The newly identified species, scientifically named Garga Draco Zephilius, marks a significant similarity between species from the Hayeg Basin in Romania and the well-known Brazilian Azdaltid pterosaur.
Reconstruction of the life of Garga Draco Zephilius in the late Maastrichtian environment, highlighting the nostalgia of the Serada Gargaziosite. Image credit: Matheus Gadelha.
Garga Draco Zephilius thrived in what is now Brazil approximately 70-67 million years ago, during the late Cretaceous period.
These flying reptiles belong to the Azdaltid family, renowned for hosting some of the largest flying creatures known to date.
“The Azdalcidae family represents the most diverse and widespread clade of pterosaurs during the Turonian Maastrichtian interval (94-67 million years ago),” they noted.
“This context underscores the anticipation surrounding the discovery of Azdaltid in the fossil-rich Baul group of Brazil.”
“Prior to our research, it was widely believed that no pterosaurs existed within the Baul group, despite its extensive tetrapod fauna richness and diversity.”
“Moreover, the discovery of Garga Draco Zephilius bridges a significant temporal gap in the regional pterosaur records, tracing its lineage back to the Lower Cretaceous Kaia group.”
Paleontologists found fragmentary jaws of Garga Draco Zephilius within the Serada Garga layer.
“The specimen originated from the Serada Gargaziosite in Serada Garga (Garga Hill), located 25 km north of Uberaba County,” they reported.
“This site is home to regions typical of the sauropod Titanosaur uberabatitan ribeiroi and is also recognized as the BR-050 site.”
Garga Draco Zephilius was a medium to large pterosaur with a wingspan ranging from 4-5 m (13-16 feet).
This species signifies the first Brazilian azdaltide and shows notable similarities to Albadraco Tharmisensis from Romania.
“Despite being fragmentary, the specimen exhibits distinct morphological characteristics that set it apart from other azdaltids,” the researchers concluded.
“It showcases a unique set of traits that allow it to be categorized as a relative of the European azhdarchids, particularly Albadraco Tharmisensis, which include features like the V-shaped cross-section, low/rounded tomial edges, symmetrically paired rows of occlusal holes, and a high-hole index.”
“The phylogenetic analysis provides support for the relationship between this new form and its sister taxon, Albadraco Tharmisensis.
“Ultimately, the discovery of these rare small specimens with potential hatching remains holds significant importance.”
The findings are detailed in a study published this month in Paleontology Papers.
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Ariovaldo A. Giaretta et al. 2025. The first pterosaur from the Baul group: Azdalcid from the upper Cretaceous period of Brazil. Paleontology Papers 11(5): E70039; doi: 10.1002/spp2.70039
Bubbles formed in water can generate electric sparks powerful enough to ignite methane.
In marshy areas, observers sometimes notice a mysterious flash of blue light hovering above the surface. A plausible explanation for these “Will-o’-the-wisps,” or Ignis Fatuus, is that the flashes originate from the combustion of gases such as methane and phosphine, produced by decomposing organic matter in the murky waters below. However, the ignition source for these gases remains uncertain, with theories suggesting causes ranging from static electricity to lightning strikes.
Recently, Richard Zare from Stanford University and his team have observed spontaneous electrical sparks occurring between methane bubbles and air submerged underwater, dubbing them microlites. They assert that these occurrences have sufficient energy to ignite methane gas.
“We are continually uncovering new phenomena about water. They seem obvious once we grasp them, but prior to that, they appear entirely bizarre,” Zare remarks. “People typically associate water with extinguishing fires, not igniting them. Instead, it can generate sparks that light a fire. This concept is revolutionary.”
Zare and his team previously documented water droplets, comparable to the size of salt grains, generating sparks spontaneously. This led them to hypothesize that similar effects could arise from methane bubbles in water. They employed nozzles to inject microbubbles of methane combined with air into water and utilized a high-speed camera, photon counter, and spectrometer to monitor bubble interactions.
As the bubbles ascended through the water, they altered their shape and merged. Upon collision, the contrast in charge between the bubbles sparked flashes, which Zare’s team successfully recorded using both the camera counter and the photon counter.
They also analyzed the light frequency from the flashes, finding it consistent with signatures of specific chemically excited compounds. This indicates that the sparks are potent enough to ignite gases like methane.
Microlight between air and methane-containing foam
Yusia
“[The Italian physicist Alessandro] Volta was the first to assert that these ignis fatuus exist and speculated on their nature. In some ways, he was correct, but not for the reasons he thought. They actually originate from the droplets.”
“This is incredibly intriguing,” states Detlef Lohse from the University of Twente in the Netherlands. While this does not definitively resolve the mystery of Will-o’-the-wisps, it presents a credible explanation, and the findings are likely to stimulate further research.
Alexander Grothendieck was a towering figure in mathematics
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When you ask someone to name the top 20 physicists of the 20th Century, Albert Einstein will likely be at the forefront of their thoughts. However, a similar inquiry regarding mathematics may leave you with silence. Let me introduce you to Alexander Grothendieck.
Einstein, known for formulating the theory of relativity and playing a pivotal role in the advancement of quantum mechanics, became not only an influential physicist but a cultural icon. Grothendieck, too, revolutionized mathematics in profound ways, but he withdrew from public and academic life before his passing, leaving behind a legacy characterized solely by his groundbreaking contributions.
In contrast, while both Grothendieck and Einstein brought complexity to their respective fields, the former’s approach lacked the narrative charm that made Einstein’s theories, such as the twin paradox, more accessible. Grothendieck’s work, on the other hand, often veers into intricate and abstract concepts. I will endeavor to shed light on some of these profound ideas, even if my coverage is necessarily superficial.
To begin, Grothendieck is primarily renowned among mathematicians for revolutionizing the foundations of algebraic geometry, a domain examining the interplay between algebraic equations and geometric shapes. For instance, the equation x² + y² = 1 creates a circle of radius one when graphed.
Rene Descartes, a 17th-century philosopher, was among the first to formalize the relationship between algebra and geometry. This intersection, nevertheless, is far more intricate than it appears. Mathematicians are keen on generalizing, allowing them to form connections that were not previously evident. Grothendieck excelled in this endeavor—his life was depicted in a book recounting “the search for the greatest generality,” a hallmark of his mathematical ethos.
Taking our previous example, the points satisfying the equation and forming the circle are referred to as “algebraic varieties.” These varieties may reside not only on a Cartesian plane but also in three-dimensional space (like a sphere) or even in higher dimensions.
This foundational idea was merely the beginning for Grothendieck. As an illustration, consider the equations x² = 0 and x = 0. Each has a single solution where x equals 0, meaning the set of points (algebraic varieties) is identical. However, these equations are distinct. In 1960, during his quest for broader generality, Grothendieck introduced the notion of “schemes.”
What does this entail? It involves another concept, the “ring.” Confusingly, this term has no relation to circles. In mathematics, “rings” represent collections of objects that remain within that set when added or multiplied. In many respects, a ring is self-contained, akin to its namesake.
The simplest form of a ring is the integers: all negative integers, positive integers, and zero. Regardless of how you operate with integers, whether through addition or multiplication, you will remain within the integers. Moreover, a defining feature of a ring is the presence of a “multiplicative identity.” For integers, this identity is 1, since multiplying any integer by 1 results in that integer remaining unchanged. We also gain insight into what does not constitute a ring.
Through the introduction of schemes, Grothendieck effectively combined the notion of algebraic varieties with that of rings, addressing the missing elements for equations such as x² = 0 and x = 0 while utilizing geometric tools.
Handwritten notes by Alexander Grothendieck in 1982
University of Montpellier, Grothendieck Archives
This leads to two significant challenges that became pivotal for mathematicians. The first concerns four conjectures proposed by mathematician Andre Weil in 1949 regarding counting the number of solutions to certain types of algebraic varieties. In the context of the circle example, an infinite number of values satisfy the equation x² + y² = 1 (indicative of a circle containing infinite points). However, Weil was focused on varieties that permit only a finite number of solutions and speculated that the zeta function could likely be employed to count such solutions.
Utilizing the scheme, Grothendieck and his colleagues validated Weil’s three conjectures in 1965. The fourth was proved by his former student Pierre Deligne in the latter half of 1974 and is viewed as one of the 20 most significant outcomes in 20th-century mathematics, addressing challenges that had puzzled mathematicians for 25 years. This success underscored the profound power of Grothendieck’s schemes in linking geometry with number theory.
The scheme also played a crucial role in solving the infamous Fermat’s Last Theorem, a problem that confounded mathematicians for over 350 years, ultimately resolved by Andrew Wiles in 1995. The theorem states that there are no three positive integers a, b, and c that satisfy the equation an + bn = cn for any integer value of n greater than 2. Fermat had paradoxically written of a proof that was too vast to fit within the margin of his book, although he likely had no proof at all. Wiles’ solution incorporated methods developed post-Grothendieck, utilizing algebraic geometry to reformulate the problem in terms of elliptic curves—a particularly important class of algebraic varieties—which were studied through the lens of the scheme, inspired by Grothendieck’s innovative approach.
There remains a wealth of Grothendieck’s work that I have not explored, which forms the foundational tools many mathematicians rely on today. For instance, he generalized the concept of “space” to encompass “topoi,” introducing not only points within a space but also additional nuanced information, enriching problem-solving approaches. Alongside his collaborators, he authored two extensive texts on algebraic geometry which now serve as the essential reference works for the discipline.
