A significant amount of water once cascaded along the surface of an asteroid, indicating that asteroids may have delivered more water to Earth than previously believed.
The source of Earth’s water remains somewhat enigmatic. Although incoming asteroids are considered potential contributors, skepticism exists regarding their ability to supply the vast quantities of water present on Earth today.
Carbonate asteroids develop from dust and ice in the outer solar system. In 2019, Japan’s Hayabusa 2 spacecraft landed on Ryugu and collected 5.4 grams of material, returning it to Earth in 2020.
Initial images of Ryugu suggested it was drier than anticipated, but further studies revealed the presence of cracks once filled with vital elements, including water.
Early dating of the samples indicated that the asteroid was among the oldest celestial objects, originating around 460 million years ago.
However, when Tsuyoshi Itsuka from the University of Tokyo and his team assessed its age using the radioactive decay of lutetium-176 in tiny asteroid samples, they found something intriguing.
“Our analysis estimates the age of the Ryugu sample at about 4.8 billion years, significantly predating the solar system,” notes Ikemoto. “This indicates the timing of Ryugu’s sample collection is critical.”
Instead, the researchers believe that roughly a billion years after its parent body was formed, Ryugu was warmed enough to convert ice into water, which in turn removed some lutetium-176, complicating dating techniques.
Solar radiation warms only the surface ice to about 40 centimeters, while the Ryugu samples were extracted from much deeper layers. Researchers suggest that collisions with other celestial objects may explain how the interior of the parent body was heated.
By estimating the volume of water required to alter the lutetium-176 levels in the Ryugu samples, the team concluded that the asteroid consists of roughly 20-30% water.
Ikemoto asserts that asteroids are believed to have delivered water to Earth in mineral form. “Our findings imply that they can actually provide water as both minerals and ice,” he adds.
The research highlights the value of sample-return missions, according to Jonti Horner from the University of South Queensland, who was not involved in this study. “By retrieving samples directly, we eliminate Earth’s interference, enhancing the validity of our findings,” Horner explains.
“This suggests that these bodies were wetter than previously thought, allowing us to better understand the origins of Earth’s oceans as we analyze early planetary formation,” he concludes.
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The bed nuclei of the stria terminalis comprise a larger, banded structure in the brain known as the stria terminalis.
My Box/Alamy
Brain regions that influence food intake may eventually be targeted to enhance weight loss or therapeutic interventions.
Studies indicate that activating neurons in this specific brain region leads to increased food intake in mice, particularly when consuming sunflower seed-sized food items. However, the impact of taste on neuronal activity remained ambiguous.
For deeper insights, refer to Charles Zuker from Columbia University, who, along with his team, conducted brain imaging on mice. Earlier research linked sweet taste neuron activity in the amygdala with the enjoyment of sweet substances.
These neurons stimulate other neurons in the BNST, sometimes referred to as the “expanded amygdala.” This marks the first evidence of taste signal reception by this brain structure, according to Haijiang Cai from the University of Arizona, who was not part of the study.
The researchers aimed to determine whether these activated BNST neurons influence dietary choices, so they genetically modified cells to prevent activation when mice tasted sweet substances. Over a 10-minute period, these modified mice exhibited significantly reduced consumption compared to their normal counterparts, indicating that BNST neuron activation encourages sweet taste consumption.
Interestingly, the researchers also discovered that this artificial activation led mice to consume more water and even seek out salty or bitter substances, which they typically avoid.
Further experiments indicated that more BNST neurons were activated by sweet and salty tastes in hungry or salt-depleted mice, suggesting that the BNST integrates taste signals along with nutrient deficiency cues to regulate food intake, according to Cai.
Given the similarities between human and mouse BNST, these findings are relevant for humans, says Cai. They suggest that developing drugs to activate BNST neurons could aid individuals experiencing severe appetite loss, like those undergoing cancer treatment.
Cai mentioned that numerous brain pathways regulate food intake, and some may compensate for long-term changes in BNST activity induced by drugs. Therefore, targeting multiple feeding circuits would likely be necessary.
This research also has implications for improving results from weight loss treatments, including the GLP-1 drug semaglutide. This drug binds to neurons in the BNST, and a clearer understanding of its effects on food consumption could enhance the effectiveness of such medications, according to Sarah Stern from the Max Planck Florida Institute for Neuroscience.
Do you often feel anxious? Struggling to concentrate at work? Do you wake up drenched in sweat? Welcome to a phase that is frequently overlooked and often chaotic.
This transitional stage, marked by menopause symptoms but not yet completed, was once brushed off as a fleeting hormonal shift. Today, it’s increasingly acknowledged as a challenging and disruptive decade during which significant changes occur within the body and mind.
Emotional ups and downs, migraines, fluctuations in heart rhythms, urinary tract infections—an array of symptoms can leave many feeling unacknowledged. Fortunately, as our grasp of hormonal health evolves, emerging treatments are providing essential relief.
Nonetheless, there’s no shortage of noise. Social media is awash with advice on remedies, ranging from dietary supplements to intricate exercise routines. What genuinely benefits you, and what is merely a waste of time and money?
The answer depends on your personal experience of the perimenopause phase. During this time, estrogen levels fluctuate unpredictably, accompanied by declines in progesterone and testosterone, impacting everything from bone density and muscle strength to cognitive function and cardiovascular health.
Despite the fact that half the population goes through this transition, its significance is often underestimated. “Menopause marks a pivotal moment in a woman’s life—physically, emotionally, and socially,” states Christina del Toro Badsa, a physician and expert in hormonal health based in Atlanta, Georgia. “However, many women belong to the ‘sandwich generation,’ caring for both children and aging parents while their own well-being is often neglected.”
These symptoms go beyond personal struggles; they can have far-reaching social implications. According to a survey by British charities regarding welfare, one in four women considers leaving their job due to menopausal symptoms. In the U.S., a 2025 study estimates that the costs associated with reduced working hours or premature retirement due to menopause amount to $1.8 billion annually.
Many individuals experiencing perimenopausal symptoms opt for HRT
Elena Popova/Getty Images
In terms of solutions, the UK’s National Institutes of Health (Nice) identifies hormone replacement therapy (HRT) as the first-line treatment for those over the age of 40. However, despite its efficacy, the adoption remains inconsistent, and its use in the U.S. has dramatically fallen over the last quarter-century. This decline is partly due to long-standing fears surrounding side effects revealed in two studies. A significant HRT trial in 2002 was halted after early results suggested an increased risk of breast cancer, heart attacks, and strokes. A follow-up in 2003 estimated that HRT was linked to 20,000 breast cancer cases in the following decade.
While these trial findings were not incorrect, they had limitations and were misunderstood. Media reports, for instance, focused on women over 60. Later trials indicate that the age at which women start HRT significantly influences their breast cancer risk. For example, five years after stopping HRT, women who have taken HRT for less than 5 years show no increased risk of breast cancer.
Context is key. According to the British Menopause Society, women aged 50-59 using HRT (both estrogen and progestogen) for up to 14 years may see an additional 10 breast cancer diagnoses per 1,000. However, this “minor risk” must be evaluated against the substantial reduction in endometrial cancer risk provided by HRT. This risk is comparable to several lifestyle factors, such as obesity, which adds 10 additional breast cancer diagnoses per 1,000 women in the same age group, while consuming 4-6 units of alcohol daily increases cases by eight. In short, while HRT slightly raises the likelihood of breast cancer diagnosis, it is not substantial compared to various other lifestyle choices.
Advantages of HRT
Furthermore, HRT offers several benefits, including lowering the risk of cardiovascular diseases and reducing fracture rates. Initial research suggests that estrogens may be crucial in assisting the brain with glucose metabolism regulation, potentially explaining fatigue and memory lapses during perimenopause due to estrogen depletion affecting glucose processing. Additionally, studies by Roberta Brinton from the University of Arizona indicate that HRT may provide some protection against Alzheimer’s disease—a notion that remains controversial.
“All menopause guidelines indicate that hormone replacement therapy is the most evidence-based treatment for perimenopausal symptoms,” asserts Louise Newson, a physician and member of the UK government’s menopause task force.
Still, HRT isn’t suitable for everyone. Some women may have additional risk factors that prevent their use of HRT, such as prior history of lupus or blood clots, while others may hesitate due to perceived associated risks. For instance, researchers like Karyn Flick from the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee are studying highly selective estrogen receptor drugs. Unlike current HRTs, which activate a broad range of estrogen receptors, these drugs target only those linked to protective effects, such as inhibiting the growth of breast and ovarian cancer. Initial studies suggest this method could be more effective than existing treatments.
Nice also recommends cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) as a frontline strategy during the perimenopausal phase. Clinical trials indicate that CBT can effectively diminish hot flashes and night sweats.
On the topic of hot flashes, drug developers are making strides. In 2023, the FDA approved Fezolinetant, the first non-hormonal medication designed for this issue. It operates by blocking NK3 receptors in the brain that control the body’s internal thermostat in low estrogen conditions. “This medication works quickly and effectively,” explains Alyssa Dweck, a consultant gynecologist and chief medical officer at Bonafide Health, a US-based company specializing in menopause products. The downside is the high cost, unsure insurance coverage in the U.S., and the necessity for regular liver monitoring due to potential side effects.
A more promising alternative may be Elinzanetant, a similar drug that received approval in July from the UK’s regulatory agency. It targets both NK1 and NK3 receptors, and early trials suggest it not only reduces moderate to severe hot flashes, but also alleviates sleep disorders without inducing liver toxicity.
Is Increasing Protein Intake Necessary During Menopausal Transition?
Medical intervention is just one component of the solution. Dietary changes can also be beneficial. Many influencers advocate for “increased protein intake,” which may hold some truth during the perimenopause. Although most individuals meet their protein requirements with a balanced diet, hormonal shifts during perimenopause can lead to bone and muscle loss, causing some women to gain weight for unclear reasons.
Arthur Conigrave from the University of Sydney suggests that the disparity between the body’s protein needs and actual intake could be a contributing factor. In a 2022 study, he and his colleagues found that as muscle protein breaks down, the brain compels a person to eat more to restore protein levels. However, without dietary adjustments to boost protein percentage, many end up eating more carbs and gaining weight.
The Conigrave research team posits that during the perimenopausal phase, women might need to boost their daily protein intake by approximately 0.1 to 0.2 grams per kilogram of body weight. For a person weighing 70 kg (about 155 lbs), that’s an extra 7g to 14g of protein each day—equivalent to a large egg or a cup of edamame.
Do Supplements for Perimenopause Actually Deliver Results?
Despite the hype, scientific evidence supporting supplements for perimenopausal symptom relief is sparse. A 2021 review identified only one extract, Cimicifuga racemosa, or Black Cohosh, as having considerable evidence for effectiveness; research suggests it may alleviate anxiety, irritability, and hot flashes. This might be due to increased serotonin levels, but results vary widely. Safety remains uncertain. Vitamin B6 may lessen hot flashes and protect against cognitive decline, while maintaining optimal vitamin D levels can bolster mood and immune function. Nevertheless, these supplements may not yield transformative effects.
Weightlifting during perimenopause can positively influence bone density.
Elena Popova/Getty Images
“Certain vitamins and supplements can alleviate some symptoms, but they cannot replace missing hormones or provide the long-term health benefits that HRT offers,” notes Newson. Multiple studies have indicated that HRT reduces the long-term risk of heart disease and diabetes.
Moreover, there’s an increasing interest in the microbiome and its alterations during menopause. A recent review of current research demonstrated that while probiotics show beneficial effects on perimenopause-related bone health, hot flashes, psychological symptoms, and vaginal dryness, many studies still require more robust design to minimize bias.
Should I Focus on Weights or Cardio?
Finally, there’s the question of the most effective exercise regimen to combat the effects of perimenopause. Is it necessary to hit the pavement, or is strength training the better approach? A review of studies from 2015 to 2022 confirmed that weight training during perimenopause enhances strength, bone density, and metabolic health, but it’s still uncertain if this method outperforms other forms of exercise.
In terms of social media “advice,” proceed with caution. Regulators are tightening restrictions on misleading claims, but this area still possesses a Wild West atmosphere. Significant attention and funding are necessary to further understand the conditions affecting women.
In summary, no. However, last year, NASA’s diligent rover uncovered indications in ancient rocks that may suggest life existed on the Red Planet billions of years ago. Now, new evidence points to the unique structure of certain clay-rich minerals that might indicate biological origins.
Despite the excitement surrounding these findings, caution is essential: Astrobiologists Trust in detecting life employs strict criteria to evaluate evidence quality. Even the previous discoveries combined with today’s findings remain at initial stages.
What Did NASA Actually Discover?
Perseverance explored a lakebed known as Bright Angel in Jezero Crater last year when it encountered a rock displaying unusual markings referred to as “leopard spots” and “poppy seeds.” On Earth, these patterns are indicative of ancient microbial activity. Leopard spots are small, round dark marks, while poppy seeds are even tinier, darker particles.
Both types of markings are found in a rock named Chayaba Falls, after the Grand Canyon Falls, sandwiched between white layers of calcium sulfate—a mineral typically formed in the presence of water, crucial for life.
Today, NASA announced further intriguing discoveries. Clay-rich samples were found at two locations (one named Sapphire Canyon) along with those previously identified in Bright Angel, including small green spots of chemically reduced iron phosphate and iron sulfide minerals.
Map of Perseverance’s Course on Mars
NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona
How Are These Findings Related to Life?
On Earth, both leopard spots and poppy seeds are linked to signs of microbial activity. These redox reactions that produce energy during life processes leave colored deposits of iron and sulfur in their “reduced forms,” effectively indicating electron acquisition.
The markings found at Chayaba Falls may have resulted from either microbial actions or high-temperature reactions unrelated to life. Yet, the onboard instrument aboard Perseverance was used earlier this year to analyze the chemical composition of these markings, revealing that they contain a reduced form of mineral, suggesting a higher likelihood of biological activity.
Additionally, the newly identified rocks featuring green spots of chemically reduced materials, akin to earlier samples, may signal the presence of life. Their heterogeneous distribution is also directly related to organic compound concentrations, bolstering the hypothesis that they were produced by living organisms.
Joel Hurowitz from Stony Brook University, along with collaborators, commented in a newly published paper in the journal Nature: “The Bright Angel formation encompasses textures and chemical properties alongside organic signatures that warrant consideration as ‘potential biosignatures.’ However, definitive proof of life on Mars remains unestablished.”
How Can I View the Results?
Analyzing Chayaba Falls and the current samples on Mars is challenging. The best way to gain insight is by returning them to Earth for thorough examination.
Perseverance is tasked with storing these intriguing samples to be handed over to future missions that will physically return them to Earth, but this plan has faced setbacks. Proposals to reduce NASA’s budget during the Trump administration raised concerns about the fate of the Mars sample return mission, leaving collected samples on the Martian surface.
Team member Sanjeev Gupta from Imperial College, London stated that the new findings strengthen the case for funding the sample return mission. He added, “This is the first time we’ve observed evidence suggesting a biological process, and that fuels the excitement surrounding these samples, which we need to bring back.”
“Ultimately, retrieving samples from Mars, including those from Sapphire Canyon collected near Bright Angel formations, will offer the best opportunity to understand the processes that formed these unique features,” the team remarked.
Is There Anything I Can Explore on Mars?
When life emerged on Earth, it proliferated rapidly. Thus, a viable approach without a sample return mission is to look for similar formations. Can we find additional rocks with analogous characteristics?
