James Watson, a Nobel Prize-winning co-discussor of the DNA double helix, remarked in 1974, “All hell is unleashed politically and morally around the globe” regarding the potential of human in vitro fertilization.
Today, more than 12 million individuals are expecting through IVF, and the world seems relatively calm. Many of us may not have fully grasped this procedure.
Yet, what about our perceptions of future reproductive technologies? This question is sparked by the recent birth of a fertile mouse with two genetic fathers. While similar experiments have previously led to the creation of both motherless and fatherless mice, this new method is notable as it does not involve genetic alterations. Typically, this could also be applicable for human use.
Various obstacles, including low success rates and the removal of DNA from numerous human eggs, explain why such advancements aren’t imminent. Nonetheless, it is essential to begin contemplating the societal implications.
For some, the notion of a child having two genetic fathers may never be accepted, just as there remains criticism towards gay couples expanding their families. Changing such perspectives may prove challenging, if not impossible.
Like IVF, what used to be front-page news could eventually become routine.
However, one can expect a broader public to exhibit a strict moral opposition to this idea, along with a general sense of unease. The inaugural child born from this method is, in many ways, distinct from all previous human beings. IVF-born children come into existence through a process unimaginable to our ancestors but continue to carry the genetic lineage from one male and one female ancestor.
Is this significant? Just like IVF, what was once front-page news may soon be commonplace. In a time when reproductive and trans rights are being restricted in the U.S., engaging in objective discourse about emerging technologies presents a greater challenge. Fortunately, these questions do not require immediate answers.
Your brain communicates with your body through a network of 12 critical neural pathways that travel down your spine and extend throughout the body. Among these, the vagus nerve stands out as perhaps the most vital. This nerve influences digestion, heart rate, reflexes, and respiration.
This is why researchers are particularly fascinated by the vagus nerve’s functions, especially regarding how these bodily activities can influence your mood. Consider it a superhighway linking our brains and bodies.
Vagus nerve function
Unlike the quick “fight or flight” reactions managed by the sympathetic nervous system, the vagus nerve triggers a slower, restful, and digestive response associated with the parasympathetic nervous system. This nerve comprises two thick cords of neurons (nerve cells) that originate from the brain.
The majority of the neurons in the vagus nerve are sensory (around 100,000 on each side of the body), relaying information from the organs to the brain, activated by sensory stimuli from the surrounding environment. The remaining neurons are motor neurons, transmitting signals from the brain to various organs, directly influencing muscle activity.
The vagus nerve is a vital component of the parasympathetic nervous system, influencing various bodily functions including respiration, heart rate, swallowing, sneezing, digestion, appetite, immune responses, and even orgasm.
This wide-ranging capability results from its diverse neuronal cell types that enable the detection of various sensory signals from different organs. Some neurons respond to chemical signals like blood oxygen levels or bacterial secretions in the gut, while others pick up mechanical signals from blood vessels and the stretching of intestines.
Consequently, vagus nerve neurons mainly relay information to the brain about the body’s status, enabling the brain to process this information and respond to maintain balance. However, some neurons transmit signals in reverse, facilitating communication between the brain and intestines, as well as controlling certain mouth and throat muscles involved in speech and gag reflexes.
The vagus nerve’s roles are numerous, and there may be functions we’re yet to discover. However, we know some ways to leverage its activity. For instance, doctors sometimes recommend “Valsalva Maneuvers” to activate the vagus nerve and decelerate rapid heart rates. Activities like coughing, bearing down as if on the toilet, or even handstands can be effective.
Read more about stress:
Long, twisty nerves
The term “vagus” translates to “wandering” in Latin, which aptly describes the vagus nerve. It extends from the brain down to the base of the spine and colon, branching out to critical organs such as the heart, lungs, liver, and intestines along its path.
As the longest cranial nerve in the human body, it plays a key role in the parasympathetic nervous system, regulating automatic functions like digestion while the body is at rest. Historically, it was termed the pneumonia nerve, due to its connections to both the lungs and stomach.
How is the vagus nerve connected to our happiness?
In stressful situations, our sympathetic nervous system triggers “fight or flight” responses for quick reactions, whereas the parasympathetic system operates more gradually to foster relaxation. It’s crucial for recovering calmness following stress.
Thanks to the vagus nerve, our brains can detect changes in breathing and heart rate, facilitating a balancing act between the two nervous systems. Although the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems don’t always sync perfectly, they can operate independently or in harmony. Disruptions in their balance may lead to digestive issues or mental health disorders. Chronic stress is linked to an overactive sympathetic response, a phenomenon noted in individuals suffering from depression.
Vagus nerve and heart
A key metric often utilized is heart rate variability, which measures the intervals between consecutive heartbeats. Healthy heart rhythms typically exhibit slight variations; low variability may indicate an overactive sympathetic nervous system, indicating the body remains in a persistent state of combat or flight, while the vagus and parasympathetic responses struggle to keep pace.
Despite being a popular tool, questions regarding the true effectiveness of heart rate variability as an indicator of balance between the two systems continue to emerge. Heart rate monitors can supply this data, yet it’s best not to become overly fixated on the figures.
Historically, stomach ulcers were often treated by severing the vagus fibers beneath the ribcage, based on the belief that the vagus nerve significantly contributes to acid production in the stomach, resulting in pain. Today, with advancements in medication, such surgical procedures are less common, yet they illustrate the repercussions of damaging a nerve with extensive branches.
Cutting the vagus nerve can eliminate its supply to the stomach, pancreas, small intestine, and portions of the colon. Without further surgical intervention, patients may find it difficult to pass solid waste. Those with gastroparesis face similar challenges, generally due to vagus nerve damage caused by diabetes, medications, or infections.
Moreover, more severe damage higher up the vagus nerve may lead to different consequences. For example, the chickenpox virus can attack the nervous system and rarely cause vagus nerve lesions, resulting in the inability to swallow, headaches, and ear inflammation. Preliminary research from Spain indicates that some of the symptoms associated with long COVID may also relate to vagus nerve damage, encompassing respiratory, vocal, and gastrointestinal issues.
Should I get a vagus nerve stimulator?
Current evidence indicates that devices designed for vagus nerve stimulation are generally safe. However, researchers express concerns about the rising tendency for home use of neurostimulators.
Individuals seeking alternatives to technology may opt for activities like yoga, meditation, hypnotherapy, and deep breathing exercises, believed to enhance the parasympathetic nervous system’s function and bolster vagus nerve activity. Additionally, there’s evidence suggesting that cold exposure through swimming or bathing can stimulate the vagus nerve, activating the parasympathetic system. Splashing cold water on your face may also have a similar effect.
While using an inexpensive device or signing up for a yoga retreat may appear to be a convenient fix when you’re not feeling well, consulting with your doctor for serious health concerns is always a wise approach.
Read more about how to relax:
What is vagus nerve stimulation?
The vagus nerve stimulation concept originated in the late 19th century when neurologist James Leonard Corning created an electrical stimulation device for treating epilepsy. Although it was initially set aside, it has evolved to help over 100,000 patients with epilepsy via implants or adjustments for brain lesions.
Several studies suggest that some individuals can reduce seizure frequency by as much as 75% with implants, with longer use amplifying benefits. Devices developed by US medical company Cyberonics are also approved for severe depression and chronic headaches.
However, surgical implantation isn’t the only form of nerve stimulation. You can access the vagus nerve via ear and neck branches, using devices like TENS machines commonly utilized for labor pain relief. Ear clips, such as those developed by Nurosym, offer stylish neuromodulators intended for individuals seeking relief from anxiety, depression, or fatigue.
Research on vagus nerve stimulation is rapidly growing, with ongoing trials exploring its efficacy in conditions like burns, obesity, hypertension, rheumatoid arthritis, Alzheimer’s disease, and tinnitus. The well-documented link between the vagus nerve and gut function also suggests potential therapeutic applications for common gastrointestinal disorders like IBS. However, accumulating evidence to support these treatments must take time.
It is the longest cranial nerve that extends from the brain to the large intestine, transmitting signals bidirectionally through neurotransmitters and gut hormones.
The vagus nerve fibers harbor 200,000 sensory nerve cells, with the ears being the sole area where these fibers reach the body’s surface.
The vagus nerve’s “bypass,” which enables direct impulses between the uterus and brain, may allow women with spinal injury to achieve orgasm.
Vagus nerve stimulation influences gamma-aminobutyric acid neurotransmitters associated with ADHD, hinting at potential therapeutic applications.
The medical term for fainting is vasovagal syncope, occurring when the vagus nerve is overstimulated, leading to a sudden drop in heart rate and blood pressure.
Read more about the human body:
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Some former employees of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) who were dismissed, re-hired, and then let go again this spring report having received debt notices from the federal government requiring repayment for medical compensation which they assert they never received.
These workers describe this as the latest chapter in a firing process marked by confusion, inadequate communication, and insufficient documentation, leaving them grappling with fundamental workplace concerns.
Three NOAA employees provided a letter to NBC News labeled “Notice of Payment Request.” Dated June 16, the letter claimed the employee owed money (sometimes several hundred dollars) with potential interest on the amount. It also warned that any unpaid debt would be reported to the Credit Bureau.
“The language is very ominous and threatening,” remarked Salakoury, who was dismissed in late February from his role as director of the agency’s marine acidification program.
It remains unclear how many dismissed employees received this notice; two former NOAA staff members informed NBC News that they did not get such letters.
The notice indicates that the debt pertains to healthcare premiums for the eighth and ninth months of the year, during which the health insurance plan had already lapsed.
“After my termination, they attempted to file a claim related to their health insurance, of which I had no reports,” noted Ya’el Seid-Green, a former special assistant at NOAA’s Office of Ocean and Atmospheric Research. “It’s just rubbing salt in the wound regarding how incompetent this is.”
NOAA spokesperson Kim Doster stated the agency could not comment on ongoing personnel issues and was unable to forward inquiries to the HR Administration, which did not respond initially. The Department of Commerce, which oversees NOAA, also did not reply.
Following NBC News’s inquiry about the problems at NOAA’s Media Affairs group, probationary employees received an acknowledgment from their representatives about potential errors.
“Our office is aware that you may have received a debt notice from the National Finance Center (NFC),” read an email sent to a probationary employee. “Please be assured that we are collaborating with the NFC to address this matter. No action is required from you at this moment. We will provide further information and updates.”
In February, the Department of Commerce terminated over 600 probationary employees at NOAA, including hurricane hunters, meteorologists, and storm modelers. Probationary employees typically serve their first or second year in a new position at the agency.
In mid-March, a judge ordered many of these employees reinstated, prompting NOAA to place them on administrative leave. However, in early April, the Supreme Court temporarily halted some of these reinstatements, leading to a second dismissal of the employees.
A former employee stated that the chaotic process of hiring and firing has resulted in documentation errors and confusion, leaving them unable to obtain answers from the agency.
Sabrina Valenti, a former budget analyst at NOAA, expressed concern that she has not yet received her separation paperwork from the agency.
“It has been four months since my termination, and there is no record acknowledging it,” she stated.
Additionally, the employees reported not having access to the health benefits that should have been available during their reinstatement period. Seid-Green underwent surgery in April while on administrative leave.
“We were receiving salaries during administrative leave, and our health insurance contributions were deducted,” she mentioned.
After her surgery, Seid-Green discovered that her health insurance had lapsed.
She subsequently applied to continue her temporary compensation, a program that allows government employees to retroactively cover their health benefits. However, that has also not been successful.
Seid-Green remarked that this effectively means she has been billed twice for health insurance she has not received.
“I’ve received letters demanding over $14,000 for the surgery,” she shared. “Not only did they fail to provide the compensation we were owed, but now they are sending us debt notices for benefits we never received.”
Tim White House, executive director of the Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility (PEER), a nonprofit organization dedicated to supporting environmental workers and monitoring administrative issues, stated that these errors reflect deeper leadership failures within the agency.
“They are inflicting emotional and financial burdens on these employees. The Department of Commerce is at fault. Other agencies have resolved these issues, while they remain persistent in this department,” he concluded.
a Amir* hasn’t slept in days. From his apartment in northern Tehran, the 23-year-old has spent nights searching for a vulnerable digital connection that can temporarily bypass the internet blackouts.
For 13 days, Iran has faced a nearly complete internet shutdown, severely limiting access to information since the onset of Israel’s strike until the latter part of Wednesday. However, a group of young Iranians tirelessly works to ensure their voices are heard beyond their borders.
“Using a VPN is no longer effective. To navigate this internet blackout, we’re relying on a special proxy link—essentially a ‘secret tunnel’ that channels messages through non-Iranian servers.
“These links are built into the app’s features […] They direct traffic from internal servers. Each link only works for a few hours before it fails. So, I’m constantly on the lookout for new ways to communicate with my people.”
The Iranian government blames external forces for restricting internet access during the conflict with Israel, claiming the network is being exploited for military purposes. A local source informed the Guardian that only correspondents from approved foreign media can access the internet.
While domestic messaging apps are operational, many young Iranians lack confidence in their security.
Amir remarked: “We have local apps, but they’re utterly unreliable. The government takes every opportunity to surveil us, particularly targeting student leaders.”
Last week, Amnesty International urged the authorities to lift the communication blackouts, stating it would “prevent individuals from finding safe routes, accessing vital resources, and sharing information.”
Another student leader, Leila*, 22, residing in Abbas Abado, north of Tehran, mentioned that she managed to connect again during the shutdown thanks to assistance from abroad. “My boyfriend in Europe sent me a composition link via text. Without it, nothing works. The internet sporadically operates for a few minutes before shutting down again.”
The blackout not only severed connections with the outside world but also complicated life amid the ongoing Israeli bombardment. “It feels like being enclosed by a wall,” remarked Tehran student Arash*. “We’ve lost the ability to assist each other with independent news while the sound of bombs contrasts sharply with the silence of state media.”
For Amir, the most alarming aspect is how the perception of war is becoming normalized. “We’re starting to treat this as normal,” he expressed, “but war is anything but normal.” He noted their recognition that the rattling of windows signifies either an air raid or an explosion.
The blackouts intensified his fears amid the war. “That’s what erases us… it makes us invisible. Yet here we are. We still wish to connect with a free world.”
Neurons Growing Among Cancer Cell Cultures (Stained Green)
Simon Grelet and Gustavo Ayala
Cancer cells are known to hijack energy-generating components from neurons, facilitating their spread to remote locations. This groundbreaking discovery may enhance treatments for the most aggressive tumors.
“This marks the first instance of mitochondrial transfer from nerves to cancer cells,” states Elizabeth Lepasky, who is not directly linked to the study conducted at the Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center in Buffalo, New York. “This signifies a pivotal advancement in cancer neuroscience, a rapidly evolving field.”
Prior knowledge indicated that both intratumor and adjacent tumors produce proteins and electrical impulses that promote cancer growth and dissemination. “A higher density of nerves within tumors correlates with a poorer prognosis,” says Simone Grelet from the University of Southern Alabama.
Earlier investigations have demonstrated that brain tumor cells can absorb mitochondria (the energy-producing organelles) from non-neuronal brain cells. However, the potential for tumor cells to extract mitochondria from neurons remained unclear, according to Grelet.
To explore this, Grelet and his team genetically modified breast cancer cells derived from mice to contain red fluorescent molecules and combined them with mouse neurons that had mitochondria labeled with green pigments in laboratory conditions. Imaging revealed that cancer cells can seize mitochondria from neurons within a matter of hours.
“Cancer cells extend their membranes to absorb mitochondria from neurons,” explains Grelet. “It’s akin to a lineup of mitochondria filtering through a narrow passage, entering the cancer cells sequentially.”
