transport heat to the night side while cooling the day side.”
“Gases such as water vapor absorb some wavelengths of near-infrared radiation emitted from the planet’s surface before reaching the atmosphere.”
“Bright silicate clouds might also reflect starlight and cool the atmosphere.”
Although Webb’s findings provide compelling evidence of an atmosphere, the question persists: How can such a small planet exposed to intense radiation maintain an atmosphere, especially one of such significance? Some gas is likely escaping into space, but possibly at a lower rate than expected.
“We believe there is a balance between the magma ocean and the atmosphere,” said Tim Lichtenberg, an astronomer at the University of Groningen.
“As gases escape from the Earth to form the atmosphere, the magma ocean simultaneously reabsorbs them.”
“To account for these observations, this planet would need to be far richer in volatile materials than Earth. It resembles a wet lava ball.”
Findings from this study will be published in today’s Astrophysics Journal Letter.
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Johanna K. Teske et al. 2025. A dense volatile atmosphere over the ultra-hot super-earth TOI-561b. APJL 995, L39; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ae0a4c
An Idaho resident was scratched by a rabid skunk, triggering an exceptionally rare and fatal chain of events that resulted in the deaths of two individuals, including the initial bite victim and an organ transplant recipient, as announced by federal authorities.
This incident marks the fourth case of rabies transmission via organ transplant in the U.S. since 1978, according to a recent report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
The CDC reported, “Our investigation indicates a possible three-step infection chain where a rabid silver bat infected the skunk, which subsequently infected the donor, and then the kidney recipient.”
The agency noted that the Michigan man “underwent a left kidney transplant from an Idaho donor at an Ohio hospital” in December and passed away approximately six weeks later.
The CDC confirmed that “viral RNA was found in the saliva, nuchal skin, and brain tissue samples” of those affected by rabies.
New interviews with the families of Idaho organ donors revealed “information not captured in the DRAI questionnaire,” referring to the “Donor Risk Assessment Interviews.”
Investigators determined that, in late October 2024, a skunk “approached and scratched a donor who was holding a kitten in a rural outbuilding” in Idaho.
The donor died roughly six weeks later, exhibiting symptoms such as “confusion, difficulty swallowing and walking,” along with “hallucinations,” as reported by the CDC.
Officials indicated that the Idaho man’s corneas were extracted and “three patients, one each from California, Idaho, and New Mexico,” received transplants in December and January.
As investigations proceed, three “corneal recipients underwent preventive graft removal,” and “plans for a fourth corneal graft for a patient in Missouri have been halted,” according to the CDC.
All three patients are currently reported to be asymptomatic.
Worldwide, drug-resistant gonorrhea is increasing, yet new antibiotics may provide a temporary solution until we face bacterial strains that cannot be treated at all, which heightens the risk of infertility.
Every year, it is estimated that sexually transmitted infections affect over 80 million individuals globally. Gonorrhea infections can spread to various body parts, including the anus, urethra, and genitals. Symptoms often include a burning sensation during urination and unusual discharge from genital areas. Untreated infections can lead to complications such as infertility and miscarriage.
Typically, the treatment for gonorrhea involves ceftriaxone injections, which remain effective against most strains. However, resistance is developing, and the World Health Organization reported that in 2024, about 5 percent of cases in 12 countries, including Thailand, South Africa, and Brazil, showed resistance to ceftriaxone—a sixfold increase since 2022.
When ceftriaxone fails, doctors typically resort to alternative antibiotics. However, it’s only a matter of time before completely untreatable strains appear. “We’re running out of options,” states Alison Luckey from the Global Antibiotic Research and Development Partnership. “It’s been decades since a new treatment for gonorrhea has been approved.”
To combat this escalating issue, researchers found that gepotidacin, an antibiotic pill used for urinary tract infections, can effectively treat gonorrhea, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is now reviewing the drug for U.S. approval. However, as bacteria evolve resistance to new medications, expanding treatment options is crucial, according to Lackey.
She and her team are currently studying another medication, zoliflodacin, specifically created to combat drug-resistant gonorrhea. In a study, 744 gonorrhea patients from the U.S., South Africa, Thailand, Belgium, and the Netherlands were randomly assigned to receive either zoliflodacin or a combination treatment that includes ceftriaxone and a second antibiotic, azithromycin.
After six days of testing through swabs of participants’ cervixes or urethras, results showed that zoliflodacin effectively cleared roughly 91 percent of infections, while standard treatment had a similar success rate of around 96 percent. Hence, no significant differences were observed between the two treatments, with side effects like headache and nausea being similar and short-lived in both groups.
Most of the 744 tested cases involved strains that were not resistant to ceftriaxone or azithromycin, but prior research indicated that zoliflodacin can effectively target N. gonorrhoeae strains resistant to all standard antibiotics. These findings suggest that zoliflodacin may represent a promising new strategy for treating gonorrhea, both as a first-choice treatment and when traditional options fail, as Lackey observes. “In areas with frequent resistance, early implementation as a primary treatment option could be beneficial,” she adds. Furthermore, since zoliflodacin is administered orally, it may provide a more convenient alternative than ceftriaxone, which some patients avoid due to needle aversion.
Researchers have already submitted findings to the FDA, with a ruling anticipated by December 15, according to Lackey.
If the FDA grants approval, other regions, including the UK, Europe, and Asia, could follow suit shortly, as noted by Charlotte Eve Short from Imperial College London, who was not part of the research.
Alongside ongoing vaccination efforts against gonorrhea, including the recent rollout of the Meningitis Group B vaccine in the UK, the introduction of these two new drugs could signify a pivotal moment in the battle against drug-resistant gonorrhea, according to Short. “This is excellent news,” she states. “While the population-level implications remain uncertain, our dual focus on prevention and treatment should help us significantly reduce resistance rates.”
“I’ve never needed a great excuse to jump into a chilly lake…”
Kaisa Swanson/Alamy
My days are filled with small rituals. Each morning, I blend a spoonful of creatine in water, enjoying it alongside my multivitamin, followed by some plain yogurt rich in beneficial bacteria. Meanwhile, the kids feast on homemade cereal, sip kefir, and practice their Spanish on Duolingo. After school drop-off, I dive into a cold pond, then warm up in the sauna before heading to work. I also make it a point to add sauerkraut to my lunch and take quick walks in the park.
On reflection, it might seem a bit off-putting. The quintessential “wellness enthusiast meets middle-aged neuroscientist.” But this cozy routine is vastly different from a year ago, when the kids were munching on sugary cereal and I was sustained solely by caffeine while buried in my computer, often devoid of sunlight.
This newfound focus on well-being stems from a year-long quest for research-backed methods to enhance my brain health, from boosting cognitive reserves to nurturing a healthy microbiome. Observing my current situation reveals that minor tweaks can lead to substantial changes.
A key insight I’ve gathered from Dr. Joan Manson and other physicians at Brigham and Women’s Hospital in Massachusetts is that a daily multivitamin can significantly slow cognitive decline in older adults by over 50 percent. When I inquired about other supplements beneficial for brain health, creatine stood out because it offers energy precisely when our brains require it.
However, the most significant shift didn’t come from my supplement collection, but rather from my grocery list. Conversations with neuroscientists and nutritionists have made me keenly aware of the importance of maintaining our microbiome. Consequently, my family embraced epidemiologist Tim Spector’s guidance to incorporate three fermented foods daily, eliminate ultra-processed breakfast options, and enjoy a diverse range of whole foods in our meals.
Despite my long-standing enjoyment of cold lake swims or sauna sessions, science has equipped me with compelling reasons to make these activities a priority this year. Cold and heat exposure has been shown to combat inflammation and stress while enhancing connections within brain networks that govern emotions, decision-making, and attention, which may in turn bolster mental health.
Emphasizing outdoor time has also become a family goal. I’ve discovered that gardening enhances the diversity of our gut’s beneficial bacteria, while walking in the woods can boost memory, cognition, and possibly stave off depression.
At home, we persist with Duolingo, valuing not just its linguistic benefits but also its contributions to cognitive reserve—the brain’s defense against aging. I’m also returning to playing the piano and exploring other creative outlets. I recall what Dr. Ellen Bialystok, a professor at York University in Canada, advised: “What challenges the brain is beneficial for the brain.”