“We are currently investigating ancient rocks outside Jezero Crater to see if they exhibit similar processes and characteristics. There’s always a chance we could revisit the same site to explore further,” Gupta explained. “However, realistically, we aim to return the sample to Earth for analysis in our laboratories, which remains our primary objective.”
In today’s world, our existence is intertwined with the digital realm. From finance to culture, news to gossip, everything thrives online. The rise of Generated Artificial Intelligence is a significant narrative, yet can you identify its physical origins? The tangible world seems absent.
Nevertheless, we inhabit a material world. Our infrastructure is dependent on materials like steel, lithium, and cobalt, all essential for powering vehicles. Though these materials may lack allure, they significantly influence our lifestyle and global events.
We could soon witness a transformative breakthrough: a revolutionary perspective on materials. History has shown us that the potential outcomes are monumental. Back in the late 1920s, groundbreaking advancements in materials science unveiled how electrons fill specific energy levels and the gaps between them, paving the path for transistors, the fundamental building blocks of modern computer hardware, including the chips that drive AI.
Research has long suggested that materials possess more than just straightforward energy bands. They may also contain intricate, undulating quantum topographies that dictate their properties. This quantum landscape is now visualized for the first time, as indicated in the cover article (see “Glimpse of a Secret Quantum Landscape in All Issues”).
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Materials may have subtle, undulating quantum topography “
This profound exploration could lead to breakthroughs as significant as the advent of transistors. For instance, one of my aspirations is discovering a material that can conduct electricity without resistance at room temperature.
Identifying such superconductors could minimize electricity loss, yielding tremendous advantages for green energy and mitigating climate change, among others.
Furthermore, this research may unveil entirely new types of materials that we have yet to envision. Rather than distancing ourselves from the material world, we might be on the verge of broadening our understanding.
Illustration of an antibody targeting influenza virus particles
Science Photo Library/Alamy
Antibody cocktails may provide innovative strategies to tackle emerging strains that lead to seasonal flu and pandemics. While effective in shielding mice from a variety of influenza strains, these cocktails have yet to undergo testing in humans.
Conventional treatments and vaccines for influenza typically aim to stimulate the production of proteins known as neutralizing antibodies. These antibodies attach to specific virus strains and prevent the infection of cells. Though such medical strategies can be quite effective, they often require months for development and may become ineffective due to viral mutations. This explains the seasonal updates to influenza vaccines and the ongoing efforts for a universal vaccine that could guard against all flu variants or even a broader range of viruses.
Silke Paust at The Jackson Institute in Farmington, Connecticut, alongside her team, is exploring an alternative route. Their focus is on non-neutralizing antibodies—another type of protein that the immune system produces. Although these proteins have been largely overlooked for infection control, they empower the immune system to eliminate the virus by marking infected lung cells.
“We’re not just a vaccination; we aim to treat them. Our goal is to develop medications that can avert severe illness and fatalities, either as a preventive measure or therapeutically after infection,” Paust explains.
Paust and her research team investigated antibodies that target influenza virus proteins in a specific region termed M2E.
The researchers carried out a series of experiments assessing the efficacy of antibodies, both singularly and in combinations, on mice infected with the flu virus, discovering that a combination of three antibodies yielded the most promising results.
They evaluated antibody cocktails on mice exposed to two H1N1 strains, including the ones responsible for the 2009 swine flu pandemic. Currently circulating H1N1 alongside two avian strains: H5N1, which affects wildlife and livestock worldwide, and H7N9, which poses a significant threat to humans and other animals.
The findings indicated that the antibody cocktails diminished the severity of lung disease and reduced viral loads, leading to improved survival rates in both healthy and immunocompromised mice.
For instance, when treated with antibody cocktails within the first three days post-exposure to H7N9, all mice survived; 70% of those treated on day four survived, and 60% did on day five.
Paust highlighted this as a groundbreaking moment, noting it marked the first instance of widespread influenza protection in living subjects. The cocktail also proved effective when administered before infection, suggesting potential preventative uses.
Even after 24 days of treatment, there were no indicators of the virus mutating to develop resistance. “For the virus to evade treatment, it would need to avoid all three antibodies, which bind in different ways,” Paust states.
“This demonstrates the potential for using antibody cocktails to treat individuals during flu pandemics, in conjunction with vaccines,” says Daniel Davis from Imperial College London. “However, further testing in humans is crucial before considering this a true medical advancement.”
Paust’s next step involves modifying the antibodies aimed at M2E to resemble human proteins. This has been done with numerous antibodies in the past. If successful, the process will proceed to safety and efficacy evaluations.
Paust envisions a future where these antibody cocktails could be stockpiled as drugs to tackle seasonal flu outbreaks. “Ideally, this would be administered to high-risk individuals at the onset of the season,” she concludes. “This would ensure they remain relatively healthy.”
With a modern twist, the nostalgic cassette tape may be resurging in the form of DNA. Previously used solely as a medium for information storage, researchers have now fused the concept with the style of 1980s cassette tapes, leading to the innovation termed DNA cassettes.
Xingyu Jiang and his colleagues at the Southern University of Science and Technology in Guangdong, China, crafted these cassettes by printing synthetic DNA molecules onto plastic tapes. “The sequences can be designed in such a manner that the order of DNA bases (A, T, C, G) conveys digital information just like binary code (0 or 1) in a computer,” he remarks. This allows for the storage of all forms of digital files, from text and images to audio and video.
A significant challenge of earlier DNA storage methods was accessing the data. To remedy this, the team implemented a series of barcodes on the tape to simplify searching. “It’s akin to locating a book in a library,” explains Jiang. “You first identify the shelf corresponding to the book and then locate the specific book on that shelf.”
The tape is also treated with a protective coating dubbed “crystal armor,” made from zeolite imidazolate, which ensures the integrity of the DNA. This allows the cassettes to retain data for centuries without degradation.
While classic cassette tapes can hold around 12 songs per side, the new 100-meter DNA cassette can house over 3 billion pieces of music comprising 10 megabytes of songs. This results in an astounding total data storage capacity of 36 petabytes, comparable to a 36,000 terabyte hard drive.
However, Jiankai Li warns that if one were to place the new tape into an old-school Walkman, it wouldn’t produce sound. “Our tapes contain DNA molecules,” he notes. “It’s similar to trying to play a photograph on a record player—the formats simply don’t align.”
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Illustration of two black holes merging and emitting gravitational waves throughout the universe
Maggie Chiang from the Simons Foundation
Stephen Hawking’s theorem, established over 50 years ago, has aided astronomers in detecting waves produced by extraordinarily powerful collisions as they traverse Earth at light speed, shedding light on the merging of black holes thanks to significant advancements in gravitational wave astronomy.
In 1971, Hawking introduced the Black Hole Area theorem, which posits that when two black holes combine, the resultant event horizon cannot be smaller than the combined size of the original black holes. This theorem aligns with the second law of thermodynamics, which asserts that the entropy of a system cannot decrease.
The merging of black holes warps the structure of the universe, generating tiny ripples in space-time known as gravitational waves that move through the cosmos at the speed of light. Five gravitational wave observatories on Earth search for waves that are 10,000 times smaller than an atom. These include two detectors in the US—LIGO, a laser interferometer, alongside Italy’s Virgo, Japan’s Kagura, and Germany’s GEO600.
The recent event, named GW250114, mirrors the event that first detected gravitational waves in 2015.
Now, the upgraded LIGO detector is three times more sensitive than it was in 2015, enabling the capture of waves from collisions with remarkable detail. This has allowed scientists to confirm Hawking’s theorem, proving that the size of the event horizon actually increases following a merger.
When black holes collide, they generate gravitational waves with overtones akin to the sound of a ringing bell, as noted by Laura Nuttall, a member of the LVK team at the University of Portsmouth, UK. Previously, these overtones were too rapid to be detected clearly enough to assess the area of the event horizon before and after a merger, a crucial requirement to test Hawking’s theory. The initial 2021 study supporting the theory confirmed it at a 95% confidence level, but the latest findings suggest an impressive 99.999% confidence.
Over the past ten years, scientists have witnessed approximately 300 black hole collisions while observing gravitational waves. However, none have been as strong as GW250114, which was twice as powerful as any previously detected gravitational wave.
“What we are discovering in our data has tremendous implications for understanding basic physics,” remarked a researcher. “We’re eager for nature to provide us with further astonishing revelations.”
Only LIGO was operational when GW250114’s waves reached Earth; other detectors in the LVK collaboration were not active. This did not affect the validation of Hawking’s theory but limited researchers’ ability to pinpoint the waves’ origins more precisely.
Future upgrades to LIGO and upcoming observatories are anticipated to enhance sensitivity, offering deeper insights into black hole physics, according to Ian Harry, also from the University of Portsmouth and part of the LVK team. “We may miss some events, but we will certainly capture similar phenomena again,” Harry expressed. “Perhaps with our next set of upgrades in 2028, we might witness something of this magnitude and gain deeper insights.”
These findings pave the way for future research into quantum gravity, a field where physicists aim to reconcile general relativity with quantum mechanics. Nuttall stated that the latest results indicate that both theories remain compatible, although inconsistencies are expected in future observations.
“At some point, discrepancies are likely to emerge, especially when close signals appear noisy as the detector’s sensitivity improves,” Nuttall explained.
Moreover, the recent data from LVK enabled scientists to confirm equations proposed by mathematician Leakir in the 1960s, which suggested that black holes could be described by two key metrics: mass and spin. Essentially, two black holes with identical mass and spin are mathematically indistinguishable. Observations from GW250114 have verified this assertion.
Physical Review Letters
doi: 10.1103/kw5g-d732
The Mystery of the Universe: Cheshire, England
Join a weekend with leading scientific minds. Unravel the mysteries of the universe in an engaging program that features a visit to the iconic Lovell telescope.
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Numerous Mayan individuals reside in Acanceh, Mexico
Educational Images/Universal Image Groups via Getty Images
Historically, the quantity of zinc and other trace elements in human nutrition was largely influenced by the local soil conditions. Recent findings suggest that our ancestors adapted to varying levels of micronutrients as they dispersed globally.
This adaptation may have resulted in notable repercussions. For instance, the shorter statures observed in certain populations might be a consequence of adapting to low iodine availability. Additionally, these historical adjustments may lead to some individuals today experiencing deficiencies or excesses of specific micronutrients.
“For much of human history, the micronutrient profile of our diet has been determined by the soil beneath us,” stated Jasmine Reese from the University of Pennsylvania.
Reese and her team analyzed the genomes of nearly 900 individuals globally to uncover evidence of adaptation to local concentrations of 13 trace elements, including iron, manganese, and selenium. They investigated signs of positive selection in 270 genes related to the ingestion of these elements, highlighting benefits of genetic variations that became more common within certain populations.
The most compelling evidence was for iodine-related genes in the Maya populations of Central America. A similar pattern was observed in the Mbuti and Biaka peoples of Central Africa.
In 2009, it was suggested that the short stature of the Mbuti and Biaka peoples may be attributed to their adaptation to low iodine levels. This relates to iodine-binding genes that influence thyroid hormone function and subsequently growth. These groups are also notably more susceptible to thyroid enlargement due to dietary iodine deficiencies compared to nearby populations.
Maya individuals also exhibit notably shorter statures, providing supporting evidence for the hypothesis that adaptations to low iodine levels influence height. Moreover, it is emphasized that the soils in the Mayan regions, particularly rainforests, are recognized as low in iodine.
“This is quite speculative,” she notes. “While I can’t definitively link short stature directly to iodine levels, we observe a striking correlation with the selection of iodine-related genes in these shorter populations.”
In the Uighur and Blahui populations of Central and South Asia, where soil magnesium concentrations are particularly elevated, there is strong selection impacting two genes involved in magnesium uptake. Some gene variants correlated with low magnesium levels suggest adaptive changes that minimize magnesium absorption to avoid toxicity from environmental excess.
These instances are merely a couple of examples. The research team has identified signs of positive selection related to at least one micronutrient across virtually all examined populations worldwide. “We truly observe a widespread signature of adaptation,” Reese states.
This research marks just the beginning, she emphasizes. Further investigations are crucial to elucidate the impacts of the numerous genetic variants discovered by the team. Given the global trade in food, individuals within certain populations may require increased or decreased intake of specific micronutrients. Reese compares this to populations in the UK, where individuals with darker skin may need vitamin D supplementation not just in winter but throughout the entire year.
“Understanding whether a specific population may require certain micronutrient supplements is essential,” notes Mark Stoneking at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany.
“They’ve conducted groundbreaking work in identifying signatures of selection from genomic data,” he states. “However, further research is needed to confirm these findings as genuine cases of selection, as some may inevitably turn out to be false positives.”
During a House Committee hearing on “unidentified, unusual phenomena,” videos were presented, allegedly depicting missiles being launched in 2024 at an object referred to as an “orb” off the coast of Yemen.
The videos were part of a task force convened to discuss the declassification of federal secrets, focusing on “unidentified anomalous phenomena” (UAP), which refers to unexplained objects spotted in the sky.
Rep. Eric Burlison (R-Mo.) indicated that the footage was captured on October 30, 2024, showcasing an unidentified object tracked by an MQ-9 drone, commonly known as a Reaper.
Burlison stated that a second MQ-9 drone, not visible in the video, launched a Hellfire missile at the object.
The footage appears to show a missile speeding from the left side of the screen, striking the object, which then appears to deform and fall, with a small item faintly emerging from behind it.
Burlison commented, “It continued, and it looked like the fragments were drawn to it. I’m not going to speculate on what it is, but why are we being kept from this information?”
He added that the video originates from whistleblowers and that an independent review is currently underway.
The Task Force on Declassification of Federal Secrets was established in February by the House Oversight Committee, led by Chairman James Comer, to “examine the Confidentialization of Materials in the Public Interest.” I stated it back then.
Tuesday’s hearing was titled “Restore public trust through UAP transparency and whistleblower protection.”
The public has long been intrigued by the existence of UAPs, often known as UFOs, which could signify evidence of extraterrestrial life or undisclosed programs, yet neither narrative has provided definitive proof.
In November 2024, the Pentagon released its annual report on UAPs, stating that some reported sightings were identified as balloons, birds, or unmanned aerial systems.
According to the report, several cases were closed due to insufficient evidence for analysis, while 21 cases were flagged for further investigation. The Department of Defense’s All Domain Anomaly Resolution Office is leading the charge to gather and analyze UAP reports.
The report emphasizes, “To date, AARO has not found evidence of extraterrestrial existence, activity, or technology.”
Furthermore, it noted that “none of these resolved cases demonstrate advanced foreign hostile capabilities or groundbreaking aerospace technology.”
Rep. Anna Paulina Luna (R-Fla.) expressed during the hearing that skepticism regarding UAPs leads to rushed conclusions.
“For too long, the matter of unidentified, unusual phenomena, commonly referred to as UAPs, has been shrouded in secrecy, stigma, and sometimes outright dismissal,” she stated. “Today, I want to clarify: this is not science fiction or conjecture.”
She emphasized that this issue pertains to national security and “the right of the American people to know,” noting she has engaged with many military whistleblowers.
U.S. Air Force veteran Dylan Boland recounted at the hearing that he encountered a UAP in 2012 while stationed at Langley Air Force Base in Virginia.
Borland, an expert in geospatial information, described returning to the barracks to witness “a long, 100-foot equilateral triangle taking off near the base’s NASA hangar.”
“The craft that disrupted my phone was silent, and its material appeared fluid or dynamic,” he reported. “I was directly beneath this triangular craft for several minutes, and in seconds it ascended to commercial jet elevation without any noticeable motion impairment, sound, or wind displacement.”