To assess whether this phenomenon occurs in vivo, the researchers injected red breast cancer cells into the mammary glands of female mice to induce tumor growth. They also genetically engineered the surrounding nerves to carry green mitochondria. Approximately one month later, 2% of the cancer cells in these tumors had taken up mitochondria from neurons.
Conversely, 14% of tumor cells that metastasized to the brain exhibited neuronal-derived mitochondria. This suggests that cancer cells acquiring mitochondria from nerves have a significant advantage over other cancer types. Further tests indicate that these mitochondria contribute to greater resilience against the physical and chemical challenges encountered in the bloodstream.
“Cancer cells face numerous hurdles in their migration,” remarks Repasky. “They must escape the primary tumor, navigate barriers to blood vessels, exit the bloodstream, and secure sufficient oxygen and nutrients at secondary sites. By appropriating mitochondria, it appears cancer cells can endure this tumultuous journey,” she adds.
To determine if this process also occurs in humans, researchers examined tumor samples from eight women with metastatic breast cancer. They discovered that tumor cells from distant sites contained, on average, 17% more mitochondria compared to those from breast tumors, suggesting that similar mechanisms are at play in patients, according to Grelet.
Moreover, the team analyzed human prostate tumor samples and observed that cancer cells near nerves contained significantly more mitochondria than those situated further away. “I believe this represents a common mechanism utilized by various tumor types,” asserts team member Gustavo Ayala from the University of Texas Health Science Center in Houston.
The findings indicate that inhibiting mitochondrial transfer could potentially curtail the spread of the deadliest tumors. “We are optimistic that this is achievable, at least for certain tumor types,” Repasky suggests. Ayala mentions that they are working towards developing a drug to facilitate this approach.
WOne of Tim’s eighth graders inquired about his “favorite Italian brain rot animal,” leading to some confusion. “My hearing isn’t the best, so I probably had to ask her to repeat it four or five times,” he reflects.
After instructing the students to continue their work, he opened his laptop and turned to Google.
He learned that “Italian Brain Corruption” involves a series of absurd, AI-generated animal characters with ridiculous Italian names (like Bombomini Gusini and Trippi Troppi), often showcased in TikTok videos with rapid, nonsensical Italian narration.
Essentially, it’s a meme popular among the emerging Generation Alpha (born 2010-2025) and the younger Gen Z (mostly born 1997-2012). For older individuals—whether they are heavily engaged online or consider themselves meme enthusiasts—it might seem perplexing, as Tim discovered while browsing.
As he shared his findings, he appeared horrified. “This one is Chimpanzee Banana: it’s a hybrid of a chimpanzee and a banana. Bombardiro Crocodilo is a crocodile that resembles a bomber plane. There are also characters that are just cappuccinos with legs…”
Ballerina Cappuccina. Photo: tiktok/@aironic.fun
That’s right, Ballerina Cappuccina: female ballet dancers are fused with coffee cups and often depicted in a relationship with Cappuccino Assassin (you can understand that).
“There’s a backstory to all these characters—lore,” Tim adds, pondering. “Some are even at war with each other, and there are songs about them.”
The kids in his class are intensely fascinated by it, unlike any trend Tim has seen before. “Once one person mentions it, the whole class starts buzzing. They’re obsessed with this Italian brain corruption.”
If you’re reading this and finding your own mind bewildered, it’s understandable. If you were born in a year that starts with a “1,” “Italian brain corruption” might not resonate with you.
However, its widespread popularity among the younger crowd is worth trying to understand, at least as a reflection of the evolution of online culture.
Tralala Rotralala. Photo: Tiktok
The first character to gain traction was Shark Sport Nike sneakers (three per fin); Torara Rotorarara. Shortly after, the voice of a male character first appeared, marking the start of Italian expressions on TikTok in early January.
New characters quickly proliferated on TikTok. Don Caldwell, Editor-in-Chief of Know Your Meme, identified Brr Brr Patapim as an example, describing it as a “material monkey that is also a tree.”
Tung Tung Tung Sahur. Photo: Tiktok/@noxaasht
Notably, there’s also brain rot in Indonesia. Tung Tung Tung Sahur (“This features a stick figure on a bat, telling people to wake up for food during Ramadan”) and Boneca Ambalabu (“A frog with a tire and human legs”) are examples.
Both are accompanied by AI-generated voices that, much like their Italian counterparts, aim to confuse rather than clarify.
“Audio is just as crucial, if not more so than visuals,” Caldwell explains. “They really amp it up, like Tra-la-.lero! tra-la-laLA!—that quintessential Italian sound.”
Is this offensive to Italians? “It seems like Italians are in on the joke,” Caldwell suggests. “I don’t think it is.”
The attraction of Italian (and Indonesian) brain corruption isn’t about being derogatory or harmful—it’s simply absurd.
Caldwell, who has been engaged with memes for 15 years, admits he doesn’t track every fleeting online trend. “But I genuinely enjoy this,” he remarks. “In my view, it’s the better side of memes.”
The simplicity and speed of creating these videos using tools like ChatGPT have contributed to the meme’s popularity. Users can prompt their AI to visualize something like Bombardiro Crocodilo in their preferred settings. “No prior video editing skills are necessary, nor do you have to use your own voice,” Caldwell notes.
For adults apprehensive of AI advancements, the Italian brain corruption can feel like a harmless indulgence. “It’s a non-threatening application of AI that doesn’t induce existential dread.”
Naturally, young people don’t view it in such a serious light. They spend more time online from an earlier age, significantly influencing digital culture. “You’ve got a super online kid today,” Caldwell remarks. “They grew up around iPads and TikTok, creating content and dictating the biggest cultural trends of the moment.”
Before Italian brain rot, there was the Skibidi Toilet meme, which spread virally from YouTube in 2023, captivating the younger generation of Gen Z, with millions of views.
Tim recalls discussing it in class: “The kids adore it. The term ‘Skibidi’ is now embedded in Gen Z and Gen Alpha vernacular.”
However, its meaning isn’t straightforward and is steeped in ironic ambiguity. “It can signify something good, something bad, or something bizarre… When they refer to it as ‘Skibidi,’ it’s a positive thing, and they’re laughing at it simultaneously.”
Both Skibidi Toilets and Italian brain corruption resist clear definitions, stimulating youthful imaginations with surreal imagery and crude humor while leaving adults scratching their heads with their more subdued humor.
Ebies.
“AI Art” isn’t just a shortcut for older users primarily active on Facebook, Caldwell states. Ebies example (please check). It increasingly cultivates its own lexicon, customs, and meanings that often elude many adults.
It’s intriguing to hear people declare that past memes were superior. Examine the originality of templates such as distracted boyfriends and layered visual jokes demonstrating endless possibilities for meaning-making. However, Caldwell—a millennial himself—suggests that Italian brain corruption represents another evolution in human creativity. “AI produces images, and text-to-speech gives voice, but the humor originates from the real person behind the screen.”
Tim is skeptical, noting that when he sets creative writing tasks for his class, many leap straight into their favorite Italian brain-rotting creatures. “I worry that the AI generation lacks moments for spontaneous imagination, as AI does so much for them. I tell them, ‘This must be entirely our creation. I don’t want chimpanzees bananini.'”
Nevertheless, he has started incorporating the students’ enthusiasm for Italian brain corruption into his lesson plans. In a multiple-choice quiz, one of the options is Tung Tung Tung Sahur.
He now confidently addresses his eighth graders. “My favorite is Blueberrinni Octopussini,” he shares. “It’s an octopus blended with blueberries.”
wGlacier researcher John Moore began exploring the Arctic Circle in the 1980s. The continuous warming of this area has led to the disappearance of many glaciers, as noted in The Arctic heats 4 times faster. They have simply melted away, outpacing global averages.
Four decades later, Moore’s research network identified an Arctic university. 61 Potential Interventions aim to slow, halt, and reverse the impacts of regional climate change. These concepts are regularly updated. Some will be discussed at a meeting in Cambridge this week, where scientists and engineers will explore whether radical technical solutions can buy time and mitigate the loss of polar ice caps.
Dr. Sean Fitzgerald excavates the ice. Photo: Real Ice/Cambridge University
“We aim to distill them down to about 10 concrete ideas,” Moore asserts, although he hasn’t yet shared specific developments. He emphasizes that the study should exclude “non-starters and hopeless ideas.” If no action is taken over the next 30 years, it may indeed be too late.
The focus should be on rationally valuing these interventions; otherwise, they are merely speculation.
“None of these ideas will solve every issue,” Moore states, emphasizing the need to weigh potential costs against perceived benefits.
Dr. Sean Fitzgerald, director of the Climate Restoration Center at Cambridge University, which is hosting the conference, reflects on a 30-year journey of “unpaid progress” that has slowed the climate crisis, shifting focus towards preserving the Arctic.
“I felt obligated to expand knowledge into broader fields,” he notes. Among the more unusual ideas discussed is the concept of a 10km sunshade suspended between airships the size of Zeppelins and creating corridors for fixed rafts to assist Arctic wildlife reliant on ice. Other measures, such as the initiative by British startup Real Ice and a Dutch company, are underway, which involve pumping water onto ice to refreeze it.
Critics voice concerns about the ethical and legal implications of many proposed interventions, making geoengineering a contentious topic. For instance, in 2021, the Sami Council, representing the Saami people in Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Russia, voiced opposition against Harvard-led pilot projects that aimed to test stratospheric aerosol injection (Science), which simulates volcanic eruptions by dispersing aerosols in the stratosphere to reflect sunlight. The Sami Council branded the plan as a “real moral hazard.”
Inuit hunters navigate through meltwater in West Greenland. Photo: Lawrence Hislop/Alendal
The interventions have undergone extensive study, including those identified by Moore for mitigating the Arctic climate emergency. However, many proposals are unlikely to go beyond theoretical stages and require substantial funding or large-scale implementation.
Thus far, ocean-based concepts present additional uncertainties, limitations, and risks, and the study has deemed them “unsuitable for further consideration,” scoring very low against most evaluation criteria.
One such idea, modifying ocean currents, was first proposed during the Cold War, when suggestions were made to block the Bering Strait to enhance Arctic livability. Years later, climate activist Rolf Schttenhelm proposed a similar initiative aimed at increasing Arctic sea ice.
One small-scale solution currently being implemented involves pumping water onto ice to refreeze it. Photo: Real Ice/Cambridge University
“It’s very easy to make mistakes, and no one knows the definitive answer,” Moore reflects. “Local benefits must be balanced with the hope for global gains.”
Fitzgerald remains cautious about any solutions he considers to be frontrunners, underscoring the importance of keeping an open mind and exploring a variety of approaches.
Meanwhile, SAI and Marine Cloud Brightening (MCB) are drawing significant interest. Professor Peter Wadham, leader of the Polar Ocean Physics Group at Cambridge University, describes MCB as a “very powerful” option. “It’s advantageous because it can be implemented on a small scale, allowing for cessation of activities if negative impacts arise,” he asserts.
Wadham is less enthusiastic about SAI, labeling it a risky long-term strategy compared to MCB. Additionally, he finds the proposal to thicken sea ice unrealistic due to the sheer energy required. “It could work in limited scenarios,” he notes, “but not at an impactful scale. Marine Cloud Brightening stands out as the best and most thoughtfully designed approach.”
Hunters return to Kullorsuaq, the Inuit village in Greenland, nearby Melville Bay. Photo: Reda/Universal Images/Getty
Earlier this year, UK scientists announced plans for outdoor geoengineering trials, including Marine Cloud Brightening, funded by a £50 million government initiative. However, opposition has emerged from various sectors; a discussion was held in the UK Parliament this week, and the state of Tennessee has passed legislation banning geoengineering in the US.
Teenager language may make online bullying difficult to detect
Vitapix/Getty Images
The terminology of Generation Alpha is evolving faster than educators, parents, and AI can keep up with.
Manisha Meta, a 14-year-old student from Warren E Hyde Middle School in Cupertino, California, alongside Fausto Giunchiglia from the University of Trent in Italy, examined 100 expressions popular among Generation Alpha, those born from 2010 to 2025, sourced from gaming, social media, and video platforms.
The researchers then asked 24 classmates of Mehta, aged between 11 and 14, to evaluate these phrases along with contextual screenshots. The volunteers assessed their understanding of the phrases, the contexts in which they were used, and if they carried potential safety risks or harmful interpretations. They also consulted their parents, professional moderators, and four AI models (GPT-4, Claude, Gemini, and Llama 3) for the same analysis.
“I’ve always been intrigued by Generation Alpha’s language because it’s so distinctive; relevance shifts rapidly, and trends become outdated just as quickly,” says Mehta.
Among the Alpha generation volunteers, 98% grasped the basic meaning of a given phrase, 96% understood the context of its use, and 92% recognized instances of harmful intent. In contrast, the AI model could identify harmful usage only around 40% of the time, with Claude stumbling from 32.5% to 42.3%. Parents and moderators also fell short, detecting harmful usages in just one-third of instances.
“We expected a broader comprehension than we observed,” Mehta reflects. “Much of the feedback from my parents was speculative.”
Common phrases from Generation Alpha often have double meanings based on context. For instance, “Let’s Cook His” can signify genuine praise in gaming but may also mockingly refer to someone rambling incoherently. “Kys,” once short for “know yourself,” has now been repurposed to mean “kill yourself.” Another phrase that could hide malicious intent is, “Is it acoustic?”
“Generation Alpha is exceedingly vulnerable online,” says Meta. “As AI increasingly dominates content moderation, understanding the language used by LLMs is crucial.”
“It’s evident that LLMs are transforming the landscape,” asserts Giunchiglia. “This presents fundamental questions that need addressing.”
The results were published this week at the Computing Machinery Conference Association on Equity, Accountability and Transparency in Athens, Greece.
“Empirical evidence from this research highlights significant shortcomings in content moderation systems, especially concerning the analysis and protection of young individuals,” notes Michael Veal from University College London. “Companies and regulators must heed this and adapt as regulations evolve in jurisdictions where platform laws are designed to safeguard the youth.”
A As a teen in South Australia during the late 1980s, I developed a fascination with Australian New Wave Cinema, partly due to the Mad Max trilogy. One day in class, my high school English teacher rolled in a TV trolley and presented us with a screening of Nicholas Roeg’s classic. We were spellbound. Fast forward 40 years, and I’m now immersed in Death Stranding 2, Hideo Kojima’s expansive apocalyptic saga. Occasionally, it feels like I’m reliving that classroom experience. The game unfolds in a devastated Australia, where cities have vanished, and the landscapes are as stunning and prophetic as those in Roeg’s films.
After 45 hours of gameplay, I’ve made minimal progress in the storyline. Instead, I’ve explored the wilderness and delivered packages to remote outposts. Set in a world ravaged by catastrophic events, the game showcases a supernatural explosion that transforms the landscape. As you traverse the expansive ochre desert towards the coast, you witness sunsets behind shimmering mountain ranges, and tides reflecting the sky. Unlike typical open-world games, where environments remain static save for day/night cycles, Australia in Death Stranding 2 feels magical and ever-changing. Earthquakes might send boulders tumbling down mountains or trigger a massive dust storm, while snowy avalanches can engulf you. Along your journey, you can construct roads, power generators, and jump pads, all of which other players can discover and utilize. Each visit to a location feels novel.
Kojima cites George Miller as his inspiration, and the influence of the Mad Max films — with their chaotic, desolate energy — permeates the game. It examines the interplay between technology and isolation, portraying feudal tribes and scarce resources amidst an adrenaline-fueled atmosphere. Yes, he’s influenced by Roeg as well; while there are hints of mythic resonance from Walkabout, the game may lack the profound undertones of colonial guilt. On the remote fringes of the game map, a rocky outcrop evokes memories of Peter Weir’s Picnic at Hanging Rock.