The most astonishing aspect has been the rapid emergence of results. While some habits serve as long-term investments in cognitive health, I suspect others have delivered immediate benefits, such as helping my children feel more relaxed, diminish brain fog, and gain energy. It may be placebo, yet something is certainly effective.
Next year, we plan to keep experimenting. Let’s make it a year focused on discovering simple ways to promote brain growth. Now, where’s that kombucha?
feedback A weekly column filled with strange stories, unbelievable advertising claims, and puzzling instructions.
An amazing year
To be new scientist Readers know that yearly summaries are prepared weeks beforehand. This specific recap was written on December 1st, just as Feedback was gearing up to avoid hearing Wham’s last christmas for 24 days. I’m also trying to persuade Feedback Junior to choose his main present. Any absurd events that occurred after that date will have to wait until the next year.
Indeed, 2025 offered a wealth of topics that intrigued Feedback. We encountered ludicrous ideas, such as the proposition to detonate the ocean floor to combat climate change, which went directly into our “not recommended” list. There were also endeavors to create particularly annoying robots, including an electric arm that faked handing you an ice cream cone, only for it to vanish in various amusing ways at the last moment. Unsurprisingly, people were distrustful.
To impose some structure on this chaos, we are introducing the 2025 End of Year Awards for Feedback. We will name it Backseas unless someone provides a better suggestion. The judges (that’s us) selected the categories and winners through a highly rigorous process that did not involve post-its or darts.
Best Scientific Acronyms
Feedback dreams of seeing a study that investigates the amount of time and resources societies dedicate to crafting imaginative or forced abbreviations. This could rival two seasons of influenza and a World Cup for global productivity.
After discovering a “machine learning model that can predict the taste of chemicals based on their molecular structure” labeled Flavor Analysis and Recognition Transformer (FART), Feedback invited contributions on similar topics. We were taken aback by the flood of acronyms that followed, from a hydrographic research project called Management of River Discharges to the Marine Domain (MORDOR) to two instruments on NASA’s Mars rover Perseverance called Raman and Luminescence Scanning of Habitable Environments for Organics and Chemicals (SHERLOC) and another pair known as Wide Angle Terrain Sensor for Operations and Engineering (WATSON). However, one may be pushing the envelope.
Regardless, the judges (us) unanimously awarded the prize to a geneticist who devised “a method for estimating mutation rates and recent demographic history from very large samples.” They termed it “diffusion of rare elements in large variation inventories,” or DR EVIL. Quite clever.
The Best Old and New Technology
One persistent issue in today’s society is people who believe they’ve invented something novel when they’ve merely rebranded something existing. Here, there was a clear winner. Ugmonk has developed a “minimalist, paper-based to-do manager.” This product is designed to take the place of your online task management system, allowing you to work offline free from social media distractions. It consists of a few index cards placed atop a wooden block.
Best Extrapolation
Uncontested: Demographers David Swanson and Jeff Tyman produced a paper that noted a slight decrease in human fertility between 2019 and 2024 before extrapolating it all the way to human extinction by 2339 (or 2415 if they obtain an additional year of data).
Maximizing AI’s Potential
The challenge here was variety. An overwhelming amount of choices. We almost awarded this to Anthropic, which had the AI Claude operate a vending machine in their office. Claude first requested customers to deposit money into a fictitious bank account. Then it pretended to be a human in a blue blazer and red tie. However, since it was an in-house trial, it was disqualified.
Instead, this award goes to AI music. The most renowned fake AI band, Velvet Sundown, resembles the uncanny offspring of Coldplay and the Eagles. There’s an indescribable quality to this. After training on nearly all recorded music, the AI generates the most unremarkable form of music imaginable.
And Finally…
I’ll conclude with a silly and somewhat inappropriate tale. Time and again in 2025, Feedback found itself grappling with the Scunthorpe issue, which refers to how many innocent words can contain character strings that are offensive in certain contexts, causing complications for online moderation systems.
This realization began when we learned that Virgin Money’s chatbot objected to the term ‘virgin’. From there, we heard of a student who couldn’t create an email account due to his last name, Peacock, along with an incident that hindered researchers studying sperm whales.
However, our favorite story involved a bank’s computer server refusing to interact with a French-language server named after the Asterix character Petitsuitx because it contained the word “tits.” We appreciated this anecdote because a reader, Nick Brown, shared it with us, suggesting that banks utilizing such poorly constructed servers were likely headed for insolvency.
Have a story for Feedback?
You can send your article to Feedback at feedback@newscientist.com. Please include your home address. This week’s and previous feedback can be found on our website.
Disney’s iconic Mickey Mouse character is set to appear in AI-generated videos
Greg Balfour Evans / Alamy
The leading AI firm and the premier entertainment company have made an unexpected agreement, allowing AI-generated versions of beloved characters from movies, TV, and comics. This deal might indicate that major copyright holders realize they’re unable to control the influx of AI tools available today.
The Walt Disney Company has entered into a partnership with OpenAI, permitting the AI company’s Sora video generation and ChatGPT image creation technologies to utilize over 200 of Disney’s most renowned characters. In contrast, Disney is currently in a legal battle with another AI firm, Midjourney, concerning alleged copyright infringement, claiming Midjourney intends to “blatantly incorporate and copy famous characters from Disney and Universal” into its tools. This lawsuit suggested that copyright owners were starting to take steps to protect their rights against what AI companies might misuse, but some analysts now view the agreement as a sign that Disney has opted to collaborate with rather than combat AI firms.
As of now, characters like Mickey Mouse and Minnie Mouse, Simba and Mufasa from The Lion King, and characters from Moana, as well as notable figures from Marvel and Lucasfilm’s Star Wars, are permissible for OpenAI users. However, while users can create videos featuring these characters, many of the voice rights are held by celebrities, as is the case with Tom Hanks voicing Woody in the Toy Story films, which remains prohibited.
Content creation using these characters will be available from early 2026, under a license agreement lasting three years.
According to statements released by both parties, the agreement was reached after OpenAI pledged to implement age-appropriate policies and “reasonable controls” to prevent underage users from accessing its products, alongside “robust controls to avert the generation of illegal or harmful content and respect for the rights of content owners regarding model output, as well as individuals’ rights to manage the use of their voice and likeness.”
In tandem with this, Disney has committed to a $1 billion equity investment in OpenAI, with an option to purchase additional shares in the rapidly expanding AI firm. Many characters presently available in OpenAI’s tools coincide with those mentioned in Disney’s lawsuit against Midjourney.
“This presents an exciting chance for the company to let audiences engage with our characters through perhaps the most advanced technologies and media platforms available today,” said Disney CEO Bob Iger, as he informed CNBC. “OpenAI values and respects our creativity.” Iger further acknowledged the remarkable growth of AI. OpenAI CEO Sam Altman remarked, “People genuinely want to connect with Disney characters and express their creativity in novel ways.”
Despite the optimistic statements, the agreement took many by surprise. “I was astonished because Disney is recognized for fiercely safeguarding its brand,” noted Katherine Flick from Staffordshire University. The company has historically defended the intellectual property of its characters, including efforts to keep Mickey Mouse from falling into the public domain, according to Rebecca Williams of the University of South Wales.
Conversely, some observers were less surprised by the partnership. “It was clear that Disney didn’t want to confront major tech firms like Google, OpenAI, and Meta, as they’ve often perceived generative AI as beneficial,” remarked Andres Guadamuz from the University of Sussex.
Guadamuz hypothesizes that the OpenAI partnership could significantly benefit Disney, suggesting, “I suspect they will utilize their vast catalog to adapt their models,” which might even play a role in the animation process. Reports indicate that Disney is poised to become a “key customer” for OpenAI tools.
Williams expresses concern that this partnership may indicate the broader trajectory of AI and copyright disputes. “This suggests that companies like Disney consider it impossible to halt the AI tide,” she notes. “Their approach appears to involve collaborating with such enterprises to derive profit from the utilization of their intellectual property, rather than allowing it to be misappropriated.”