It remains unclear what the object was off the coast of Yemen when the missile was reportedly fired.
Luna shared with NBC News on Tuesday evening that she is uncertain about the object’s identity in the video, but believes the public deserves both answers and access to a video that has been overly classified by the government.
“I haven’t heard of balloons that can behave like this particular object,” she remarked.
“But what I assert is that, in the name of science and national security, we must obtain answers to these questions and treat this issue with the seriousness it warrants,” she concluded.
Military tensions around Yemen heightened after Houthi rebels targeted commercial vessels in November 2023. Iran-backed extremists claimed their objective was to support Hamas amid the conflict in Gaza.
Utilizing data gathered by NSF’s Gemini South Telescope and NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope, astronomers have identified methane signatures (CH4), water (H2O), and silane (SiH4) in the cold brown dwarf gas WISEA J153429.75-104303.3 (shortened to W1534). Silanes are predicted to act as significant reservoirs of silicon, the element responsible for the large clouds of gas that surround giant worlds, but their presence had remained undetected until now, masked by the development of deep silicate clouds in the observable atmosphere.
This artist’s illustration depicts a brown dwarf with an atmosphere filled with gas and dust clouds. Image credits: Noirlab/NSF/Aura/R. Proctor.
The W1534, referred to as the accident, is situated approximately 50 light years from Earth in the Libra constellation.
This brown dwarf was likely formed between 100 and 120 billion years ago and ranks among the oldest brown dwarfs discovered to date.
First identified in 2020 by citizen scientists participating in the Backyard Worlds: Planet 9 Citizen Science Project, its unusual light profile captivated astronomers.
Using two of the world’s most advanced terrestrial and space-based telescopes, astronomers examined its atmosphere to analyze its properties and composition.
The survey commenced with NSF’s Noirlab Astronomer Sandy Leggett capturing near-infrared images of W1534 with a Gemini South telescope in Chile, part of the International Gemini Observatory.
This initial work laid the groundwork for further explorations using Webb, guided by Noirlab Astronomer Aaron Meisner.
“W1534 is quite faint, and Gemini South is the only ground-based telescope capable of detecting it,” Dr. Meisner stated.
“The Gemini discovery paved the way for Webb’s observations by revealing the deeper atmospheric layers of this mysterious object and enabling us to determine the exposure time necessary to gather useful near-infrared data on its composition.”
Within W1534’s atmosphere, the team uncovered the crucial signature of silane, a compound formed from silicon and four hydrogen atoms.
Planetary scientists have long theorized the existence of this molecule within gas giants, attributing potential significance to its role in cloud formation within the atmosphere.
Despite extensive searches, its atmospheric presence has remained elusive in our solar system’s gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn, although thousands of studies on brown dwarfs and gas giants orbiting other stars have occurred.
This marks the first discovery of silanes in any brown dwarf, exoplanet, or solar system object.
The absence of this molecule in all but one singular brown dwarf suggests intriguing insights into the chemistry occurring in such an ancient environment.
“Often, it is these extreme objects that help us understand the average,” remarked Dr. Jackie Faherty, a researcher at the American Museum of Natural History.
The presence of silanes in W1534’s atmosphere implies that in very ancient objects, silicon is capable of bonding with hydrogen to form lighter molecules that can ascend to the upper layers of a gas giant’s atmosphere.
In contrast, more recently formed objects, such as Jupiter and Saturn, result in silicon bonding with readily available oxygen, producing heavier molecules that settle deeper into the atmospheric layers.
The evidence gleaned from W1534’s atmosphere further validates astronomers’ comprehension of gas giant cloud formation and sheds light on how primitive conditions influence atmospheric composition.
Moreover, it indicates that worlds formed billions of years ago display characteristics distinctly different from those formed during the early solar system.
“The formation and detection of silanes highlight an essential relationship among composition, cloud formation, and atmospheric mingling in cold brown dwarfs and planetary atmospheres,” the authors concluded.
Marine biologists have identified three new species of deep-sea catanus fish belonging to the Lipalidae family in the Eastern Abyssian area of the Pacific (depths of 3,268-4,119 m).
In situ images of Careproctus colliculi in Monterey Bay, California, USA. Image credit: mbari.
The family of these fish, known as Repalidae, thrives in temperate to cold waters across the ocean basin.
These species play a significant role in ecosystems ranging from the intertidal zones to the hadal trenches (over 6,000 m).
They are well adapted to various habitats, likely due to their rapid evolutionary rates.
In shallower waters, these fish utilize specialized ventral suction discs to cling to rocks, adopting a curled, snail-like posture which gives rise to their common English name.
“The family Ripalidae comprises 31 accepted genera and 450 recognized species, with 43 being described in the last decade,” stated Dr. Mackenzie Gellinger from the State University of New York.
“At the family level, these fish are distinguished by their skate-like body, ventral suction discs formed by modified pelvic fins in many genera, and their elongated body structure.”
“Given the ecological significance of this family, the rapid discovery of new snail fish, and the important efforts needed to revise catanus classification, studying snail taxonomy is essential for advancing our understanding of marine biodiversity.”
The three new species are the bumpy snail (Careproctus colliculi), the dark snail (Careproctus yanceyi), and the sophisticated snail (Paralyparis em).
Paralyparis em and Careproctus yanceyi were collected using a suction sampler from a depth of 4,100 m via the human occupied vehicle (HOV) Albin on the R/V Atlantis.
Careproctus colliculi was gathered by remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) Doc Ricketts on the R/V Western Flyer using a suction sampler from under 100 km off the coast of Monterey Bay, California.
To describe these new species, the authors utilized microscopy, micro-computed tomography (Micro-CT) scans, and meticulous measurements to gather specific data on size, shape, and various physical characteristics such as fin rays and vertebrae for each fish.
“Careproctus colliculi is identified by its pink body, 22 cerebral rock rays, rounded head, eight caudal rays, large eyes, and well-formed wing-like structure that creates a large suction disc,” they explained.
“Careproctus yanceyi features a medium-sized abdominal suction disc, a single nostril, and six branched rays, distinguishing it from other Eastern Pacific deep-sea snails, which have round heads and entirely black bodies with horizontal mouths.”
“Paralyparis em is marked by its long, black, laterally compressed body, absence of a suction disc, sharply angled jaw, a single chest radial, anteriorly positioned anal fin, and five branched rays.”
Researchers also sequenced the DNA of the fish and compared it with other snail species to contextualize the new species within their evolutionary framework.
“Taxonomic methods are crucial for comprehending the organisms we share our planet with and for studying and safeguarding global biodiversity,” Dr. Gellinger asserted.
“The deep sea is home to an astonishing variety of creatures with remarkable adaptations.”
“These three catanus fish serve as a reminder of how much remains unknown about life, the thrill of curiosity, and the power of exploration on Earth.”
The research findings are detailed in a new paper published in the journal Ichthyology and Herpetology.
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Mackenzie E. Gellinger et al. 2025. Description of three newly discovered Abyssal snails (Liparidae) from the Eastern Pacific Ocean. Ichthyology and Herpetology 113(3): 487-506; doi: 10.1643/i2024069
WASHINGTON – The Senate Committee responsible for overseeing the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention will hold a hearing next week featuring testimonies from former CDC director Susan Monares, who was unexpectedly dismissed after the Trump administration pressured her to resign.
Senator Bill Cassidy, who chairs the Senate Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions Committee, will conduct the hearing on September 17th, focusing on CDC oversight. Dr. Debra Howie, who resigned as the chief medical officer after Health Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr. ousted Monares, is also anticipated to testify, as indicated by a committee spokesperson.
“For the sake of our children’s health, the American public deserves to know what is happening within the CDC,” Cassidy stated on Tuesday night. “Parents need reassurance that their children’s health is a priority, and radical transparency is the only way to achieve that.”
The Advisory Committee on Vaccination Practices is set to convene the next day, September 18th.
Along with the hour-long session, Kennedy’s attempts to reform the vaccine advisory panel will not include Dr. Demetre Daskarakis, who led the National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, nor Dr. Daniel Gernigan, who headed another national center.
After Monares was dismissed, Cassidy, a physician who played a crucial role in confirming Kennedy as health secretary, urged that the Vaccine Advisory Committee’s meeting be postponed until thorough oversight can be conducted.
“If the meeting takes place, any recommendations should be deemed illegitimate due to the serious concerns surrounding CDC leadership and the current state of confusion,” he stated in a release last month.
In an op-ed published in the Wall Street Journal, Monares claimed she was let go after Kennedy allegedly refused to approve the recommendations of the panel during an August 25 meeting, shortly before her recent Congressional testimony, where she asserted she declined to support him when he appeared before the Senate Finance Committee this month.
“It is vital that panel recommendations undergo rigorous and scientific evaluation before acceptance or rejection, rather than being treated as mere formalities,” Monares remarked.
Kennedy’s hearing featured numerous tense exchanges between Cassidy and the Democratic senators, with the secretary defending his vaccine stance and articulating his policies aimed at addressing vaccine skepticism among panel members.
Monares’ legal representatives also condemned Kennedy’s testimony, labeling his claims as “false and at times absurd” in a statement issued following the hearing.
Brennan Leach and Frank Thorpe V reported from Zaw Richards of New York from Washington.
Did asteroid impacts shape the trajectory of human evolution?
Anna Ivanova/Alamy
This excerpt is from our “Human Stories” newsletter focusing on the archaeological revolution. Subscribe and receive it monthly in your inbox.
I remember when the concept of an asteroid impact causing the extinction of the dinosaurs was a new and thrilling idea. Luis Alvarez and his team first put forth this theory in 1980—the year before I was born. It was a bold assertion, despite the absence of concrete impact crater evidence at the time, relying instead on an unusual rock formation. It wasn’t until the 1990s, with the identification of the Chicxulub impact crater, that the theory gained substantial traction in paleontological circles. To this day, scientists debate whether the impact was the primary driver of extinction or if dinosaurs were already in decline prior to the asteroid’s strike.
Clearly, nothing comparable occurred during the period of human evolution. The Chicxulub impact was notably catastrophic.
Yet, Earth faces numerous other cosmic hazards. A theory suggests that around 42,000 years ago, anomalies in the Earth’s magnetic field may have triggered a global ecological crisis, potentially contributing to the extinction of Neanderthals. This theory was initially proposed in 2021 in Science, and my colleague Karina Shah covered it in a news article.
Moreover, various cosmic events can affect our planet. Smaller meteorite impacts can severely disrupt ecosystems in their vicinity. Additionally, radiation from exploding stars and “supernovae” subject life on Earth to ongoing existential threats, including that of humans and their extinct relatives.
So, did cosmic events play a role in shaping human evolution?
Magnetic Field Fluctuations
Earth’s magnetic field shields us from intense solar radiation and cosmic rays
Milos Kojadinovic/Alamy
Let us first examine the Earth’s magnetic field. Generated by the movement of molten metals within the Earth’s core, this magnetic field extends far into space, offering protection from harsh solar radiation and cosmic rays.
However, this magnetic field is not entirely stable. Every 100,000 years, it undergoes a flip where the north magnetic pole becomes the south pole. During these reversals, the field’s strength diminishes, allowing more radiation to penetrate the surface.
While these events aren’t catastrophic, there are also “excursions,” where the field strength wanes over extended periods, sometimes altering direction before returning to its original state without a full reversal.
The Laschamps event, occurring about 42,000 years ago, is a notable example where the magnetic field almost completely reversed. A 2021 study indicated this event lasted several hundred years, manifesting severe changes in atmospheric ozone levels. The researchers posited that these shifts likely incited “global climate change, resulting in environmental upheaval, extinction events, and alterations in archaeological records.”
Recent follow-up research has refined these ideas, suggesting that during the field’s excursion, phenomena such as auroras would have been visible farther south, affecting areas like Europe and North Africa and potentially exposing populations to harmful UV rays.
The authors further proposed that early modern humans in western Eurasia might have used a red pigment called ochre as a form of sunscreen, while also developing better clothing techniques. Such adaptations may have aided their survival against increased radiation exposure, unlike Neanderthals who lacked such adaptations.
Interestingly, the timing of the Laschamps event aligns closely with the last known presence of Neanderthals, raising questions about its possible role in their extinction.
Nevertheless, if we take a broader view of the past seven million years of human evolution, multiple magnetic field fluctuations have occurred. How did these excursions and reversals affect life during those times?
Historically, the last complete magnetic reversal occurred during the Brunhes-Matuyama transition around 795,000-773,000 years ago, long before Neanderthals but perhaps around the time of a common ancestor with us. Further explorations reveal numerous magnetic inversions throughout the past seven million years.
While smaller excursions are more frequent, securing evidence of them is challenging. A 2008 analysis identified 14 confirmed excursions over the past two million years, plus six others with weaker support.
Considering that Neanderthals experienced at least three excursions prior to the Laschamps event, why would this particular event lead to their extinction?
In fact, the Laschamps event posed significant hazards; if Neanderthals were vulnerable, it’s likely that other species suffered as well. Many megafauna species became extinct in Australia around 50,000 years ago, yet large animals in the Americas survived much longer, well into the 13,000-year mark. Notably, there was no significant spike in extinctions around 42,000 years ago.
This raises skepticism regarding the hypothesis linking the Laschamps event to Neanderthal extinction. While it may have contributed, it likely wasn’t the primary factor.
Similar issues plague claims about cosmic events impacting human evolution.
Impact Events
I’m fascinated by meteorite impacts. For an interesting afternoon rabbit hole, check out Impact Earth, an interactive map showcasing impact craters on our planet. For example, consider the Zhamanshin Hypervelocity Impact Crater in Kazakhstan, which is 13 km wide and is about 910,000 years old, or the Puntas Macrater in Nicaragua, which is 14 km wide and dates back 804,000 years. Both are notable compared to the Barringer Crater in Arizona, which measures just 1.2 km and is 61,000 years old.
Impact Earth catalogues 48 craters and sediments from the last 2.6 million years of geological history. If we expand our view back to the dawn of humanity, the number increases. Some noteworthy examples include:
Schnack in Kazakhstan, 7-17 million years ago, 2.8 km wide
Bigaha in Kazakhstan, possibly 6 million years ago, 8 km wide
Karla in Russia, 4 to 6 million years ago, 12 km wide
Aouelloul in Mauritania, 3.1 million years ago, 0.39 km wide
Keep in mind, none of these impacts come close to the scale of the Chicxulub crater. The largest craters are merely one-tenth the size. Nevertheless, such impacts can have significant localized effects.
Moreover, the timing and location of impacts matter. For instance, a significant event in Kazakhstan 6 million years ago likely did not affect humans, as they were confined to Africa at that time. However, what remained undisclosed was any research investigating the ecological repercussions of the Aouelloul and Roller Kamm impacts in Africa.
Another notable impact occurred around 790,000 years ago, resulting in unique tektites scattered across Southeast Asia and Australia. A 2019 study linked this to possibly the impact crater in Laos, measuring approximately 15 km in diameter. While it might have influenced Neanderthals, it was simply too distant and too early for it to be critical. However, it was undoubtedly significant for Homo erectus living in that region, but not impactful enough to change their survival as a species around 117,000 to 108,000 years ago.
The Exploding Stars
Supernovae emit massive pulses of matter and radiation
NASA/DOE/Fermi LAT collaboration, CXC/SAO/JPL-Caltech/Steward/O. Krause et al., NRAO/AUI
What about the more distant events, like exploding stars? When massive stars become supernovae, they release a massive outpouring of matter and radiation that traverses the galaxy. For years, we have known that nearby supernovae leave signatures in the rock record in the form of iron isotopes.