Despite the magnitude of his influence, why does Grothendieck remain somewhat obscure? His work is undeniably complex, demanding considerable effort to understand. He also became a lesser-known figure for various reasons. A committed pacifist, he publicly opposed military actions in the Soviet Union, and notably declined to attend the prestigious 1966 Fields Medal ceremony, famously stating that “fruitfulness is measured not by honors, but by offspring,” indicating a preference for his mathematical contributions to stand on their own merit.
In 1970, Grothendieck withdrew from academia, resigning from his role at the French Institute for Advanced Scientific Research in protest against military funding. Though he initially continued his mathematical pursuits independent of formal institutions, he grew increasingly isolated. In 1986, he penned his autobiography, Harvest and Sowing, detailing his mathematical journey and disillusionment with the field. The following year, he created a philosophical manuscript, The Key to Dreams, sharing how a divine dream influenced his outlook. While both texts circulated among mathematicians, they were not officially published for some time.
Over the ensuing decade, Grothendieck further distanced himself from society, residing in a secluded French village, severing ties with the math community. At one point, he even attempted to subsist solely on dandelion soup until locals intervened. He is believed to have continued producing extensive writings on mathematics and philosophy, though none of these works were released to the public. In 2010, he began sending letters to various mathematicians. None were demands for engagement. Despite the myriad connections forged within mathematics, he ultimately chose to disengage from them personally. Grothendieck passed away in 2014, leaving behind an immeasurable mathematical legacy.
Cannabis extracts tested for chronic pain treatment
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Extracts from cannabis have shown potential in relieving chronic low back pain, offering an alternative to traditional painkillers with minimal risk of serious side effects or addiction.
At present, treatment options for chronic pain are limited, forcing many patients to rely on opioids, which carry a substantial risk of addiction.
The experimental drug VER-01 is derived from the cannabis plant and contains 5% tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the main active ingredient.
In a clinical trial, 820 participants with chronic low back pain were randomly assigned to receive either VER-01 or a placebo over a 12-week period. The results indicated an average pain score reduction of 1.9 for those taking VER-01 on a scale of 0-10, compared to a reduction of 1.4 for those on placebo. No adverse events signaling risks of withdrawal or abuse were reported.
This study stands out as one of the most rigorous to validate a cannabis-based treatment for chronic pain, contributing to the increasing interest in cannabis as a legitimate pain management option.
“This is among the first high-quality research initiatives on medical cannabis that many have been anticipating, both researchers and patients alike,” states Winfried Meissner, a researcher at Jena University Hospital in Germany. “Previous evidence has been weak, with past studies lacking in quality and participants.”
Participants taking VER-01 also reported marked improvements in sleep quality and physical functioning, with mild side effects such as dizziness, fatigue, dry mouth, and nausea. Patients were able to gradually increase their dosage to 13 times per day during the treatment.
This treatment proved particularly effective for lower back pain originating from nerve damage, classified as neuropathic pain. Meissner emphasizes that patients with chronic pain should initially pursue physical therapy, while painkillers can assist those unable to engage in movement. “Even a modest degree of pain relief can motivate patients to exercise,” he explains.
Although the pain reduction was not dramatic, significant reductions in chronic pain are uncommon. Marta Di Forti from King’s College London, who was not involved in the study, notes, “The improvement in sleep quality, a secondary outcome of the research, can profoundly influence daily functioning.” “In chronic pain instances, substantial effects are rare.”
Di Forti added that the study showed no signs of drug dependence among the participants, hoping this could pave the way for a prescription. She frequently hears from patients who find cannabis effective but resort to purchasing it from dealers. She highlights the variability in THC levels in cannabis products, which can lead to excessive consumption and increase the potential for substance misuse.
“In an environment where claims about cannabis proliferate, we are rigorously testing it through randomized controlled trials,” she asserts. “In my opinion, the evidence that it alleviates pain is excellent news.”
While we can’t physically pivot our ears towards sounds, our brains excel at honing in on them
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Many mammals, such as dogs, cats, and deer, possess the ability to direct their hearing. Humans lost this capability around 25 million years ago. Nonetheless, new findings suggest that although we lack these physical ear adjustments, our brains have developed compensatory skills to discern the most intense sounds in particular directions.
This study utilized mobile EEG to observe brain electrical activity as participants moved. Previously, EEG techniques involved participants sitting still with electrodes attached to their scalps. However, advancements in lighter, wireless EEG technology now enable measurements of brain activity during movement, creating links between behavior and brain function.
Research indicates that movement significantly influences brain function. “Active exploration enhances perception, fosters spatial mapping, and integrates multisensory information into a cohesive spatial awareness,” says Maren Schmidt Kassow from Goethe University in Frankfurt, Germany, who was not part of this study. “Cognition is fundamentally tied to behavior.”
Studies from Barbara Handel at the University of Würzburg, Germany, demonstrate that walking improves visual information processing, increasing the likelihood of noticing nearby objects. This enhancement typically diminishes when one is stationary. Her team has found that a similar principle applies to auditory perception; the brain continuously adjusts its focus to prioritize the most salient sounds.
During the experiment, 35 participants were outfitted with mobile EEG and motion sensors and instructed to navigate a figure-eight path while listening to a continuous audio stream through in-ear headphones.
The EEG data revealed significant boosts in auditory processing when participants moved compared to when they were standing still. As they turned, their brains further adapted, prioritizing sounds from the direction they were facing. Continuously along the path, the brain’s focus shifted from side to side as they turned, either panning from one speaker to another or physically orienting towards the sound source.
Team member Liyu Cao from Jiang Province, Hangzhou, China, speculates that this internal ear mobility may be an evolutionary adaptation for enhanced safety. “This could facilitate quicker reaction times and safer navigation in changing environments,” he states.
The findings could lead to advancements in filtering background noise based on a person’s walking direction, thereby improving navigational aids for visually impaired individuals and enhancing hearing aid functionality, according to Haendel.
Moreover, this research could shed light on why exercising outdoors seems to confer greater benefits for brain health and cognitive function compared to activities performed on treadmills or stationary bikes. “Movement dynamics extend beyond just muscle activity,” Handel remarks. “Your brain adapts not only how you move but also how it functions. It’s about harnessing that interaction for optimal performance.”
The above image displays untreated E. coli bacteria, with the lower image showing the effects of polymyxin B after 90 minutes.
Carolina Borrelli, Edward Douglas et al./Nature Microbiology
High-resolution microscopy unveils how polymyxins, a class of antibiotics, penetrate bacterial defenses, offering insights for developing treatments against drug-resistant infections.
Polymyxins serve as a last-resort option for treating Gram-negative bacteria responsible for serious infections like pneumonia, meningitis, and typhoid fever. “The priority pathogens identified by the top three health agencies globally are predominantly Gram-negative bacteria, highlighting their complex cell envelopes,” states Andrew Edwards from Imperial College London.
These bacteria possess an outer layer of lipopolysaccharides that functions as armor. While it was known that polymyxins target this layer, the mechanisms of their action and the reasons for inconsistent effectiveness remained unclear.
In a pivotal study, Edwards and his team employed biochemical experiments combined with nuclear power microscopy, capturing details at the nanoscale. They discovered that polymyxin B, amongst other treatments, actively targets E. coli cells.
Shortly after treatment commenced, the bacteria rapidly began releasing lipopolysaccharides.
Researchers observed that the presence of antibiotics prompted bacteria to attempt to assimilate more lipopolysaccharide “bricks” into their protective walls. However, this effort resulted in gaps, allowing antibiotics to penetrate and destroy the bacteria.
“Antibiotics are likened to tools that aid in the removal of these ‘bricks’,” Edwards explains. “While the outer membrane doesn’t entirely collapse, gaps appear, providing an entryway for antibiotics to access the internal membrane.”
The findings also elucidate why antibiotics occasionally fail: they predominantly affect active, growing bacteria. When in a dormant state, polymyxin B becomes ineffective as these bacteria do not produce armor strong enough to withstand environmental pressures.
E. coli images exposed to polymyxin B illustrate changes to the outer membrane over time: untreated, 15 mins, 30 mins, 60 mins, and 90 mins.
Carolina Borrelli, Edward Douglas et al./Nature Microbiology
Interestingly, researchers found that introducing sugar to E. coli could awaken dormant cells, prompting armor production to resume within 15 minutes, leading to cell destruction. This phenomenon is thought to be applicable to other polymyxins, such as polymyxin E, used therapeutically.
Edwards proposes that targeting dormant bacteria with sugar might be feasible, though it poses the risk of hastening their growth. “We don’t want bacteria at infection sites rapidly proliferating due to this stimulation,” he cautions. Instead, he advocates for the potential to combine various drugs to bypass dormancy without reactivating the bacteria.
What is the quantum nature of time? We may be on the verge of discovering it
Quality Stock / Alamy
How does time manifest for a genuine quantum entity? The most advanced clocks can rapidly address this query, enabling us to test various ways to manipulate and alter the quantum realm, thereby delving into the uncharted territories of physics.
The notion that time can shift originates from Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity. As an object approaches the speed of light, it appears to experience time more slowly compared to a stationary observer. He expands upon this with a general theory of relativity, which demonstrates a similar temporal distortion in the presence of a gravitational field. Igor Pikovsky from the Stevens Institute in New Jersey and his team aim to uncover whether a similar effect occurs within the microscopic quantum landscape, utilizing ultra-cold clocks constructed from ions.