However, Ty Martin from the licensing company Copyrightish believes that other AI firms will start to negotiate licensing agreements moving forward. “This is the direction we’re heading in 2026,” he asserts. “Licensing is vital for quality. AI platforms equipped with strong, recognizable IP are likely to weather downturns, while unlicensed or generic content risks being overlooked.”
Whether this represents a proactive initiative or a defensive tactic due to animosity, the future of this initial three-year agreement is uncertain, and Frick believes it may soon be reevaluated. “There will be individuals who exploit their brand in ways that Disney may not typically endorse,” she stated.
Frick added, “This will serve as an evaluative case to see how this intellectual property is utilized. Personally, I suspect it will be a test to understand the limits of its usage, as [Disney] endures individuals engaging in potentially uncomfortable applications of your intellectual property.”
There has always been a strong interplay between imagination and physics. Albert Einstein crafted his theory of relativity by envisioning a scenario where he chased a beam of light. Erwin Schrödinger famously introduced the idea of cats that are both alive and dead. German mathematician David Hilbert illustrated the paradox of infinity by conceptualizing a hotel with limitless rooms and patrons. Through inventive thought experiments, physicists rigorously examine concepts and deepen their comprehension.
Interestingly, three of the most enduring thought experiments revolve around what is now known as “the devil.” The most recognized is Maxwell’s Demon, conceived in 1867, envisioning a minuscule being endowed with unusual but logical abilities. Together with Laplace’s Devil and Roschmidt’s Devil, these thought experiments continue to baffle physicists today, suggesting that pondering these devils can illuminate some of the most complex principles in physics.
“What’s refreshing and unexpected is that scientists can gain profound insights about reality by engaging in these fictional realms,” says Michael Stuart, a philosopher of science at the University of York, UK. “Many would contend that the essence of science hinges upon such imaginings.”
Laplace’s Devil
The concept of our first demon originated from the mind of French polymath Pierre-Simon Laplace, who was largely influenced by Isaac Newton. In 1814, Laplace posed a straightforward query: “If Newton’s laws can predict the fall of an apple, could we apply the same logic to predict everything?” What if we had perfect knowledge about every particle and object? He invited us to picture a devil—whom he referred to as “intelligence”—that could do exactly that. If it understood the position and momentum of all particles alongside the laws of nature, it could foresee the entirety of the universe’s future. “Nothing would remain uncertain,” he asserted. “The future could be as clear as the past.”
While we may never construct a machine endowed with Laplace’s demonic faculty, envisioning such a being assists in identifying logical inconsistencies in the theory. Does it imply that everything—from planets to humans—is predetermined? Does science assert that the laws of physics dictate all outcomes? Free will may appear to be, at best, an illusion, a mere byproduct of our ignorance.
Fortunately, the essence of the first demon is relatively straightforward to dismantle. Physicists are convinced that no entity could possess the knowledge attributed to Laplace’s demon. First, Einstein’s special theory of relativity establishes that information cannot travel faster than light. Therefore, some events can indeed influence your future, but you remain ignorant at that moment since the information must travel at light speed and lacks time to reach you, thereby nullifying Laplace’s demon.
Even in the event that this devil could access knowledge from every corner of the universe, quantum mechanics introduces another obstacle. Since the 1920s, it has been acknowledged that one cannot simultaneously ascertain both a particle’s position and momentum. Therefore, the devil cannot precisely determine where each particle is or what it is doing; it can only describe the probabilities surrounding particle properties.
Laplace’s tidy particle-by-particle depiction of reality is superseded by a quantum universe, characterized by a vast, fluctuating wavefunction—an abstract mathematical construct that encapsulates all potential outcomes. Even if the devil were able to monitor these outcomes, there remains no certainty regarding which one would ultimately manifest in reality.
The Devil of Roschmidt
Though Laplace’s devil seems to have lost its potency, even more sinister thought experiments lie ahead. The second demon emerged during a period of rapid industrialization, where the steam engine intensified inquiries about heat, energy, and disorder. Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann sought an explanation for entropy—a slippery concept that explains how systems devolve into chaos over time. Sandcastles fall apart, ice melts, and rust forms. Boltzmann believed that zooming into reality and observing the minute components of a larger system, like individual gas molecules filling a room, could clarify this concept.
However, his elder colleague, Austrian physicist Josef Loschmidt, challenged this approach in 1876 by posing a simple yet devastating dilemma. Imagine a universe in which time has halted; all molecules have a defined position and direction of movement. Loschmidt suggested that if you reversed the movement of each particle, you could essentially undo entropy. Roschmidt’s original positing did not mention a “demon,” although later iterations often included a demon that could perceive and freeze all particles, largely due to subsequent developments in the field.
The evolution of steam engines prompted inquiries into heat, energy, and entropy.
Loschmidt’s scenario deeply unsettled physicists as it suggested a time-related paradox. When considered at a microscopic level, reversing particle movement doesn’t seem to result in any contradictions. However, this breaks down at a macroscopic level; as the world seemingly restores itself in reverse, puddles solidify into ice, and shattered vases reassemble. This raises the question: “Why does time appear to flow in only one direction if at the microscopic level we can easily reverse it?”
Subsequent experiments attempted time reversal, much like Roschmidt’s demons. In the 1950s, Erwin Hahn utilized radio waves to temporarily synchronize electric dipoles (such as hydrogen atoms in water) to rotate uniformly, momentarily decreasing the system’s entropy. This seemingly created the illusion of time moving backward. So, did the Roschmidt demon manage to outsmart the concept of entropy?
Not entirely. It is now understood that entropy doesn’t imply that a system must always degenerate into disorder. Some systems can evolve into a more ordered state in a brief span. However, as Hahn demonstrated, entropy ultimately prevails. When the radio beam was switched off, the dipole reverted to chaos.
Why does entropy consistently rise? Scientifically speaking, we believe that the universe began in a highly ordered state with low entropy, where everything was systematically arranged. This constrains progress to one direction: toward chaos. Aside from fostering additional disorder, there are various methods to disrupt an orderly system. This suggests that in theory, Roschmidt’s demon can reverse small particles’ trajectories, albeit contrary to expectations.
“The situation with the second law differs fundamentally from Newton’s second law,” notes Katie Robertson, a philosopher at the University of Stirling in the UK. “Its probabilistic nature suggests that ‘You probably cannot reduce entropy.’”
Ultimately, the probabilities dispelled this demon, but they did little to enhance our understanding. In response to Loschmidt, Boltzmann shifted from the original approach to a more statistically oriented framework, as it succinctly captured the delicate logic of probability. His advanced thinking led to the formulation of the Boltzmann equation, now inscribed on his epitaph.
Maxwell’s Devil
The third and perhaps best-known demon was proposed by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1867, shortly before Roschmidt raised his concerns. Like Loschmidt, Maxwell grappled with the second law of thermodynamics, but he examined the notion of increasing entropy from a different perspective. What if, instead of rewinding the universe, we could intervene in it molecule by molecule? Envision a meddlesome being (later referred to as a demon by physicists like William Thomson) that could manipulate gas molecules trapped in a box divided by a trapdoor. Over time, this entity could violate the second law by segregating faster-moving molecules from slower-moving ones.
Various straightforward “solutions” might come to mind. Perhaps this demon expends energy opening and closing the door. However, theoretically, this “work” can be minimized infinitely. The demon could act as frivolously as desired, yet the paradox persists.
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Scientists can learn a lot about reality by entering these fictional spaces “
Instead, physicists began to suspect that the actual cost wasn’t the energy exerted by the demon, but the amount of information it needed to process. A certain type of memory seems mandatory to record the position and momentum of each molecule. And astonishingly, this memory is finite.
In the 1920s, Hungarian physicist Leo Szilard demonstrated that even a simplified version of Maxwell’s experiment—featuring only one molecule bouncing within a box—could enable a clever demon to extract work from the system. Nevertheless, he posited that this necessitates observing molecules and storing that information, requiring energy in the process.
Ultimately, something must yield. In the 1960s, IBM physicist Rolf Landauer made a crucial point. For the demon to remain functional, it must free up space in memory, generating heat and consequently increasing entropy within the system. The second law remains intact.