The hallucinatory strangeness of the sun attacked… a picnic at Hanging Rock.
I’ve spent countless hours driving along the highways of this game, picking up parcels and delivering them to remote locations. Why? Sitting in front of the screen until 2am, I felt compelled to ensure that a shelter received its fluffy pajamas. The magic lies in creating a timeless Australian landscape that is subject to moments of extreme change — echoing the transcendental techniques employed by Weir. This world is both enchanting and menacing, which is utterly captivating.
A few years back, Weir expressed this about Picnic at Hanging Rock: “What I aimed to achieve was an oppressive atmosphere of unresolved tension. To evoke claustrophobia within both place and relationships. We labored intensely to construct a hallucinatory, mesmerizing rhythm that made you lose track of reality.”
In essence, that’s my experience with Death Stranding 2. It’s a game filled with hallucinations and engaging rhythms. You drive and drive, eventually returning to the same locale hours later—only now there’s a road or a marker left by another player who perished during the night. This creative interpretation of Australian landscape captures what Grand Theft Auto has aspired to achieve in American cities. It’s about interpreting and distilling a sense of place from an outsider’s lens. So, when I finally unlocked a new area for exploration, the sense of wonder mirrored my first viewing of Walkabout on a rainy afternoon in Manchester. I’m certain it will take me months to uncover it all.
What to Play
A philosophical comedy… a Quantum Witch. Photo: Nikki J.
A few months ago, I interviewed the creator of Quantum Witch, a unique pixel art adventure about a shepherdess who lost her flock and was caught in a metaphysical conflict between clashing gods. Nikki Jay, raised in a religious cult, escaped to forge her own path, and her experiences deeply inspire the game.
Developed with minimal assistance from Paul Rose, the inventor of the iconic Teletext Gaming Gin digitizer for Channel 4, it blends point-and-click mechanics with a postmodern deconstruction of the genre, punctuated with eccentric undertones. If you enjoy irreverent humor, you’ve come to the right place, or you’re simply looking for something delightful and quirky.
Available at: PC Estimated playtime: Five hours or more
What to Read
Bad news? …Mindseye. Photo: IO Interactive
In more troubling news for game industry employees—Mind-Annoyed Developers have begun to Make a Rocket Boy. Following a disastrous launch, the studio has seen significant layoffs. Games plagued by bugs and AI glitches have received negative reviews from both players and critics, with IGN reporting that up to 100 staff members have been let go. What a disaster.
Eurogamer features an amazing interview with voice actor Ashley Burch, discussing whether video games can positively impact mental health. Burch shares her own experiences with obsessive-compulsive disorder and how Harvest Moon 64 aided her coping mechanisms.
We love in-depth explorations of classic video games, and Gamespot has produced an amazing piece about how a designer crafted the best level in Deus Ex—the Aeon Storm, a legendary role-playing adventure from Dallas Studios, filled with intriguing details about the alternative rendition of Hong Kong.
A peculiar narrative, a short play… The Rest of Edith Finch. Photo: Annapurna Interactive
This comes from Adam:
“I’ve been enjoying Be Brave, Barb, from the developers behind the fun Daddish series. I appreciate its straightforward, bite-sized gameplay, reminiscent of my experiences with the Game Boy Kirby titles.”What’s your favorite snack-sized game?
After my initial experience with the eerie short horror title Thin, I’m now obsessed with curious mini horror games, adding titles like Mouse Washing, Murder Case, and PT to my list. I’m also fond of classic PlayStation minigames like BISHIBASI Special and Point Blank. From the rest of the team, Keza is into WarioWare, The Lonely Mountain, and Pokémon Trading Card Game (“yes, still,” she says). Tom Regan enjoys Edith Finch’s Remains, Florence, and Inside; Christian Dongran mentions short-burst games like Loop Hero, Tetris Effect, and Sifu, while also noting, “Guardian Quick Cryptic is my favorite ten minutes of the week.” Sarah Maria Griffin loves Short Hike, and of course, the delightful Untitled Goose Game is a perfect little gem.
If you have questions or feedback regarding the newsletter, don’t hesitate to reply or email us at butingbuttons@theguardian.com.
Training in Bystander CPR may have played a key role in decreasing heart attack fatalities over the last 50 years
Piyamas Dulmunsumphun / Alamy stock photos
Heart attack fatalities in the US have dramatically decreased over the last five decades, while deaths from chronic heart diseases have surged, potentially due to increased longevity.
“Significant strides have been made in reducing cardiac mortality, and we’re witnessing this transformation,” says Sarah King from Stanford University in California.
She and her team analyzed heart disease mortality data from 1970 to 2022, utilizing the American disease control and prevention database to monitor all recorded deaths nationwide.
In 2022, they discovered that heart disease constituted 24% of all US deaths, a decrease from 41% in 1970, significantly aided by nearly a 90% drop in heart attack fatalities, previously the deadliest form of heart disease.
“We’ve made remarkable progress in reducing heart attack deaths over the past half-century,” remarks King. This includes innovations such as cardiac stents, coronary artery bypass surgery, and cholesterol-lowering therapies. King also believes that public health initiatives, including Bystander CPR training and efforts to decrease smoking rates, have contributed to these improvements.
Nonetheless, the rise in mortality from other types of cardiac ailments has surged by 81%, indicating that many chronic conditions are leading to increased deaths. For instance, fatalities from heart failure, arrhythmias, and hypertensive heart disease have surged by 146%, 106%, and 450%, respectively.
“Many of these issues are related to aging,” explains King. “Those who survive heart attacks seem to live longer, giving them more time to develop these chronic heart conditions.”
However, the statistics might overstate changes in cardiac mortality. “Various factors can lead to a person’s death, resulting in potential misclassification and oversimplification,” King warns. For instance, many patients succumb to heart failure following a heart attack. “It’s not a straightforward issue because the underlying reason for that heart failure is often a blockage in the coronary arteries,” she adds.
Still, the majority of heart disease fatalities aren’t directly caused by heart attacks. “Addressing these other causes of increased mortality will be crucial,” King states. “Discovering healthier aging methods will be the next frontier for heart disease.”
Are there any forms of suspended animation? If you consider how animals hibernate during winter, that’s a natural example. However, if we reference the science fiction concept of stasis—where an individual is placed in a pod and frozen to endure an interstellar voyage—then it’s more of a fantasy.
That said, there are several realistic applications, particularly if we can address the challenges of preserving human tissues through freezing.
For decades, the possibility of employing cold temperatures to slow down biological processes has been recognized, and we’ve recently started using this method as a critical life-saving intervention.
For instance, patients experiencing a heart attack can undergo what is formally termed “suspended animation for delayed resuscitation,” wherein they are rapidly cooled to induce hypothermia. This process slows bodily functions and safeguards vital organs, especially the brain, albeit at the cost of disrupting blood circulation.
This approach significantly reduces the chances of brain damage and proves incredibly effective, allowing individuals to survive without treatment for up to 90 minutes.
This form of suspended animation entails dropping body temperature to approximately 59°F (15°C), compared to the usual 98°F (37°C). Temperatures below this threshold can result in cellular death.
Once the temperature dips below freezing, the large volume of water within cells turns problematic. Ice forms and expands, creating sharp crystals that can damage delicate cells and blood vessels.
Those who have suffered frostbite can attest to the harmful effects of extreme cold on body tissues. Completely freezing a person would be fatal.
Nevertheless, we successfully freeze human embryos, which can remain frozen for as long as 19 years before being thawed and developing into healthy infants.
The suspended animation envisioned in science fiction remains a distant reality – Illustration credits: Daniel Bright
Embryos typically freeze at an early stage when they consist of only a few cells, and they survive thanks to prior preparation. Protective agents are used to draw out water and prevent the formation of ice crystals.
These embryos are then rapidly frozen in a tank of liquid nitrogen at -196°C (-320°F), allowing for prolonged storage in suspended animation.
North American Wood Frog employs a similar strategy to survive winter. As the temperature drops, it can inundate its cells with glucose (a natural antifreeze), effectively freezing itself until both heart and brain functions cease.
The frog’s organs are encased in ice, yet the glucose inhibits ice crystals from forming within its tissues.
As temperatures rise, it gradually thaws and resumes normal activity. This process is a complex challenge for humans; every body part would necessitate risky water extraction and chemical solutions.
Hibernation represents a different strategy. Small rodents, such as mice and hedgehogs, permit their body temperatures to drop significantly, leading to a marked decrease in breathing and heart rate.
Larger mammals don’t need to reduce their body temperatures as drastically. For example, American black bears may drop from 36°C to 30°C (96°F to 86°F), reducing their metabolic rate by about 25%. This is usually sufficient to avert bone and muscle loss resulting from prolonged inactivity.
Being frozen is far from ideal, and for large mammals, it may be more advantageous than suspended animation through a hibernation-like state.
This article responds to the inquiry (from Safia Hall via email) regarding whether suspended animation has ever been realized.
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Thirst is something we all encounter, and it can be quite uncomfortable. It’s also an early indicator of dehydration, which can escalate rapidly. Depending on factors like age, health, and environment, even mild to moderate dehydration can occur within just a few hours, leading to symptoms such as fatigue, dizziness, and confusion. If left unaddressed for 24 hours, severe dehydration can lead to critical issues such as shock and seizures.
Hidden dehydration (or hypochronic dehydration) is a more subtle condition that may arise from prolonged mild dehydration, affecting both physical and mental well-being.
Could this be the reason behind that frightening afternoon slump?
The Impact of Hidden Dehydration
As the name implies, hidden dehydration can be an insidious state, and you might be experiencing its effects without realizing the cause.
According to NHS guidelines, fatigue is one of the primary symptoms associated with hidden dehydration.
Symptoms include: Dark urine Dry mouth Dizziness Headaches Lack of concentration
The human body is composed of around 60% water. The brain and heart contain about 73% water, while muscle tissues are made up of 75% water. Dehydration leads to lower blood volume and blood pressure, reducing blood flow to the brain, which contributes to fatigue. After lunch, many individuals naturally feel a drop in energy. However, inadequate hydration throughout the day can amplify this slump.
The NHS advises that adults should drink 6-8 glasses of water (1.2-2 liters) daily. Although staying hydrated is key, how much do we know about the quality of the water we consume?
Why Water Quality Matters
In the UK, we are fortunate to have high standards for drinking water recognized globally. Nonetheless, it still contains hard minerals like calcium and magnesium, which are harmless but may affect the taste for some individuals.
A consistent supply of fresh water can indeed help you meet your hydration goals as advised by the NHS.
“Installing a water filter is one of the simplest methods to enhance your tap water quality,” states Waterdrop Filter. “A filter can eliminate impurities and improve taste.”
What Is Reverse Osmosis?
Reverse osmosis is a purification method used by Waterdrop filters. Water is pushed through a semi-permeable membrane to remove various impurities, including:
Lead, arsenic, and mercury Chlorine and fluoride Microorganisms Dissolved salts and minerals
The Waterdrop filter offers two reverse osmosis systems: the X16 and the A2. The X16 features an 11-step process with a 0.0001μm RO membrane that effectively reduces TDS, PFOA, PFOS, chlorine, fluoride, arsenic, lead, and more. With a flow rate of 1,600 gallons per day, it is ideal for larger households. Note that it requires electrical installation under the sink, and it comes equipped with LED lights and energy-saving modes for water safety.
The A2 is a compact countertop system ideal for individuals or smaller households. This system includes a five-stage process with a 0.0001 μm RO membrane to minimize TDS, PFOA, PFOS, chlorine, fluoride, lead, and arsenic. It features temperature controls ranging from 10°C to 95°C, along with a touch control screen for customizable temperature and volume settings.
Elevate your hydration habits by maintaining consistent water intake throughout the day, especially if you struggle with brain fog and fatigue during the afternoon.
A prominent academic institution has accused Uber of utilizing opaque software algorithms to significantly boost profits while negatively impacting drivers and passengers using their ride-hailing platform.
Research conducted by scholars at Columbia Business School in New York determined that the Silicon Valley company has adopted a systematic and selective approach to “algorithmic price discrimination,” which “raises rider fares and severely diminishes driver earnings to the tune of billions.”
The Ivy League Business School’s findings are based on an analysis involving “tens of thousands of rides… amounting to over 2 million…” travel requests, and it builds upon a recent study from the University of Oxford concerning 1.5 million UK trips published the previous week.
The UK research revealed that many Uber drivers in the UK have reported “substantially reduced” earnings since the introduction of the “dynamic pricing” algorithm in 2023, correlating with the company capturing a significantly larger share of fare revenue.
The US report, authored by Len Sherman, highlights that as a passenger, acceptance appears less favorable, while he expresses amazement at what has been accomplished.
Sherman’s report remarked: Reducing driver payments while enhancing their take rate significantly contributes to improving cash flow during the study’s duration.
Sherman noted that the advanced pricing introduced in the U.S. in 2022 is akin to the UK dynamic pricing algorithm implemented in 2023, significantly affecting passenger fares.
Columbia’s study, which examined trips made by 24,532 U.S. Uber drivers, concluded that the new algorithm has “modified the distribution of net rider fares among driver incomes.”
The recent Oxford study found that following the rollout of dynamic pricing, Uber’s median take-rate per driver surged from 25% to 29%, with some trips exceeding 50%.
These findings contribute to a growing list of controversies surrounding technology companies, including a 2021 UK Supreme Court ruling affirming that Uber drivers are entitled to a minimum wage and paid leave, along with the 2022 disclosure of the Uber Files, a global investigation revealing the company’s efforts to bypass police and regulations while secretly lobbying governments worldwide.
Following the release of the Uber Files, Jill Hazelbaker, Uber’s Vice President of Public Relations, stated:
An Uber spokesperson remarked, “Uber’s pricing structure aims to be transparent and equitable for both riders and drivers. The prepaid pricing is disclosed prior to booking, enabling drivers to make informed choices based on a full understanding of wages, distance, and expected duration.”
“Our dynamic pricing algorithms function to synchronize real-time supply and demand, enhancing the platform’s overall reliability. The prepaid pricing model is not personalized, and our pricing algorithms do not utilize personal information from individual riders or drivers.”
“Last week, the company reiterated: [the University of Oxford] Report. All drivers are guaranteed to earn at least the national living wage.”
The Outer Worlds 2 from Obsidian is set to be his inaugural first-party Xbox release, priced at $80 (£70). While the cost of games on the Nintendo Switch 2 is notably high, particularly as Sony’s PlayStation 5 titles have been trending in that direction, you might assume this development wouldn’t ignite a debate among gamers. Yet, it has. The increasing prices of video games continue to be a hot-button issue, especially with the ballooning budgets typically associated with blockbuster titles today. Nevertheless, Outer Worlds 2 promises a more expansive and intricate experience compared to its 2019 comedic sci-fi predecessor, and one could reasonably argue that the price reflects this enhanced value.
I thoroughly enjoyed the original Outer Worlds. It was vibrant with the signature dark humor expected from an Obsidian RPG (the studio behind Fallout: New Vegas). The lush, saturated universe filled with vibrant flora, bumbling activities, and eccentric characters provided joy for approximately 20 hours, although the combat left something to be desired.
According to game director Brandon Adler, Obsidian was aware that gunplay in the Outer Worlds required enhancements from the outset, especially when developing a sequel. “We valued this feedback, so we completely reassessed our approach,” he mentioned during an interview following the Outer Worlds 2 presentation in Los Angeles. “We also consulted with Hello. Everyone…they provided us with an extensive list of suggestions, advising us on what to target and how to improve our weapon analytics.”