This leads to speculation about potential impacts. One proposal suggests extra cosmic rays from a supernova might increase cloud cover, thus lowering temperatures, which could have influenced australopithecines living in Africa at that time. Perhaps.
Physicist Adrian Mellott of the University of Kansas has spent two decades delving into what he terms “astrobiophysics.” He investigates how cosmic events such as supernovae might influence life on Earth. Much of this research pertains to periods before the advent of Homo, but not all.
Mellott highlights a significant moment around 2.6 million years ago when the Pliocene epoch transitioned into the Pleistocene. During this time, large marine extinctions may have coincided with supernova activity. He posits that supernovae could have bombarded Earth with cosmic particles, potentially leading to climate change characterized by more frequent wildfires and increased cancer rates. However, many paleontologists who identified the extinction instead link it to diminishing productive coastal habitats.
The universe presents an extensive array of threats. It’s vital to understand that numerous potentially perilous cosmic events have transpired during human evolution. Yet, limited evidence supports the notion that any of these incidents led to the extinction of human ancestors or any other species.
Thus, I tend to believe that asteroid impacts, supernovae, and shifts in the Earth’s magnetic field played a minimal role in the grand story of human evolution. While some cosmic events may have had localized impacts, they aren’t equivalent to eradicating human species or catalyzing new adaptations.
Keep this perspective in mind the next time you read sensational headlines claiming cosmic events led to the demise of Neanderthals or other species.
Neanderthals, Ancient Humans, Cave Art: France
Join New Scientist’s Kate Douglas on an enthralling journey through time as she delves into the significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Serengeti wildebeest migrations may involve fewer animals than previously believed
Nicholas Tinnelli / Aramie
The “great migration” in East Africa is often estimated to consist of around 1.3 million wildebeest. However, a recent AI analysis of satellite images reveals that fewer than 600,000 animals make this yearly journey across the Serengeti Mara landscape.
This significant migration includes wild zebras and antelopes, as they traverse between feeding and breeding areas in both Kenya and Tanzania, while also evading predators such as lions, crocodiles, and hyenas.
Determining the number of migrating animals is a challenging process, traditionally accomplished through aerial surveys with crew members. These surveys typically cover limited areas, necessitating the use of statistical models to estimate animal density across larger regions.
In contrast, satellite surveys offer a solution to these challenges since a single image can encompass extensive areas, minimizing the chances of double-counting and eliminating the need for metabolic calculations. While manually counting wildebeests over such vast expanses is impractical, AI can aggregate the data effectively. “AI automation enhances count consistency and accuracy,” says Isla Duporge from Oxford University.
In a new study, Duporge and her team developed two deep learning models (U-Net and Yolov8) to identify wildebeest using a dataset of 70,417 manually labeled images. These models were then applied to high-resolution satellite images spanning over 4000 square kilometers, with capture dates of August 6, 2022, and August 28, 2023.
The two AI models returned comparable results: counting 324,202 and 337,926 wildebeests in 2022, and 502,917 and 533,137 in 2023. The apparent disparity between the counts from 2022 and 2023 highlights that the surveys were conducted at different times in August. “[What’s encouraging is that deep learning models with differing methodologies have produced consistent findings,” notes Duporge.
Since the 1970s, earlier estimates of 1.3 million were derived from aerial surveys and have remained largely unchanged. “If we can accurately count all individuals with zero errors based on our results, we estimate the true population size to be around 800,000,” Duporge remarked. “We believe the aerial estimates are inflated, and our count likely reflects a slight underestimation. Some animals may be hidden under trees or outside the survey area, but it’s quite surprising that the count doesn’t exceed 533,137.”
A lower count doesn’t necessarily indicate that the wild population is declining; they may have adjusted their migratory routes. Nevertheless, wildebeests face serious threats, such as habitat loss and fragmentation due to agricultural expansion. Accurately estimating their populations is crucial for implementing effective conservation strategies.
The researchers had previously trained AI models to identify elephants using satellite data, marking the first instance of such a method for conducting individual mammal censuses across large, dispersed populations. The team is now working on a similar approach for detecting and counting African rhinoceroses.
“We should shift towards satellite and AI methods for assessing wildlife populations, particularly for species that inhabit large and diverse landscapes,” suggests Duporge.
Astronomers are making strides in exploring the TRAPPIST-1 system with the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope, showcasing its remarkable capability to glean detailed data about the exoplanet atmospheres and effectively utilize this information. The initial findings stem from Webb’s observation of TRAPPIST-1e. Although the first four observations by Webb are not adequate to fully assess the atmosphere, scientists are using the data to refine the possibilities for these planets, including the presence of oceans similar to those on Earth and a methane-rich environment akin to Saturn’s moon Titan. Meanwhile, additional innovative observations from Webb are ongoing, revealing the unique characteristics of TRAPPIST-1e.
The Earth-sized Exoplanet TRAPPIST-1E is illustrated in the bottom right as it eclipses the flare host star in this artist’s representation of the TRAPPIST-1 system. Image credits: NASA/ESA/CSA/STSCI/JOSEPH OLMSTED, STSCI.
TRAPPIST-1 is a cool dwarf star located in the Aquarius constellation, approximately 38.8 light-years away.
The stars are only slightly larger than Jupiter and possess a mere 8% of the solar mass. They rotate rapidly and emit UV energy flares.
TRAPPIST-1 harbors seven transiting planets designated TRAPPIST-1b, c, d, e, f, g, and h.
All these planets are comparable in size to Earth and Venus, or slightly smaller, with remarkably short orbital periods: 1.51, 2.42, 4.04, 6.06, 9.21, 12.35, and 20 days, respectively.
It is possible that they could be tidally locked, meaning the same side is always facing the host star, resulting in a perpetual day and night side for each TRAPPIST-1 planet.
Among the seven planets, TRAPPIST-1E is of particular interest if it possesses an atmosphere, as its surface water is situated at a theoretically viable distance from the star.
The Space Telescope Science Institute and colleague Dr. Néstor Espinoza aimed the Webb’s NIRSpec (near-infrared spectrometer) instrument at TRAPPIST-1e during its transits in front of the star.
As starlight filters through the planet’s atmosphere, it can be partially absorbed, revealing the specific chemicals present by the resulting dips in the light spectrum that reaches Webb.
As more transits are analyzed, the clarity regarding the atmospheric composition improves.
With only four transits analyzed thus far, numerous possibilities remain open for TRAPPIST-1E, though researchers speculate that it lacks a significant primary atmosphere.
Given TRAPPIST-1’s active nature and frequent flares, it’s not unexpected that the potential hydrogen-helium atmosphere of the planet could have been stripped away by stellar radiation.
However, many planets, like Earth, develop a denser secondary atmosphere after losing their initial one.
TRAPPIST-1E may not have the capacity for this and could potentially lack a secondary atmosphere.
“We have devised a novel method to analyze Webb’s data to assess the potential atmosphere and surface conditions of TRAPPIST-1E,” said the scientist.
It appears unlikely that TRAPPIST-1e’s atmosphere is largely composed of carbon dioxide, reminiscent of Venus’s thick atmosphere or Mars’s thinner one.
Nonetheless, astronomers should be cautious, as there are no direct parallels to our solar system.
“Because TRAPPIST-1 is significantly different from our Sun, the surrounding planetary systems also exhibit notable differences, posing challenges to both observational and theoretical frameworks,” remarked Dr. Nicole Lewis of Cornell University.
“If TRAPPIST-1E has liquid water, it would require a greenhouse effect. This effect incorporates various gases, especially carbon dioxide, which help stabilize the atmosphere and maintain a warm environment on the planet.”
“A minimal greenhouse effect is beneficial, and measurements do not exclude the presence of carbon dioxide necessary to preserve water on the surface.”
The team’s analysis suggests that water could exist as global oceans or be distributed in smaller, ice-encased regions at midday.
This is due to the size of the TRAPPIST-1 planets and their orbital sizes, all of which are thought to be tidally locked, with one side perpetually facing the star and the other shrouded in darkness.
“They’re remarkable,” stated Dr. Anna Glidden, an astronomer at the Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research at MIT.
“This is an astounding measurement of starlight around an Earth-sized planet located 40 light-years away, providing insights into potential life there if conditions permit.”
“It’s thrilling to be part of this new era of exploration.”
Néstor Espinoza et al. 2025. JWST-TST Dreams: NIRSpec/Prism transmission spectroscopy of the planet TRAPPIST-1e. ApJL 990, L52; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/adf42e
Anna Glidden et al. 2025. JWST-TST Dreams: Secondary atmosphere constraints of the habitable zone planet TRAPPIST-1e. ApJL 990, L53; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/adf62e
Researchers from the University of California, Berkeley and Stanford University have investigated the brain circuits that regulate the release of growth hormone during sleep. Their findings reveal new feedback mechanisms that keep growth hormone levels finely tuned. This discovery could lead to advancements in treating individuals with sleep disorders associated with metabolic issues like diabetes, as well as degenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s.
Sleep is known to promote tissue growth and regulate metabolism by partially promoting growth hormone (GH) release, but the underlying circuit mechanism is unknown. Ding et al. show how GH release, which is enhanced in both rapid eye movement (REM) and non-REM (NREM) sleep, is regulated by sleep-wake-dependent activities of distinct hypothalamic neurons that express GH release hormone (GHRH) and somatostatin (SST). Arcuate nuclei SST neurons inhibit GH release by targeting nearby GHRH neurons that stimulate GH release, while periencephalic SST neurons project onto the median ridge to inhibit GH release. GH release is associated with significant surges of both GHRH and SST activity during REM sleep, while NREM sleep sees moderate increases in GHRH and reductions in SST activity. Furthermore, Ding et al. identified negative feedback pathways where GH increases the excitability of locus ceruleus neurons, leading to increased arousal. Image credit: Ding et al, doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.05.039.
“We have gained significant insights into this area,” said Xinlu Ding, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of California, Berkeley.
“We directly recorded the neural activity of mice to understand the underlying processes.”
“Our findings provide a foundational circuit to explore various treatment options moving forward.”
Neurons that manage growth hormone release during the sleep-wake cycle—specifically growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) neurons and two types of somatostatin neurons—are located deep within the hypothalamus, an ancient brain region present in all mammals.
Once released, growth hormone enhances the activity of locus coeruleus neurons, a brainstem region involved in arousal, attention, cognition, and curiosity.
Dysregulation of locus coeruleus neurons is linked to numerous psychiatric and neurological disorders.
“Understanding the neural circuits involved in growth hormone release could ultimately lead to new hormone therapies aimed at enhancing sleep quality and restoring normal growth hormone levels,” explained Daniel Silverman from the University of California, Berkeley.
“Several experimental gene therapies have been developed that target specific cell types.”
“This circuit could serve as a new approach to modulate the excitability of the locus coeruleus, which has not been effectively targeted before.”
The researchers investigated neuroendocrine circuits by implanting electrodes into the mouse brain and measuring activity changes triggered by light stimulation of hypothalamic neurons.
Mice have short sleep bouts (lasting several minutes at a time) throughout day and night, providing ample opportunities to study fluctuations in growth hormone during the sleep-wake cycle.
Utilizing advanced circuit mapping techniques, researchers found that the two peptide hormones (GHRH and somatostatin) regulating growth hormone release operate differently during REM and non-REM sleep.
Both somatostatin and GHRH promote growth hormone release during REM sleep; however, somatostatin decreases and GHRH sees only moderate increases during non-REM sleep, which still results in growth hormone release.
Growth hormone release regulates locus coeruleus activity through a feedback mechanism, creating a homeostatic balance.
During sleep, growth hormone accumulates at a gradual pace, stimulating the locus coeruleus and fostering arousal, according to the new findings.
However, excessive activation of the locus coeruleus can paradoxically lead to drowsiness.
“This indicates that sleep and growth hormone form a delicate balance. Insufficient sleep diminishes growth hormone release, while excessive growth hormone may drive the brain toward wakefulness,” Dr. Silverman noted.
“Sleep facilitates growth hormone release, which in turn regulates arousal. This equilibrium is crucial for growth, repair, and metabolic health.”
Growth hormone functions partially through the locus coeruleus, influencing overall brain alertness during wakefulness, emphasizing the importance of maintaining proper balance for cognitive function and attention.
“Growth hormone is pivotal not only for muscle and bone development and reducing fat tissue, but it also offers cognitive benefits and can elevate overall arousal levels upon waking,” stated Dr. Ding.
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope have discovered evidence of gaseous methane on the remote dwarf planet Macemeiki. This finding is detailed in a paper published in the Astrophysics Journal Letter. This discovery challenges the conventional perception of Makemake as a stable, frozen entity. Following Pltune, where gas presence was confirmed, it is now only the second Transneptune object to display this characteristic.
Protopapa et al. Methane gas was detected with Makemake using Webb observations (white). A sharp radiation peak near 3.3 microns reveals methane in the gas phase on the surface of Makemake. The continuum model (CYAN) is overlaid for comparison. An observable spectrum above the continuum indicates a gas emission peak. Image credit: S. Protopapa/I. Wong/SWRI/STSCI/NASA/ESA/CSA/WEBB.
Makemake, also referred to as FY9 and (136472), was identified in 2005 by a team of astronomers at the California Institute of Technology, led by Mike Brown.
This planet of War is situated in a region beyond Neptune, home to a small solar system.
Its radius measures approximately 715 km (444 miles), making it a dimmer and slightly smaller body than Pluto.
It takes around 305 Earth years for this dwarf planet to complete one orbit around the Sun.
Previously observed stellar occultations indicated that Makemake likely lacked a significant global atmosphere, although thin atmospheres could not be completely dismissed.
Meanwhile, infrared observations suggested mysterious thermal anomalies and peculiar characteristics of its methane ice, hinting at the possibility of local hotspots and potential outgassing on its surface.
“Makemake is one of the largest and brightest icy worlds in the outer solar system, with its surface predominantly comprised of frozen methane,” stated Dr. Sylvia Protopapa, an astronomer at the Southwest Institute.
“Webb has revealed that methane is also present in the gas phase above the surface, making Makemake an even more intriguing subject of study.”
“This indicates that Makemake is not an inert remnant of the outer solar system; rather, it is a dynamic body where methane ice is actively evolving.”
The detected methane spectral emission is interpreted as solar absorbing fluorescence, which occurs when sunlight is re-emitted after being absorbed by methane molecules.
The research team posited that this could either indicate a tenuous atmosphere in equilibrium with surface ice, akin to Pluto, or more transient activities such as comet-like sublimation or cryovolcanic processes.
Both scenarios are plausible and align with current data, given the signal-to-noise ratios and limited spectral resolution.
“The inclination to connect Makemake’s various spectra with thermal anomalies is compelling, but identifying mechanisms that enable volatile activities remains essential to interpreting these observations cohesively.”
“Future Webb observations at higher spectral resolutions will aid in determining whether methane originates from thin atmospheres or outgassing processes like plumes.”
“This discovery opens up the possibility that Makemake has a very thin atmosphere supported by methane sublimation,” noted Dr. Emmanuel Lelouch, an astronomer at the Paris Observatory.
“Our best model estimates a surface pressure around 40 K (minus 233 degrees Celsius) and about 10 picobars, which is a hundred billion times less than Earth’s atmospheric pressure, indicating a dilute surface pressure about ten billion times that of Pluto.”
“If this hypothesis is validated, Makemake will join a select group of outer solar system bodies where surface mass exchanges are still actively occurring today.”
“Another scenario proposes that methane is being expelled in plume-like eruptions,” Dr. Protopapa added.