“The experiments we’ve performed until now have always focused on classical time, disregarding quantum mechanics,” says Pikovsky. “We’ve observed a regime where conventional explanations falter with an ion clock,” he continues.
These clocks consist of thousands of ions cooled to temperatures nearing absolute zero via laser manipulation. At such low temperatures, the quantum state of an ion and its embedded electrons can be precisely controlled through electromagnetic forces. Thus, the ticks of an ion clock are governed by the electrons oscillating between two distinct quantum states.
Since their behavior is dictated by quantum mechanics, these instruments provided an ideal platform for Pikovsky and his colleagues to investigate the interplay between relativistic and quantum phenomena on timekeeping. Pikovski mentions that they’ve identified several scenarios where this blending is evident.
One example arises from the intrinsic fluctuations inherent in quantum physics. Even at ultra-low temperatures, quantum objects cannot be completely static and instead must oscillate, randomly gaining or losing energy. Team calculations indicated that these fluctuations could lead to extended clock time measurements. Although the effect is minute, it is detectable in current ion clock experiments.
The researchers also mathematically analyzed the behavior of ions in a clock when “compressed,” resulting in “superpositions” of multiple quantum states. They found that these states are closely linked to the motion of the ions, influenced by their internal electrons. The states of ions and electrons are interconnected at a quantum level. “Typically, experiments necessitate creative methods to establish entanglements. The intriguing aspect here is that it arises organically,” explains team member Christian Sanner from Colorado State University.
Pikovski asserts that it is intuitive to think that quantum objects existing in superposition cannot simply perceive time linearly, though this effect has yet to be experimentally confirmed. He believes it should be achievable in the near future.
Team member Gabriel Solch from the Stevens Institute of Technology mentions that the next step is incorporating another crucial aspect of modern physics: gravity. Ultra-cold clocks can currently detect temporal extensions caused by significant variations in the Earth’s gravitational pull, such as when elevated by a few millimeters, but the exact integration of these effects with the intrinsic quantum characteristics of the clock remains an unresolved question.
“I believe it is quite feasible with our existing technology,” adds David Hume from the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Colorado. He highlights that the primary challenge is to mitigate ambient disturbances affecting the clock to ensure it doesn’t overshadow the effects suggested by Pikovsky’s team. Successful experiments could pave the way for exploring unprecedented physical phenomena.
“Such experiments are thrilling because they create a platform for theories to interact in a domain where they could yield fresh insights,” remarks Alexander Smith at St. Anselm College, New Hampshire.
Humans are inherently social beings. Our evolution took place within communities, leading to the creation of the complex civilizations we know today. At a fundamental level, we crave the company of others.
So, why might you occasionally wish for some time alone on this planet?
I consider myself a humanist, a pluralist, and generally a pleasant individual. However, there are moments—though I seldom admit it—when I yearn for the mass of humanity to fade away, at least for a while.
After all, with a global population of 8 billion, I can’t be the only one. The urge to find solitude can be just as powerful as our innate need for companionship.
Research highlights this desire: Loneliness. It reflects the negative feelings and emotional states that arise when you don’t carve out some personal time for yourself.
Introverts like myself are particularly attuned to this, though we are not alone in our feelings.
Advantages of Spending Time Alone
Parents grappling with long school holidays can find this challenge overwhelming. Those who live in bustling shared spaces or work in hectic environments, like schools and hospitals, share similar sentiments.
Interestingly, the concept of solitude fascinates many. Dr. Thuy-vy Nguyen, a Professor of Psychology at Durham University, emphasizes its importance through her research. She asserts that spending time alone facilitates recovery from stress.
“Our research consistently shows that being alone is beneficial for emotional regulation,” she explains.
“Initially, we induce stress in participants during experiments. Following this, we allow them to spend time alone in a room, where they experience noticeable calm in just 15-30 minutes.”
Remarkably, this emotional calming effect diminished when participants were with others, possibly because solitude offers essential opportunities for rest and renewal.
Engaging in activities like hiking in nature or pursuing creative hobbies can be fulfilling—Credit: Ipei Naoi via Getty
Feelings of anger, anxiety, and excessive excitement are often accompanied by cognitive burdens, which appear to dissipate when we allow ourselves to be alone.
Nguyen has even observed physical changes. “We track cortisol levels, which indicate stress, and see it decrease with solitude,” she notes.
This gentle feeling of relief is just one of the benefits. Research during the Covid-19 lockdown showed that solitary time could boost creativity. Other studies indicate that time spent alone can enhance self-compassion and resilience.
The Difference Between Loneliness and Solitude
It might sound odd to some, especially those who view solitude as detrimental. It’s often linked to poor mental health, increased cardiovascular risks, and a higher likelihood of early mortality.
However, it’s crucial to differentiate between loneliness and solitude. Loneliness can feel imposed, but solitude is something one can embrace and nurture.
Nguyen suggests introducing structure into your alone time, stating, “Empty time can be daunting for many. Give yourself a task.”
In one experiment, she found that participants who sorted hundreds of pencils preferred this engaging activity over simply sitting idle. Another study revealed that some individuals would choose to self-administer mild electric shocks rather than endure the discomfort of doing nothing.
In her free time, Nguyen enjoys crafting miniature models, a healthier alternative to mindless screen time. Other fulfilling options could include reading, gardening, tackling jigsaw puzzles, or sketching.
“Opt for a hands-on activity,” she advises, but avoid jumping straight to your phone.
Nguyen is currently exploring how distracting devices might disrupt the cognitive processes that solitude can stimulate.
“When we are alone, we gain the chance to reflect on our days,” she remarks. “However, smartphones often divert our attention and push us into multitasking instead.”
Another tip is to get outside when possible, especially if you feel overwhelmed.
“If you’re constantly surrounded by stress, you might struggle to leave that environment when alone,” Nguyen explains. “That’s why many parents feel the need to step outside their homes. There’s a marked difference between just being alone and dedicating time to oneself.”
When lonely parents express a need for space during busy holiday seasons, they’re speaking a universal truth.
“Individuals who feel a lack of belonging are significantly more prone to experience impostor syndrome.”
FatCamera/Getty Images
As September draws near, a new academic year begins. Many students, including one of my readers, are transitioning from the comfort of their family homes to university life. She is the first in her family to pursue higher education and is anxious about fitting in.
In recent decades, psychologists have identified various reasons why individuals may feel disconnected. Attribution can impact their happiness. Thankfully, research presents multiple strategies to help mitigate these feelings—methods that could be helpful for those battling impostor syndrome, where one feels unworthy of their achievements.
First, it’s essential to recognize that emotions can be quite variable. Studies suggest that those lacking a sense of belonging often grapple with impostor syndrome. One moment you may feel like you’ve found your place; the next, you may question your abilities after receiving negative feedback.
Stanford University’s Gregory Walton has explored various strategies aimed at bolstering students’ sense of belonging. One intervention involves sharing narratives from past students, highlighting their anxieties and how they managed to overcomes them. Participants are then asked to articulate their own concerns and the steps they take to foster a sense of home. Positive outcomes can be observed both in the short and long term, boosting grades and overall well-being over time.
As Walton discusses in his book Normal Magic, we can all apply these insights. A valuable first step is identifying experiences that challenge our sense of belonging. Then, it’s important to articulate those feelings to others without self-judgment, followed by considering alternative perspectives.
For example, if you feel socially ignored, you might speculate that it stems from elitism about your background. However, it’s equally plausible that the individual who snubbed you is merely having a poor day, or could even be possessing a difficult personality. Ultimately, their behavior is not reflective of everyone’s opinion around you.
As you build your confidence, you can enhance your involvement with the community in question.
David Robson is a celebrated science writer and author of Laws of Connection: 13 Social Strategies that Change Your Life
Alongside exploring the psychology of attribution, Gregory Walton’s famed work, Normal Magic: The Science of How to Achieve Great Change in Small Acts, offers actionable strategies to overcome mental hindrances in both our personal and professional spheres.
For more projects, please visit newscientist.com/maker
Combination Asthma Inhalers are likely the best treatment choice for individuals of all ages
sbdigit/getty images
Inhalers, providing both immediate and long-term relief, are already the standard treatment for mild asthma among individuals over 12 in the UK, US, and other regions. A recent study involving nearly 400 children in New Zealand indicates these inhalers are even more effective for younger kids, nearly halving the number of asthma attacks.
Team members have stated that whether these findings will prompt changes in national and international guidelines remains uncertain. Andy Bush from Imperial College London asserts that the evidence is compelling. “If you’re a child with asthma, I have those combinations,” he remarks.
The traditional treatment for mild asthma involved an inhaler containing salbutamol, which relaxes airway muscles for about 3-4 hours. These “rescue” inhalers were to be used as needed.
If the rescue inhaler was inadequate, patients were provided with a separate inhaler containing steroids that help reduce inflammation caused by asthma. These “preventive” inhalers required regular usage to ensure protective benefits. Bush comments, “Previously, I had to take inhaled steroids twice a day for them to work, but it’s now evident that’s not always necessary.”
Studies involving teenagers and adults have indicated that combination inhalers outperform the previous treatment method, even when used on an as-needed basis. The steroids found in these combination inhalers are budesonide, while the reliever is formoterol, which acts similarly to salbutamol but lasts for 12 hours.