Obsidian’s research has yielded impressive results. Not only are there more weapons to engage with in Outer Worlds 2, but they also feel rewarding to fire and offer a variety of combat tactics based on different encounters. A solid stealth approach allows players to sneak into enemy territory without a trace, should they choose to avoid confrontation. In the original game, firing was fun but could often lead to moments of disdain before entering into large battles. This has shifted in the sequel; I found enjoyment in every encounter, skillfully aiming and executing moves as I descended upon my targets.
“We didn’t want mere tweaks. Every weapon feels distinctly unique, each with its individual purpose,” Adler expresses. “You can take these weapons, apply mods, and create all sorts of imaginative combinations.”
The game also harnesses the capabilities of its upgraded engine (Unreal Engine 5) and modern hardware, making the world feel larger than before. For instance, entering a building no longer requires loading screens that could momentarily pull players out of the immersive experience. “These small details contribute significantly to the overall atmosphere,” Adler states. “Exploration is paramount for me; I want players to feel compelled to delve into this expansive universe, explore every avenue, and investigate even the tiniest features.”
Outer Worlds 2 promises a more expansive setting, refined combat mechanics, and an abundance of customization options, alongside its role-playing elements that can dramatically affect gameplay, including enhanced character perks and flaws. Although Adler refrained from commenting on the $80 price point, it is evident that this sequel stands on its own merit.
Researchers have found that endangered species of killer whales in the Pacific Northwest utilize tools crafted from kelp for mutual care.
A new study published in Current Biology reveals that scientists observed the Southern resident whales producing tools by tearing bull kelp and rolling it between each other during social interactions.
Drone footage captured the kelp being pushed against a companion, revealing a whale engaged in an extended grooming session.
“What’s particularly remarkable is that although this behavior appears to be common, despite the regular drone observations over these whales for nearly 50 years, it has never been documented.” stated Lead author Dr. Michael Weiss from the Whale Research Center in Friday Harbor, Washington.
The endangered Southern resident population has fewer than 80 individuals residing in the Salish Sea, situated between British Columbia and Washington.
While tool use is well recognized among primates, elephants, and birds, it remains scarce in marine species.
Weiss and her team observed this behavior across various age groups and social units, noting that whales are more inclined to groom relatives or older companions.
Two whales interact by rubbing against each other. These scrubs may serve hygienic functions. – Whale Research Center, NMFS NOAA permit 27038
Whales with greater amounts of dead skin participated more frequently in this behavior, suggesting a connection to hygiene.
The findings underscore the cultural identity of Southern residents and emphasize the necessity of conservation efforts. It remains uncertain whether this tool-assisted grooming is exclusive to this group or if it occurs in other whale populations.
Weiss remarked, “It was incredibly thrilling to discover that whales are not just utilizing tools but employing them in ways previously unreported in marine mammals.”
I woke up with a multitude of itchy red bites. And? Most likely, it’s those pesky mosquitoes that are causing the irritation. While they aren’t the sole culprits for the marks left behind, the redness is actually a reaction to the saliva from those tiny, blood-sucking insects.
Globally, there are around 3,500 mosquito species, including 36 in the UK and over 200 in the US, with only the females being the notorious bloodsuckers.
Mosquitoes are widely recognized as nuisances. Even in regions like the UK and the US, where concerns over diseases such as malaria, dengue, and Zika are minimal, it’s important to be aware of their potential threats.
However, Professor James Logan urges us to take these creatures seriously. He is the Dean of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine’s (LSHTM) School of Disease Control and the CEO of Arctech.
“As climate change progresses, more mosquitoes capable of transmitting diseases are encroaching closer to the UK and the US, including not just malaria-carrying mosquitoes but those that spread dengue as well,” he states.
“Currently, there are no active disease outbreaks, but that won’t be the case for long. It’s not a question of ‘if,’ but rather ‘when.’”
According to Logan, the US is “even further ahead” in this regard, with cases of dengue, malaria, and the West Nile virus on the rise.
In May 2025, the UK Health Security Agency reported the first detection of the West Nile virus within British mosquitoes.
Regardless of potential disease threats, mosquito bites tend to be a common nuisance every summer, with scant scientific evidence to support any immediate concerns.
In the UK, the National Health Service (NHS) has noted an uptick in visits to pages about “insect bites and stings,” indicating a rise in the number of people reporting bites in recent years.
“The warmer weather might encourage mosquito reproduction and activity, leading to more of them being around,” Logan mentions.
Read more:
Physical barriers like mosquito nets, window screens, and appropriate clothing can help protect against bites. – Credit: Holly Wilmes
Why do mosquito bites itch?
As the weather heats up, the mosquito population rises—so what makes their bites so bothersome?
It all boils down to the mosquito’s mouthparts, slender and needle-like, designed for sucking.
“Mosquitoes are drawn to your scent, warmth, and moisture. When they alight on you, they insert their mouthparts into your skin,” Logan explains. “The tip of the mouthpart navigates around, seeking a blood vessel, and once it finds one, it feeds from there.”
In the process of feeding, these unwelcome intruders inject saliva into your bloodstream to prevent clotting and numb pain, allowing them to go undetected.
However, the chemicals they inject can trigger an allergic response, resulting in those itchy red welts.
“When bitten by a particular mosquito species for the first time, the reaction is generally mild,” states Logan. “With repeated bites, your body becomes sensitized, and the reactions may become stronger. Continuous exposure can further adapt your immune system.”
Your immune system treats substances like mosquito saliva as threats, prompting white blood cells to produce antibodies. Consequently, your body reacts with redness or swelling during subsequent encounters.
This process is known as sensitization, akin to how allergies develop. Fortunately, regular exposure—termed desensitization—can reduce your response over time.
In seasonal regions, the intermittent summer exposure to mosquitoes means our bodies take longer to acclimatize.
How to keep mosquitoes at bay
Now that we’ve identified the problem, how can we prevent mosquito bites? While closing windows and donning long clothing are effective strategies, they may not be appealing during hot summer days.
You might consider installing insect screens or mosquito nets in your sleeping areas.
“Removing breeding grounds is also crucial,” Logan advises, as mosquitoes thrive in stagnant water—anything deeper than a bottle cap can serve as ideal breeding conditions. Ensure to cover water sources such as flowerpots, buckets, and bird baths, and eliminate any trash or recyclables that might gather water.
In addition, wearing insect repellents is advisable. Logan praises DEET (N,N-diethyl-M-toluamide) as “one of the best repellents available,” affirming its safety when applied according to product instructions.
If you prefer a natural alternative, consider using Lemon Eucalyptus oil, noted also as OLE or PMD. Other options include IR3535 and picaridin.
Some essential oils have shown promise; a 2023 study found that clove, cinnamon, and geraniol oils can be effective.
Despite this, Logan cautions, “reliance solely on natural solutions may not be sufficient.”
If you’re willing to invest further, consider “impregnated” clothing—this doesn’t refer to anything sensational but involves fabric treated with insect repellents or insecticides, typically permethrin.
“We also have plug-in devices that distribute pesticides throughout our homes,” Logan adds, “which can eliminate pests like spiders and flies that venture inside.”
Since mosquitoes are attracted to our body odor, changing our scent can deter them – Credit: Jaromir via Jetty
What to do if bitten
If you’ve already fallen victim to a mosquito bite, here are some tips to manage the situation.
“The first rule is not to scratch,” Logan advises, acknowledging the challenge. “Scratching only risks infection.”
In severe cases, mosquito bites could lead to serious infections, sepsis, or even limb amputation, Logan warns.
If a bite is particularly bothersome, you may consider over-the-counter antihistamines or hydrocortisone creams, although their effectiveness can vary.
“They may work wonders for some, while others experience little relief,” he notes. “Antihistamine creams need to be applied immediately after being bitten due to the rapid production of histamine.”
“Unfortunately, many people delay addressing the bite, making timely intervention essential.”
In summary, Logan emphasizes:
Read more:
About our experts
Professor James Logan serves as the Director and Head of Disease Management at the London School of Hygiene (LSHTM). He is associated with Arctech, a spinout from LSHTM. His research focuses on using sensors, insects, and other wildlife as biosensors for disease diagnostics and developing nature-inspired tools for disease surveillance. His team was the first to identify the connection between body odor and malaria infection.
Major US transportation safety regulators are seeking information from Tesla following videos that appear to show the vehicles exceeding speed limits and autonomous robotaxis driving in the wrong lanes. The company unveiled its service in Austin, Texas, over the weekend.
Tesla has notably expedited the initial limited rollout of its Robotaxis, with some influencers being paid to showcase their experiences. However, rather than serve as effective promotion, these videos seem to have drawn the scrutiny of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), particularly as the cars struggled to adhere to traffic regulations.
“The NHTSA is aware of the mentioned case and is in communication with the manufacturer to gather further information,” the agency stated.
The debut of Robotaxi over the weekend featured about 10 “safety drivers” in the passenger seats navigating Austin’s designated areas. Tesla CEO Elon Musk promoted the launch as a significant achievement and committed to enhancing driving safety, but some influencers shared videos that appeared to show glitches or speeding incidents involving the Robotaxis.
One video shared by a Tesla investor, who previously hosted a podcast regarding the brand, displayed a Robotaxi wobbling after misinterpreting a left turn, crossing over a double yellow line before correcting itself. During this time, there were no oncoming vehicles.
In another clip, a pro-Tesla YouTuber praised a car for maintaining speed within legal limits.
Musk has placed significant stakes on the future of the carmaker tied to the Robotaxi program, having long presented a vision where millions of self-driving cars traverse cities globally. Both regulators and investors are closely examining whether Tesla can convert these prospects into tangible outcomes and if it can sustain its operations. Musk’s prolonged history of unmet promises.
“We anticipate millions of Teslas to function entirely autonomously by next year,” Musk declared during an earnings call in April, having made a similar assertion in 2019.
The NHTSA has not pre-emptively greenlit new technologies or driving systems, the statement mentioned. Instead, the manufacturer affirms that the vehicle meets the agency’s standards, while investigators assess potential safety defects. The NHTSA reviews the reports and related information to determine how to tackle road safety concerns.
“NHTSA will persist in enforcing regulations for all automobile manufacturers in accordance with the Automobile Safety Act and our data-driven, risk-based investigation methodology,” the agency remarked.
Robotaxis has gained heightened significance for Tesla this year, particularly as first-quarter sales declined and profits plummeted by 71% year-on-year. Despite diminishing revenues, Musk asserted that Tesla’s Robotaxis are destined to be the future of transportation.
In addition to a preliminary inquiry into Robotaxis, the NHTSA is also conducting an open investigation that began in 2024 to assess the safety of Tesla’s “full self-driving” mode under conditions of reduced visibility. Tesla was reported to have deployed autonomous functions which resulted in a fatality of a 71-year-old woman in 2023 while driving in Arizona during sunset when glare affected road visibility.
Recent findings from researchers at Ruhr-University Bochum, Ankara University at Prince Edward Island, and Bari Aldo Moro University reveal that two-thirds of domestic cats (Felis Catus) tend to sleep on their left side. This orientation provides them with a left field of vision, allowing the right hemisphere of their brain to have an unobstructed view of impending approach, while protecting their body.
Isparta et al. We propose that the significant left-side preference in cat sleep may have evolved alongside hemispheric asymmetry related to threat assessment. Image credits: Noah Dustin von Weissenfrue / Gleb Kuzmenko / Isparta et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.04.043.
“Sleep represents one of the most vulnerable states for animals, particularly during deep sleep when vigilance to threats is notably diminished.”
“Domestic cats act as both predators and prey (to animals like coyotes), averaging 12-16 hours of sleep per day.”
“This implies they spend around 60-65% of their lives in highly susceptible states.”
“To minimize the risk of becoming prey, cats tend to rest in elevated locations, where they can better see approaching threats while remaining concealed.”
“In such elevated spots, predators can typically only approach from below.”
“Thus, resting at height affords cats a sense of safety, comfort, and a vantage point to observe their surroundings.”
The authors of this study examined 408 publicly available YouTube videos featuring individual cats lying on their sides in clear sleep positions, ensuring unbroken sleep durations of at least 10 seconds with full visibility from head to tail.
Only original, unedited videos were considered; those that were low resolution, obscured, duplicated, or altered (such as mirror images or selfies) were excluded.
The findings showed that 266 cats (65.1%) exhibited left-oriented sleep positions, while 142 demonstrated a significant left-sided bias as a population, compared to the 34.8% that slept on their right side.
“A cat that sleeps on its left side gains awareness of its environment upon waking with a left field of vision processed by the right hemisphere,” explained the researchers.
“This hemisphere is critical for spatial awareness, handling threats, and coordinating quick escape responses.”
“When a cat awakens after sleeping on its left side, visual cues regarding predators or prey are relayed directly to the right hemisphere of the brain.
“This suggests that favoring the left side while sleeping might be a strategic survival behavior.”
The Vera C. Rubin Observatory is a groundbreaking scientific facility, funded collaboratively by the NSF and the US DOE Scientific Bureau. Explore new images showcasing a glimpse of the observatory’s decade-long mission to unravel some of the universe’s greatest enigmas.
This composite image integrates 678 individual photos captured by the NSF-DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory over a span of just over 7 hours, showcasing the Trifid (top right) and Lagoon Nebulae. Image credits: Rubinobs/Noirlab/SLAC/NSF/DOE/AURA.
The Vera C. Rubin Observatory is named in tribute to the renowned American astronomer Vera C. Rubin, who provided crucial evidence for the existence of elusive dark matter.
Investigating the characteristics of dark matter, dark energy, and other monumental cosmic phenomena is central to the observatory’s mission.
Located atop Cerro Pachón in Chile, the observatory benefits from an optimal environment with dry air and exceptionally dark skies, making it one of the world’s premier observation sites.
Equipped with an 8.4-meter telescope that houses the largest digital camera ever constructed, the facility is supported by a robust data processing system.
In the latter half of 2025, the observation deck will embark on its primary mission: a legacy study of space and time. Each night, we will systematically scan the sky, capturing every observable change.
This approach yields a detailed time-lapse record of the cosmos at ultra-high resolution.
It brings the heavens alive, revealing immense possibilities for billions of scientific discoveries.
The imagery uncovers asteroids and comets, pulsating stars, supernovae, distant galaxies, and cosmic events that have never before been documented.
“The Vera C. Rubin Observatory illustrates the United States’ commitment to leading international basic science, showcasing remarkable achievements that arise when different facets of national research collaborate,” stated an expert.
“This observatory represents an investment in our future, laying the groundwork for the knowledge that today’s youth will cultivate tomorrow.”
“The Vera C. Rubin Observatory records more data about space than all optical telescopes in history combined,” commented Dr. Brian Stone, acting NSF Director.
“Through this exceptional scientific facility, we are investigating many of the universe’s mysteries, including the enigmatic dark matter and dark energy that fill our cosmos.”
“We are entering a golden era of American science,” remarked Dr. Harriet Kang, acting director of the DOE’s Department of Science.
“The Rubin Observatory symbolizes what can be accomplished when the federal government endorses a tool that leads world-class engineers and scientists.”
“This facility will propel discovery, inspire future innovators, and unleash America’s scientific excellence.”
The Rubin Observatory is also the most efficient solar system discovery tool ever created.
It captures approximately 1,000 images of the southern hemisphere sky each night, enabling a complete survey of the visible southern sky every three to four nights.