Laplace’s demon can predict the future of the entire universe.
George Rose/Getty Images
Moreover, physicists acknowledged that information, akin to energy, constitutes a tangible resource. Gaining insight into a system is not merely a matter of abstract logistics. Under appropriate conditions, information can also serve as fuel. Thus, Maxwell’s demon somehow translates information into work. Today, this demon symbolizes devices that function at the intersection of information and energy. These “information engines” not only challenge conventional wisdom but also hold the potential to convert demonic logic into practical technology. In 2024, researchers devised a quantum variant of the Szilard engine to power batteries within quantum computers. Instead of demons, microwave pulses were employed to displace higher-energy qubits from lower-energy ones, generating an energy differential capable of doing work like a battery.
While we remain distant from utilizing these innovations to charge mobile devices, the aspiration is that these miniature quantum engines will aid in manipulating particles or toggling qubits.
In this light, Maxwell’s demons have not been vanquished at all. Rather, they evolved into concepts that Maxwell could never have envisioned. Not as an infringement upon the Second Law, but as a means to explore the intricate and unexpected ways nature allows us to utilize information as a physical resource.
Collectively, these demons challenge both theoretical limits and intuitive understanding. While some have been tackled, new paradoxes continue to emerge. Yet, these are dilemmas that physicists welcome. These intriguing thought experiments provide scientists with a compelling avenue to push the boundaries of their knowledge.
Ozempic, which contains the GLP-1 drug semaglutide, was originally thought to be solely a treatment for type 2 diabetes.
alamy stock photo
Once regarded as exclusive weight-loss solutions for the affluent, medications like Mounjaro, Wegovy, and Ozempic are set to expand their impact in 2025. Now approved in the United States for kidney and cardiovascular diseases, Ozempic’s role extends far beyond obesity and type 2 diabetes treatment. This year has witnessed a significant surge in evidence indicating that these medications could revolutionize nearly every facet of medicine.
Emerging findings suggest that the drug, which simulates the gut hormone glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), offers benefits beyond managing diabetes and obesity. A study in 2024 indicated its potential in decreasing the risk of heart attacks and strokes, alleviating depression and anxiety, and even slowing cognitive decline.
Initially, it was believed that these effects stemmed from weight loss, given the strong correlation between obesity and various health issues. However, by early 2025, it became evident that additional benefits were at play. Subsequent studies demonstrated that individuals experienced health improvements regardless of their weight loss outcomes.
Researchers are uncovering the mechanisms through which GLP-1 medications operate across various pathways, including those related to inflammation. These drugs seem to influence metabolism and neural circuits that regulate motivation, reward, and mood, potentially elucidating their unexpected advantages against alcoholism and depression.
Until recently, much of the evidence relied on animal studies and observational data. However, 2025 has seen a surge in large-scale randomized trials assessing the broader impacts of these medications.
In January, findings revealed that diabetic patients taking GLP-1 medications in conjunction with standard treatments faced a reduced risk of 42 diseases, including dementia and muscle pain, compared to those receiving only standard care. Nevertheless, it wasn’t all positive, as an increased risk for 19 conditions, such as kidney stones, was also noted, though overall advantages eclipsed the downsides.
Last year’s noteworthy findings predominantly involved cognitive health. The suggested connection between GLP-1 medications and diminished addictive behaviors gained credence from the first randomized clinical trial to investigate this hypothesis directly.
In a nine-week study involving 48 individuals with alcohol use disorder, those administered Ozempic and Wegovy’s semaglutide exhibited reduced alcohol consumption and craving frequencies compared to the placebo group. “We are thrilled about the advancements we are witnessing,” states Tony Goldstone from Imperial College London. “Few medications exist for treating addiction, and [GLP-1 drugs] are recognized as sufficiently safe due to prior approvals for other ailments.”
Moreover, additional cognitive benefits have come to light this year. In April, a meta-analysis encompassing 26 clinical trials with over 160,000 participants found that GLP-1 drugs significantly diminished the risk for all dementia types. This followed another trial conducted by Paul Edison, also from Imperial College London. The research discovered that a year of treatment with the GLP-1 drug liraglutide, found in Saxenda and Nevolat, resulted in a 50% reduction in brain shrinkage and an 18% slower cognitive decline when compared to a placebo.
Edison theorizes that Alzheimer’s isn’t caused by a singular factor but is the outcome of multiple pathological processes. He posits that GLP-1 drugs influence several of these processes, potentially safeguarding neurons through kinase pathways critical for cellular stress responses, while enhancing insulin sensitivity and mitigating inflammation.
The favorable news continued to unfold. In late April, the GLP-1 drug became the first pharmaceutical treatment to demonstrate distinct benefits for individuals with severe non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, a condition characterized by fat accumulation that can lead to inflammation, scarring, cirrhosis, and cancer.
Aging concerns are also under scrutiny. A small trial evaluating individuals with HIV-related aging complications found that participants receiving Ozempic injections for 32 weeks exhibited an average biological age reduction of 3.1 years by the end of the study, while no changes were noted in the placebo group.
Varun Dwaraka, from TruDiagnostic in Lexington, Kentucky, which participated in the study, emphasizes that these effects aren’t merely a result of weight loss. “While weight loss is part of biological aging, initial evidence and our understanding of GLP-1 biology imply that there exists an independent layer of metabolic enhancement leading to improvements in biological age,” he indicates.
This versatile class of drugs is expected to unveil more discoveries in 2026, as researchers delve into how a single treatment can influence such a wide array of conditions and delineate its limitations. As Goldstone aptly noted, despite the pressing need for expansive long-term trials, “we’re heading in the right direction.”
There’s no doubt that 2025 will be remembered as the year of decline. “Slop,” a term for AI-generated content that is often off-base, bizarre, and visually unappealing, has infiltrated nearly every online platform. It is also starting to corrupt our hearts.
Sufficient slop has built up over recent years that scientists can now assess its long-term effects on people. Researchers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology discovered that individuals using large-scale language models (LLMs) like ChatGPT exhibit significantly less brain activity compared to those who do not. This could adversely affect mental health as reports suggest that specific chatbots may encourage unhealthy beliefs and worsen certain mental health issues.
Furthermore, deepfakes have become ubiquitous, complicating the verification of truth online. A Microsoft study indicates that humans can distinguish between real and AI-generated videos only 62% of the time.
OpenAI’s latest application serves as a video sharing platform that is primarily AI-generated, except for one aspect: the app scans your likeness and integrates you and real individuals into the fictional scenes it creates. OpenAI’s founder Sam Altman has downplayed its significance by allowing users to create videos featuring him stealing GPU and performing skibbiddy toilet-style antics.
Yet, what about AI’s supposedly transformative effects on workplace efficiency? One study reveals that the introduction of AI has resulted in a decline in productivity, with 95% of organizations implementing AI reporting a lack of tangible returns on investment.
Slop devastates lives and careers. It is also eroding our historical narrative. As I work on a book about archaeology, I worry that future historians will look back upon the media from this period and criticize the layers of manipulative and false content. One key reason for recording our experiences, whether through writing or video, is to maintain a historical record of our activities. When I write, I aim to create a legacy that allows those living 5,000 years from now to understand who we were amidst the chaos.
AI chatbots recycle meaningless language. They produce content but not genuine memories. Historically, this may be more harmful than propaganda, which is typically crafted by people with clear intentions, reflecting societal issues and politics. Slop risks erasing our presence from our historical records, making it challenging to discern the intent behind it.
Perhaps the sole way to counteract our current cultural sloppiness is by coining words devoid of meaning. This might explain the emergence of the Gen Z “6-7” phenomenon in the mainstream. This term was designated, albeit nonverbally, as “Word of the Year” by dictionary.com. You can always default to saying 6-7 when lacking a specific response or for no reason at all. What will the future bring? 6-7. What impact will AI slop have on art? 6-7. How do we navigate a reality where jobs are scarce, violence escalates, and climate science is persistently disregarded? 6-7.
I would be intrigued to see AI companies attempt to create content around 6-7. Because humans remain one step ahead of the slop, inventing new forms of nonsense and ambiguity that can only be truly understood by another human.