Concerns regarding the use of combination inhalers by children have emerged due to potential growth effects from steroid components; however, the latest research showed no negative impact during the trial period. The study involved 360 children randomly assigned to use either budesonide-fluticasone or steroid fluticasone twice daily, with additional relief administered as required during severe asthma episodes.
In other studies, the use of combination inhalers led to a decrease in overall steroid intake, according to Bush. This is because using the inhalers on an as-needed basis causes the dosage of inhaled steroids to adapt according to symptom severity. Fewer attacks mean fewer individuals need to “step up” to the combination inhaler two times daily or rely on steroid pills.
Long before dinosaurs roamed the Earth, peculiar creatures abandoned their journeys across the ocean floor. They resembled beings adorned with spiked helmets and had eyes positioned on top, along with sharp tails extending behind them.
Today, horseshoe crabs still exist and belong to the animal order known as Xiphosura, derived from ancient Greek, meaning “sword” and “tail.” Despite their name, they are more closely related to spiders than to crustaceans.
Fossils of horseshoe crabs date back to the Upper Ordovician period, approximately 450 million years ago. Their descendants—four existing species—have undergone significant changes in appearance, earning them the title of “living fossils.”
Despite their ancient lineage, horseshoe crabs are crucial in today’s world. Most people eventually come into contact with life-saving doses of bright blue blood derived from these creatures.
Importantly, it also harbors their blood. Amebocytes, a powerful immune cell are exceptionally sensitive to harmful toxins produced by bacteria. Endotoxins, prevalent in the environment, are resistant to standard sterilization methods.
Should a vaccine contain endotoxins, it could trigger a dangerous reaction historically known as “injection fever.”
Previously, tests were conducted by injecting a vaccine batch into a living rabbit; if any exhibited a fever, it signified contamination.
In the 1960s, American marine biologists observed that the blue blood of horseshoe crabs coagulated instantly upon contact with fever-inducing endotoxin. This mechanism allows horseshoe crabs to encapsulate bacteria by forming clots around them, proving beneficial for human applications.
Now, rather than injecting rabbits, hundreds of thousands of horseshoe crabs are harvested from the ocean each year, with a third of their blood extracted to test for endotoxins in intravenous medications and medical implants.
Many people eventually encounter the vibrant blue blood of a life-saving horseshoe crab – Image credit: Jurgen Freund/Naturepl.com
The demand for blue blood has surged, especially with the competition surrounding the development of the COVID-19 vaccine.
Not all horseshoe crabs survive the blood collection process; approximately 15-30% do not. Conservationists are advocating for synthetic alternatives to blood tests.
In the 1990s, researchers in Singapore developed a method to create synthetic endotoxin detection using a compound based on horseshoe crab DNA. Currently, various alternative compounds mimic this reaction without utilizing horseshoe crab blood.
Although regulatory processes have been sluggish, these new compounds received approval for use in Europe in 2016 and 2024. Nowadays, pharmaceutical companies are increasingly opting for synthetic methods.
This development bodes well not just for horseshoe crabs but also for other species reliant on them. Each year, thousands of horseshoe crabs come ashore on sandy beaches along North America’s East Coast, particularly in Delaware Bay, where eggs are laid near Philadelphia.
A single female lays around 4,000 eggs, many of which become vital sustenance for migratory birds like the red knot, which journey between South America and the Canadian Arctic.
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Small towns in South Texas are urgently seeking alternative drinking water sources as persistent droughts threaten to deplete their main supply.
Mattis City typically relies on Lake Corpus Christi for its drinking water; however, the intensifying drought is projected to drop levels too low for safe extraction, according to Cedric Davis from the city.
“It’s not about completely running out of water,” said Davis. “It’s just challenging to access clean water from the lake, as the extraction process brings up sediment.”
That sediment can harm urban filtration and treatment systems, he noted. According to 2020 data from the US Census Bureau, Mattis has a population of approximately 4,300.
The situation in Texas underscores the escalating challenges faced in drought-affected areas nationwide, as climate change alters rainfall patterns and reduces the availability of safe drinking water.
In 2023, New Orleans experienced a drinking water emergency when saltwater infiltrated upstream due to unusually low levels in the drought-impacted Mississippi River.
Last year, ongoing drought and years of low precipitation led to alarmingly low reservoir levels in Mexico City, resulting in significant water shortages for North America’s most populous urban areas.
South Texas has a long history of dry spells, with much of the region categorized as facing “moderate” or “severe” drought conditions. The US Drought Monitor publishes updated color-coded maps weekly to illustrate the extent and severity of droughts nationwide.
Extreme dryness has resulted in falling water levels in Lake Corpus Christi.
“There isn’t enough rain to restore the lakes and reservoirs in South Texas,” said Davis, indicating that several municipal and small community areas will need to seek emergency solutions.
Davis mentioned that projections indicate lake levels may become critically low by late December. Thus, the city is initiating the drilling of two emergency wells to ensure a continued supply of drinking water.
Although the project is still in the planning stages, Davis expressed hope that the permitting process and lease agreement with the Texas Parks and Wildlife division could be expedited. If all goes well, excavation may commence by the end of October.
“If everything goes as planned and we can install the wells by late December, we should be fine,” stated Davis.
Nonetheless, city officials are exploring additional contingency options, including potentially expensive desalination plants and wastewater treatment and reuse systems.
Paleontologists have identified a new species, Eurhinosaurus—a genus of Longirostrin Ikchosaurus from Europe, notable for its remarkable overbite found in Bavaria, southern Germany.
“Iktiosauria is a varied group of reptiles excellently adapted to marine environments, thriving from the early Triassic to the early Cretaceous,” stated Dr. Gael Spicher, a researcher at the Jurassica Museum, Fribourg University, and Reinish Friedrich Willells-un Universetita Bonn and Kokog.
“Fishes show morphological traits like fin-modified limbs, elongated snouts, deep bisexual spines, and developed caudal fins, confirming their complete adaptation to aquatic life.”
“Uoshima had a widespread distribution during its existence.”
“Particularly, southern Germany is renowned for its rich fossil record of Uoshima from the Lower Jurassic, specifically the Posidonianscifer formation, which has yielded thousands of specimens.”
“In these Lower Jurassic ichthyosaurs, Eurhinosaurus is a relatively scarce creature,” they noted.
“Its paleogeographical range is confined to modern-day Europe, with fossil records from Germany, the UK, France, Luxembourg, and Switzerland.”
“This genus is distinguished by its unique, elongated, slender snout with pronounced overbites, resulting from significantly shorter mandibles compared to the upper jaw (over 60%).”
The newly identified species Eurhinosaurus exhibits a typical maxillary extension characteristic of its genus.
It has been named Eurhinosaurus Mistelgauensis, which existed during the Jurassic period approximately 180 million years ago.
Three specimens of the new species were unearthed at the Mistelgau Clay Pit, part of the Jurensismismergel Formation in southwestern Bailos in northern Bavaria, Germany.
“The fossil includes two nearly complete skeletons and a partial snout, preserved in three dimensions in a semi-articulated state, showcasing elements from multiple angles,” explained the paleontologist.
“Their preservation is exceptional, displaying bones in three dimensions, which is a remarkable find and highlights the significance of documenting such specimens.”
According to the author, these specimens belong to the Eurhinosaurus genus.
“The well-preserved fossils from Mistelgau offer invaluable insights into Eurhinosaurus and significantly enhance our understanding of this historically important Uoshima,” they concluded.
Survey results were published this week in the journal Fossil Record.
____
Ge Spicher et al. 2025. New Eurhinosaurus (Ichthyosauria) species from the Lower Jurassic (Toarcian) in Mistelgau (Bavaria, southern Germany). Fossil Record 28(2): 249-291; doi: 10.3897/fr.28.154203
The persistent appeal of books may hinge on more than their narratives
Tetra Images, LLC/Alamy
What causes certain novels to be forgotten over time while others achieve bestseller status upon release only to vanish later? This research suggests the answers may lie within the intricacies of their language and sentence structure.
Prior studies have delved into the attributes that elevate certain books to bestseller status. Charming male protagonists often dominate; however, we know little about the factors that sustain a novel’s popularity a century later.
For deeper insights, refer to Leyao Wang from York University in Toronto, Canada. She and her colleagues examined 300 English novels published between 1909 and 1923. Half of these titles have made it to the top 10 bestseller lists. Publishers weekly commenced its trade in 1872 with titles like Lucky Young Man by William John Locke and Black Cow by Gertrude Thurston.
However, these novels don’t appear in readers’ top 10 read lists—past, present, or future. This data reflects the publication year of the novels. The other half, which includes titles like The Mysterious Affair at Styles by Agatha Christie and Anne of Avonlea by Lucy Maud Montgomery, regardless of their bestseller status at the time, continue to gain traction on Goodreads today.
The research team employed AI models to classify these two categories based on 70% of the selected novels. When these models analyzed the full text for word patterns, it was observed that bestsellers were generally longer and incorporated more colloquial expressions like “yeah,” “oh,” and “okay.” These books also made greater use of punctuation.
Researchers assert these characteristics don’t carry the same weight in capturing today’s readers’ interest, yet they significantly enhance readability and overall appeal.
Notably, modern favorites tend to be concise yet feature more complex sentences and vocabulary. This prompted researchers to question whether this necessitates greater attention from readers.