This capability will assist millions in detecting hidden asteroids, comets, and interstellar objects.
The observatory represents a paradigm shift in planetary defense, helping to identify potential threats to Earth or the Moon.
“The unveiling of the first images from the observatory heralds a new era in astrophysics,” remarked Dr. Patrick McCarthy, director of NSF’s NOIRLab.
“We congratulate the Rubin Observatory team on this monumental accomplishment and anticipate the initiation of a legacy study of space and time that may transform our comprehension of the universe.”
Yellow spotted tropical night lizard (Lepidophyma flavimaculatum)
Dante Fenolio/Science Photo Library
A unique and elusive group of lizards remains today, recognized as the only terrestrial vertebrates to withstand the catastrophic Chicxulub asteroid impact, which likely resulted in the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs.
The Xantusiid Night lizard is known as an ancient lineage, surviving for tens of millions of years. However, Chase Brownstein from Yale University and his team proposed that this lineage might have originated earlier than previously estimated.
The end of the Cretaceous period was marked by a colossal asteroid strike near the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico, creating craters wider than 150 kilometers and leading to the extinction of most animal and plant species globally.
Today, the night lizard—despite its name, not actually nocturnal—continues to inhabit Cuba, Central America, and the southwest region of the United States.
Brownstein and his researchers utilized previously published DNA sequencing data from Xantusiids to construct evolutionary trees for these groups. They integrated findings from skeletal anatomy of current species and fossil records, allowing them to estimate the lineage’s age and the quantity of offspring produced by the ancestral night lizard.
The team identified a shared ancestor that lived deep within the Cretaceous period, dating back over 93 million years, likely producing only one or two clutches of offspring.
“It’s highly probable that these ancient populations were situated close to the impact site, much like their modern counterparts,” remarks Brownstein. “It’s as though the distribution of Xantusiid lizards encircles the impact zones.”
According to fossil records, Brownstein argues that it is improbable for ancient night lizards to have simply returned to the affected areas later.
“Our reconstructions suggest that the common ancestors of living species most likely originated in North America, as the fossil evidence of Xantusiids is relatively continuous on both sides of the boundary layer,” he adds.
Numerous night lizard species inhabit rock crevices and possess a slow metabolism akin to other survivors of mass extinction, like turtles and crocodiles. “This likely enabled them to endure the aftermath of the impact,” states Brownstein.
Nathan Law from the University of Sydney expresses amazement at their survival. “These lizards resided near the asteroid’s impact site; despite the asteroid’s devastating effects within hundreds of kilometers, they managed to survive.”
Remarkably, they achieved this despite lacking many common characteristics typically associated with mass extinction survivors. “Species that endure these extinction events tend to be small, reproduce rapidly, and have extensive geographical ranges,” explains Law. “Conversely, these lizards generally have slower reproduction rates and appear to cover a minimal range.”
Paracetamol, also known as acetaminophen, is a pain reliever traditionally produced from a diminished supply of fossil fuels, such as crude oil. Every year, thousands of tons of fossil fuels, alongside numerous drugs and chemicals, are utilized to transport painkillers to manufacturing facilities. Professor Stephen Wallace from the University of Edinburgh and his team discovered that E. coli bacteria can transform molecules derived from waste plastic bottles into paracetamol.
Johnson et al. Reporting the reorganization of phosphate-catalyzed loss of biocompatibility in bacteria E. coli Activated acylhydroxamate is transformed into primary amine-containing metabolites in living cells. Image credit: Johnson et al. , doi: 10.1038/s41557-025-01845-5.
The issue of plastic waste is increasingly pressing, making the quest for sustainable plastic upcycling solutions a priority.
Metabolic engineering combines organic chemistry with the exploitation of biological cell chemical reaction networks to create new small molecules.
However, it remains uncertain whether these reactions can be effectively combined to convert plastics into useful products.
“Our research indicates that polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic is not merely waste, but can be converted by microorganisms into valuable new products with potential applications in disease treatment,” stated Professor Wallace.
In their study, Professor Wallace and co-authors found that a specific type of chemical reaction, known as loss rearrangement, occurs within living cells and is catalyzed by internal phosphates in E. coli.
This reaction produces nitrogen-containing organic compounds that are vital for cellular metabolism.
The researchers demonstrated that chemical processes can decompose PET plastic to yield starting molecules for further reactions, allowing cellular metabolism to regenerate these plastic-derived molecules.
Additionally, they discovered that this plastic-derived compound can serve as a precursor for paracetamol production in E. coli, achieving a yield of 92%.
This finding may mark the first instance of paracetamol synthesized from E. coli waste materials.
Future research will focus on exploring how other bacteria and types of plastics can yield beneficial products.
“Thus, biocompatible chemistry should be viewed as a complement to early enzyme design research and non-biological chemistry engineering, integrating collaboratively as a tool for biological cells to enhance potential synthetic chemistry within biological systems,” the scientists noted.
The team’s study was published in the journal Nature Chemistry on June 23, 2025.
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NW Johnson et al. Relocation of loss of biocompatibility in E. coli. Nat. Chem. Published online on June 23, 2025. doi:10.1038/s41557-025-01845-5
Medical advances have changed childbirth – potentially enough to affect human evolution
Fatcamera/Getty Images
Research involving over 8,000 participants across three nations indicates that women’s pelvises have become narrower over the last 150 years. While several factors contribute to this change, it offers fresh insights that could prompt researchers to reevaluate the so-called “obstetric dilemma,” which pertains to the evolutionary constraints surrounding pelvic size.
The exact drivers of this change and its implications for health remain unclear. Nonetheless, a continued reduction in pelvic size could heighten the likelihood of requiring cesarean sections.
Maciej Henneberg, from the University of Adelaide, Australia, and his team revisited an existing dataset featuring 1,247 Australian women born from 1900 to 1984. They discovered that pelvic width decreased by 0.42 mm annually. In Poland, the pelvic width of 3,486 women reduced by 0.47 mm each year from 1880 to 1970, while in a sample of 320 Mexican women, the decline was 0.42 mm annually from 1900 to 1970.
“I find this compelling, considering that these regions, despite differences in height, show similar evolutionary trends,” remarks Philip Mitter Ecker from the University of Vienna, Austria.
“The dataset is impressive,” adds Leah Betty from University College London.
Henneberg posits that these findings suggest modern medical practices diminish the effects of natural selection on human pelvises. Historically, a baby too large or a birth canal too narrow often resulted in fatal outcomes for both mother and child. However, the introduction of safe, effective cesarean sections has lessened this evolutionary pressure, potentially leading to further narrowing of the birth canal and pelvis.
Mitteroecker agrees that cesarean sections are influencing the evolutionary forces at play in human birth anatomy. He predicts this trend may result in even narrower pelvises, as highlighted in his 2016 analysis, stating it represents the latest chapter in a long-standing narrative.
“Midwifery has ancient roots, uniquely human,” he explains. For thousands of years, women have supported each other during childbirth. This cultural tradition has mitigated selection pressures on the pelvis and birth canal, demonstrating how our actions influence our biological evolution. “In a way, cesarean sections are an extreme manifestation of this,” Mitteroecker concludes.
However, Betty remains skeptical that cesarean sections are the primary cause of the recent changes in pelvic width. She highlights that humans have also experienced increased height during the same period, likely due to improved nutrition and healthcare rather than evolutionary gene alterations.
“Diet plays a significant role in determining pelvic structure,” Betty notes. When undernourished, developing bodies prioritize certain organs, particularly the brain, over others. With adequate nutrition now available, bodies may be reallocating resources, leading to variances in proportions. “Different body proportions are certainly a possibility,” she observes.
Understanding the factors behind these changes is crucial for comprehending the challenges of human childbirth. However, the nature of this dilemma is still debated. In a 2024 study, Mitter Ecker and colleagues suggested that pelvic floor mechanics could be a significant contributor to narrowing, potentially heightening pressure on the pelvic floor and elevating the risk of incontinence.
It’s also feasible that both factors are at play. An April study involving 31,000 participants associated wider pelvises with easier childbirth, yet identified slower walking speeds and increased risk of pelvic floor conditions.
The implications of this dilemma extend beyond childbirth. Betty notes that competitive sports during childhood may also influence pelvic size, emphasizing that various environmental factors, including temperature, can affect the pelvis. Other studies tie the evolving obstetric dilemma to rising obesity rates, which may result in larger babies. Ultimately, a combination of these factors likely explains the observed changes, prompting researchers to classify the issue as a “multifactorial pelvis” challenge.
A narrower pelvis poses health implications, complicating vaginal births and potentially increasing the need for cesarean deliveries. “Nobody knows how long it will take to reach a point where natural childbirth ceases to exist,” remarks Renata Henneberg, one of the researchers on this new study and Maciej Henneberg’s wife.
Conversely, a narrower pelvis may reduce the incidence of pelvic floor issues, which can be quite severe. Childbirth can have long-lasting, detrimental effects on women’s lives,” Betty cautions.
Predicting future trends is complex, given the multitude of interacting factors. While fewer children may lead to decreased injury risks, later childbirth may counteract this. “Many changes are occurring simultaneously,” she reflects.
Bolivian archaeologists have unearthed an ancient complex located approximately 215 km (130 miles) southeast of the historic Tiwanak site. This large modular structure, featuring integrated sunken courtyards, bears a striking resemblance to the terraced temples of Tiwanak, indicating significant national investment.
Isometric reconstruction of the Paraspata temple rendered with a 3 m high wall. Image credits: Capriles et al., doi: 10.15184/aqy.2025.59.
The ancient society near the southern shore of Lake Titicaca was once among the most influential civilizations in Bolivia.
Known as Tiwanak, this society is regarded by archaeologists as one of the earliest instances of Andean civilization and a precursor to the Inca Empire, yet it mysteriously vanished around a millennium ago.
“Much remains enigmatic about the Tiwanak civilization,” remarked Pennsylvania archaeologist Jose Capriles.
“Their society disintegrated around 1000 AD, long before the Incas seized control of the Andes in the 15th century.”
“At its zenith, Tiwanak showcased a well-organized social structure, leaving behind architectural remnants like pyramids, terraced temples, and monoliths. While most of these artefacts are found around Lake Titicaca, Tiwanak’s influence extended much farther, though the exact boundaries of its control remain debated.”
“The newly uncovered temple complex is situated about 215 km south of the historically recognized Tiwanak site, known to local indigenous farmers but inadequately studied by researchers due to its unassuming setting.”
“However, the site’s location is quite strategic.”
During the Tiwanaku period, it linked three major trade routes across diverse ecosystems, with the fertile highlands around Lake Titicaca to the north.
This has led researchers to conclude that the site must have been significant in connecting communities.
“People traveled, traded, and erected monuments at pivotal points across the arid mountainous terrain,” Dr. Capriles said.
“Upon discovering an unmapped rectangular area, we employed various techniques to visualize the region.”
“The function of the site was unclear, so I integrated different satellite images.”
“We also carried out a series of UAV missions to capture high-resolution images.”
“Using photogrammetry—a method that constructs 3D models from photographs—we achieved a more detailed visualization of the structure and its surrounding landscape.”
Stone alignments identified an ancient temple named Palaspata, derived from the local terminology.
This temple complex spans roughly 125 m in length and 145 m in width, featuring 15 rectangular enclosures surrounding a central courtyard.
The layout seems to align with rituals that coincide with the sun’s zenith, particularly when it is directly above the equator.
Paraspata Temple. Image credits: Capriles et al., doi: 10.15184/aqy.2025.59.
Using the information gathered, researchers created reconstructions to visualize what the ancient Palaspata temple may have looked like.
The temple’s surface contained numerous fragments of Kelcups, which were used for consuming chicha, a traditional corn beer, during agricultural festivals and ceremonies, suggesting the temple was a key trade hub.
This highlights that corn was cultivated in the Cochabamba valley, indicating the temple’s role in facilitating connections among various culinary traditions on its elevated grounds, thereby enhancing access to an assortment of products.
“The temple likely served a spiritual function, as evidenced by the interconnections that managed trade and harvest distribution within designated ritual spaces,” noted Dr. Capriles.
“Most economic and political dealings were likely mediated through divinity, since this was a common framework for fostering cooperation among disparate individuals, as religion often serves as a unifying force among different groups.”
“The discovery was a revelation, even for local inhabitants,” commented Jas Ventura Guaralo, the mayor of Caracoro, where the site is located.
“The archaeological findings at Palaspata are vital as they unearth significant aspects of local heritage that have been largely ignored.”
“This discovery is crucial for our community, and we regard its documentation as invaluable for boosting tourism and showcasing the region’s rich history.”
The team’s paper was published today in the journal Ancient.
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Jose M. Capriles et al. 2025. Gateway to the East: Palaspata Temple and the southeast expansion of Tiwanak. Ancient 99 (405): 831-849; doi: 10.15184/aqy.2025.59
Members of the genus Metatherian Swaindelphys were previously identified in the Swain Quarry in southern Wyoming and the Nasimiento Formation in the San Juan Basin, New Mexico, and are now also found in the Black Peaks Formation in West Texas.
Reconstructing the life of Swaindelphys. Image credit: Kristen Tietjen.
The newly identified species thrived in Texas during the Ale-Nocene period, around 60 million years ago.
It has been designated Swaindelphys Solastella; these animals were significantly larger than related species, yet still about the size of a modern hedgehog.
It belonged to Metatherian, a group encompassing living marsupials and their extinct relatives.
“We’ve dedicated a lot of effort to uncovering this world,” remarked Kristen Miller, a doctoral student at the University of Kansas.
Fossil remains of Swaindelphys Solastella were uncovered in the Black Peak Formation within Big Bend National Park, West Texas.
“The earliest fossil mammals from the Big Bend during the Ale Holocene epoch were initially documented decades ago,” stated Professor Chris Beard of the University of Kansas.
“However, our mission is to uncover some of the smaller, more elusive fossil mammals that inhabited Big Bend during that era.”
“The new fossil we are describing holds significance as it represents the largest marsupial ever identified from the Ale Holocene in North America, in terms of body size.”
“This isn’t surprising considering that everything tends to be larger in Texas.”
The distribution patterns of Swaindelphys may provide insights into the natural features and barriers that limited the geographical spread of species during this time, including early primates.
“During the Ale New Century, the climate would have been warmer, likely leaning towards tropical,” Miller explained.
“Instead of the desert landscape seen today, there would have been more vegetation, possibly alongside numerous rivers and streams.”
“These fossils are found in what are referred to as river sediments, stemming from ancient river systems.”
The discovery of Swaindelphys Solastella is detailed in a paper released this month in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
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Kristen Miller et al. Implications of biogeographical and biostratigraphic novel species. Swaindelphys (Mammals, Metatheria) from the Black Peaks Formation, Big Bend National Park, Texas. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, published online on June 17th, 2025. doi:10.1080/02724634.2025.2500501
In Paterson, New Jersey, over 100 individuals required medical attention during two outdoor graduation ceremonies on Monday, as the heat index soared to 107 degrees. That evening, Mayor Andre Seig declared a state of emergency, leading to the cancellation of all recreational activities due to the extreme heat.
Monday saw record high temperatures exceeding 60 degrees nationwide, with predictions extending from the southeast up to New England throughout the week.
Preliminary daily records were established on Tuesday in New York City (99 degrees), Philadelphia (for the first time since 2012), and Raleigh, North Carolina (100 degrees).
New monthly records for June were set in Boston (101 degrees) and Providence, Rhode Island (100 degrees), while Newark recorded a staggering June high of 103 degrees.
The National Weather Service indicates that the oppressive heat conditions are likely to persist through the evening.