Dolphin approaches killer whale, captured by the killer whale’s camera
University of British Columbia (A.Trites), Dalhousie University (S. Fortune), Hakai Institute (K. Holmes), Leibniz Zoo and Wildlife Institute (X. Cheng)
Killer whales and dolphins collaborate to catch salmon in the North Pacific Ocean, revealing new insights into the intricate social dynamics of marine mammals.
Using video cameras and sensors attached to nine killer whales, researchers observed four of them diving alongside a large group of white-tailed dolphins towards Chinook salmon hiding in deep waters off northern Vancouver Island. An additional three whales were tracked via drone. The killer whales consumed the salmon, leaving behind scraps that the dolphins scavenged.
“They collaborated to locate food,” states Sarah Fortune from Dalhousie University, Canada. “One might anthropomorphize this scenario and suggest that they’re hunting friends.”
Chinook salmon, or king salmon, can exceed a meter in length, making them often too large for dolphins to consume.
However, the whales off northern Vancouver Island are known for their hearty appetites, frequently tearing fish apart to share with their pod, which leaves behind blood, scales, and remnants for dolphins to eat. Researchers propose that dolphins assist whales in locating salmon.
In the video, six out of twelve whales directed their attention toward the dolphins, totaling 102 interactions. The four whales dove with the dolphins to depths of 60 meters, where it becomes dark and salmon can conceal themselves among rocks and crevices.
Though both species emitted clicking and buzzing sounds, data from the sensors indicated that the whales often reduced their echolocation activity, likely to “eavesdrop” on the dolphins. Since echolocation operates like a focused spotlight, having numerous dolphins scanning the waters could enhance the whales’ chances of finding fish, according to Fortune.
“It’s akin to turning on the high beams of a vehicle; the sound serves as the light,” she elaborates.
Prior to this, scientists have noted cooperation among various species, such as fish guiding octopuses to crustaceans and nectar birds leading humans to bee colonies. However, documented interactions between killer whales and other species have often involved predatory behaviors.
Recently, killer whales were reported to have rammed and sunk six sailing vessels around the Iberian Peninsula, suggesting they may be engaging with boats rather than attacking. They are playing with them.
Brittany Visona Kelly from the global conservation group Ocean Wise asserts that the dolphins in this study are not aiding the whales but scavenging leftovers. In a study she and her colleagues, including Lance Barrett-Leonard, revealed drone footage showing whales seemingly ignoring the dolphins, playing with them, and occasionally charging at them. Their findings suggest that dolphins primarily seek refuge from a specific group of mammal-eating killer whales, known as big killer whales, which tend to avoid resident orcas.
“We found no clear evidence that these interactions benefit killer whales,” Visona-Kelly concluded.
The study reported last month indicated that between 30 to 40 white-tailed dolphins encircled an emaciated killer whale known to researchers as “I76,” who remained submerged and did not reemerge. This suggests that the dolphins may have “exhausted I76, making it impossible for him to surface.”
Luke Rendell from the University of St. Andrews in the UK emphasized that the new research provides compelling evidence of cooperation, whether the whales are interpreting dolphin echolocation or drawn to the commotion as a potential indicator of fish.
“These animals are intelligent and possess adaptable behaviors,” he notes. “We witness a range of interactions between killer whales and dolphins, from the former preying on each other to playful interactions and collaborative efforts.”
SNR 0519, the remnants of a supernova that erupted around 600 years ago
Claude Coenen/ESA/Hubble & NASA
Our planet may owe some of its characteristics to a neighboring star that met its end as a supernova during the formation period of the solar system. This notion of a supernova bubble enveloping the sun and inundating it with cosmic rays might be a common phenomenon across the galaxy, implying that there could be many more Earth-like planets than we ever imagined.
Thanks to ancient data, we understand from a meteorite sample that the early solar system was rich in radioactive materials that generated significant heat and quickly decayed. The heat produced by these elements was crucial for releasing substantial amounts of water from the colliding space rocks and comets that coalesced to form Earth, ensuring there was enough water for life to eventually thrive.
However, the origin of these elements remains a mystery. While many are commonly produced in supernovae, simulations of nearby supernovae have faced challenges in replicating the exact ratios of radioactive elements observed in meteorite specimens from the early Solar System. A significant issue is that these explosive events were incredibly forceful and might have obliterated the delicate early solar system before planetary formation could take place.
Recently, Ryo Sawada and fellow researchers at the University of Tokyo have discovered that if a supernova occurs at an adequate distance, it could supply Earth with the necessary radioactive components without interfering with the planet-forming process.
In their theoretical framework, a supernova located approximately three light-years from our solar system could initiate a two-step process to generate the essential radioactive elements. Certain radioactive substances, like aluminum and manganese, are directly created during supernova explosions and might reach the solar system propelled by shock waves from the explosion.
Subsequently, the high-energy particles known as cosmic rays released by the supernova travel along these shock waves, colliding with other atoms in the gaseous, dusty, and rocky disk still in its formative phase, birthing the remaining radioactive elements such as beryllium and calcium. “We realized that prior models of solar system formation primarily concentrated on the injection of matter, neglecting the role of high-energy particles,” stated Sawada. “We contemplated, ‘What if our nascent solar system was simply engulfed in this particle bath?'”
Due to the occurrence of this process in more distant supernovae than previously explored, Sawada and his team estimate that between 10 and 50 percent of Sun-like stars and planetary systems might have been enriched with radioactive elements in this manner, leading to the formation of water-abundant planets that resemble Earth. Earlier theories posited that the proximity of the supernova would have made such an event exceedingly rare, akin to “winning the lottery,” as Sawada described. The fact that the supernova is further positioned indicates that “Earth’s creation is probably not an unusual occurrence, but a widespread phenomenon that transpires throughout the galaxy,” he adds.
“This is exceedingly clever because it strikes a harmonious balance between destruction and creation,” remarks Cosimo Insera from Cardiff University in the UK. “The right elements and the correct distance are essential.”
If this theory holds true, Inserra mentioned that upcoming telescopes like NASA’s Habitable World Observatory could significantly aid in the search for Earth-like planets by identifying remnants of ancient supernovae and locating systems that were within proximity to supernovae during their formation stages.
Scientists have discovered an unexpectedly high quantity of pre-solar particles (dust from supernovae predating our solar system) in samples obtained from the near-Earth asteroid (101955) Bennu by NASA’s Osiris-Rex spacecraft.
Characterization of pre-solar spinel hibonite particles collected from the asteroid Bennu. Image credit: Nguyen et al., doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02688-3.
Dr. Anh Nguyen from NASA’s Johnson Space Center and colleagues noted, “Pre-solar stardust particles are typically found in trace amounts within meteorites, interplanetary dust particles, Antarctic meteorites, samples returned from comet 81 P/Wild2 by NASA’s Stardust mission, and those from the carbonaceous asteroid Ryugu collected by JAXA’s Hayabusa2 mission.”
“Their distinct isotopic compositions arise from nucleosynthetic processes in evolved red giant stars, supernovae, and novae.”
“The mineralogy and chemistry of these pre-solar particles can provide insights into condensation conditions and the impacts of secondary alteration, as they are prone to changes and destruction in space, solar nebulae, and planetesimals.”
In their study, researchers examined pre-solar particles found within two different rock types in the samples from Bennu.
The sample had six times the particles compared to any other astronomical material studied, indicating its parent body formed in an area of a protoplanetary disk abundant with the dust from a dying star.
The research also pointed out that while Bennu’s parent asteroid has experienced significant fluid-induced alterations, there are still pockets of less-altered material within the sample, offering clues to its origins.
“These remnants are rich in organic compounds and pre-solar silicate particles, which are generally vulnerable to alteration caused by asteroid water,” Dr. Nguyen remarked.
“It’s remarkable that they were preserved in the Bennu sample, suggesting certain materials escaped alteration in the parent body.”
“Our investigation highlights the variety of pre-solar material that accumulates during parent formation.”
A study detailing the findings was published in the journal on December 2nd, in Nature Astronomy.