When the AI models were evaluated against the remaining 30% of books, they successfully categorized them with approximately 70% accuracy.
“Numerous other factors likely influence longevity, such as themes, marketing strategies, and author recognition, yet our findings indicate that aspects of the text alone can potentially predict timelessness without considering these more apparent external factors,” the researchers noted. Gaining an understanding of what elements render literature both captivating and enduring “could prove crucial for both publishers and authors.”
However, Dorothy Hale at the University of California, Berkeley cautions that the impact of a novel should be assessed over a century before deeming it timeless. She highlights that the popularity of well-established classics also varies over time. “While many might regard Shakespeare as the quintessential timeless author in English literature, there’s a current trend in American institutions to drop Shakespeare requirements from English majors,” she observes.
Crafting Science Fiction: Immersive Writing Workshops, UK
Dive into the realm of science fiction and discover how to craft captivating sci-fi stories during this engaging weekend workshop.
Airway inflammation can arise from smoking or air pollution exposure
Lysenko Andrii/Shutterstock
Severe airway inflammation hampers the ability of mice to discern when dangerous situations are no longer a threat, indicating that lung conditions may influence emotions and behaviors. This connection between lung health and brain function could clarify why a small number of individuals who undergo trauma develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Sah and her team delved deeper into the correlation by observing eight mice exhibiting severe asthma-like symptoms. Their lungs were exposed to mites, inducing an allergic response and subsequent inflammation. Three days afterward, the mice were placed in cages and subjected to three mild electric shocks.
Over the subsequent six days, researchers returned the mice to the cage for five minutes daily, monitoring the duration they stood frozen in fear. On average, these mice were immobilized for about 40% of the final session, which was twice as long compared to another group of 11 mice without lung inflammation who faced the same electrocution.
The two groups did not exhibit differences in fear response the day after the shocks. However, the first group’s prolonged fear response after several days suggests that significant airway inflammation hampers the brain’s ability to recognize when a threat has subsided. “In PTSD patients, this process is dysfunctional, leading to persistent fear memories,” Sah elucidates.
The experiment was replicated with another set of mice experiencing severe lung inflammation, but this time, a medication inhibiting an inflammatory molecule called interleukin-17a was administered. During their final session in the previously shocked cage, these mice displayed about half the freezing response of those that did not receive the medication.
Further analysis revealed that immune cells in brain regions known as subcutaneous organs have receptors for this inflammatory molecule. Unlike most brain areas, subcutaneous organs lack a blood-brain barrier, a protective layer that limits substance exchange between blood and neurons. Consequently, it serves as a “window to the brain,” allowing it to monitor bodily changes and respond accordingly, according to Sah.
The team discovered that immune cells in this region sense inflammatory signals from the lungs, activating adjacent neurons that relay information to the cerebral cortex, a brain region associated with threat recognition.
Using a specialized compound known as chemogenetics, researchers inhibited this signaling pathway in mice with severe lung inflammation, resulting in a notable decrease in their freezing behavior post-shock.
“In essence, severe lung inflammation can impact higher cognitive functions and the ability to navigate traumatic experiences,” asserts Sah. She posits that similar pathways likely exist in humans, as the brain circuits regulating fear are comparable across species.
Other studies suggest that chronic psychological stress diminishes immune responses. Sah speculates that a heightened immune response, in turn, impairs cognitive functions such as the recognition of a threat’s resolution, possibly due to the body reallocating resources from the brain to combat lung issues.
“This research is crucial for understanding the connection between the body and mind,” states Douglas Vanderbilt from Los Angeles Children’s Hospital. He further discusses how his research indicated that children with severe asthma exhibit more pronounced PTSD symptoms. “What we’re uncovering suggests that these brain-body interactions are intricate, so this is likely not the only pathway,” he notes, pointing out that psychological stress from asthma attacks could also influence PTSD risk.
Sah emphasizes that this pathway might vary in women, as only male mice were utilized in her study, suggesting potential differences across genders that warrant additional investigation.
Ultimately, these discoveries may enhance our ability to identify individuals more susceptible to PTSD. For instance, medical professionals might consider screening children with severe asthma for mental health issues, as proposed by Vanderbilt. He further suggests that this line of research could lead to innovative PTSD treatments, such as immunotherapy aimed at reducing inflammation.
Kitchen gadgets have evolved from air fryers to Spyra Lizards. The latest multipurpose countertop cookers are vying for attention, offering more than just the current essential consumer items.
With their versatility, they aim to become a practical substitute for traditional stove and oven setups.
If you’ve ever wondered why restaurant dishes are so succulent, the answer is steam cooking. Steam ovens are prevalent in professional kitchens due to their ability to cook food quickly without drying it out.
Steam transfers more thermal energy than dry air and condenses on the food, delivering that energy directly for faster, more even cooking.
Smeg has ingeniously incorporated the steam rice cooker into the Combi oven, designed compactly to fit on your countertop. Within, the water tank connects to a boiler system.
Selecting the steam function heats the water in the boiler, releasing steam into a spacious 30-liter chamber.
You can also combine steam with roasting for crispy meats, potatoes, or bread, or choose from 10 other functionalities, such as air frying, baking, grilling, and defrosting.
Although its 33 automatic programs may seem daunting, intuitive controls and a steam cleaning feature enhance user-friendliness. Compared to standard ovens, SMEG’s small cavities heat up more quickly and consume less energy.
Daewoo Halogen Air Fryer Oven boasts a maximum capacity of 17 liters, capable of roasting a whole chicken at once – Credit: Daewoo
Several features set Daewoo apart in the competitive Air Fryer landscape.
First, its transparent glass galley provides a 360° view of your food as it cooks, eliminating the need to open the drawer and lose heat while checking.
Second, its standard 12-liter galley can be expanded to 17 liters with extender rings.
While larger countertop ovens like Smeg and Gastroback offer increased capacity, it’s uncommon to find this volume in a dedicated air fryer. Most traditional models max out around 10 liters. This ample space, combined with an adjustable rack, enables you to roast an entire chicken or prepare a full meal at once.
Lastly, unlike conventional air fryers that utilize fans with metal heating coils, Daewoo employs a halogen bulb in conjunction with the fan for faster heating.
The intense heat produced allows for a crispy exterior while maintaining moisture inside. However, caution is advised as overcooking can occur easily. Additionally, halogen air fryers may not be as energy-efficient as regular basket models.
Ninja Multi-Cooker features nine modes, including air frying, pressure cooking, steaming, grilling, sautéing, dehydrating, yogurt making, and more – Credit: Ninja
The air fryer has long been known for its efficiency and versatility. Nevertheless, manufacturers have extensively enhanced their functionality, integrating features that rival traditional stoves and ovens.
Take, for instance, the Ninja Foodi 9-in-1, which offers not just air frying but also eight additional cooking modes, including pressure cooking, steaming, grilling, sautéing, dehydrating, and yogurt making.
Two distinct lids manage the various functions: a pressure lid for high-pressure cooking and a crisp lid for air frying—which can also be used with the steam feature when the vents are open.
The heating elements and fan within the lid circulate hot air to brown the food effectively.
The bottom heating element provides gentle heat suitable for yogurt or direct heat for baking and sautéing.
It’s a robust appliance that occupies considerable counter space, and the central lid can be quite imposing. However, its energy savings become significant, particularly when preparing family-sized meals.
Gastroback oven functions as a pizza oven, rotisserie oven, air fryer, and more – Credit: Gastroback
Wood-fired pizza ovens have undergone style and structural upgrades in recent years, leading to their increased presence even in smaller outdoor spaces.
For those without gardens—or who prefer convenience—an all-in-one countertop oven brings the quick cooking and delicately crisp results you desire.
The Gastroback Design Oven Air Fry & Pizza is equipped with six heating elements—four on top and two bottom—that allow for individual control, providing precise heat management for various functions.
Air frying, baking, roasting, dehydrating, and thawing utilize all elements in combination with a built-in convection fan.
The upper elements are ideal for browning and grilling, while the lower elements are suited for reheating pastries and toast.
By removing the rack and adding skewers, the Gastroback can transform into a rotisserie oven. Alternatively, you can employ a ceramic pizza stone with the upper heating elements for pizza.
In its 22-liter chamber, the Gastroback warms up more rapidly than a larger traditional oven.
Energy savings are most apparent with small dishes or quick meals; however, using it solely for toasting or reheating may compromise efficiency as smaller appliances might perform just as well.
One trade-off with the Gastroback’s size is the reduced capacity for larger dishes compared to a conventional 60-liter oven. With numerous features and accessories, the learning curve may seem daunting at first.
Javanese slow loris reacts while receiving snacks at Ujung Kulon National Park
Garry Rothulung
These images depict the release of Javan Slow Lorises into Ujung Kulon National Park in Java, Indonesia, last month.
Photojournalist Garry Rothulung has joined the Indonesia International Animal Rescue Agency team. The nonprofit Initiatives for Environmental Rehabilitation in Indonesia (Yiari) released a Javan Slow Loris and transported the animals back to their habitat (as shown below).
Volunteers transporting Javan slow loris
Garry Rothulung
The Javan slow loris (Nycticebus javanicus) is critically endangered due to rainforest habitat loss and being captured for the pet trade or for traditional medicine. These animals often have their teeth removed, which prevents them from eating in the wild. However, rescued individuals can be rehabilitated, and Yiari works to release them back into their natural environment.