These elevated temperatures are attributed to high-pressure ridges, which are currently parked over the eastern United States. Known as thermal domes, these systems effectively trap heat in the region, leading to prolonged periods of elevated temperatures.
While some relief may arrive towards the weekend, heat and humidity levels are expected to remain elevated over the coming days.
“The most severe cumulative heat impacts are expected on Friday across the eastern Ohio valleys stretching from the Mid-Atlantic to Thursday, resulting in multi-day oppressive heat,” stated the Weather Service.
All individuals are at risk for heat-related illnesses and fatalities, but the excessive heat and humidity—especially over several days—pose a particular risk to children, those with pre-existing health conditions, the elderly, and outdoor workers. These health concerns are increasingly pressing as climate change leads to more frequent, intense, and lasting heat events.
While the eastern U.S. battles the heat dome, a severe storm system could impact parts of Wyoming, Colorado, South Dakota, and Nebraska. Additionally, heavy rainfall and flooding are likely for much of New Mexico and southwestern Texas.
Leonardo da Vinci’s concept for a flying device might have outperformed today’s drones in terms of functionality and noise reduction.
Rajat Mittal, a researcher at Johns Hopkins University in Maryland, along with his team, found that Da Vinci’s “air screws”—which were never actually constructed or tested during his time as a military engineer in 1480—could potentially require less power to achieve the same lift as conventional drone rotors.
The device closely resembles an Archimedes screw, a helical pump that lifts water as it rotates. Although Da Vinci envisioned it being powered by human effort, employing a lightweight electric motor could have enabled it to actually achieve flight.
Mittal’s team created a simulation of the air screw, testing it in a virtual wind tunnel across various rotational speeds and comparing it with traditional drone rotors, including a two-blade variant.
They discovered that the air screws can maintain the same lift while rotating at a slower speed, indicating reduced power consumption.
By measuring the pressure and wind flow around the virtual screw, the team also estimated its potential output.
“I was taken aback,” Mittal remarked. “We initially believed that the spiral screw’s shape would yield terrible aerodynamic performance, but it turns out it might surpass traditional blades.”
Mittal and his team aim to investigate ways to optimize Da Vinci’s design for improved efficiency without sacrificing its distinguishable noise-reducing properties.
As drones become more prevalent in urban settings for deliveries and emergency services, the challenge of noise pollution has prompted researchers to explore alternative rotor designs that generate less noise for similar lift outputs.
“An author can produce the same thrust with a slower rotation, which is exactly what Da Vinci’s design achieves. This will indeed contribute to quieter operations,” noted Cheryl Grace from Boston University, Massachusetts. “It’s not necessary for it to strictly follow Da Vinci’s blueprint, but it’s fantastic that his concept aligns with this idea.”
However, to validate the practicality of Da Vinci’s design in real-world applications, testing its performance during flight—rather than just hovering—and evaluating the impact of rotor weight on its efficiency is crucial, Grace added.
Renaissance science: Italy
Explore the brilliant scientific minds and discoveries of the Renaissance that have positioned Italy as a leader in scientific advancement.
The term “thinking” might evoke memories of certain self-help literature that lacks scientific basis. Yet, emerging studies indicate that our cognitive patterns can significantly shape our lives through their effects on our thoughts, motivation, and behaviors.
This article is part of a special feature that explores how experts perceive some of the most unexpected scientific ideas. Click here for more information.
“We perceive thinking as a belief system regarding how the world operates, which includes our thoughts about ourselves and our surroundings,” states David Jager from the University of Texas at Austin.
Initially popularized by Carol Dweck at Stanford University, this concept emerged from her interest in how beliefs about intelligence affect academic performance.
Some individuals strongly agree with statements in psychological surveys, such as “Your intelligence is fundamentally fixed and does not change significantly.” Such individuals are characterized as having a “fixed mindset.” Conversely, those who resonate more with statements like, “Your intelligence can change significantly throughout your life,” are viewed as having a “growth mindset.”
Dweck’s research demonstrated that individuals with a growth mindset are more likely to persevere after setbacks and embrace challenges beyond their comfort zones.
Crucially, Dweck and her team found that mindset is flexible. For instance, educating individuals about the brain’s inherent plasticity can foster a growth mindset, as shown in this research. Although some replication attempts showed mixed results, the overall effect seems to hold up under varying contexts.
“Interventions are typically more effective when educators cultivate a growth mindset within a nurturing school culture,” Jager explains. I have led several studies in this area.
Building on Dweck’s groundwork, psychologists are uncovering various concepts that could positively influence our well-being and success. At Stanford, Aria Crum has been researching “mindsets regarding stress.” Those who perceive stress as energizing are often better equipped to handle life’s demands compared to those who view stress as debilitating.
Crum likens our mindset to a “lens” that influences our worldview; recent studies indicate that these lenses may have long-term health implications. For instance, research on first responders has shown that individuals who interpret stress as beneficial possess a lower risk of heart disease, regardless of their overall stress levels.
Integrating growth and stress-affirming mindsets can amplify the benefits of both. In a series of studies released in 2022, Yeager revealed that teaching students a “synergistic mindset” improved both mental health and academic achievement. “These two perspectives complement each other,” Jager notes. “They shape your beliefs.”
However, it’s crucial to understand that mindset research is sometimes misinterpreted. The researchers do not advocate the notion that positive thinking can yield miraculous outcomes. “To clarify, the growth mindset does not suggest that someone with the right mindset and education can become an Einstein or Beethoven,” Dweck writes in her book, Thinking: The New Psychology of Success, “rather, it implies that an individual’s true potential is unknown and not fixed.”
Fostering a growth mindset shouldn’t merely be about offering constant praise for every effort. It often requires establishing high expectations. “This may involve difficult conversations, but it’s also about guiding someone to meet those standards,” asserts Jager. “It can be challenging.”
Thus, unlike self-help advocates, a positive mindset won’t promise instant wealth. However, it prepares us to exert the effort needed to reach our aspirations and navigate the emotional hurdles along the journey.
Explore additional stories in this series through the links below:
Metaphysics often faces undue criticism. “Many people consider it a waste of time,” states philosopher Stephen Mumford from Durham University, UK, and author of Metaphysics: A Very Short Introduction. “Are they simply arguing over trivial matters, like how many angels can dance on the head of a pin?”
This viewpoint is understandable. Classical metaphysics—originating from the Greek term “meta”—has often grappled with peculiar questions. For instance, what constitutes a table? What shape does color assume? We utilize logical tools like “reductio ad absurdum” to derive conclusions solely from inference. This method seeks to demonstrate the validity of a claim by highlighting absurdities within its negation, quite different from the empirical observations that characterize scientific inquiry.
This article is part of our concept special, exploring how experts view some of the most intriguing scientific ideas. Click here for more information.
Nonetheless, the notion that metaphysics is merely an abstract discipline disconnected from reality is rebutted by Mumford:
Indeed, modern science has encroached upon areas once deemed exclusive to metaphysics, including the nature of consciousness and the implications of quantum mechanics. It’s becoming increasingly evident that both domains are interconnected.
To understand this interplay, one must recognize that everyone inherently possesses metaphysical beliefs, asserts Vanessa Seyfert, a philosopher of science at the University of Bristol, England. For instance, many believe in the existence of objects even when they are not being observed, despite the absence of robust empirical evidence to support this claim.
Moreover, “naturalized metaphysics” emerges from this discussion. Unlike traditional metaphysics, which remains speculative, this version is grounded in scientific understanding, according to Seyfert. “We observe what science reveals about our universe and consider whether we can accept it as literal truth.”
This contemporary metaphysics serves a crucial role for science, as it probes the foundational assumptions behind our understanding of the universe. “In many instances, metaphysical beliefs form the basis upon which empirical knowledge is constructed,” explains Mumford.
Causality—the principle that every effect has a cause—is a prime example. Despite the fact that causality itself is not directly observable, it is a belief we universally hold. “Essentially, the entirety of science operates on this metaphysical premise of causality,” he remarks.
These days, scientists routinely engage with deeply metaphysical concepts, ranging from chemical elements to space and time, as well as the very laws of nature, thereby intensifying the scrutiny of these ideas.
“We can critically evaluate our metaphysical assumptions or choose to overlook them for their validity,” says Mumford. “However, ignoring them means we make unexamined assumptions.”
One notable intersection of science and metaphysics exists in quantum mechanics, which delves into the atomic and subatomic realm. While it stands as a highly successful scientific framework, addressing its implications requires physicists to confront metaphysical queries, such as the interpretation of quantum superpositions.
In this realm, competing interpretations of reality exist without being testable through conventional experiments. It’s increasingly clear that scientific advancement hinges on confronting these hidden assumptions. In response, some researchers are revitalizing the notion of “experimental metaphysics,” aiming to assess the consistency of metaphysical beliefs that prioritize various interpretations of quantum theory.
“Ultimately, you cannot engage in physics without also grappling with metaphysical inquiries,” states Eric Cavalcanti, a prominent proponent of this perspective at Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia. “Both aspects must be addressed simultaneously.”
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Climate change might be even more severe than previously estimated
kapook2981/getty images
The Earth’s climate appears to be more responsive to the pollution caused by greenhouse gases than previously assumed, making it harder to keep global temperature increases below 2°C.
This is concerning news for global efforts to combat climate change, according to Gunnar Myhre from Cicero International Climate Research Centre in Norway.
Researchers have long been aware that releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere can lead to climate warming with widespread consequences. However, the extent of potential warming due to these emissions remains uncertain. Specifically, how sensitive is the Earth’s climate to this pollution?
The primary uncertainty arises from how clouds react to warming atmospheres, as shifts in cloud systems could exacerbate warming through feedback loops.
Most predictions regarding warming by the century’s end are derived from climate models that incorporate various sensitivity assumptions. The model utilized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change indicates that if atmospheric concentrations double compared to pre-industrial levels, warming could range between 2°C and 5°C, prompting organizations to adopt a median estimate of 3°C.
Myhre and his team sought to align climate model predictions with satellite data showing the Earth’s energy imbalance—a measure of excess heat within our climate system, reflecting its sensitivity levels.
They discovered that less sensitive climate models, which suggest that the Earth’s climate is more resistant to greenhouse gas emissions, did not align with satellite data collected since the turn of the millennium. According to Myhre, models asserting that the Earth’s climate is less resistant to these gases are “more common.” He added, “Models predicting minimal warming are increasingly rare.”
The findings challenge the reliability of climate models forecasting warming below 2.9°C with doubled greenhouse gas concentrations. Instead, the data imply that warming beyond this threshold is more probable for the same level of pollution.
This has been corroborated by recent record-high temperatures observed both on land and in the sea since 2023, described as “strong climate feedback” in the atmosphere by Myhre.
A more sensitive climate necessitates a quicker reduction in emissions to maintain the same temperature trajectory. In essence, the world must accelerate decarbonization efforts to meet its climate commitments.
Johannes Kuas from the University of Leipzig in Germany argues that the study presents a “very plausible contention” that the Earth is indeed more sensitive to global warming than some models suggest, stating it “reduces the margin” for model estimations that scientists should follow. “It highlights the urgent need for political action against climate change,” he emphasized.
Richard Allen from the University of Reading in the UK notes that “natural climate change” could also be part of the narrative, by pointing out that satellite records date back only to 2001. Nevertheless, he describes the study as “rigorous” and adds, “there is further evidence that simulations predicting less warming are increasingly unrealistic in the long-term.”
On his weekly HBO show, John Oliver discussed the alarming risks of AI, labeling it “worrisomely corrosive” to our society.
During “Last Week Tonight,” Oliver remarked, “The rampant use of AI generation tools has made it effortlessly simple to clutter social media platforms with cheap, professional, and often bizarre content, coining the term AI Slop to categorize everything.”
He described it as “the latest version of spam,” with peculiar images and videos overwhelming users’ feeds, leading people to say, “I have no idea that this isn’t the real thing.”
“It’s highly probable that this content will flood platforms in the near future,” Oliver warned.
With such content, “The main goal is to grab your attention,” and barriers to entry have significantly lowered due to its ease of creation.
Meta has jumped into the fray with its own tools and has also refined its algorithm. This means more than a third of the content in your feed originates from accounts that currently do not comply. “That’s how the slops infiltrate without your consent,” he noted.
A monetization program has emerged for those who manage to make their content go viral, and numerous AI slop experts are now offering to teach individuals the tricks of the trade for a small fee.
This has become “ultimately a spam-like volume game in all forms,” resulting in AI generators appropriating the work of real artists without credit. However, “Due to the tales of wealth linked to these slop gurus, the amount of money involved can be relatively minimal.”
It might only be a few hundred dollars, sometimes even less, leading to what can be termed a megavirus. Much of this originates from nations where financial advancements are notable, such as India, Thailand, Indonesia, and Pakistan.
One challenge is having to explain to your parents that the content isn’t genuine. “There’s this really adorable animal, but I can assure you it’s not Moo Deng; it’s AI,” he stated.
Additionally, there are environmental repercussions regarding the resources necessary to produce this content, along with a concerning proliferation of misinformation.
Oliver highlighted numerous fake disasters depicted through images and videos, showcasing tornadoes, explosions, and plane crashes. “Air travel is stressful enough without the creation of new disasters,” he lamented.
AI-generated content has also been utilized during the Israeli-Iran conflict, complicating situations for first responders during last year’s floods in North Carolina. Republicans likewise exploited it to suggest that Biden was mishandling the latter crisis.
“It’s a conundrum for those who have been yelling ‘fake news’ over the last decade and are now suddenly more vocal in denouncing actual fake news,” he remarked.
The impact of these spreads wasn’t as damaging as some had feared during last year’s U.S. elections, but AI is “already considerably more advanced than it was at that time.”
He concluded: “Not only will you be deceived by fakes, but your very existence may cause you to dismiss authentic videos and images as forgeries from bad actors.”
Oliver argues that this all contributes to “corroding the very notion of objective reality,” and finds it increasingly difficult to identify AI content on these platforms.
“I’m not suggesting that some of this content isn’t entertaining, but some of it is potentially quite dangerous,” he warned.
The lines of galaxies that emerged after the collision of the two dwarf galaxies, which tore gases from one another.
Keim et al./Decals
A curious dwarf galaxy may have originated from a bullet-like collision in the universe.
Michael Keim from Yale University and his team employed the Keck Observatory in Hawaii to examine the distinctive trails of 12 small dwarf galaxies located approximately 75 million light-years from the Milky Way.
The orientation and velocity of the galaxies indicate that they resulted from a head-on impact between two galaxies known as NGC 1052-DF2 and NGC 1052-DF4. This collision expelled gas, which eventually coalesced into a group of stars due to gravitational attraction.
“They’re exceptionally unique,” states Kayme. “This is the only known system of its kind.”
Keim and his colleagues named this system after a similar cluster of large galaxies referred to as Bullet Clusters.
It is believed that the two galaxies collided at a speed of 350 kilometers per second around 9 billion years ago. As they passed through one another, gas was stripped from each galaxy. “While it’s improbable for two stars to collide,” notes Kayme, “the same does not apply to gas clouds.”
Interestingly, the remnants of stars left after the collision appear to lack dark matter. This is quite unusual, as most galaxies contain a substantial amount of dark matter, often comprising over 90% of their total mass.
Keim and his team theorize that this anomaly may stem from dark matter’s inability to interact with regular matter during the gas stripping process or because it remained unaffected by the interaction.
This finding may challenge alternative theories regarding dark matter, which posit that discrepancies in stellar and galactic behavior stem from gravitational effects rather than the existence of dark matter particles. “This suggests that dark matter is indeed a particle that can be separated from a galaxy,” explains Kayme.