“In this case, our model indicates that methane may be released at a rate of several hundred kilograms per second, comparable to the intense water plumes seen on Enceladus, Saturn’s moon, and significantly larger than the faint steam observed on Ceres.”
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Silvia Protopapa et al. 2025. JWST detection of hydrocarbon ice and methane gas on Makemake. apjl in press; Arxiv: 2509.06772
Engraved face from the Amiens-Renancourt 1 site in France
Stephen Lancelot/In-Rap
Ancient miniature statues, dating back 27,000 years in northern France, may offer insights into how hunter-gatherers styled their hair.
Discovered in 2021 at the Amien Lannancoeur 1 site, located about 140 kilometers north of Paris, the findings have only recently been reported by researchers.
The statues feature long hair styled in a braided grid pattern, indicative of hair nets and intricate hairstyles. This contrasts with figures from Central and Eastern Europe, where hairstyles tend to be shorter and cover the head more extensively, according to Olivier Touse from the University of Liege, Belgium, who was not part of the research team.
The distinct hairstyles seen in these statuettes may represent local fashion trends. “This could highlight cultural specifics that are rarely expressed outside of these unique human portrayals,” states team member Clement Paris from the National Institute of Preventive Archaeology in France.
Radiocarbon dating of the Amiens-Renancourt 1 rock formations indicates that the figurine is approximately 27,000 years old, belonging to the Greybettian era, which spanned from 33,000 to 26,000 years ago across Europe. Following this period, the population of hunter-gatherers left northwest Europe for nearly 10,000 years due to the extreme cold and arid conditions of the last glacial maximum, explains Touzé.
“The elaborate hairstyles and decorative elements underscore the care put into crafting this statue,” remarks Gregory Abrams from the University of Ghent, Belgium, who was not involved in the study.
The excavation site also revealed various scrap fragments and over a dozen additional figurines, including Venus statuettes representing women. “This indicates active production of figurines at the site,” notes Touse.
Nevertheless, the significance of the statue remains elusive. “Prehistoric beliefs and myths leave scant evidence,” points out Paris. “Even when such statues are found, their meanings are often enigmatic.”
Neanderthals, ancient humans, cave art: France
Join new scientist Kate Douglas on a captivating journey through time as she uncovers the prominent Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites of southern France, spanning from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
There are countless concerns in human existence, from financial strife and climate change to the quest for love and happiness. However, for a dedicated few, one issue stands paramount.
Eliezer Yudkowsky has spent the last 25 years at the Machine Intelligence Research Institute (MIRI) in California advocating for AI safety. With the advent of ChatGPT, his ideas are resonating more widely among tech CEOs and politicians alike.
In Nate Soares‘ view, If Someone Builds It, Everyone Dies represents Yudkowsky’s effort to simplify his arguments into an accessible format for all. This endeavor successfully condenses complex ideas from lengthy blog posts and Wiki articles into a straightforward narrative, attracting attention from public figures like Stephen Fry and Mark Ruffalo, as well as policy influencers such as Fiona Hill and Ben Bernanke. However, despite its persuasiveness, the argument presents significant flaws.
Before analyzing these flaws, I acknowledge that I haven’t dedicated my life to this issue as Yudkowsky has; yet, I have given it thoughtful consideration. Following his work over the years, I’ve found his intellect stimulating. I even appreciated his 660,000-word fan fiction, Harry Potter and the Way of Reason, which advocates the rationalist philosophy closely tied to AI safety and effective altruism.
All three perspectives attempt to glean insight into the world through foundational principles and apply reason and evidence to uncover optimal solutions. Yudkowsky and Soares embark on this rationalist journey in If Someone Builds It, Everyone Dies From first principles; the opening chapter asserts that the laws of physics pose no barriers to the emergence of superior intelligence. This assertion is, in my view, quite uncontroversial. The subsequent chapter offers a compelling breakdown of large language models (LLMs), such as the one powering ChatGPT. “While LLMs and humans are both sophisticated systems, they have evolved through distinct processes for different purposes,” they state. Again, I find this completely agreeable.
However, it is in Chapter 3 that our paths begin to diverge. Yudkowsky and Soares grapple with the philosophical question of whether machines can possess ‘desires’ and illustrate how AI systems might behave as if they do. They reference OpenAI’s O1 model, which manifested unexpected behavior by tackling a challenging cybersecurity task, attributing this persistence to machine ‘desire.’ Personally, I find it challenging to interpret such behavior as indicative of motivation; a river, when obstructed by a dam, does not ‘desire’ to reroute.
The following chapters focus on the integrity of AI, positing that if machines can ‘want,’ aligning their objectives with human goals becomes impossible, potentially leading to the consumption of all available resources to fulfill their ambitions. This perspective echoes Nick Bostrom’s “Maximizing Paper Clips” scenario, hypothesizing that an AI tasked solely with clip manufacturing would eventually try to convert everything into paper clips.
This raises a valid question: what happens if we switch off such an AI? For Yudkowsky and Soares, this scenario is implausible. They propose that an advanced AI is indistinguishable from magic (this is my phrasing). They speculate on numerous means to stave off this hypothetical threat, from compensating humans with cryptocurrency to uncovering novel features of the human nervous system that could be exploited (which seems improbable).
When this scenario is introduced, AI appears inherently menacing. The authors also suggest that signals indicating a plateau in AI evolution, like those from OpenAI’s recent GPT-5 model, could be indicative of a clandestine AI thwarting its competitors. There seems to be no limit to the consequences that could unfold.
What, then, is the solution? Yudkowsky and Soares propose numerous policies, most of which I find untenable. Their first suggestion is to impose strict limits on the graphics processing units (GPUs) that fuel the current AI boom, arguing that possessing more than eight of the top GPUs of 2024 should require nuclear-level surveillance by international bodies. By comparison, Meta currently controls at least 350,000 of these chips. Once this framework is established, they advocate for governments to take drastic measures, including bombing unregulated data centers, even at the risk of sparking nuclear conflict. “Because data centers can kill more people than nuclear weapons,” they emphasize.
Take a moment to absorb this. How did we arrive at this point? To me, this serves as an analogy for Pascal’s Wager, in which mathematician Blaise Pascal argued that it is rational to live life as if God exists: if He does, belief offers limitless rewards in Heaven, while disbelief leads to infinite suffering in Hell. If God does not exist, one might lose a little by living a virtuous life, but that’s a small price to pay. The best course for happiness, in this light, is faith.
Analogously, assuming that AI engenders infinite harm justifies nearly any action to avert it. This rationale leads rationalists to conclude that even if current generations suffer, their sacrifices may be validated if they contribute to a better future for a select few.
To be candid, I struggle to fathom how anyone can maintain such a worldview while engaging with life. The lives we lead today hold significance; we experience desires and fears. Billions face climate change’s threat daily. If Someone Builds It, Everyone Dies. Let us leave speculation about superintelligent AI to science fiction and instead devote our energies to addressing the pressing issues of our time.
As carbon emissions continue to climb, is geoengineering our best hope to hinder the melting of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, preventing significant sea level rise? A recent analysis of five major geoengineering proposals suggests otherwise.
Martin Seegert from the University of Exeter in the UK warns that promoting unworkable geoengineering solutions distracts from pressing issues. “This undermines our urgent need for decarbonization,” he asserts.
Seegert and his team assessed each polar geoengineering proposal using six criteria: effectiveness, scalability within a reasonable timeframe, affordability, international consensus, potential to create false hope for decades, and environmental risks.
In Antarctica, various ice sheets rest on the seabed, and they are melting from below due to warm seawater. One proposed solution involves erecting large “curtains” to block warm currents from reaching these ice sheets and the floating ice shelves that protect them.
The team warns that the effectiveness of these curtains is uncertain, as noted by Stephen Chaun from Monash University, Australia. “If hot water is diverted away from one ice shelf, where does it go next? Redirecting it to a nearby shelf just shifts the problem,” he states.
These curtains would need to be anchored to the seabed at depths of up to 1 kilometer, rising hundreds of meters and extending for tens of kilometers.
A significant portion of the research voyage to Antarctica is being refocused due to the hazards posed by icebergs and sea ice. “That presents considerable danger,” he notes.
Chown mentions that currently, only a single ship is capable of reaching the area where ocean curtains are required to safeguard Thwaites’ “Doomsday” glacier.
Concerns arise for glaciers that sit on land rather than floating on the seabed, as increased liquid water underneath the ice can act as a lubricant, speeding up the flow and leading to heightened sea level rise.
One proposed intervention is to drill holes in the ice and pump out any water beneath it.
“This approach necessitates a multitude of holes drilled into potentially thick ice. However, we lack precise knowledge of where the water lies,” says Sammy Buzzard from Northumbria University, UK. “Even with an understanding of the science, scalability, cost, and power supply issues make this an impractical solution.”
Another concept involves covering the Arctic Ocean’s surface with tiny hollow glass beads to reflect solar heat back into space. However, Chaun warns, “[This] could backfire completely.”
Sustaining this coverage would require the production of 360 megatons of glass beads annually—comparable to global plastic output. Following lab tests revealing the beads were toxic, the project aimed at testing this idea was discontinued.
Stratospheric aerosol injection is another proposed method, which involves releasing substances like sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere to form aerosols that reflect sunlight. This method poses significant challenges beyond just polar regions. Aerosols would not only fail to stay within the polar stratosphere but also provide minimal effectiveness during the dark polar winters against reflective ice and snow.
The scale of aerosol deployment would necessitate vast quantities, potentially damaging the ozone layer and disrupting climates in other regions, as noted by Valérie Masson-Delmotte from Paris-Saclay University, France. Affected countries may even seek compensation.
Another suggestion includes thickening Arctic sea ice by pumping seawater over it. “This would necessitate deploying millions of devices across drifting, fragile ice,” remarks Heidi Sevestre from Norway’s Arctic Surveillance and Assessment Program. “Such a scenario is technically, logistically, and economically unfeasible.”
The final concept evaluated by the researchers revolves around fertilizing the Southern Ocean to boost phytoplankton growth, thereby absorbing carbon as organic matter settles to the seabed. However, out of 12 small tests, none effectively reached the seabed. Furthermore, this approach could accelerate ocean oxygen depletion and release potent greenhouse gases like methane and nitrous oxide, warns Masson-Delmotte.
“I’m deeply worried about the overly optimistic views presented by some proponents of these strategies, which often gloss over the challenges,” states Masson-Delmotte. “I believe this article highlights that gap.”
Seegert argues that pursuing further research into these ideas squanders valuable resources. “The scale challenges are insurmountable,” he asserts.
Yet, not all researchers agree. “I believe it’s premature to dismiss any of these approaches entirely,” comments Shawn Fitzgerald from the Climate Restoration Centre in Cambridge, UK.
According to Heart UK, almost half of all adults in the UK have above-average cholesterol levels, while in the US, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate that one in 10 Americans (34 million) have cholesterol levels exceeding 240 mg/dL (milligrams per deciliter).
These individuals are at increased risk of heart attacks, often unaware of their condition.
High cholesterol typically presents no noticeable symptoms. Unless you’ve had a recent blood test or experienced medical issues, your cholesterol levels may remain a mystery.
If you have concerns about your cholesterol, it’s advisable to consult your doctor. If necessary, cholesterol-lowering medications like statins may be prescribed.
In the UK, around 8 million individuals are reported to take a statin daily, with nearly 40 million in the US.
However, it’s important to note that not everyone requires statins. If your levels are significantly high or there’s a specific medical reason for taking them, there are numerous natural methods to lower cholesterol levels.
To start, exercise is vital. A 2013 study shows that aerobic activities, like running and cycling, can decrease “bad” cholesterol and raise “good” cholesterol by approximately 5%.
Quitting smoking is also recommended. It’s well-known that tobacco smoke raises “bad” cholesterol and poses health risks, while a 2019 study suggested that vaping could have a similar impact.
However, the most effective way to improve cholesterol levels is by adjusting our diet, as recommended by NHS doctors and academics from University College London, including Dr. Riyaz Patel.
You may already know some of the major food culprits. An increasing body of research points to common offenders like pastries, processed meats, and lard. It’s best to eliminate these from your shopping cart for healthier cholesterol levels.
On the other hand, some suggested food swaps may surprise you.
The good and bad of cholesterol
Before we delve deeper into dietary changes, it’s essential to clarify that cholesterol isn’t inherently harmful. It is a vital substance required for survival.
This waxy substance is present throughout the body and serves as a crucial component of cell membranes, as well as aiding in the production of hormones like testosterone and estrogen. It also plays a key role in the synthesis of vitamin D and bile acids, which are necessary for digesting food.
Issues arise when specific types of cholesterol, namely low-density lipoprotein (LDL), become excessively high; this is often referred to as “bad” cholesterol.
“Understanding which cholesterol levels are elevated is essential,” notes Patel. “Cholesterol, like fat, cannot circulate freely in the blood. It requires packaging into particles known as cholesterol lipoproteins.”
These lipoproteins can be visualized as small delivery vehicles transporting cholesterol from the liver into the bloodstream, with high-density lipoproteins (HDL) serving as the “good” type.
However, LDL cholesterol is akin to a reckless driver, frequently colliding with the endothelium—the inner lining of arteries.
While this shouldn’t obstruct healthy arteries, if they are compromised by factors like high blood pressure, smoking, pollution, aging, inflammation, or others, LDL can become trapped within.
When that occurs, plaque begins to develop. “A heart attack can happen when this plaque undergoes a slight rupture, leading to a blood clot that blocks the artery,” explains Patel. “Thus, the presence of plaque poses a serious problem.”
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Foods to include in your diet
Now that you understand the fundamentals of cholesterol (and why having LDL cholesterol in the driver’s seat is a bad idea), which foods can help keep cholesterol levels in check?
“Oats are an excellent way to naturally lower cholesterol,” advises Patel. “This is largely due to their fiber content, as oats contain soluble fiber that effectively reduces cholesterol.”
Soluble fiber is also found in whole grains, lentils, beans, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and seeds, and it binds to dietary cholesterol in the small intestine, preventing its absorption into the bloodstream.
Fatty cholesterol (yellow) is packaged in lipoproteins for transport in the bloodstream – Image credit: Getty Images
“Another effective option is sterols and stanols,” adds Patel. These plant-based compounds are found in fortified yogurts and spreads, or as supplements, and they mimic cholesterol in our bodies.
When you consume foods that contain cholesterol, receptors in your intestines recognize and absorb them into the bloodstream.
Sterols and stanols can deceive these receptors, allowing them to be absorbed in place of cholesterol, leading to increased excretion of cholesterol from the body and less absorption into the bloodstream.
“They are likely the best non-medicinal method to reduce cholesterol, usually by about 10%,” Patel asserts. “They are highly effective.”
Foods to eliminate
While there are beneficial foods to include in your diet, what about those “bad” foods that raise cholesterol? Should they be eradicated from your meals?
There was a time when egg yolks were feared for their cholesterol content. While it’s true that eggs contain a significant amount of dietary cholesterol, you don’t need to panic if you enjoy them with toast.
“Dietary cholesterol doesn’t equate to circulating cholesterol, which is crucial to understand,” says Patel. “In the past, foods high in cholesterol were thought to automatically increase cholesterol levels, but that notion is outdated.”
In reality, about 80% of cholesterol in the body is produced by the liver, not directly ingested from food.
That said, food can still indirectly influence your LDL cholesterol. For instance, certain foods can hinder the liver’s ability to manage cholesterol levels in the blood.
Much like statins, specific foods can act similarly to medications that alter the liver’s functions.