Javan slow loris can be seen during the habituation process
Garry Rothulung
While the slow loris appears adorable, it is one of the few poisonous primates in the world. When threatened, they raise their arms to mix secretions from their elbow glands with their saliva, creating a toxic substance.
Volunteers observe slow loris in Java
Garry Rothulung
This dual-action defense mechanism is characteristic of the slow loris. While the biology of their venom is not fully understood, their bites can cause severe pain, slow healing, and may provoke allergic reactions. The venom also serves to protect their fur from parasites such as mites and fleas.
These animals received vitamins (as shown in the main image) and were placed in a monitoring enclosure (see above). “They will be observed for several days to two weeks to help them acclimate to the wild before their permanent release,” Rothulung explains.
Ludovic Slimak contributed to revealing the remains of Thorin, a Neanderthal
Laure Metz
The Last Neanderthal Ludovic Slimak (translated by Andrew Brown) (Polity Press (UK, September 26, US, November 24))
Chance findings of Neanderthal skeletons, hardened soot, and small arrowhead tools beneath leaves at the French Grotte Mandrin have reshaped not only our perception of Neanderthals but also our understanding of early Homo sapiens migrations into Europe.
More intriguingly, this cave has unveiled insights about the initial interactions between the two groups and the reasons behind the success of one species and the extinction of another. This pivotal issue is explored in The Last Neanderthal: Understanding How Humans Die, a new work by Ludovic Slimak, a paleontologist from the University of Toulouse who spearheaded the excavations at Grotte Mandrin.
The narrative focuses on Thorin, a Neanderthal fossil unearthed in 2015 at the cave’s entrance, which revealed five teeth during the excavation. The delicate recovery of this singular discovery required painstaking care, extracting each grain of sand with tweezers over seven years to uncover fragments of his skull and hand.
The Last Neanderthal is a deeply introspective and philosophical work, evoking a vivid sense of what it would have meant to explore Thorin’s existence and the myriad groups that inhabited the cave over millennia. Slimak notes that the unique scent of Grotte Mandrin originates from ancient fire soot preserved within the calcite layers of its walls, forming a distinctive ‘barcode’. This barcode can be accurately dated, providing timelines for various occupations and indicating that Homo sapiens arrived just six months after the Neanderthals vacated the cave. The book reveals that Thorin appears unexpectedly, causing Slimak to express his astonishment, stating, “I did not expect to find a Neanderthal body lying by the roadside, walking through the forest like that. It’s astonishing.”
The jaw of Thorin, a Neanderthal fossil unearthed in 2015
Xavier Muth
This prompts further contemplation about the reasons behind the Neanderthals’ extinction. Although much discussion centers around their decline due to competition with Homo sapiens or climate shifts caused by volcanic eruptions and magnetic field reversals, Slimak offers a fresh perspective. He highlights that the evidence found at Grotte Mandrin points to a layer of small triangular stone points used as arrows by the earliest Homo sapiens, who arrived around 55,000 years ago.
These artifacts bear a striking resemblance to those produced by Homo sapiens at the Ksar Akil site in Lebanon, located nearly 4,000 km away and dating to a similar timeframe. This suggests that these early humans exhibited a far more sophisticated method of sustaining and standardizing practices across extensive social networks, leading Slimak to conclude they had a much more effective “way of life” compared to the Neanderthals, who lived in smaller, isolated groups lacking such consistency.
While one might envision a dramatic battle between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals, the reality was notably different. Slimak draws parallels with the collapse of numerous indigenous communities in post-colonial regions globally, asserting that Neanderthal groups gradually disintegrated when faced with others who possessed a more efficient existence. “The demise of humans reflects the disintegration of their worldview… not through overt violence, but through whispers,” he observes.
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The bones were painstakingly excavated using tweezers to remove one grain of sand at a time. “
Although it is profoundly melancholic to ponder, immersing oneself in the realm of these vanished beings through The Last Neanderthal is a unique privilege.
The infant’s brain functions at a distinct rhythm compared to that of adults
Goodles/Aramie
When infants attempt to comprehend their surroundings, their brain activity reveals slower rhythms compared to adults, aiding them in grasping new concepts.
Our brains utilize a network of neurons to interpret sensory input. When a neuron receives a sufficiently strong signal from its neighbor, it transmits that signal to other neurons, generating synchronized waves of electrical activity that alternate between activated and silent states.
These brain waves manifest at various frequencies. A specific brain area may show a greater proportion of neurons synchronized to one frequency over others if it exhibits a range of frequencies simultaneously. For instance, prior research indicates that the adult visual cortex displays a diverse range of frequencies when individuals are observing stimuli, but in higher proportions, more neurons synchronize with the waves at a frequency of 10 hertz.
To determine if the same holds true for infants, Moritz Kester from the University of Regensburg in Germany along with his colleagues enlisted 42 eight-month-olds via their parents. The researchers recorded the infants’ brain activity with electrodes affixed to the scalp, exposing them to dozens of friendly cartoon monsters for about 15 minutes, each monster flashing for two seconds.
The team relied on the fact that brain waves tend to oscillate in sync with rapidly flickering images, enabling them to assess the number of neurons synchronized to various frequencies within the infants’ visual cortex. Each monster was toggled on and off at eight different frequencies ranging from 2 to 30 hertz.
Analysis of the brain activity data revealed that the visual cortex produces waves of synchronized activity in response to the flickering cartoons. However, the most prominent signals emerged at four hertz, indicating greater synchronization with this flicker frequency than with others.
Moreover, this 4-hertz signal was consistently present even when the brain was exposed to flickering at higher frequencies, such as 15 hertz. “What’s particularly intriguing is that regardless of the different frequencies presented, a response at 4 hertz was always observed,” comments Kester.
This rhythm falls within a frequency band known as theta, which is associated with the formation of new concepts, potentially facilitating learning for young children as they observe their environment. “It suggests that infants are in a specific learning mode,” Kester explains.
Researchers supporting this theory further discovered that there were no 4-hertz EEG signals in the visual cortex, nor EEG signals at other frequencies, suggesting a broader neural circuit involvement in other brain areas related to concept formation.
Repeating the experiment with seven adults confirmed prior findings that visual brain circuits are predominantly activated by the 10 hertz frequency, which was also found to persist in the background despite varying speeds of the cartoon flickering.
Further research is necessary to establish whether exposure to 4 hertz flickering images can enhance infants’ capacity to learn new concepts, according to Emily Jones at Birkbeck, University of London. The team is hopeful to gain further insights in an ongoing study, Kester added.
A supernova may have directed cosmic rays towards Earth
Muratart/Shutterstock
Approximately 10 million years ago, a volatile star might have unleashed cosmic rays toward Earth, and astronomers are currently narrowing down the potential culprits behind this cosmic event.
Earlier this year, Dominique Koll of Helmholtz Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf and his colleagues in Germany discovered a spike in radioactive beryllium trapped in five kilometers of sediment in the Pacific Ocean, dating back over 10 million years. This form of beryllium is generated exclusively when cosmic rays collide with the Earth’s atmosphere, leading Koll and his team to hypothesize that a supernova explosion might be the origin of this event.
Nonetheless, alternative explanations cannot be dismissed. These include the Sun’s magnetic influence on Earth at that time and the possibility of ocean currents from Earth’s poles contributing to beryllium deposition, areas where cosmic rays and beryllium production are typically more intense.
Now, Efrem Maconi from the University of Vienna and his team have pinpointed two likely supernova candidates using data obtained from the Gaia space telescope.
By examining the trajectories of roughly 2,700 stars near our Sun over the past 20 million years and assessing their potential to produce supernovae, Macconi and his colleagues determined that there is a 70% probability of such events occurring among these star clusters.
Researchers have identified two possible progenitors for the explosion. The most probable one, located about 200 light years away, is a relatively young cluster named ASCC 20, while the cluster OCSN 61, situated further away, is also a potential source.
Additional support for the supernova theory is that 10 million years ago, our solar system was engulfed in a bustling region of the galaxy, surrounded by extensive clouds of gas, dust, and stars known as the Radcliffe waves.
“This is a promising indication that warrants further investigation,” says Koll. “If [Maconi] were to claim we could fully eliminate this possibility, I would happily accept that as a solid conclusion. However, in this instance, it certainly remains intriguing.”
Further modeling of stellar movements will be necessary to ascertain whether these stars indeed played a role, yet this hypothesis aligns well with other findings in Earth’s geological history. Unlike cosmic rays that travel close to the speed of light, dust moves much slower, making it plausible that beryllium spikes resulted from cosmic rays from a supernova initially impacting Earth.
World Capital of Astronomy: Chile
Explore the astronomical wonders of Chile. Visit some of the most cutting-edge observatories and gaze at the stunning starry skies beneath some of the clearest atmospheres on Earth.
For millennia, individuals have harnessed the transformative power of plants and fungi, using substances like ayahuasca, cannabis, psilocybin mushrooms, and tobacco in spiritual ceremonies to reshape their perceptions of reality.
Justiceia Pecteris
Jill Pflugheber and Steven F. White
Recently, a new book sheds light on these psychoactive and medicinal plants and fungi, revealing their intricacies through advanced microscopy techniques.
Virola theiodora
Jill Pflugheber and Steven F. White
Utilizing confocal microscopy, which employs laser scans at varying depths to produce sharply focused images of intricate specimens, this advanced technique is primarily used in academic research.