The ongoing conflict between Israel and Iran is not only a confrontation involving combatants, drones, and explosive devices but is also intensifying in the digital domain. Both nations have a rich history of engaging in cyber warfare. A significant point of contention is Iran’s nuclear initiative, which was famously attacked by the sophisticated Stuxnet worm—one of the early forms of cyber sabotage aimed at causing real-world damage.
In response to perceived threats, Iran recently enacted a near-total internet blackout. My colleague Johanna Bouyan provides insights:
According to CloudFlare, a cybersecurity firm, Iranian internet traffic is “currently averaging around 97% or lower compared to levels from a week ago.”
The reduction in internet speeds follows claims from an anti-Iranian hacking group, possibly linked to Israel, stating they had breached Iran’s state-owned bank, Sepa. A government spokesperson from Iran, Fateme Mohajelani, indicated on Twitter/X that officials were limiting internet access to thwart further cyber intrusion.
On Wednesday, concerns in Iran were validated. My colleague Dan Mirmo reports:
Hacking groups associated with Israel are purportedly behind a $900 million (£67 million) heist at Iran’s cryptocurrency exchange.
The group calling itself Gonjeshke Dalande, known for its predatory tactics, announced it had successfully hacked the Novitex exchange, mere days after asserting it had destroyed data at Iran’s state-owned bank.
Elliptic, a consultancy specializing in cryptocurrency crime, reported identifying over $900 million in cryptocurrency transfers to hacker wallets from Nobitex. The hackers effectively “burn” these assets, storing them in “vanity addresses” that lack encryption keys, thereby rendering them inaccessible, according to Elliptic.
Iran has attempted to retaliate; however, much like the broader conflict, Israel’s strikes appear to be more effective and disruptive. Israeli authorities have warned citizens that Iran is seizing internet-connected home security cameras to gather real-time intelligence. Bloomberg reports. Cybersecurity experts assert that Hamas and Russian hackers have employed similar tactics. While home security cameras may represent a new front in the cyber conflict, they lack the capability to interfere with central banking systems, as Israel has done.
By the end of Friday, Iran seemed to have lifted internet restrictions for some users, as reported by The New York Times. However, even those with limited access felt their connections were precarious.
City of Love? PornHub Takes a Stand Against Paris Over Children’s Age Verification Online
Photo: Nikolas Kokovlis/Nurphoto/Rex/Shutterstock
PornHub, widely regarded as the most visited adult content site globally, resumed operations in France after a three-week blackout.
The platform’s owner, Iro, suspended access in protest against a new French regulation requiring adult websites to verify user ages using credit cards or identification. Instead of implementing the age restriction, Pornhub opted to withdraw access for approximately 70 million users.
Following this, Pornhub returned online after French courts temporarily put the law on hold while reviewing its compliance with the European Union’s constitution. However, the dispute between Paris and Pornhub signifies a growing global dialogue around online age verification.
This debate occupies a challenging intersection of differing online regulations aimed at protecting children and upholding privacy and freedom of expression—an area fraught with complexity, even in the U.S., where digital regulations often aim for practicality.
As of now, over 20 states have enacted age verification laws affecting adult content websites. Pornhub has been forced to block access in 17 of these states. Texas, which boasts a population of 31 million, serves as a prime example. The state legislature passed a law in September 2023 mandating ID verification for accessing adult sites, causing Pornhub to go dark in Texas by March—greeting users with a message calling the law “invalid, accidental, dangerous.” Meanwhile, while access is still allowed in Louisiana under similar laws, site traffic has plummeted by 80%. This serves as a barrier to ID requirements. The U.S. Supreme Court is considering whether such laws infringe on constitutional rights to free speech.
Research on U.S. law indicates that these laws are ineffective in achieving their stated goals. Online search data suggests that individuals in states with age verification laws are searching for non-compliant adult sites to bypass age restrictions and using VPNs to disguise their locations from internet service providers.
Other battlegrounds extending beyond age verification include restrictions on social media for underage users. Australia, which has enacted a ban on minors accessing social media, is currently testing various enforcement technologies but has found them lacking.
The UK is emerging as the next battleground. New online safety legislation mandating age verification for adult content will take effect in July. Will London mirror Paris, or follow Texas?
Last week, Donald Trump introduced a mobile phone brand named “T1,” elegantly designed with his name and emblazoned with an American flag. It is especially marketed in Alabama, California, and Florida, with a monthly service plan priced at $47.45.
However, the T1 phones face significant challenges in delivering on their promises. The manufacturer will be subject to similar market pressures as other manufacturers, where both inexpensive labor and specialized electronics expertise are largely based in China, not the U.S. This partly explains why Apple products are labeled “Designed in California.”
Looking forward, analysts predict that Trump’s proposed tariffs could cause smartphone prices to soar by double or even triple digits. Currently, the U.S. lacks a developed electronics supply chain capable of fully assembling mobile phones domestically. In April, analysts at UBS cautioned that the cost of an iPhone 16 Pro Max with 256GB might potentially rise by 79%, from $1,199 to approximately $2,150, if a total tariff of 145% were implemented. Apple seemed to acknowledge this forecast by expediting the shipment of nearly $2 billion worth of iPhones to the U.S. before tariffs on China were instituted.
An example of a mobile phone that has been assembled in the U.S., known as the Liberty Phone, is operational but not entirely manufactured there. Trump’s offerings could potentially cost around four times more than $2,000. The Liberty Phones source certain components domestically, but still require screens, batteries, and cameras that are manufactured overseas. According to the Wall Street Journal, the CEO of Purism, the company that manufactures these devices, stated that its operating system can run only basic applications like calculators and web browsers.
Although the specs for the Liberty Phone are inferior compared to the Trump T1, its price will be steeper, and the likelihood of the T1 reaching the market as promised appears slim. Many of the anticipated technical features of the T1 come at a price point nearly double that of what Trump has claimed. A comprehensive list compiled by The Verge suggests that Chinese firms might manufacture phones under Trump’s brand label.
Eric Trump, who co-manages this venture alongside his brother Donald Jr., admitted that the initial batch of T1 phones was not made in the U.S. “Eventually, every phone will be produced in the United States,” Eric Trump reassured. He added last week. I understand.
Read more: Why can’t mobile phones be repaired in the U.S. to avoid Trump’s tariffs?
While we acknowledge that reducing greenhouse gas emissions offers a sustainable and long-term solution to climate change, we continue to see rising emissions. As some exacerbate climate challenges, others are exploring options that were once beyond the scope of mainstream discussion.
This article is part of our special issue, showcasing how experts evaluate some of the more unexpected concepts in science. Click here for additional details
The term “geoengineering” broadly refers to human interventions in climate systems aimed at maintaining ecosystems and cooling the planet. Yet, the definition of geoengineering remains elusive; it can encompass endeavors from reforestation to the deployment of massive underwater curtains to support ice sheets.
Some geoengineering concepts spark more debate than others. Large-scale reforestation, when executed properly, is generally seen as a positive climate action. However, more radical ideas—like altering sunlight’s interaction with the Earth’s atmosphere—invoke heightened concerns.
“The risk-return dynamics vary significantly,” states Janice Lachance of the non-profit American Geophysical Union (AGU), which has recently introduced an “Ethical Framework” for scientists in this field. She elaborates, “Planting trees in a park is relatively straightforward and widely accepted. However, when we delve into novel technologies and methodologies, the situation rapidly shifts.”
Take, for example, the concept of solar radiation management (SRM), which proposes reflecting additional sunlight back into space to cool the planet. This can be approached in three fundamental ways (illustrated in the graphics below). Although early modeling suggests that SRM could yield cooling effects within just a few years of implementation, it may also disrupt rainfall patterns and cloud formation.
SRM has historically been a contentious area of research, but as temperatures climb and climate impacts intensify, it has garnered attention from scientists, policymakers, and philanthropists alike.
While some activists argue against this line of research, fearing it diverts focus from the urgency of rapid emission reductions, Andy Parker of the Degree Initiative—a nonprofit concentrating on SRM—cautions that merely reducing emissions may no longer suffice for humanity to tackle climate change’s consequences.
“We must explore strategies to manage the risks posed by previously released greenhouse gases,” he asserts. Moreover, without international dialogue on geoengineering, “there’s a heightened risk of individual nations—especially those severely affected by climate change—unilaterally pursuing geoengineering projects.”
In this context, an increasing number of scientists are advocating for geoengineering research. “Some researchers feel they are falling short in meeting the objectives outlined in the Paris Agreement,” notes Lachance. Consequently, the AGU has devised an ethical framework to guide climate intervention research.
The concerns regarding research extend beyond methodologies. Concepts of planetary-scale geoengineering often place developing nations—particularly those near the equator—at greater risk of unforeseen consequences, such as disruptions to monsoon patterns. Yet, the majority of geoengineering research is concentrated in wealthier countries, which have less to lose.
As part of the Degree Initiative, Parker collaborates with researchers from lower-income countries in the Southern Hemisphere to develop SRM research capabilities. He hopes this will ensure that future deployment decisions take into account the populations most affected. “We don’t hold a stance on whether SRM should be utilized or not,” he explains. “What we do want is for developing nations to have informed avenues for their own research.”
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Physicists observe that students often exhibit a “digging expression” when first introduced to quantum superposition, as noted by Marcelo Gleiser. Having taught quantum mechanics for several decades, he notes the consistent surprise among students as they grapple with the complexities of atomic and particle behavior.
This article is part of our special concept series, exploring how experts perceive some of the most astonishing ideas in science. Click here for additional details.
The term “clear” often adds confusion in this field. Since the inception of superposition, its true implications have been debated for centuries. What is universally acknowledged is that this concept challenges our understanding of what constitutes “reality.”
A foundational aspect to grasp is the Schrödinger equation. Formulated by Erwin Schrödinger in the 1920s, it serves as a cornerstone of quantum theory, outlining the probabilities of finding particles in specific states upon measurement. Notably, quantum mechanics focuses on predicting potential outcomes rather than clarifying the exact activities of particles pre-measurement.
The Schrödinger equation articulates all conceivable positions a particle may occupy before measurement, utilizing mathematical constructs known as wave functions. This establishes one mathematical interpretation of superposition, defined as the combination of various potential quantum states.
It is well-established that particles can indeed exist in superposition. For instance, in a double-slit experiment, a solitary photon (a light particle) is directed toward a barrier with two narrow openings. When a detector is active, the photon seems to “choose” one slit and strikes a specific point on the screen. In contrast, without the detector, an “interference pattern” is observed, indicating that the particles act like waves, traversing through both slits simultaneously and interacting with themselves.
However, the true significance of being “in a superposition” remains elusive. Generally, two perspectives exist. Some view wave functions merely as mathematical constructs rather than reflections of reality—this aligns with Gleiser’s stance at Dartmouth University, New Hampshire. He asserts, “In quantum mechanics, we argue that wave functions must constitute a part of physical reality,” asserting that equating mathematical constructs with truth has become almost cult-like.
Gleiser endorses an interpretation known as quantum Bayesianism (or QBism), which posits that the theory addresses our understanding rather than reality itself. Consequently, during quantum state measurements, what shifts is merely our information about reality, not reality itself.
Conversely, some scholars, like Simon Saunders, a philosopher from Oxford University, argue against this view, asserting that wave functions represent an authentic state of existence. He suggests that particles in superposition physically occupy multiple locations simultaneously. “It’s an extended object,” he clarifies. “It’s delocalized.” Within this framework, our experience of particle reality may deviate from actual reality. For example, electrons orbiting atoms appear as a cloud of probability until measured.
Critics of this interpretation often question the fate of alternate possibilities once measurement constrains a particle to a single location. Saunders concedes to the radical notion that this may suggest the existence of a branching infinite multiverse.
Ultimately, a resolution to this question isn’t imminent. Meanwhile, researchers have successfully extended superposition beyond individual particles to larger molecules and even 16-microgram crystals. This suggests that reality is much stranger than it appears.
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Dating back either 12 or 800 years ago, wild wallabies were caught and transported by canoe to nearby islands located dozens of kilometers away.
The Sahuru natives—a group of marsupials from a prehistoric landmass that eventually broke into Australia and New Guinea—likely accompanied human explorers and traders to the islands in Southeast Asia, providing food, decorative fur, and tools made from bones. This animal import is recognized as one of the earliest known instances of animal translocation, with established colonies thriving over millennia, according to Dylan Gaffney at Oxford University.
“This aligns with a broader understanding of how early humans managed, transported, and raised animals more deliberately than previously assumed. They didn’t merely endure in these tropical environments; they actively transformed them,” says Gaffney.
Research pertaining to species translocation typically prioritizes European explorers, who notably introduced invasive rabbits to Australia in the 18th and 19th centuries and reintroduced horses to the Americas in the late 1400s and early 1500s.
However, in the 1990s, two types of marsupial bones were identified—Phalanger Orientalis Breviceps or Phalanger Breviceps, along with Bandicoot bones (Echymipera Kalubu)—from the Eastern Islands of New Guinea, and Brown Forest Wallabies (Dorcopsis Muelleri) found on an island west of Halmahera, roughly 350 km from Sahuru’s ancient shores.
Based on the age of nearby charcoal remains and the sediment layers, research teams estimate that the Wallabies arrived around 8,000 years ago, while other species date back to between 13,000 and 24,000 years ago.
The specifics of how these animals arrived on the islands remain unclear—whether by human transport or natural means. To explore this, Gaffney and his colleagues examined a new archaeological site in Indonesia’s Rajaanpat Islands.
There, thousands-of-years-old skeletons indicate that the colony of brown forest wallabies thrived on the island about 4,000 years ago, though the reasons behind this are still uncertain.
Radiocarbon dating in a cave inland revealed evidence of wallabies being hunted and cooked as far back as 13,000 years ago, further supported by findings from another island to the west that dates back 5,000 years.
The team also uncovered several bone tools utilized in hunting and textile work, suggesting human activity at least 8,500 years ago.
In investigating how these animals arrived on distant islands, the team employed computer modeling that accounted for the sea levels and environmental conditions of that era.
This modeling supports the theory that humans transported the animals via canoes, Gaffney explains. Without human assistance, Wallabies would have struggled to survive the treacherous oceanic journey that could have lasted over 24 hours, relying on vegetation rafts for days to reach the islands. While swimming to nearby islands is conceivable, it’s uncertain whether forest wallabies (modern or ancient) possessed the ability to swim.
In contrast, canoe trips would have taken only a few hours to a couple of days, a timeframe that likely would have been manageable for breeding animals.
These findings underscore a sophisticated understanding of species movement by humans well before the era of European colonial expansion. Tom Matthews, who was not involved in the research and is from the University of Birmingham, UK, states, “We frequently assume that these introductions began within the last 500 years, but the evidence indicates that humans were reshaping their ecosystems long before then.”
All U.S. House representatives have banned the use of WhatsApp messaging services, as detailed in a memo distributed to House staff on Monday.
The notification to House staff indicated that “the Cybersecurity office deems WhatsApp problematic due to a lack of transparency regarding user data protection, insufficient data encryption at rest, and the potential security risks associated with its use.”
The Chief Admin Note suggested alternative messaging applications, including Microsoft’s Teams, Wickr, Amazon’s Signal, Apple’s iMessage, and FaceTime.
A spokesperson for META, the parent company of WhatsApp, stated: “We strongly oppose the stance taken by the highest administrative officers of the House of Representatives and recognize that members and their staff frequently rely on WhatsApp.
“WhatsApp offers end-to-end encryption by default, ensuring that messages can only be accessed by recipients and not even WhatsApp itself. This level of security surpasses that of most apps on the CAO’s approved list.