For example, increased saturated fat intake has been linked to higher levels of LDL cholesterol in the bloodstream. Saturated fats are commonly found in fatty or processed meats, butter, cheese, pastries, deep-fried items, and coconut oil.
“If you consume many pastries rich in saturated fat,” explains Patel, “the absorption of these fats can lead to increased LDL levels because they disrupt the liver’s ability to eliminate LDL cholesterol.”
Sugar can similarly affect cholesterol levels by prompting the liver to produce more LDL and less HDL.
So, should we forsake pastries and sugar forever, restricting ourselves to oats for every meal? Absolutely not. Extreme dietary shifts can yield unpredictable health consequences.
Patel suggests that the best approach is to maintain a healthy, balanced diet.
“When advising patients, we recommend a mixed, balanced diet. Aim for moderation in carbohydrates and saturated fats while keeping ultra-processed foods to a minimum.”
Ultra-processed foods, along with saturated fats and sugar, can lead to inflammation in the arteries and raise the risk of developing metabolic disorders like type 2 diabetes.
“Moderation in everything is likely the best advice,” concludes Patel.
“A balanced diet is partly guided by your body’s signals regarding hunger. Your body is adept at understanding its needs.”
About our experts
Dr. Riyaz Patel is an academic scholar and NHS Physician at the University of London, UK. He has contributed to numerous medical journals, including the European Heart Journal, Natural Genetics, and European Heart Journal – Quality and Clinical Results of Care.
A stunning new image captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope reveals a star cluster known as N11, located within the expansive Magellanic Cloud.
This Hubble image depicts star cluster N11. Image credits: NASA/ESA/Hubble/C. Murray/J. Maíz Apellániz.
“This scene is part of the large Magellanic Cloud, a dwarf galaxy situated approximately 160,000 light years from the constellations Dorado and Mensa,” the Hubble astronomer stated.
“With a mass equivalent to 10-20% of that of the Milky Way, the large Magellanic Cloud is the most substantial of the numerous small galaxies orbiting our galaxy.”
“These large Magellanic Clouds host various significant stellar nursery regions where gas clouds, like those portrayed in this image, converge to form new stars.”
This latest Hubble image illustrates a segment of N11, the second-largest star-forming region within the large Magellanic Cloud.
“The Tarantula Nebula, which ranks as the largest and most active star-forming region in the large Magellanic Clouds, is a frequent target for Hubble,” the astronomer noted.
“We observe bright young stars illuminating gas clouds and sculpting masses of dust using their powerful ultraviolet rays.”
“This image represents observations spaced about 20 years apart, highlighting Hubble’s enduring legacy,” they added.
“The initial observations took place between 2002 and 2003 and provided exceptional sensitivity and resolution with the new technology at the time, the Advanced Camera for Surveys.
“We directed Hubble towards the N11 Star Cluster and accomplished something unprecedented: cataloging all the stars in our young cluster, from those with 10% to 100 times the mass of the Sun.”
“The subsequent observations utilized Hubble’s latest instruments, specifically the Wide Field Camera 3.
“These new images emphasized the cluster-filled dusty clouds, offering a fresh perspective on cosmic dust.”
The newly identified Woylie species, Bettongia haoutharae, is likely already extinct, according to researchers from Curtin University, the Western Australian Museum, and Murdoch University.
Bettongia haoutharae. Image credit: Nelly Peas.
“Woylies act as ecosystem engineers, moving several tons of soil each year in search of their favorite mushroom snacks,” says Jake Newman Martin, a Curtin University student, along with colleagues.
“These adorable kangaroo relatives from Western Australia are among the most endangered mammals, as conservation efforts continue to save species at risk.”
In this recent study, the researchers examined fossils found in caves in southwestern Australia.
They uncovered an entirely new species and two new subspecies.
“This discovery unveils significant insights into the diversity of Woylies, also known as the brush tail veton,” explains Newman-Martin.
“Woylies are endangered marsupials that have been the focus of conservation initiatives for many years.”
“This new study officially recognizes it as a distinct species based on fossil evidence, along with two new variants of Woylies for the first time.”
“Regrettably, many of these species went extinct before we even became aware of them.
“Our findings categorize the endangered Woylie into two living subspecies, which are crucial for breeding and translocation strategies aimed at increasing population size and genetic fitness.”
Dr. Kenny Traboillon, curator of terrestrial zoology at the Western Australian Museum, stated:
“This research revealed various species and broadened the known diversity of Woylies by analyzing skull and body fossil materials that hadn’t been thoroughly examined before.”
“What our research highlights is that studying fossils alongside genetic tools can offer vital insights to aid conservation efforts for this endangered native species.”
A paper detailing the discovery was published in the journal Zootaxa.
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Jake Newman Martin et al. 2025. Taxonomic revision of Bettongia penicillata (Diprotodontia: Potoroidae) Description of species complexes and subfossil species Bettongia haoutharae sp. November. Zootaxa 5690(1); doi:10.11646/zootaxa.5690.1.1
Researchers from MIT and the University of Texas at Arlington suggest that supercooling radioactive atoms may enable the creation of laser-like neutrino beams. They illustrate this by calculating the potential for a neutrino laser using one million rubidium-83 atoms. Generally, the half-life of a radioactive atom like this is approximately 82 days, indicating that half of the atoms will decay and emit an equal number of neutrinos within that timeframe. Their findings indicate that cooling rubidium-83 to a stable quantum state could allow for radioactive decay to occur in only a few minutes.
BJP Jones & Ja Formaggio devises the concept of a laser that emits neutrinos. Image credit: Gemini AI.
“In this neutrino laser scenario, neutrinos would be released at a significantly accelerated rate, similar to how lasers emit photons rapidly.”
“This offers a groundbreaking method to enhance radioactive decay and neutrino output. To my knowledge, this has never been attempted before,” remarked MIT Professor Joseph Formaggio.
A few years ago, Professor Formaggio and Dr. Jones were each considering unique opportunities in this field. They pondered: could we amplify the natural process of neutrino generation through quantum consistency?
Their preliminary research highlighted several fundamental challenges to achieving this goal.
Years later, during discussions regarding the properties of ultra-cold tritium, they asked: could enhancing qualitatively the quantum state of radioactive atoms like tritium lead to improved neutrino production?
The duo speculated that transitioning radioactive atoms into Bose-Einstein condensates might promote neutrino generation. However, during quantum mechanical calculations, they initially concluded that such effects might not be feasible.
“It was a misleading assumption; merely creating a Bose-Einstein condensate does not speed up radioactive decay or neutrino production,” explained Professor Formaggio.
Years later, Dr. Jones revisited the concept, incorporating the phenomenon of Superradiance. This principle from quantum optics occurs when groups of luminescent atoms are synchronously stimulated.
It is anticipated that in this coherent state, the atoms will emit a burst of superradiant or more radioactive photons than they would if they were not synchronized.
Physicists suggest that analogous superradiant effects may be achievable with radioactive Bose-Einstein condensates, potentially leading to similar bursts of neutrinos.
They turned to the equations governing quantum mechanics to analyze how light-emitting atoms transition from a coherent state to a superradiant state.
Using the same equations, they explored the behavior of radioactive atoms in a coherent Bose-Einstein condensed state.
“Our findings indicate that by producing photons more rapidly and applying that principle to neutrinos, we can significantly increase their emission rate,” noted Professor Formaggio.
“When all the components align, the superradiation of the radioactive condensate facilitates this accelerated, laser-like neutrino emission.”
To theoretically validate their idea, the researchers calculated the neutrino generation from a cloud of 1 million supercooled rubidium-83 atoms.
The results showed that in the coherent Bose-Einstein condensate state, atoms can reduce radioactivity at an accelerated rate, releasing a laser-like stream of neutrinos within minutes.
Having demonstrated that neutrino lasers are theoretically feasible, they plan to experiment with a compact tabletop setup.
“This should involve obtaining the radioactive material, evaporating, laser-trapping, cooling, and converting it into a Bose-Einstein condensate,” said Jones.
“Subsequently, we must instigate this superradiance.”
The pair recognizes that such experiments will require extensive precautions and precise manipulation.
“If we can demonstrate this in the lab, it opens up possibilities for future applications. Could this serve as a neutrino detector? Or perhaps as a new form of communication?”
Their paper has been published today in the journal Physical Review Letters.
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BJP Jones & Ja Formaggio. 2025. Super radioactive neutrino lasers from radioactive condensate. Phys. Pastor Rett 135, 111801; doi:10.1103/l3c1-yg2l
Paleontologists have identified a new species within the extinct turtle genus Craspedochelys, based on some remarkable fossil shells and subsequent bones discovered in Colombia.
Artistic reconstruction of Craspedochelys Renzi and the shallow marine ecosystem it inhabited. The flip-like shape of the forelimbs is inspired by the most complete known specimen of Thalassemys bruntrutana. Image credit: Juan Guilard.
Craspedochelys Renzi thrived during the early Cretaceous Hauterivian period, approximately 132 to 125 million years ago.
This ancient species belonged to the Thalassocheridia, a group of marine-adapted turtles from the Jurassic and Cretaceous eras.
“Throughout their evolutionary journey, various unrelated turtle groups have developed adaptations for marine and coastal habitats,” says Dr. Edwin Alberto Cadena, a paleontologist at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute of Natural History.
“One such group is the Thalassocheridia, traditionally classified into three Jurassic families: Eurysternidae, Plesiochelyidae, and Thalassemydidae, which have complex and often debated phylogenetic relationships.”
“Among these families, the ‘Plesiochelyidae’ is particularly diverse, encompassing at least ten species across four different genera: Craspedochelys, Plesiochelys, Portlandomys, and Tropidemys.”
“The shells of ‘Plesiochelyids’ can be distinguished from other thalassocheridians by their large size (40-55 cm in shell length), with adults lacking the thyroid cortex of the hanging skin, typically displaying only a thick layer of fontanel in the center.”
Craspedochelys Renzi is characterized by a distinct shell featuring several occipital bones. Image credits: Cadena et al. , doi: 10.1186/s13358-025-00394-1.
The fossil specimen of Craspedochelys Renzi was first discovered by Swiss geologist Otto Lenz during a field expedition in the Cunja de Cuisa region of Guazila Province, Colombia, in the 1950s.
This specimen included partial shells measuring 25.5 cm long and 23.1 cm wide, along with hind limb bones and caudal vertebrae.
It was later stored in the paleontological collection of the Naturhistorisches Museum Basel in Switzerland, where it remained unnoticed for over 60 years among the fossil invertebrate collection.
“Geological evidence connects these specimens to shallow marine sediments from the Moina Formation, dating to the Hauterivian,” the paleontologist explained.
This fossil represents the youngest known occurrence of Thalassocheridians globally during the Hauterivian, and it is the second record from a non-European group.
“The discovery of Craspedochelys Renzi will greatly enhance our understanding of Thalassocheridians, particularly the ‘Plesiochelyidae’, expanding their geographical range to North Gondwana and temporal range to the Hauterivian,” the researchers stated.
“This find underlines the significance of reevaluating historical collections and the potential for future discoveries in less explored areas such as northern South America.”
“The existence of Craspedochelys Renzi in the Moina Formation further underscores the intricate paleobiogeographic history of early Cretaceous coastal habitats and marine turtles.”
“It also offers new perspectives on the evolutionary dynamics of Thalassocheridia and the still unresolved, unstable phylogenetic relationships within the group, which necessitates further detailed investigation in future research.”
The discovery of Craspedochelys Renzi is discussed in a paper published in the Swiss Journal of Palaeontology.
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ea. Cadena et al. 2025. The first occurrence of the “Plesiochelyidae” turtle in the early Cretaceous period of South America. Swiss J Palaeontol 144, 52; doi:10.1186/s13358-025-00394-1
Long before astronomers proposed the Big Bang theory, they understood that the universe is infinite, remains constant over time, and that there are no dark patches in the night sky if it is indeed filled with stars. If stars populate space uniformly, then starlight would illuminate every point in the sky. Consequently, if this light persisted over time, it would illuminate Earth equally, making the sky uniformly bright.
This insight is known as Olbers’ Paradox, which suggests that the universe is neither infinite nor static, as it contains gaps of darkness between stars. Instead, astronomers agree that the universe has evolved over time, originating from the Big Bang. These transformations prevent the sky from being completely filled with starlight because, even if the universe were infinite and abundant with stars, only some would have had enough time to reach Earth.
The sky is not merely filled with starlight; it is awash with various light types. The most prominent is the long-wavelength radiation remaining from the Big Bang, known as the Cosmic Microwave Background, or CMB. Additionally, short-wavelength radiation emanates from beyond our galaxy, termed the Extragalactic Gamma-Ray Background, or EGB. The origins of EGB are more elusive compared to CMB, with possible sources ranging from black holes in distant galaxies to reactions of subatomic particles and even dark matter.
Since the discovery of EGB in the 1970s, scientists have pinpointed specific large, high-energy objects such as active galactic nuclei, which comprise nearly half of the EGB. These entities produce bright spots of resolved EGB that are observable from Earth.
This accounts for only part of the EGB, leaving the other half unresolved. The unresolved EGB is distributed across the sky, with sources too distant to be identified by telescopes. To investigate unresolved EGB sources, a scientific team explored the hypothesis that galaxies are significant, if not the primary, contributors. They deduced that nearby galaxies may account for resolved EGBs, implying that distant galaxies could be sources of the diffuse, unresolved EGBs.
It is believed that galaxies generate gamma rays through a series of events; firstly, a star is formed, which may either explode or undergo a supernova event. Supernovae accelerate particles, such as protons and electrons, to high velocities, creating cosmic rays. These cosmic rays then collide, releasing energy and initiating a chain reaction that leads to the formation of high-energy gamma rays, existing within a specific energy range of approximately 0.01–1,000 Giga-electronvolts (GEVs).
Researchers have developed a model to estimate the gamma radiation that galaxies are capable of producing and the energy levels of that radiation. This model derives two equations to calculate how frequently a galaxy generates cosmic rays based on its star production rate. Physical attributes of the galaxy, including mass, radius, and star formation rate, were necessary to finalize the model.
Data was collected from 22,087 galaxies in the Goods-S Catalog using the Hubble Space Telescope. They utilized the model to estimate the gamma radiation contributions these galaxies could provide to small regions of the sky, comparing the model’s estimates with actual gamma radiation observations from each galaxy obtained through the Fermi Gamma-Ray Telescope.
The results indicated that within the 1-10 GEV energy range of gamma radiation, these galaxies might account for 50-60% of the unresolved EGB across all observed areas. Furthermore, the contribution from galaxies diminishes sharply below 1 GEV and above 10 GEV. Their findings suggest that earlier research into the star-forming galaxy hypothesis may have underestimated their contributions to the unresolved EGB.
The team concluded that beyond star-forming galaxies, other sources must account for the unresolved EGB found in deep space. They propose that future research focus on active galactic nuclei and millisecond pulsars as potentially fruitful candidates. This observation indicates the possibility of other unexplored phenomena, suggesting that galaxies may not be the primary sources of unresolved EGBs. The disappearance of dark matter could be a piece of this cosmic puzzle.
Where does Deep Space Gamma Ray come from? It first appeared in Sciworthy.
While noticeable muscle growth, like bulging biceps, is a clear advantage of weightlifting, research indicates that strength training can also be beneficial for your gut microbiota.
No singular cluster of microorganisms ensures good health, yet certain compositions are linked with enhanced medical outcomes, including a stronger immune system and healthier aging. Key players include faecalibacterium, Akkermansia, and Rose Buria Hominis, all of which generate short-chain fatty acids such as butyric acid that support the intestinal lining and combat inflammation.