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Anh Nguyen et al. Abundant supernova dust and heterogeneous water alteration revealed by stardust of two lithofacies on asteroid Bennu. Nat Astron published online on December 2, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02688-3
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope have identified a supernova explosion linked to gamma-ray burst event GRB 250314A at a redshift of 7.3, occurring when the universe was merely 730 million years old. The previous record-holder for supernovae was observed when the universe reached 1.8 billion years. This discovery is detailed in two papers published in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.
Webb identified the origin of the blinding flashes known as gamma-ray bursts. This particular gamma-ray burst exploded when the universe was merely 730 million years old. Image credit: NASA / ESA / CSA / STScI / A. Levan, IMAPP / A. Pagan, STScI.
“Only Mr. Webb has directly demonstrated that this light is from a collapsing massive star,” stated Dr. Andrew Levan, an astronomer at Radboud University and the University of Warwick, and lead author of one of the papers.
“This observation suggests that we can utilize Webb to detect individual stars from a time when the universe was just 5% of its current age.”
Whereas gamma-ray bursts typically last from seconds to minutes, supernovae rapidly brighten over several weeks before slowly dimming.
In contrast, the supernova linked to GRB 250314A took months to brighten.
Because this explosion occurred so early in the universe’s history, its light continued to evolve as the universe expanded over billions of years.
As the light stretches, the duration for events to unfold also lengthens.
Webb’s observations were intentionally made three and a half months after the closure of the GRB 250314A event, as it was expected that the supernova would be at its brightest at this time.
“Webb provided the rapid and sensitive follow-up we so desperately needed,” remarked Dr. Benjamin Schneider, an astronomer at the Marseille Institute of Astrophysics.
Gamma-ray bursts are exceedingly rare. Bursts lasting only a few seconds may originate from the collision of two neutron stars or a neutron star and a black hole.
Longer bursts, like this one, which lasted around 10 seconds, are often linked to the explosions of massive stars.
On March 14, 2025, the SVOM mission—a joint Franco-Chinese telescope launched in 2024 designed to spot fleeting events—will detect gamma-ray bursts from extremely distant sources.
Within an hour and a half, NASA’s Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory had pinpointed the X-ray source in the sky, facilitating follow-up observations to measure the distance of the web.
Eleven hours later, Nordic optical telescopes revealed the afterglow of the infrared gamma-ray burst, indicating that gamma rays may correspond to very distant objects.
Four hours later, ESO’s Very Large Telescope estimated that the object existed 730 million years after the Big Bang.
“Only a handful of gamma-ray bursts have been identified in the first billion years of the universe and merely a few in the last 50 years,” Levan noted.
“This remarkable event is exceedingly rare and thrilling.”
As this is the oldest and most distant supernova ever identified, researchers compared it to nearby modern supernovae, finding surprising similarities.
Why? Little is still understood about the early billion years of the universe.
Early stars likely lacked heavy elements, were massive, and had brief lifespans.
They also existed during the reionization era, when intergalactic gas was almost opaque to high-energy light.
“Dr. Webb has demonstrated that this supernova resembles modern supernovae very closely,” stated Professor Nial Tanvir from the University of Leicester.
“Webb’s findings indicate that this distant galaxy is akin to other galaxies of the same epoch,” commented Dr. Emeric Le Floch, an astronomer at CEA Paris-Saclay.
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AJ Levan et al. 2025. JWST reveals a supernova following a gamma-ray burst at z ≃ 7.3. A&A 704, L8; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202556581
B. Cordier et al. 2025. SVOM GRB 250314A at z ≃ 7.3: Exploding star in the reionization era. A&A 704, L7; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202556580
Researchers within the MicroBooNE (Micro Booster Neutrino) collaboration have determined, with 95% probability, that a single sterile neutrino does not exist.
Utilizing data from the MicroBooNE detector, physicists announce one of the preliminary searches for sterile neutrinos with two accelerator neutrino beams. Image credit: Gemini AI.
Neutrinos are tiny subatomic particles that seldom interact with matter, allowing them to traverse the Earth without being impeded.
Current particle physics theory recognizes three types of neutrinos: electron, muon, and tau neutrinos.
These neutrinos can transform from one type to another, a phenomenon known as oscillation.
Previous experiments had revealed neutrinos that seemed to oscillate in ways not consistent with the standard model.
To clarify this anomaly, scientists suggested a fourth type: sterile neutrinos, which interact only through gravity, complicating their detection.
“The existence of three distinct flavors of neutrinos is a fundamental aspect of the Standard Model of particle physics,” explained Dr. Andrew Mastbaum, a physicist from Rutgers University and a member of the MicroBooNE leadership team.
“Because of quantum mechanical interference, neutrinos of one flavor can eventually be detected as a different flavor, a phenomenon known as neutrino oscillation.”
“Numerous unusual findings that challenge the three-flavor model have led us to postulate the existence of an additional neutrino state, referred to as a ‘sterile’ neutrino, which does not directly interact with matter.”
In the experiment conducted by MicroBooNE, physicists investigated neutrinos from two distinct beams and analyzed their oscillations.
After a decade of data gathering and scrutiny, they uncovered no evidence of sterile neutrinos, effectively rejecting one of the leading theories for the peculiarities observed in neutrino behavior.
“This result signifies a pivotal moment,” remarked Dr. Mastbaum.
“It will ignite innovative ideas in neutrino research, helping us to better comprehend the underlying phenomena.”
“While we can rule out major possibilities, this alone does not unravel the entire mystery.”
“The Standard Model does not encompass everything, such as dark matter, dark energy, and gravity, prompting scientists to seek clues that extend beyond the model,” he observed.
“By dismissing one potential explanation, we can concentrate on alternative hypotheses that may yield significant advancements in our understanding of the universe.”
The findings will also provide valuable insights for forthcoming experiments, like the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE).
“Through meticulous modeling and a strategic analytical approach, the MicroBooNE team has extracted an extraordinary amount of information from this detector,” stated Dr. Mastbaum.
“In next-generation projects like DUNE, we are already utilizing these techniques to explore even more fundamental questions about the essence of matter and the nature of the universe.”
of the team results published in the journal Nature.
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Collaboration with MicroBooNE. 2025. Search for photosterile neutrinos using two neutrino beams with MicroBooNE. Nature 648, 64-69; doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09757-7
Archaeologists have discovered a heated deposit that is 400,000 years old, along with a fire-cracked flint hatchet in Burnham, Suffolk, England, as well as two pieces of pyrite—a mineral historically used to create sparks from flint. This finding suggests that humans were capable of making fire approximately 350,000 years earlier than previously thought.
An artist’s impression of the Burnham fire some 400,000 years ago. Image credit: Craig Williams / British Museum Trustees.
The ability to start and control fire represents a significant milestone in human evolution. Fire provided essential warmth, protection from predators, and enabled cooking, thereby broadening the range of edible foods.
Evidence of fire in areas occupied by humans dates back over a million years.
Nonetheless, pinpointing when humans first learned to ignite fire remains challenging.
Fire likely began with early humans taking advantage of natural wildfires before they developed the skill to deliberately start their own fires.
Previously, indications of early fire use were found at Neanderthal locations in France dating back 50,000 years, where hand axes possibly used for striking pyrite to create sparks were discovered.
Recent findings by Professor Nick Ashton of the British Museum and the Institute of Archaeology at University College London, along with his team, indicate that fire-making might have been practiced at the Burnham site as far back as 400,000 years ago.
Archaeologists uncovered heated deposits in the ancient soil, along with a flint hatchet damaged by fire.
These indicators suggest that fires were maintained purposefully within human habitats, marking the third piece of evidence that fire-starting was intentional.
Two pyrite fragments were found at the site. Due to the mineral’s rarity in the area, researchers hypothesize that the pyrite may have been deliberately transported to the site for fire-starting purposes.
Together, these discoveries illustrate the sophisticated behaviors of early humans at the Burnham location.
For instance, these hominins may have comprehended the ignition properties of pyrite and incorporated it into their fire-starting techniques.
Mastering this skill would have offered numerous benefits, including cooking abilities and advancements in technology, such as the creation of adhesives for tools, potentially influencing significant developments in human behavior.