Neltuma pallida
Jill Pflugheber and Steven F. White
Jill Pfluber from the University of Kentucky applied confocal microscopy to explore 50 revered plants and fungi across the United States. Her findings contribute to Microcosm: Sacred Plants of the Americas, a publication co-authored with independent historian Stephen F. White.
Cannabis
Jill Pflugheber and Steven F. White
The outcome is a captivating exploration into the hidden complexities of some of the world’s most esteemed plant species, as explained by White. He emphasizes their goal of creating “plant art” that challenges and enriches people’s understandings of sacred plants. “We aspire for those who encounter Microcosm to develop a newfound respect for these plants,” he states.
Theobroma cacao
Jill Pflugheber and Steven F. White
From their primary photography, the images present some results of their exploration: Brugmansia Suaveolens; Justicia Pecteris; Virola theiodora; Neltuma pallida; Cannabis; and Theobroma cacao.
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One factor in our aging process is the buildup of mutations in our cellular DNA.
Mohammed Elamine Aliwi / Alamy
Clusters of proteins seem to significantly influence the rate of DNA repair within our bodies, which in turn determines how quickly mutations accrue in cells throughout one’s life. This dynamic can significantly influence both aging and lifespan.
“It is a very reliable indicator of lifespan across humans and other animals,” states Trey Ideker from the University of California, San Diego. His research team aims to discover treatments that might enhance lifespan by increasing DNA repair mechanisms.
Some researchers assert that the evidence linking this specific protein complex—a collection of two or more proteins that collaborate for a biological function—to mutation rates is compelling. However, more investigation is necessary to concretely establish the relationship between aging and longevity.
Regarding why we age, one proposed theory is that it results from the gradual accumulation of mutations in cellular DNA. As these mutations pile up, the functionality of cellular machinery declines, leading to a cascade of issues.
Cells act like repair teams that address broken DNA, yet their efforts aren’t always adequate. In fact, the efficacy of DNA repair varies, likely influenced by genetic factors.
Ideker’s team has currently compiled evidence indicating that a protein complex known as Dream acts as a master regulator of DNA repair. This complex operates like a supervisor for the repair team. Each complex, potentially existing in numerous identical copies in every cell, is formed by various proteins, and the acronym DREAM reflects the names of its components.
Initially, DREAM was thought to control cell division, but it is now known to repress hundreds of genes tasked with DNA repair, including BRCA2, a gene that heightens breast cancer risk when mutated.
The research group created a metric for DREAM activity by scrutinizing the over 300 genes they initially manage. “This study aims to demonstrate unmistakably that high DREAM activity correlates with increased aging and reduced longevity, while low DREAM activity is favorable for longevity,” he explains.
Using data from studies involving over 100,000 mouse cells across various tissues, the researchers established that cells exhibiting greater DREAM activity harbor more mutations. Subsequently, they examined data from 92 mammalian species and confirmed a strong correlation between reduced DREAM activity and extended maximum lifespans.
In another facet of their experiment, they scrutinized data from a study involving 90 cells, including 80 individuals with Alzheimer’s disease, discovering a connection between DREAM activity and increased risk.
The team also engineered mice to lack the DREAM complex; this was a challenging task since each constituent protein has a unique role, and the entire complex is crucial for cell division early in development. Mice without it would not survive.
To navigate this challenge, they employed a drug-induced genetic strategy to deactivate the DREAM genes when the mice reached 8 weeks of age. The knockout mice exhibited 20% fewer deletion and insertion mutations in brain cells compared to their normal counterparts as they aged, though Ideker notes that the disruption to their lifespan didn’t reflect a significant extension. “The experimental design may not have been suited to uncover that,” he admits. “We now aim to conduct a more conclusive experiment linking it to extended lifespan.”
Despite this, Ideker believes the amassed evidence paints a clear picture. “Our findings indicate that DREAM plays a crucial role in aging and is indeed a significant factor in the accumulation of lifelong mutations,” he asserts.
“These are groundbreaking and significant findings,” remarks JoeãO Pedro de Magalhães from the University of Birmingham, UK. “The data from their mouse studies indicate a causal connection between DREAM and mutation levels,” he notes; however, the researchers haven’t yet established a direct causal link with aging. “To prove this, we must demonstrate that mice exhibiting low mutation rates also enjoy increased lifespans.”
This illustrates why the theory that mutation accumulation is a key factor in aging remains unproven. Advocates like Ideker reference conditions such as Progeria, wherein individuals age prematurely due to compromised DNA repair mechanisms. Others, including de Magalhães, cite a lack of evidence that simply accumulating mutations is a driver of typical aging, although it does correlate with heightened cancer risk.
Even should DREAM complexes prove instrumental in aging, their multifaceted functions complicate the development of treatments. “Achieving a total loss of DREAM functionality, as we have done, may be too drastic,” advises team member ZANE KOCH from UCSD. “Mildly suppressing DREAM could be the optimal approach for extending lifespans.”
The Antarctic is experiencing higher temperatures than expected
Eyal Bartov / Alamy
Since early September, air temperatures in Antarctica have soared beyond 35°C (63°F), accompanied by a significant reduction in wind speeds, with ozone depletion halting unexpectedly.
This scale of change is typically anticipated only every two decades, according to Martin Zicker from the University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. However, such phenomena appear to be occurring with increasing frequency, with similar transient disruptions noted last year, alongside more severe occurrences in both 2019 and 2002.
Jucker observes that four of these events have appeared within just 25 years, indicating ongoing unpredictable shifts in the global climate system.
Typically, air temperatures in Antarctica hover around -55°C (-67°F), but have been unrelentingly rising to -20°C (-4°F) since September 5th. Although still extremely cold, this shift has resulted in the polar vortex winds decreasing relatively gently to 100 km/h.
While this warming event has not yet met the formal criteria for sudden stratospheric warming, Jucker notes that for that classification to apply, the winds need to cease entirely—not just for weeks but in response to the warmth itself. He warns that the repercussions in the Southern Hemisphere could be dramatic over the ensuing months.
Initially, Australian meteorologists forecast a wetter spring than normal, but they are now signaling potential impacts from a powerful system over western Australia, likely pushing the region into warmer and drier conditions.
Unusual weather patterns may persist. Jucker indicates that one possible scenario could see a return of the polar vortex, bringing atmospheric temperatures back to their typical averages.
Conversely, the temperature anomaly might continue, with expectations of further increases up to 20°C (36°F). This could lead to erratic weather in the higher latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere.
The reason behind this anomaly remains unclear scientifically, but Jucker asserts that it’s almost guaranteed that rising sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean, possibly increasing by 1°C (1.8°F) to 3.6°F, are connected.
“The presence of three significant typhoons in the Pacific can be traced to these warmer sea temperatures,” remarks Jucker. “We’ve witnessed markedly strange weather patterns over the last two years, coinciding with this substantial rise in ocean temperatures.”
Edward Dodridge from the University of Tasmania in Hobart, Australia, emphasizes the array of extreme changes occurring at the southernmost point of the globe. Recent years have seen a dramatic deceleration in sea ice loss, heatwaves, widespread breeding failures among Emperor Penguin colonies, and shifts in Antarctic circulation.
“Antarctica continues to astonish us,” he notes. “While each change is noteworthy on its own, my primary concern is witnessing shifts that not only reinforce themselves but also ripple through various components of the Antarctic ecosystem.”
“The loss of summer sea ice facilitates the fracturing of ice shelves, which in turn accelerates ocean warming. This warmer seawater melts the remaining ice shelves at an increased rate.”
Fire and Ice: Exploring Iceland
Experience thrilling days filled with volcanic and geological exploration. Discover Iceland’s stunning landscapes and seize the evening chance to witness the Aurora Borealis in October.
Growing your own fruits and vegetables isn’t a novel idea. But what if you could cultivate your own meat right at home? This is the vision that Japanese companies are striving to turn into reality.
Shojinmeat Project empowers individuals to grow their own meat, much like planting vegetables, without harming any animals in the process.
This innovation is known as cultivated meat, created by harvesting some animal cells and nurturing them in tanks referred to as bioreactors. It’s authentic meat, but it doesn’t come from farms or slaughterhouses.
What is the Shojinmeat Project?
Yuki Hanu serves as the founder and director of the Shojinmeat project, describing his company as a non-profit citizen science initiative. The goal is to allow chefs and food lovers to grow custom meat on location.
While the project hasn’t completely perfected the growth of whole pork cuts yet, it has made promising progress.
“We’ve successfully established completely DIY methods for cultivating animal cells,” Hanu remarks. The project plans to provide instructions for growing small amounts of meat at home, including a shopping list of easily accessible items you can find online or locally.
A spin-off of the Shojinmeat Project, Integrated Culture, has developed a bioreactor system that can be used in both household and restaurant settings. Although it’s pre-assembled and slightly less DIY than the Shojinmeat kit, Hanu claims it’s significantly cheaper than traditional lab-grade bioreactors used in commercial meat production.
Integrated Culture provides more variety; according to Hanu, their bioreactors can grow over 30 types of cells from various animals and fish. “However, it is an industrial process,” he adds.
In comparison, Shojinmeat suggests using chicken for home cultivation, as it’s easier to source and grow than other types of meat.
Individuals looking to grow their own meat can select from various Integrated Culture kits in different sizes or get advice from the Shojinmeat project to build their own setups – Credit: Shojinmeat Project
Understanding the Process
So, you’ve decided to grow your own chicken at home. What’s the first step? It’s time for some shopping.