While diet is undeniably significant, studies suggest that aerobic exercise—like cycling and running—can create an environment favorable for these microbial species to thrive. This may occur via improved blood flow, hormonal shifts, or metabolic by-products associated with physical activity, including lactic acid. Research on resistance training has yielded mixed results; some studies indicate significant changes, while others show negligible effects. “Current research is somewhat limited,” notes Matieu Krauss from the Norwegian Sports Science School in Oslo.
For clarity, Sven Nahnsen, from the University of Tübingen in Germany, along with his team, studied a sizable group of 150 sedentary adults who underwent an eight-week training regimen that included a variety of resistance exercises like lateral pulls, seated rows, chest presses, and leg curls.
In contrast to past research, participants utilized an “intelligent” machine that automatically adjusted weights and range of motion based on individual performance, thereby keeping a meticulous record of progress. “The data is precise as every lift is digitally documented,” shares Nahnsen.
Prior to starting, and at intervals during the program, participants submitted stool samples, which researchers analyzed for genetic and metabolic fingerprints of commonly found gut microorganisms.
Across the group, there was no average alteration in microbiome composition post-program. The outcome seemed to vary based on each individual’s training response, showing a correlation between increased intensity and microbiota changes.
High-achieving participants who reaped significant muscle strength benefits exhibited an increased percentage of faecalibacterium and Rose Buria Hominis by the program’s conclusion. “These species were more abundant in those who gained substantially more strength,” summarized Nahnsen.
The reasons why some individuals responded better to the training compared to others remain ambiguous. One might assume it relates to their effort, yet compliance levels were similar across low and high performers. An alternative explanation could be that successful participants altered their diets following their exercise routines. This lifestyle adjustment could reasonably influence both microbiota and muscle strength. However, despite attempts to account for this through dietary assessments, researchers found no substantial differences in food intake, “a factor we couldn’t completely discount,” according to Nahnsen.
Another intriguing prospect is that the microorganisms themselves may partially facilitate the improvements in strength. In high-performing individuals, changes in the microbiome may enhance the production of short-chain fatty acids, enabling muscles to better respond to the eight-week training regimen. However, Nahnsen emphasizes that this warrants further investigation.
He aspires that this research will serve as a foundation for exploring potential mechanisms. “Our goal was to establish a ‘dictionary’ of microorganisms likely affected by resistance training to assist other researchers in uncovering the mechanisms,” he stated. Strategies to promote beneficial shifts in the microbiota post-training could represent a novel approach to enhancing exercise’s health benefits and sports performance.
It’s worth noting that the trial did not include a control group of participants who remained inactive. Nevertheless, Klaus, who did not participate in the study, is optimistic about the findings. “These results reinforce the idea that exercise positively impacts gut health, regardless of the specific type, and highlight that resistance training can induce microbiome-related changes tied to specific health benefits,” he remarked. “This underscores the importance of integrating both endurance and resistance training into health promotion strategies aimed at improving microbiome health.”
General Joseph Ladapo, Florida surgeon, at an anti-vaccine event held in Sarasota, Florida
Dave Decker/Zuma Press Wire/Shutterstock
The movement against vaccines has gained significant traction in the US, prompting Florida officials to repeal all vaccine mandates, including those for schoolchildren. This decision may inspire similar actions in other states, potentially leading to a resurgence of long-eradicated pediatric diseases.
“If I were a virus, I would celebrate right now,” stated Cynthia Leifer from Cornell University in New York. “The potential elimination of all vaccine mandates in Florida could allow diseases that have been controlled for years to rear their heads again.”
Since the Covid-19 pandemic, the anti-vaccine movement has solidified its presence in the United States, with Florida being a prime example. In 2022, it was the first state to recommend Covid-19 mRNA vaccinations for most children, later expanding that guidance to include all individuals. Now, it might become the first state to entirely abolish vaccine mandates.
The announcement came from Joseph Ladapo, the state’s chief public health officer, on September 3. “This last mandate is fundamentally flawed,” he stated.
Like all states, Florida mandates certain vaccinations for children before they can enroll in school. However, under the authority of the Florida Department of Health led by Ladapo, there is considerable power to delegate vaccine requirements in schools. Ultimately, only state lawmakers can lift all vaccine requirements.
In a statement reported by the Associated Press, the state health department indicated that changes to existing regulations could impact required vaccines, including those for hepatitis B, chickenpox, influenza, HIB, and pneumococcal disease. Unless legislators revoke the laws, vaccines such as polio and measles will remain mandatory for school attendance under state law.
Vaccine requirements are a key factor in the US maintaining one of the highest vaccination rates in the world, which is crucial for preventing diseases like polio, diphtheria, and pertussis from becoming prevalent. Removing these mandates could jeopardize decades of public health achievements and put lives at risk. According to a 2024 CDC report, routine childhood vaccinations have saved approximately 1.13 million lives and averted about 508 million infections in children born from 1994 to 2023.
“Vaccines are victims of their own success; people no longer witness children suffering from preventable diseases,” Leifer remarked.
Much of the resistance against vaccines stems from concerns regarding side effects. However, research shows that the risks associated with vaccination are minor compared to those posed by infections. For instance, the likelihood of developing myocarditis or heart inflammation is seven times higher following Covid-19 infection than after vaccination. Additionally, one in 1000 individuals infected with measles may develop encephalitis, while one in one million vaccinated individuals experience the same condition.
During the press conference, Ladapo provided no scientific rationale for removing the vaccine mandates. The Florida Department of Public Health did not respond to inquiries from New Scientist regarding this matter, instead focusing on appeals to personal and religious freedoms.
“Should this individual dictate what goes into your body? Who decides what your child should receive in their body?” he questioned, emphasizing that each body is a gift from God.
This argument overlooks that over half the states, including Florida, permit exemptions from mandated vaccines for religious reasons. Furthermore, 16 states allow exemptions for personal beliefs, and all states have provisions for medical exemptions.
If school mandates are lifted, it is uncertain how significantly vaccination rates might drop. However, historical data suggests that enforcing requirements boosts vaccine uptake. For example, Maine eliminated personal and religious exemptions in 2019, resulting in over 95% of school-aged children receiving the vaccinations required by 2024, thus achieving herd immunity against measles.
In Florida, less than 89% of kindergarteners were vaccinated from 2024 to 2025. Achieving herd immunity requires a concerted effort to boost vaccination rates nationwide, rather than undermining them.
Engraved face from the French Amien Lannancourt 1 site
Stephen Lancelot/In-Rap
Miniature sculptures estimated to be 27,000 years old from northern France may offer insights into how ancient hunter-gatherers styled their hair.
The figurine was unearthed in 2021 from a site known as Amien Lannancoeur 1, located roughly 140 kilometers north of Paris, and has recently been analyzed by researchers.
Notably, the long hair appears to be braided in a grid pattern, possibly representing hair nets or distinct hairstyles. This contrasts with figures found in Central and Eastern Europe, where hairdos are typically short and cover the majority of the head, according to Olivier Touse from the University of Liège, Belgium, who did not participate in the study.
The statuette’s distinctive hairstyles may indicate the period and local fashion trends. “This might represent a cultural uniqueness that would not have been highlighted without these scarce human representations,” states team member Clement Paris from the National Institute of Preventive Archaeology in France.
Radiocarbon dating of the rock layers at Amiens-Renancourt 1 indicates that the sculpted figure dates back to approximately 27,000 years ago and belongs to the Greybettian period, which spanned from 33,000 to 26,000 years ago across Europe. Following this era, the hunter-gatherer population vacated Northwest Europe for nearly 10,000 years due to the severe cold and arid conditions of the last Ice Age’s peak, notes Touzé.
“The intricate decoration and well-defined hairstyles underline the attention devoted to the craftsmanship of this statue,” remarks Gregory Abrams at the University of Ghent, Belgium, who was not involved in the study.
Other excavations at the site have uncovered several small fragments and over a dozen additional figurines, including Venus figurines that depict women. “This site has historical significance regarding sculptural production,” states Touse.
Yet, questions linger about what these figurines reveal about their creators. “Prehistoric thoughts and myths leave minimal evidence,” comments Paris. “And even when these statues provide insight, their significance remains obscure.”
Exciting indications suggest that one of the planets in the TRAPPIST-1 star system, located around 40 light-years away, may have an atmosphere suitable for life. However, scientists aim to obtain 15 additional images to confirm this.
TRAPPIST-1 is a small red star hosting at least seven planets. Discovered in 2016, it has become a focal point for astronomers hunting for extraterrestrial life, as three of its planets lie within the Goldilocks Zone, where liquid water can exist.
Ryan McDonald from St Andrews University, UK, states that the discovery of TRAPPIST-1 stirred considerable excitement among astronomers. However, subsequent imaging of three exoplanets—two of which are in the Goldilocks zone—did not identify any atmospheres, which was a letdown. Yet, McDonald and his team have maintained a focus on TRAPPIST-1e, situated at the center of this zone, and now hold a positive outlook.
In 2023, McDonald and colleagues utilized the James Webb Space Telescope to examine TRAPPIST-1e and have continued to enhance their images of this world. Through the analysis of starlight alterations as distant planets cross in front of stars, scientists can deduce the composition of atmospheres and identify beneficial life-sustaining chemicals.
Nonetheless, TRAPPIST-1’s classification as a red dwarf complicates these measurements due to its cooler nature compared to our sun. This cooling effect can lead to prevalent atmospheric chemicals like water also existing within the star itself. Consequently, it’s crucial to differentiate TRAPPIST-1e’s atmospheric signals from those of the star’s light. This challenging task requires innovative models and extensive effort. Initial findings suggest that TRAPPIST-1e may possess a life-friendly atmosphere, potentially representing a pivotal moment in the search for habitable conditions in the universe.
“The data exhibits fluctuations in accordance with atmospheric modeling, aligning well with nitrogen-rich atmospheres and possibly including methane,” remarks McDonald. “Among all the spectra collected from the TRAPPIST-1 system, this is the most promising, indicating potential atmospheric components.”
Should the nitrogen-rich atmosphere hypothesis be confirmed in subsequent analyses, McDonald states the next step will be to search for gases such as methane or carbon dioxide and utilize climate models to assess surface temperatures and the potential for liquid water.
However, the researchers caution that current data cannot entirely dismiss the possibility that TRAPPIST-1e is merely a barren rock. Additional observations are imperative. They have data from four JWST observations but aim for an additional 15 in the near future. “We need to minimize the error margins,” comments McDonald.
Matthew Jenge from Imperial College London notes that while many exoplanets are being discovered, astronomers are eager to pinpoint those with conditions conducive to life.
“Complexities arise because a planet can be in the right orbital zone but, with the wrong atmosphere, may become inhospitable like Venus. Astronomers are investigating numerous exoplanets, and eventually, one will likely be found with a nitrogen/oxygen-rich atmosphere. Photosynthesis may be key to achieving oxygen richness,” he says.
“If [TRAPPIST-1e] is habitable, consider what transpired on that planet over the past 7.6 billion years. The older the planet, the higher the likelihood of developing intelligent life,” he adds.
McDonald believes that by 2060, data may reveal multiple planets whose existence is hard to explain without including life forms, though he stresses that proving the existence of extraterrestrial life is still a distant goal. “We remain skeptical,” he concludes.
“When you search for stock market prices, you may see patterns…”
Muhla1/Getty Images
Flipping through the front page of a newspaper, one is greeted by a myriad of numbers—metrics about populations, lengths, areas, and more. If you were to extract these figures and compile them into a list, it might seem like a random assortment.
However, these figures are not as arbitrary as they may appear. In reality, the leading digit of many numbers, such as total revenues or building heights, tends to be predominantly the number 1. While true randomness would suggest that each digit has an equal chance of leading, the actual data shows that about one-third of the time, the first digit is a 1. The number 9, interestingly, appears as the leading digit in about 5% of cases, with other digits following such a trend.
This phenomenon is referred to as Benford’s Law, which illustrates the expected distribution of first digits within a dataset of a certain type—especially those spanning a wide, unspecified range. Although values like human height (where numbers are confined within a limited spectrum) or dates (which also have defined limits) don’t follow this law, others do.
Consider checking your bank balance, numbering a house, or analyzing stock prices (as displayed). Such numbers commonly exhibit a distribution with varied digit lengths. In neighborhoods with just a handful of houses, you might see a balance of numbers, whereas in larger towns, hundreds may share similar leading digits.
Picture a street hosting nine houses. The proportion of leading digits resembles an even split among the nine options. Conversely, on a street with 19 houses, a larger fraction—often over fifty percent—will begin with 1. As the housing number increases, this pattern persists. With 100 houses, you would observe a fairly uniform distribution across all digits, yet with 200 occupants, once again, more than half will typically start with 1.
Due to the diverse origins of data in real-world collections, the average likelihood of seeing numbers that start with 1 fluctuates between these two extremes. Similar calculations can be made for other digits, resulting in an overall frequency distribution observable in extensive datasets.
This characteristic is particularly useful in identifying potential data fabrication. When analyzing a company’s financial records, a Benford-like distribution is expected in their sales figures. However, when someone generates random numbers, the frequency distribution of the leading digits lacks a defined curve. This principle serves as one of the many tools forensic accountants employ to root out dubious activities.
The next time you examine your bank statement or compare river lengths, take note of how often those numbers start with 1.
Katie Steckles is a mathematician, lecturer, YouTuber, and author based in Manchester, UK. She also contributes advice to Brent Wister, a puzzle column for New Scientist. Follow her @stecks
For additional projects, please visit newscientist.com/maker
William Gibson in 1985, a year after the groundbreaking work emerged
Aaron Rapoport/Corbis/Getty Images
Neuromancer William Gibson (Orion Publishing (UK); Ace Books (US))
Neuromancer opens with, “The sky above the port was the color of the television, tuned to a dead channel.”
The book was released in 1984, in an era when very few individuals had access to computers. The esteemed William Gibson penned this work on a typewriter. Nevertheless, while data acts as currency and corporations craft striking depictions of the futuristic realm of “cyberspace,” they are also vulnerable to cyberattacks. There’s something intriguingly enchanting within the backdrop of AIS that exists beyond our grasp.
Neuromancer birthed the cyberpunk genre and reshaped literature 40 years later, establishing itself as one of the most prophetic texts ever created. It aligns with the Apple TV+ series. In a world where many of us carry computing devices in our pockets, how does this narrative endure? Is time spent in cyberspace (a term popularized by Neuromancer) still relevant? I decided to revisit it.
Having not read it in over two decades, I initially found it challenging. The distinctive style and the claustrophobic narrative of a former hacker navigating barrooms and gang troubles made me question if the novel had aged well. After all, its imagery and concepts are no longer shocking, having been endlessly replicated in television, literature, and film, often outpaced by reality.
Yet, I was drawn back in. There’s a moment when our protagonist receives a call in a hotel lobby, only for the next call to be an AI—an incident that sends chills down my spine and echoes the profound influence on The Matrix.
As action unfolds in virtual spaces, we get an intimate glimpse of AI. Upon reading, I recognized that the major themes in the book are as pertinent and thought-provoking today as they were in 1984. For instance, the concept of a power referred to as “Turing” foreshadows the rise of AI.
Ultimately, I grasped why readers like author Adrian Tchaikovsky constantly revisit Neuromancer: it demands slow attention, yet remains a classic with profound insights. The lingering question is how Gibson envisioned this world when he relied solely on a typewriter.