Professor Chris Stringer, a paleoanthropologist at the Natural History Museum in London, commented: “Based on the morphology of contemporary fossils from Swanscombe, Kent, and Atapuerca in Spain, we believe the individuals who ignited the Burnham fire 400,000 years ago were early Neanderthals, and early Neanderthal DNA has been preserved.”
“This represents the most astounding discovery of my career, and I take great pride in the collaborative effort that led to this groundbreaking conclusion,” said Professor Ashton.
“It’s astonishing that some of the oldest Neanderthal groups understood the characteristics of flint, pyrite, and tinder at such an early time.”
“The implications of this finding are immense,” stated Dr. Rob Davies, project curator at the British Museum.
“The capability to create and manage fire was one of the most crucial turning points in human history, offering practical and social advantages that significantly shaped human evolution.”
“This remarkable discovery shifts this pivotal moment back to about 350,000 years ago.”
The study detailing these findings is published in this paper in today’s edition of Nature.
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R. Davis et al. The earliest evidence of starting a fire. Nature, published online on December 10, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09855-6
Set against the vastness of space, our blue planet emerges above the desolate lunar landscape. This iconic photograph, “Earthrise,” was captured by Apollo 8 astronaut Bill Anders on Christmas Eve 1968.
Nearly six decades later, we regard this image as part of our narrative. Yet, envision a different earthrise where space is not a dark backdrop, but a vivid blue, akin to a sunny sky. Odd as it may appear, this was the vision held by many Europeans for centuries.
Our comprehension of the cosmos has evolved significantly over time, influencing how we perceive our place within it. The shift from an earth-centered to a sun-centered universe, along with the transition from a finite to an infinite cosmos, prompted a profound reevaluation of humanity’s role in the grand scheme. The change from a vibrant to a dim universe is equally crucial, yet it remains largely overlooked in our historical narratives.
Recently, through my scholarly work in literary and scientific history, I have sought to trace the timeline of this transformation. At what point did our universe metaphorically turn dark? What did this shift imply for humanity?
Earthrise—a photograph from the moon’s surface in 1968 showcasing the notion that space is dark.
NASA
Reflect on the account given by Domingo González, the hero of Francis Godwin’s 1638 science fiction novel, The Man in the Moone. González travels to the moon in a swan-powered vehicle and notes a scarcity of stars. Even those he does see are dim. He observes, “It was always daytime for some reason, yet the stars appeared faint, similar to the moon’s glow in daylight.” Why are there fewer stars in his experience? Why do they appear washed out? Because, in his narrative, space is akin to the daytime sky, where the sun drowns out the luminosity of stars.
From our viewpoint, González’s reality seems inverted. In his portrayal, daytime reveals our true nature, while night conceals us within Earth’s shadow. Yet, ascending to space at midnight, we would eventually emerge from darkness into eternal daylight.
In Francis Godwin’s The Man in the Moone, protagonist Domingo González embarks for the moon in a swan-powered craft.
Houghton Library
While González omits mention of a shadow, we glimpse it in another early space narrative by John Milton, Paradise Lost. As Milton’s Satan nears Earth, he remarks upon “a whirling canopy / a spreading shadow of the night.” If you visualize pre-modern eras, adding this shadow to your image of earthrise transforms it. A dark cone emerges from the jagged globe, plunging into the azure sky and vanishing beneath the lunar horizon.
Additional authors elucidate why the Universe is imagined as not merely bright, but blue-hued. The prevalent rationale is that the “firmament” was envisioned as blue. Walter Charlton, a contemporary of Milton, remarked this notion was widely shared “by many transcendental thinkers, as well as the average populace.” Observing the daytime sky, they believed they were witnessing the universe’s limit.
The Path to Earthrise
This luminescent universe also manifests in visual art. A comparison with Apollo 8 is particularly pertinent. Hours after capturing earthrise, the crew transmitted radio messages from lunar orbit to Earth. Commander Frank Bowman extended Christmas wishes and recited the biblical creation tale. For the first time, humanity achieved a god-like vantage point of the radiant blue planet glistening against the abyss. In contrast, when pre-modern artists portrayed these scripture moments, they often rendered a dim planet against a bright celestial expanse. To reimagine earthrise, picture one of these shadowed Earths ascending above the lunar surface instead of the iconic “blue marble.”
It was not just poets and artists who envisioned such a realm. Philosophers and scientists also entertained the concept. Aristotle remarked on “the shadow of the earth (termed night).” Two millennia later, Copernicus similarly wrote, “While the rest of the universe is illuminated and radiant, the night signifies nothing but the shadow of the Earth, extending in a cone and culminating at a point.”
This perspective was not unreasonable; early European scholars lacked compelling evidence to argue otherwise, particularly concerning the light-refracting properties of the universe and Earth’s atmosphere. Without such evidence, why suspect that night predominates and day a rarity? What led pre-modern Christians to diverge from millennia of tradition and perceive heaven—not as eternal brightness, but infinite darkness?
A 13th-century manuscript depicting a gray Earth casting a black shadow against a blue universe (left) and a 15th-century manuscript showcasing the newly created Earth as a black marble surrounded by blue cosmos (right).
Heritage Image Partnership Ltd/Alamy; National Library of France
This does not imply that luminous spaces were universally accepted in pre-modern thought. For instance, scholars within the Islamic tradition favored the concept of dark spaces starting in the 9th century, yet this perspective seems to have been less influential in the West. In any case, the notion of a dark universe had to be re-established among 17th-century European thinkers.
During this period, significant advancements in atmospheric science emerged. Notably, the term “atmosphere” was coined in the 17th century, with Walter Charlton among the first to utilize it in English. His view of the universe acts as a transitional development in this narrative: a universe that oscillates between brightness and darkness based on an observer’s orientation towards the sun. Although Charlton described a dark universe, he noted that it was “not nearly as deep blue as many presume,” and filled with countless tiny particles or “atoms,” which he speculated could impact visibility. In contrast, Otto von Guericke, who endorsed the infinite universe and conducted pioneering vacuum experiments, postulated that in an “unblemished” and “void” space, devoid of illuminated objects, we would perceive “nothing but shadows.”
Thereafter, dark space gained traction among European scientists and thinkers informed by these scientific advancements. However, this marks only part of the narrative, as visions of bright spaces lingered in cultural imaginations for centuries.
Fast forward to 1858, when astronomer James Gall envisioned his foray into the void for a Victorian audience, exclaiming, “As I look around me, how peculiar! The heavens are pitch black.” While Gall acknowledged the darkness of space, he doubted the audience’s awareness of this fact. It wasn’t a naive child or uninformed individual believing in a “giant blue sphere,” but the renowned literary historian David Masson in 1880 who clung to this isolated imagery, which persisted well into the 1920s, right at the brink of the Space Age.
Thus, we confront a dual narrative of a decline in our cosmic imagination alongside the unexpected evolution of these ideas. Some of the most striking evidence is found in literature, especially in space travel narratives, which were initially recognized by literary scholars such as C.S. Lewis and more recently John Leonard. Nevertheless, this aspect has yet to receive thorough investigation, and its cultural ramifications remain largely unexamined.
The implications are significant, often concealed in plain sight. Prominent images such as earthrise have reshaped our perceptions of our planet and its environmental context. The view of Earth as “perfect” and “blue” has also rendered it “fragile,” symbolizing the perils of nuclear conflict and climate change, as well as underscoring the call for political unity and ecological stewardship. What is less acknowledged, however, is that this transformation arose not only from a fresh perspective on Earth, but importantly on the vastness surrounding it.
For millennia, the entirety of Earth has been envisioned, represented, and contemplated. Yet, much of it was depicted within brilliant space, eliciting markedly different responses. Hence, the influence of earthrise was indeed more profound than commonly appreciated. The mass circulation of such imagery has obliterated even the faintest remnants of a once-bright universe and firmly imprinted its inversion into collective consciousness. The Earth stands not merely as “blue” or “fragile.” While it may appear thus against the cold, dark expanse surrounding it, it has transitioned into both a scientific reality and a cultural perception.