Signal, which employs end-to-end encrypted messaging similar to WhatsApp, has recently been involved in a controversy after Defense Secretary Pete Hegges shared sensitive information about a planned Yemen attack within at least two private Signal group chats.
One of these chats was initiated by national security adviser Mike Waltz and included senior U.S. security officials, along with journalist Jeffrey Goldberg from Atlantic. Other chats were organized by Hegges himself, involving his family and approximately 12 others.
The Pentagon previously cautioned employees against using Signal due to its technical vulnerabilities, as reported by NPR. A “OPSEC special bulletin” shared on March 18 warned that Russian hacking groups could exploit Signal’s vulnerabilities to surveil encrypted organizations and target “individuals of interest.”
Pentagon-wide communications permit the use of “third-party messaging apps” for sharing unclassified information, but prohibit their use for sending “private” unclassified details.
Reuters contributed to this report
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Modern atomic energy technologies primarily utilize nuclear fission. In this process, the nuclei of heavy atoms, such as uranium, are bombarded with neutrons, causing them to split apart and release lighter nuclei along with significant energy.
However, a major drawback of fission energy is that the resultant waste is often far more radioactive than the original fuel, with its hazardous nature persisting for extended periods. Moreover, managing the rate of fission reactions is crucial for ensuring safety.
A failure in this context can lead to catastrophic consequences.
An alternative to nuclear fission is fusion energy. In this process, lighter elements, specifically isotopes of hydrogen, merge to form heavier nuclei, releasing substantial energy in the process.
This is the fundamental reaction that powers stars, including our sun.
The byproducts of the fusion reaction are generally safe, primarily producing inert helium, though some mildly radioactive substances are also generated, but they are short-lived. The challenge with fusion energy lies in achieving the conditions required to initiate the reaction.
It necessitates temperatures in the millions of degrees, along with the incorporation of ultra-high-pressure fuel (usually within a magnetic field), which presents significant technical hurdles.
Like any industrial process, there are inherent risks, but the nature of a fusion reactor means that any failure would quickly halt energy production.
As a result, fusion energy “disasters” are considerably less probable than conventional industrial accidents; indeed, they lack the potential for the environmental and ecological crises associated with fission energy meltdowns.
This article responds to the inquiry (made via email by Brandon Harris) regarding “What does a Fusion Energy Disaster look like?”
Feel free to email us with your questionsat Question @sciencefocus.com or reach out viaFacebook,Twitter or Instagram(please remember to include your name and location).
Explore our ultimateFun fact page for more fascinating science content.
YouTube has expressed its discontent with the nation’s online safety authorities for sidelining parents and educators, advocating to be included in the proposed social media restriction for users under 16.
Julie Inman Grant from the eSafety Commissioner’s office has called on the government to reconsider its choice to exclude video-sharing platforms from the age restrictions that apply to apps like TikTok, Snapchat, and Instagram.
In response, YouTube insists the government should adhere to the draft regulations and disregard Inman Grant’s recommendations.
“The current stance from the eSafety Commissioner offers inconsistent and contradictory guidance by attempting to ban previously acknowledged concerns,” remarked Rachel Lord, YouTube’s public policy and government relations manager.
“eSafety’s advice overlooks the perspectives of Australian families, educators, the wider community, and the government’s own conclusions.”
Inman Grant highlighted in her National Press Club address on Tuesday that the proposed age limits for social media would be termed “delays” rather than outright “bans,” and are scheduled to take effect in mid-December. However, details on how age verification will be implemented for social media users remain unclear, though Australians should brace for a “waterfall of tools and techniques.”
Guardian Australia reported that various social media platforms have voiced concerns over their lack of clarity regarding legal obligations, expressing skepticism about the feasibility of developing age verification systems within six months of the impending deadline.
Inman Grant pointed out that age verification should occur on individual platforms rather than at the device or App Store level, noting that many social media platforms are already utilizing methods to assess or confirm user ages. She mentioned the need for platforms to update eSafety on their progress in utilizing these tools effectively to ensure the removal of underage users.
Nevertheless, Inman Grant acknowledged the imperfections of the system. “For the first time, I’m aware that companies may not get it right. These technologies won’t solve everything, but using them in conjunction can lead to a greater rate of success.”
“The social media restrictions aren’t a panacea, but they introduce some friction into the system. This pioneering legislation aims to reduce harm for parents and caregivers and shifts the responsibility back to the companies themselves,” Inman Grant stated.
“We regard large tech firms as akin to an extraction industry. Australia is calling on these businesses to provide the safety measures and support we expect from nearly every other consumer industry.”
YouTube has committed to adhering to regulations outlined by former Communications Minister Michelle Rowland, who included specific exemptions for resources such as the Kids Helpline and Google Classroom to facilitate access to educational and health support for children.
Communications Minister Annika Wells indicated that a decision regarding the commissioner’s recommendations on the draft rules will be made within weeks, according to a federal source.
YouTube emphasized that its service focuses on video viewing and streaming rather than social interaction.
They asserted their position as a leader in creating age-appropriate products and addressing potential threats, denying any changes to policies that would adversely impact younger users. YouTube reported removing over 192,000 videos for violating hate speech and abuse policies just in the first quarter of 2025, and they have developed a product specifically designed for young children.
Lord urged that the government should maintain a consistent stance by not exempting YouTube from the restrictions.
“The eSafety advice contradicts the government’s own commitments, its research into community sentiment, independent studies, and perspectives from key stakeholders involved in this matter.”
Shadow Communications Minister Melissa Mackintosh emphasized the need for clarity regarding the forthcoming reforms from the government.
“The government must clarify the expectations placed on social media platforms and families to safeguard children from prevalent online negativity,” she asserted.
“There are more questions than answers regarding this matter. This includes the necessary verification techniques and those platforms will need to adopt to implement the minimum social media age standard by December 10, 2025.”
wHeather Jane Johnson heard that Jeff Bezos got married in Venice this June, but she felt worse than ever. Twenty-five years ago, she closed her bookstore in Boston, Massachusetts. “I lost a lot because of Bezos and the American accomplices behind Amazon’s rise,” states the 53-year-old. “The primary reason I moved to Italy was my sense of betrayal by my homeland.”
When a public meeting was announced in the city, she immediately attended. Since then, she has participated in every gathering of anti-Bezos activists, including the one right before last week’s wedding. “These young people have truly restored my faith in humanity,” Johnson remarks.
Many activists part of the “Bezos No Spaces” movement are based at Laboratorio Accupatato Morion, which identifies as “an anti-fascist, anti-capitalist, anti-racist, and transfeminist political space.” Federica Toninero, 33, describes it as “the home of many struggles.” The venue boasts the same vaulted ceilings and grandeur as others nearby, but is adorned with banners and placards ready to transform Venice in anticipation of Bezos’ wedding festivities, starting Thursday. (During my visit on Sunday, I didn’t spot any billionaires; their inclination for invisibility is strong.) It is all visually stunning, reminiscent of one of Venice’s countercultural spaces, filled with striking graphics from past campaigns against big ships, cruises, and tourists. A grassroots movement emerges here, advocating for refugees, with feminist unions popping up to address issues such as climate crises and urban poverty.
“I don’t think he’s welcome”… his fiancées, Lauren Sanchez and Bezos. Photo: Bruce Glikas/Wireimage
Noemi Donà, a 19-year-old activist from USG (a slowly growing union of young leftists), mentions Oliver, 43, who works as a receptionist in a historic Venetian hotel, not one of the hyper-luxury ones, but rather a “small 14th-century palace.” “Bezos can pay and stay here,” he says, “but thousands of Italian shops have closed due to Amazon’s rise. There are universities aligning with us, many of which occupied campuses last year to protest against the Israeli bombings of Gaza.”
The atmosphere is charged with the scent of aerosols and felt-tip pens. Some banners proclaim “Free Palestine,” while others demand the cessation of bombings in Iran. The Palestinian Libre organization actively condemns the U.S. attack on Iran, which feels particularly shocking just under 24 hours since it occurred. Yet, in opposition to Bezos, Marta Sottoliva, a 34-year-old middle school teacher, asserts, “This isn’t just a group; it’s a platform.”
“If Bezos had announced his wedding here without our movement, the media’s narrative would have centered on a luxurious hotel, VIPs, and gossip,” Sottliva reflects. “We aimed to highlight the obscene wealth that enables men like him to monopolize a city.”
On June 12th, the activists unfurled a massive 8-meter banner featuring Bezos’ name encircled in red. Tonyelo jokes about their lively banter on social media, saying, “You must be embarrassed!” A similar banner was displayed on the Rialto Bridge shortly after.
Protest at San Giorgio Maggiore. Photo: Marta Sottoriva
The activists have shifted their focus from merely questioning, “How much money does he have?” to “What conversation will arise from Bezos’ presence? What numbers will they draw?” As Elon Musk captures the public’s attention, there’s a growing discontent regarding the high purchasing power of elites in the face of societal upheavals. One aspect Bezos cannot buy is public goodwill—nor respect for his fiancée, Lauren Sanchez, nor for the 200 guests he plans to invite. That, indeed, is significant.
Not all demonstrations will be publicized, but one detail is clear: a protest will block access to the Scola Grande della Misericordia this Saturday, where Bezos is set to host the celebration.
On a Sunday evening stroll around the venue, I analyzed the logistics for a protest designed to obstruct any chance of the Kardashian presence. A three-meter-wide strip runs along the canal, with a steep drop, creating a narrow bridge that unexpectedly terminates at metal gates in Venice. On the west side, a pavement parallels the canal, leading to a small bridge that could facilitate both police and protesters, but only permits slow movements. With so many stunning bridges dotting Venice, this is the most beautiful, though not conducive to fast access. A square lies at one end and a canal at the other. If 200 protesters show up, they could indeed create significant disruption.
Rumor has it that Bezos isn’t relying solely on police protection but is also engaging former Marlins, hoping to bolster his public image. “How can I get someone away from the water without causing harm?” Toninero muses, her tone playful rather than anxious. “We use our bodies to convey, ‘Stop it, we don’t want this.’”
According to reports Monday, Bezos has been compelled to relocate the party to a different venue.
Rialto Bridge banner. Photo: Manuel Silvestri/Reuters
Even as the city showcases its exquisite eccentricities, it’s difficult to imagine hosting a lavish party in such a locale with a dead-end bridge resembling a 14th-century lagoon. If you spread the word to just 15 people that you’re not welcome, you realize how inherently impossible it is to execute a glamorous, star-studded event here. Perhaps Venice is a mere facade, and the real celebration is set for Maui.
The activist assembly aired their views amidst all this. Critics argue Bezos and Sanchez may not be ideal foes for the anti-tourism sentiment. Yet, many Venetians recognize a common disregard from local authorities. In their quest to appease billionaires, the city effectively shuts down its center. They exert significant influence over short-term rentals yet refuse to take action. Last year’s initiative, taxing tourists €5 a day, was believed to address the situation, but as Sottoliva points out, locals feel they “are like animals in a zoo or cartoon characters from Disneyland.”
Sofia, 26, originally from Barcelona, has engaged in numerous discussions regarding overtourism, but she sees a uniquely vibrant community within Venice, supporting one another beyond mere intellectual endeavors.
Venice’s politically radical lens, influenced largely by its tourism, contrasts sharply with Bezos’ wedding deal, revealing inconsistencies in his values. His conduct as an employer and his apparent disregard for corporate tax responsibilities reflect a divide that becomes glaringly visible in such discussions.
Michael Jordan’s yacht docked in Venice ahead of Bezos’ wedding. Photo: Yara Nardi/Reuters
Climate change activists have also voiced concerns about promoting a culture of extreme consumption, as noted by Stella Faye, a 27-year-old university researcher.
Politically, Bezos’ transition from a perceived mild Democratic supporter to an active Trump advocate has not gone unnoticed. “We are witnessing a disturbing fusion between the private interests of digital capitalism and fascism,” argues Sottoliva. “This is not just confined to Venice.”
Perhaps most troubling for Bezos is the emerging critique of billionaires not just as individuals, but as systemic forces. “There’s a rise in anti-wealth movements,” states Robin Piazzo, a political scientist at the University of Turin. Traditionally, Marxist discourse focused less on billionaires as individuals, instead analyzing capitalism as a collective system. The grassroots movements increasingly question the narratives around the affluent, especially as they light on the influence of wealth over politics and media.
Yet, within grassroots movements, a consistent anti-Western critique is evident, bridging both religious and political sentiments. Piazzo, who also serves on the city council for the Democratic Party, recounts a 90-year-old woman approaching him post-meeting, saying, “You must act against the rich; I detest them.” She aligned herself with the sentiments expressed by Pope Francis. “This is a critical juncture for ultra-high-net-worth individuals,” he warns, as wealth’s perception shifts to a self-serving entity, starkly contrasted with the struggles faced by the less fortunate.
Wealth is showing its sharper edge once again. In 2001, during the G8 summit in Genoa, police responses were harsh and swift after a protester named Carlo Giuliani was killed by Carabinieri. During that tumultuous time, a leftist in England warned that if pushed, resisting police involved serious risks. The memories of such violence linger deeply.
After Giuliani’s death, a specialized police unit was deployed, known for its distinctive blue uniforms and aggressive tactics. Most surreal was the heavy steel fence constructed to shield leaders at the G8. However, despite the barriers, a single protester managed to break through and was quickly arrested. The show of force reflected a stark division between state officials and protesters—clearly demonstrating that their interests were at odds.
Twenty-four years later, Bezos’ wedding symbolizes everything he represents—wage reduction, rampant consumerism, environmental degradation, and wealth supremacy—casting a shadow over a city struggling to maintain its identity. “Honestly, it terrifies me,” states Noemi Donà. “But I’m here.”
The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope captured this image of UGC 11397, the Barred Spiral Galaxy, which houses a rapidly growing, supermassive black hole.
The Hubble image depicts UGC 11397, a barred spiral galaxy, located about 250 million light years away in the constellation Lyra. Image credits: NASA/ESA/Hubble/MJ Koss/AJ Barth.
Also referred to as IRAS 19019+3346, Leda 62725, or TC 872, UGC 11397 is situated in the constellation Lyra and is approximately 250 million light years distant.
The first documented mention of this spiral galaxy appeared in a galaxy catalogue compiled by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky in 1966.
“At first glance, UGC 11397 seems like a typical spiral galaxy,” stated Hubble astronomers.
“It showcases two graceful spiral arms illuminated by stars, framed by dark, dense dust clouds.”
“What sets UGC 11397 apart from a standard spiral is the ultra-massive black hole at its core, which has a mass 174 million times that of the sun,” they noted.
“As the black hole ejects gas, dust, and even entire stars from its vicinity, this material heats up, creating a spectacular cosmic display.”
“Materials engulfed by black holes emit radiation ranging from gamma rays to radio waves, leading them to brighten and dim unexpectedly.”
“Nonetheless, in some galaxies like UGC 11397, thin dust clouds obscure much of this energetic activity from optical light observation.”
“Still, the rapidly growing black hole in UGC 11397 has been identified through its intense X-ray emissions.”
This discovery led astronomers to categorize it as a Type 2 Seyfert Galaxy, a classification for active galaxies whose central cores are obscured by dust and gas formations.
“Utilizing Hubble, we will examine hundreds of galaxies that host ultra-massive black holes similar to UGC 11397,” the researchers stated.
“Hubble’s observations aid us in measuring nearby supermassive black holes, understand their growth early in the universe’s history, and explore star formation in extreme conditions at the galaxy’s center.”
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