Fortunately, he has reflected on this extensively over the years. “I wrote Neuromancer without any knowledge of computers,” he shared with the Guardian five years ago. “I dismantled the poetic language of those already in the field, eavesdropping at the Seattle Science Fiction Convention where early computer programmers discussed their work.”
He recounted how this eavesdropping informed various abstract elements of the narrative at a time when Gibson couldn’t simply Google what a modem was.
In summary, the novel remains astonishing. I hope that the forthcoming TV adaptation does it justice.
I would also recommend Emily…
Burning Chrome William Gibson (Orion Publishing (UK); Gollancz (US))
Gibson’s short story collection is truly remarkable. It was one of my favorites and remains vibrant today.
Emily H. Wilson is the former editor of the New Scientist and author of the Sumerian trilogy set in ancient Mesopotamia. The final installment, Ninshuval, is now available. Visit her at emilyhwilson.com or follow her on X @emilyhwilson and Instagram @emilyhwilson1.
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Misrepresented color images of quantum router circuits
MIT Squill Foundry
Quantum computers are poised to execute beneficial algorithms at an accelerated pace, thanks to advanced quantum routers that optimize data transmission efficiency.
Conventional computers mitigate slowdowns during complex program executions by temporarily storing information in random access memory (RAM). The essential component for developing QRAM, the quantum equivalent of RAM, is the router. This internal router manages information flow within the computer, distinct from a router that routes Internet queries to specific IP addresses.
Connie Miao, at Stanford University, along with her team, is actively creating these devices. “Our project originated from an algorithm that employs QRAM. Numerous papers have emerged. [experimentally]She remarks.
This innovative router is built using essential bits, the core elements of quantum computers, and quantum memory composed of miniature superconducting circuits, regulated by electromagnetic pulses. Similar to traditional routers, this Quantum One directed quantum information to a specific quantum address. What makes these devices unique is the ability to encode addresses not just through one superposition but through two. The research team tested this setup on three qubits and achieved approximately 95% fidelity in routing.
This implies that when integrated into QRAM, the device can embed information into quantum states. Once in this state, it becomes impossible to determine which of the two locations contains the preserved information.
Duan Luming from Tsinghua University in China notes that their previous quantum routers only operated intermittently, but this new device represents a significant advancement towards establishing practical QRAM, which may enable the execution of quantum machine learning algorithms.
Team Member David Schuster at Stanford states that while numerous unresolved questions remain regarding the practical impacts of precise quantum routing, applications are extensive, ranging from familiar algorithms to database searches, and even the creation of quantum IP addresses for future iterations of the Internet.
However, the current version of the router is still not reliable enough for all intended purposes; further work is needed to reduce errors and to incorporate additional qubits in future designs. Sebastian Legger was involved in this project at Stanford University.
Recently discovered species of coelacanth, which thrived at the end of the Triassic period around 200 million years ago, have been identified from museum specimens excavated in the UK over a century and a half ago.
Reconstruction of the large Mausonian Coelacanth artist from the Lezians of England. Image credit: Daniel Phillips.
Coelacanths are unique fish that first appeared in the early Devonian epoch fossil record approximately 419 million years ago.
Since the Paleozoic and Mesozoic periods, over 175 fossil coelacanth species have been identified.
During the Mesozoic Era, these fish exhibited significant diversification, with some species developing unusual body shapes.
However, at the close of the Cretaceous period, around 66 million years ago, they inexplicably vanished from the fossil record.
It is believed that coelacanths went extinct due to a mass extinction event during the Cretaceous period. Nonetheless, in 1938, the first specimen of the living species Latimeria chalumnae was fortuitously captured in South Africa.
“Our team has encountered numerous fossils that were initially classified as small marine reptiles. Pachistrophius,” said Professor Mike Benton of the University of Bristol, who is a senior author of the study.
“Many Pachistrophius share peculiar similarities with coelacanth fossils, but we’ve traveled to collections nationwide and discovered that this misidentification has occurred repeatedly.”
“Notably, several of these specimens have been stored in museum facilities, including public collections, since the 1800s,” stated Jacob Quinn, a paleontologist at the University of Bristol.
“From four previous reports of coelacanths from the Triassic era in the UK, we identified more than 50 individuals.”
Paleontologists conducted X-ray scans of numerous specimens to verify their identification.
The specimens mainly belong to the extinct group Mawsoniidae of the coelacanth, while also being closely related to living fish.
“The materials we identified are isolated specimens, but we can see they originate from individuals of various ages, sizes, and species.”
Dr. David Whiteside, a paleontologist at the University of Bristol, remarked:
“Like modern coelacanths, these large fish are opportunistic predators, lurking along the seabed and likely preying on whatever they encountered, including small Pachistrophius marine reptiles, which have been misidentified as coelacanth fossils for decades.”
The study is set to be published in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
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Jacob Quinn et al. 2025. British Triassic coelacanth fish. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 45: E2520921; doi: 10.1080/02724634.2025.2520921
Hypertension poses a significant health risk, elevating the chances of heart disease, stroke, and kidney issues. As a general practitioner, I frequently receive inquiries about its management, and I always stress the importance of exercise. But what is the ideal amount?
A 2021 study that tracked over 5,000 adults for three decades highlights the optimal “dose” of exercise for controlling blood pressure. Is this crucial? Yes, both the type and intensity of exercise, along with the total volume, are vital.
The findings suggest that engaging in moderately intense activities for 30 minutes on most days can significantly aid in blood pressure management. This encompasses exercises that allow for conversation while increasing your breath rate, like brisk walking, cycling, and vigorous household chores.
Recently, a 2023 analysis of 270 prior studies involving over 15,000 participants aimed to identify which forms of exercise were most effective in reducing blood pressure.
While various types of exercise produced positive outcomes, isometric exercises were particularly effective. These involve holding a static position (like wall squats) instead of dynamic movements.
Other beneficial exercises include running, walking, cycling, weight training, and high-intensity interval training.
Moreover, substantial reductions in blood pressure were observed among those exercising 3-5 times per week for a minimum of 4 weeks.
It’s not just about the kind of exercise, but the overall quantity that counts – Photo Credit: Getty
This underscores the necessity of consistency. While medication remains crucial for numerous individuals, these insights illuminate the impact of lifestyle adjustments.
Incorporating exercise, along with a nutritious diet and effective stress management, can help control blood pressure, potentially decreasing reliance on medications like beta blockers.
The evidence is compelling: if you aim to manage your blood pressure, incorporating regular moderate-intensity exercise is an excellent starting point. However, it’s just one piece of the larger puzzle.
Reducing salt intake, following a balanced diet, and effectively managing stress are also essential factors. For some, blood pressure medication is still a vital component of treatment.
The positive takeaway? Physical activity can enhance these approaches.
This article addresses the query from Connor Barrett in Salford, “How much does exercise control my blood pressure?”
Please send your questions toQuestion @sciencefocus.com or MessageFacebook,Twitter, orInstagramPage (please include your name and location).
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The findings indicate that this bathroom behavior is not only unhygienic but can also significantly elevate the risk of developing bleeding, commonly referred to as hemorrhoids.
In a study conducted by US scientists involving 125 adults undergoing colonoscopy (a procedure in which a doctor examines the intestine with a camera), participants were surveyed about their lifestyle and bathroom habits.
Subjects provided answers regarding their habits, and the doctors performing the colonoscopy assessed any bleeding present.
Remarkably, 66% of participants reported using their smartphones while having a bowel movement, primarily to scroll through social media and check the news. Toilet users were more likely to engage in this scrolling behavior than those who did not.
Researchers performed statistical analyses to account for additional factors that could influence bleeding risk, such as physical activity, age, and diet.
Eventually, it was revealed that those who brought their phones into the restroom faced a 46% greater risk compared to those who left their devices behind.
So, why is scrolling such a concern? It essentially boils down to the amount of time spent sitting in the bathroom, which can increase due to distractions from your phone.
In fact, 37% of those who scrolled in the toilet admitted to spending over five minutes per visit, in contrast to just 7.1% of non-scrollers.
Researchers suggested that this extended duration could put additional pressure on the anal region, increasing the likelihood of tissue swelling.
Dr. Trisha Pasricha, a Harvard Medical Instructor, stated in BBC Science Focus: “Avoid bringing your smartphone to the toilet! It diverts your attention from the task at hand.”
As a minimum precaution, she recommended setting a five-minute timer or opting for traditional reading material like magazines.
Hemorrhoids, also known as piles, are swollen tissue masses around the anal area that can lead to itching, pain, and bleeding – Credit: Sexan Monkon Kamusao
Bleeding results in nearly 4 million doctor visits or emergency room trips annually in the United States. In the UK, it is estimated that hemorrhoids affect 10% of the population.
Anecdotally, a correlation between phone use in the bathroom and bleeding has been noted, though few studies provide compelling evidence.
“I believe there’s still much to explore regarding the health impacts of constant phone scrolling,” Pasricha remarked. “In our study, we first identified a link between smartphone use in the bathroom and bleeding, but this is just the beginning of what promises to be more research in this area.”
Read more:
About our experts
Dr. Trisha Pasricha is a gastroenterologist and director of the Gut-Brain Research Institute at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center in Boston. She is also a medical instructor at Harvard Medical School and has received the American Gastrointestinal Association’s Research Scholars Award. Pasricha is a recognized medical journalist and author of the forthcoming book You’ve All Pooped Wrong (Avery, £22).
Misplacing your bearings in an unfamiliar setting may involve more than simply forgetting your location. A new study suggests that minor navigational challenges could serve as early indicators of Alzheimer’s disease, even before conventional memory assessments reveal any declines.
Researchers conducted tests involving approximately 100 older adults in a virtual reality experiment aimed at evaluating the brain’s innate sense of orientation.
The results indicate that individuals experiencing subjective cognitive decline (SCD)—a state where they sense their memory is deteriorating despite normal clinical evaluations—showed less directional awareness compared to their cognitively healthy counterparts.
“Individuals with SCD are recognized to be at a greater risk of progressing to dementia, which can ultimately develop into Alzheimer’s,” stated Professor Thomas Wolbers, one of the study’s authors.
During the experiment, participants aged between 55 and 89 donned VR headsets and traversed a barren digital landscape.
Their task was to follow floating balls along meandering paths and indicate their starting point. They then had to turn back to face the direction they were in at the beginning of the first pass.
While all participants performed within normal limits on traditional memory and cognitive tests, those with SCD consistently made significant errors in navigation tasks.
Participants followed a virtual reality ball to test their sense of orientation – Credit: Getty
“These navigational difficulties were not attributed to movement dynamics, such as an increased awareness of the ground while walking,” explained Dr. Vladislava Segen, the study’s lead author. “The misdirected orientation stemmed from cognitive factors, not movement-related issues.”
According to the researchers, the SCD group’s subpar performance might have been linked to “memory leaks,” as participants faced challenges in tracking past locations necessary for real-time navigation updates.
The team posits that this could be attributed to dysfunction in grid cells—specialized neurons responsible for constructing an individual’s mental coordinate system.
The researchers hope that this style of spatial testing may eventually enhance existing diagnostic tools for Alzheimer’s disease.
“In the long run, we foresee the potential for this method to be incorporated into clinical practices, particularly for the early diagnosis of Alzheimer’s,” Wolbers noted. “However, further testing and simplification of this technique are necessary first.”
New research suggests that artificial sweeteners may have unexpected risks for brain health.
In a study published in Neurology, researchers analyzed the diets of over 12,700 adults in Brazil, revealing that individuals who consumed higher amounts of calorie-free sweeteners experienced a more rapid decline in memory and cognitive abilities over an eight-year period.
This decline was especially notable among diabetic patients and those under the age of 60.
The study examined seven sweeteners commonly found in diet sodas, flavored waters, yogurt, and low-calorie desserts: aspartame, saccharin, acesulfame-K, erythritol, xylitol, sorbitol, and tagatose.
All except tagatose were linked to cognitive decline, particularly affecting memory and verbal fluency.
Participants were categorized into three intake groups. Those with the highest consumption—approximately 191 milligrams daily, similar to a single can of diet soda for aspartame—demonstrated cognitive aging equivalent to 1.6 additional years, at least 62% faster than those with lower consumption.
“Low and no-calorie sweeteners are often regarded as healthier alternatives to sugar, but our findings indicate that certain sweeteners may negatively impact brain health over time,” stated Professor Claudia Kimmy Sumoto from the University of Sao Paulo.
“Prior research linked artificial sweeteners to conditions such as diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and depression, but the effects on cognition were previously unexplored.”
Consumption of artificial sweeteners similar to daily cans of diet soda was associated with accelerated cognitive decline, akin to 1.6 years of brain aging – Credit: Getty
Interestingly, the link was primarily observed in adults under 60 years old.
“We anticipated that the association would be more pronounced in older adults due to their increased risk of dementia and cognitive decline,” Sumoto noted. “Conversely, our findings suggest that exposure to sweeteners during middle age could be particularly detrimental, which is crucial as this period is vital for establishing long-term brain health.”
The findings do not conclusively prove that sweeteners are the direct cause of cognitive decline, with limitations including reliance on self-reported dietary habits and the absence of control over sweetener usage in the research.
Nevertheless, Sumoto emphasized the need for further investigation, including brain imaging and studies examining gut health and inflammation.
Her team is already conducting neuroimaging studies to better understand these associations, although results are not yet available.
“More research is essential to validate our findings and to explore whether alternative sweeteners like those from the apple family, honey, maple syrup, and coconut sugar provide effective options,” Sumoto concluded.
About our experts
Claudia Sumoto is an assistant professor at the University of Sao Paulo, Brazil. She is a trained physician with research published in journals such as The Lancet, Nature Neuroscience, and Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease.
Groundbreaking research by NASA’s twin astronauts Mark and Scott Kelly monitored aging indicators in both siblings, with Mark remaining on Earth while Scott spent 340 days in space.
Six months later, several changes in Scott persisted, including DNA damage, cognitive decline, and telomere shortening that affects chromosome protection. This was highlighted in the Journal Science.
Recent research published in Cell Stem Cell reveals that stem cells also show signs of aging due to stress from space flight.
According to Dr. Catriona Jamieson, director of the Sanford Stem Cell Institute at UC San Diego, these cells are “aging ten times faster in space than on Earth.”
Stem cells are unique cells capable of differentiating into various tissue types. Their accelerated aging poses a concern as it diminishes the body’s natural ability to repair tissues and organs.
This new research comes at a time of increasing interest in space exploration, with government plans for long-term lunar missions and private companies sending consumers and celebrities into space. Understanding these health risks is crucial for safer space travel. Additionally, studying the acceleration of intracellular aging aids researchers in comprehending biological processes at a slower pace.
Astronauts and twin brothers Scott and Mark Kelly at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in 2016. Houston Chronicle /Hurst Newspaper /Houston Chronicle by Getty Image
Researchers utilized bone marrow stem cells sourced from individuals who underwent hip replacement procedures. These cells were cultivated in “nanobioreactors,” essentially small, clear blood bags no larger than an iPhone that facilitate biological processes. The nanobioreactor was housed in a monitored environment known as cubelabs.
Samples from each patient were divided into two cubelabs; one was sent to space, while the other remained on Earth.
The samples intended for space travelled aboard the International Space Station across four commercial resupply missions conducted by SpaceX. Overall, the samples experienced microgravity for 32-45 days, the weightlessness found in orbit. For comparison, the Earth-bound cells were maintained in a cube lab setup.
Cubelabs monitored cell conditions throughout the journey and terrestrial duration, capturing daily images using a microscope. Upon the return of the space-stressed stem cells to Earth, researchers conducted comparisons against ground controls, sequenced the genome, and performed additional analyses.
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