In a room adorned with gray walls in the Dutch city of Nijmegen, peculiar activities unfold beneath your feet. You find yourself seated in a chair, donning a hat covered with sensors, and your bare feet are placed in holes in the platform. Below, a robot equipped with a metal probe begins tickling the soles of your feet. Soon, the air fills with shrieks, laughter, and a certain painful mirth. Here at Radboud University’s Touch and Tickle Laboratory, volunteers are subjected to relentless tickling for the sake of science.
“We can monitor the intensity, speed, and specific areas of stimulation on the legs,” explains Constantina Kirteni, the lab’s director, regarding the robotic tickling experiment. Simultaneously, researchers document participants’ brain activity and physiological metrics such as heart rate, respiration, and sweating. Armed with these neurological and physiological insights, the researchers aim to tackle age-old questions that have intrigued philosophers from Socrates to René Descartes. Why do we experience ticklishness, what does it reveal about the boundary between pleasure and pain, and does this peculiar behavior serve any real purpose? The findings could illuminate areas such as infant brain development, clinical conditions like schizophrenia, and the structure of conscious experience in our brains.
Though the researchers have yet to publish their findings, Kirteni is willing to share some early insights. Regarding what triggers the tickling sensation, she states, “For us to recognize it as tickling, the contact must be both strong and rapid.” Preliminary analyses also indicate that electroencephalography (EEG) reveals distinct patterns of brain activity when experiencing ticklish feelings. To delve deeper into which brain regions process these sensations, the researchers intend to employ functional MRI, although the robot will require modifications to avoid interfering with the scanner. Moreover, scientists at the institute have initiated inquiries into the intriguing question of whether people actually enjoy being tickled.
“We observe a mix of responses, allowing us to see both those who find it pleasurable and those who find it distressing,” Kirteni notes. While people’s reactions may include smiles or laughter, these do not necessarily correlate with their enjoyment levels. Additionally, perceptions can shift over time. “Some individuals have reported that though it may be enjoyable initially, prolonged exposure can become uncomfortable and even painful,” she adds.
Tickling Laboratory at Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
Cohen Verheiden
One of the enduring enigmas about tickling that Kirteni is eager to unravel is why self-tickling is impossible. This peculiar fact suggests that unpredictability in stimulation is crucial, a notion supported by contemporary studies. Numerous investigations indicate that our brains predict sensations triggered by our own actions, leading us to perceive our touch as less significant than that of others. This can become particularly perplexing in certain mental health conditions. Research suggests that individuals experiencing auditory hallucinations or sensations of being controlled by external forces find their own touch more ticklish. “This indicates a possible breakdown in how our brains forecast our feelings based on our movements,” Kirteni mentions. “We are keen to explore this further in clinical populations, especially those with schizophrenia.”
What Makes Us Ticklish?
Perhaps the most significant unanswered inquiry revolves around why we are ticklish. Known primarily among humans and their close relatives, tickling may have evolved from behaviors in great ape ancestors. For instance, chimpanzees and bonobos frequently tickle each other during play. In a study published this year, Elisa Demur and colleagues from the University of Lyon in France observed a bonobo colony for three months. They discovered a notable correlation between tickling and age, with older bonobos being tickled more often, while younger ones were tickled frequently.
Demur remarked, “This is intriguing because it aligns closely with human behavior, chiefly as an interaction for young children.” The researchers observed that social bonds significantly influenced the tickling interactions; pairs that primarily engaged in tickling sessions shared strong attachments.
For Demur, this suggests that tickling evolved as a prosocial behavior enhancing connections between youngsters and their group members. This is closely related to pretend play, she adds, since acts appearing aggressive and unpleasant from strangers can be enjoyable in the presence of friends or close acquaintances. In her studies of bonobos at the Lola ya Bonobo Sanctuary in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, she observes how orphaned infants respond to tickling by their human surrogate parents, highlighting the importance of familiarity. “It’s a fascinating behavior. It’s always joyful to see them laugh; they’re incredibly adorable!” she shares.
Regardless of one’s mental state or the relationship with the person (or machine) doing the tickling, even non-consensual tickling can elicit laughter. Some researchers argue that this indicates that tickling is a physiological reflex; however, this does not preclude the idea that its evolution served a social purpose. Another hypothesis suggests that this behavior could help young individuals learn to protect vulnerable areas of their body during play or combat. “The truth remains that we don’t have definitive answers because there are valid counterarguments for all these theories,” Kirteni states.
Rats “laugh” when tickled
Shinpei Ishiyama and Michael Brecht
Nevertheless, focusing exclusively on tickling behaviors in great apes may overlook a significant aspect of this behavior. While rodents are not known to engage in tickling among themselves, they appear to enjoy human tickling. Though previously thought to be non-ticklish, mice have shown a fondness for tickling when they feel comfortable. Researcher Marlies Austrand from the University of Amsterdam found that if mice are relaxed and flipped over, they can delight in tickling, producing high-pitched sounds that resemble laughter.
Interestingly, these sounds are beyond human hearing range, and it’s uncertain whether mice can hear them as well, adding to the mystery of their laughter. While Austrand’s findings are not yet published, it’s evident that rodents respond positively to tickling. “If given the choice between a safe, scented hutch in their home cage and being tickled, mice will choose the latter,” she asserts.
Austrand speculates on why humans and animals react as they do under tickling. Our brains are constantly engaged in predicting external stimuli, evaluating potential threats and survival tactics. She proposes that tickling introduces surprises that contradict these expectations. Yet, if we feel secure, these unexpected sensations can be exhilarating. “This is more of a hypothesis; it remains unproven,” she admits. “But I believe tickling aids animals, especially young ones, in adapting to a fluid environment,” she concludes. Such peculiar behavior may well be an evolutionary quirk that we should embrace.
Artistic representation of sparks from flint and pyrite
Craig Williams, Trustee of the British Museum
Approximately 400,000 years ago, Neanderthals or their ancestors in Britain struck flint with pyrite, repeatedly igniting fires in the same location. Archaeologists believe this is the earliest evidence of human fire-making discovered to date.
Early humans may have opportunistically utilized fire for around 1.5 million years, likely benefiting from naturally occurring fires caused by events like lightning strikes.
Starting around 400,000 years ago, signs of more extensive fire usage grew in Europe, yet direct evidence indicates that humans gained the ability to control fire only around 50,000 years ago.
Nick Ashton from The British Museum reported three crucial findings from the Burnham Quarry site in Suffolk: pyrite, charred deposits, and a heat-damaged hatchet.
Pyrite holds significant importance in humanity’s fire history, as striking it with flint can produce sparks capable of igniting dry materials. However, pyrite does not naturally occur near quarries, implying that early humans must have transported it. “Pyrite is crucial,” Ashton states.
Additionally, the reddish sediment left by these fires is vital, according to him. Combustion alters the iron minerals present in the deposits, consequently changing their magnetic characteristics. Laboratory tests indicate that the reddish clay layer may have experienced firing events more than a dozen times, suggesting that humans revisited and ignited fires in this area repeatedly.
Heating flint facilitates its shaping into sharp tools, but excessive heat can lead to its shattering, as evidenced by the hatchet discovered at Burnham. Tests indicated it exceeded 700 degrees Celsius, prompting Mr. Ashton to believe it had inadvertently been heated.
Excavations at a disused quarry in Burnham, UK
Jordan Mansfield, Road to Ancient Britain Project.
Ashton notes that there’s accumulating evidence suggesting humans half a million years ago possessed a range of cultural and technological abilities, including making and using fire.
“Early Neanderthals, along with other modern human species, were far more capable than we often acknowledge,” Ashton says. “Starting a fire is no simple task; it necessitates understanding pyrite’s origin, its properties when used with flint, and selecting the right tinder to create a flame.”
John Gowlett at The University of Liverpool has stated that recent findings make it “highly plausible” that individuals 400,000 years ago were not just aware of fire but likely utilized it daily.
“Early humans were indeed familiar with fire, but the mere discovery of a burnt object associated with a tool doesn’t automatically indicate human control over it,” he explains. “If a location shows signs of repeated human occupation accompanied by multiple indicators of fire, that presents compelling evidence of human control, as natural fires seldom occur in the same place repeatedly.”
A gentle walk through the origins of humanity and prehistoric times in south-west England
Join a gentle walking tour immersing yourself in early human eras, including the Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.
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