The Shojinmeat project presents a list of items that can be sourced from supermarkets or online, amounting to around 60,000 yen (about £300 or $400).
Essential items to gather include fertilized chicken eggs, warm towels, sports drinks, and collagen-coated dishes, though you can modify the components as you like.
The aim is to replicate the conditions found in lab cell cultures. Hanu explains: “Once the right cells are placed in the appropriate medium, they will grow under the right conditions for a set duration.”
Once you’ve obtained everything necessary, extract the cells from the fertilized chicken eggs and maintain them at a temperature of 37°C (98.6°F) with a pH of 7.4.
This is where an incubator comes in handy, but fortunately, the towels can serve a warming purpose.
Chicken cells require attachment to a structure known as a cell scaffold, fulfilled by your collagen-coated dishes.
Additionally, the cells need a supply of sugar, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, which Hanu refers to as the “basal medium.” This is where your sports drink comes into play.
If you’re not inclined to manage all these individual components, you can opt for the Cellular Agriculture Starter Kit from Integrated Culture. It includes all essential basal media, serum, starter cells, and necessary cell scaffolds, though it starts at a minimum of £440 ($600).
read more
Safety is understandably a concern when preparing food, especially meat. However, according to Hanu, the key priority once you’re operational is to keep your equipment clean, which should help mitigate issues with your homemade meat.
“It’s crucial to prevent contamination from mold, bacteria, and other unwanted elements,” he points out. “This is the most frequent cause of failure in cell culture.”
One effective strategy is to add egg whites containing a naturally antibacterial protein called lysozyme. Although Hanu emphasizes this is not 100% foolproof, it’s just one of several measures to help your cells flourish.
Remember to cook your meat before consuming it, just like you would with any other raw chicken, to avoid foodborne illness.
Once operational, the primary challenge is maintaining a clean environment to prevent contamination – Credit: Shojinmeat Project
Results: A Small Yield
After all this effort, you may hope for sufficient cells to produce a whole roast chicken. However, you might come away a bit let down.
Hanu indicates that the Shojinmeat method can currently yield around one gram of edible meat.
“Creating meat effectively at home has been made possible through the development of equipment and protocols, but the volume and quality of what you can produce requires further consideration,” he states. “At present, it might be rather modest, but it’s termed ‘DIY cell culture.’”
Hanu acknowledges that his homemade meat sample was too small to be used in recipes, adding:
Not only is the quantity of homegrown meat lacking, but cultivated meat in laboratories can replicate intricate textures that mimic real meat fibers using plant fibers and 3D printing. However, homemade versions haven’t achieved this level yet.
“Generating full muscle tissue with marbling and texture involves sophisticated tissue engineering,” Hanu explains. “With our technology, our products are cultured cytoplasmic, yielding a final product more akin to spam or sausage.”
If you still dream of producing gourmet chicken sausage at home, these DIY kits could help make that a reality.
Who knows? In a few years, your newest kitchen gadget may not be an air fryer; instead, an incubator could be quietly nurturing your rib-eye steak right beside it.
The Big Bang may have been an explosive rebound from a collapsing black hole.
According to a new study led by Enrique Gastagnaga at the University of Portsmouth, this paper posits that the Big Bang was actually a “big bounce,” triggered when matter fell into a massive, compressed black hole, leading to a rebound and subsequent expansion that formed the universe.
“In essence, our entire observable universe could exist within a black hole in a larger universe,” Gastagnaga stated. BBC Science Focus.
I was trapped in event horizon
A recently published study in Physical Review D re-evaluated the fate of a dense, large gas cloud collapsing under its own gravity.
Instead of leading to an infinitely dense point known as a singularity, this research suggests that the collapse halts at a certain point before bouncing back.
This rebound initiates a rapid expansion akin to what cosmologists theorize occurred post-Big Bang. In a way, our reality might be trapped at the event horizon of a black hole.
The “black hole universe model” offers insights into key issues concerning the current mainstream understanding of cosmology known as the standard model.
The standard model necessitates a period of inflation, suggesting the entire cosmos expanded rapidly just moments after the Big Bang. It also involves “dark energy,” the elusive material responsible for the universe’s expansion.
“However, we lack a true understanding of these components,” Gastagnaga noted. “Conversely, both phases of rapid expansion arise naturally in the black hole universe model, attributed to its bounce geometry and dynamics.
“One compelling aspect of this model is its simplicity. It relies solely on gravity and quantum mechanics to elucidate the expansion, inflation, and dark energy of the universe without requiring additional assumptions or unknown elements.”
The black hole universe model does face its own distinct challenges. For instance, dark matter remains poorly understood. We recognize the presence of this invisible material throughout the universe, holding galaxies together, yet astronomers struggle to identify its nature.
“Certain forms of dark matter could be linked to remnants from our universe’s collapse phase, but further exploration of this idea is necessary,” Gastagnaga revealed.
Our entire universe might be confined within the event horizon of a black hole – Credit: Getty Images
If the universe originated in a black hole, we could still exist within one. Some of the black holes we observe might represent mini cosmos, each with their own miniature black holes.
“This can be envisioned as a nested structure—one black hole within another, akin to Russian nesting dolls,” Gastagnaga explained.
However, not every one of the trillion black holes in our universe necessarily contains its own miniature cosmos, as the size of the black holes influences the time available for small structures to form.
“Large black holes (like ours) allow for the development of galaxies, stars, and planets, while smaller ones may evolve too rapidly for anything noteworthy to occur,” Gastagnaga stated.
“This is crucial because gravitational collapse predicts the existence of significantly smaller black holes than the large ones. The fact that we reside within one of the rare, very large cases might not simply be a coincidence.
The concept of a black hole universe emerged when Gastagnaga and his team adopted a new perspective on the origins of our universe.
“Rather than assuming the universe began with an inexplicable ‘bang’, we reversed our approach, starting with matter collapsing into a black hole,” he detailed.
It all revolves around the principle of quantum exclusion principle. In brief, this principle asserts that two identical particles cannot occupy the same space at once.
Thus, there exists a limit to how densely particles can be arranged before compaction becomes untenable according to the quantum exclusion principle.
This limitation is one reason why stars like white dwarfs do not simply collapse under their own weight.
“The exclusion principle is also applicable to some black holes,” Gastagnaga explained. “It halts material from collapsing into a singular point by slowing the process, stopping it at high density, causing a bounce, and entirely avoiding singularity.”
Relic black hole
The theory that the universe began with the Big Bang is sound in theory, but cosmologists cannot confirm its validity until it undergoes testing.
Fortunately, this theory generates specific predictions regarding the appearance of our universe, allowing astronomers to assess its validity.
“We predict that the universe is slightly curved; it behaves like a sphere but isn’t perfectly flat,” Gastagnaga explained.
The first direct visual evidence of a black hole (at the heart of the elliptical galaxy Messier 87 in the Virgo constellation) was captured by the Event Horizon Telescope in April 2017. -Photo Credit: EHT Collaboration
Most efforts to measure the universe’s curvature have indicated it is flat, but there may exist subtle bends that current methods are not sensitive enough to detect. Hence, the European Space Agency’s Euclidean spacecraft is engaged in the most precise measurements of cosmic curvature to date, with completion expected by 2030.
“It also predicts the presence of Relic black holes and Relic neutron stars—objects that survived the bounce and formed during the collapse stages, which may still exist today,” Gastagnaga added.
These relics could have shaped the evolution of galaxies and stars over time. There is potential to identify the signatures of these artifacts in our current observations of the universe, revealing whether they reside within black holes.
Different varieties of Homo, such as Homo Longhi, coexisted during the mid-Pleistocene era. The debate over whether these fossilized humans represent distinct species continues. The 1-million-year-old Yunxian 2 skulls from China are crucial for understanding the beginnings of Homo. In a recent study, paleontologists applied cutting-edge technology to recover and reconstruct the distorted Yunxian 2 fossils. Their findings indicate that this skull exhibits both primitive and advanced features in a mosaic pattern. Team analysis proposes that it belongs to an early Asian branch of Homo Longhi, which is closely related to Denisovan and is a significant part of the clade leading to Homo sapiens.
Reconstruction of Homo Longhi in its habitat. Image credit: Chuang Zhao.
Fossil evidence indicates the presence of multiple forms of Homo during the mid-Pleistocene period.
A significant portion of what we know about human evolution and archaic humanity is based on fossil skulls.
Nonetheless, many specimens from this time are damaged or deformed, creating uncertainty in species classification.
For instance, three human skulls from the Yunxian site in China, dating back nearly a million years, exhibit a mix of primitive traits.
The two already known Yunxian fossils, Yunxian 1 and 2, both show distortion. The newly discovered Yunxian 3 skull is still under analysis.
In this recent study, Dr. Xiaobo Feng, affiliated with Shanghai University and Huqiaotech University, along with his research team from the Yunxian Man Site’s Garden Team Laboratory, utilized advanced CT scanning and digital reconstruction methods to address the compression and distortion present in Yunxian 2.
The team’s analysis reveals a blend of previously unidentified primitive and derived characteristics, suggesting that this fossil belongs to the Asian Homo Longhi clade, closely related to Homo sapiens, which may include Denisovan traits.
Individuals within the Homo Longhi clade display distinctive traits, such as a larger cranial capacity, narrower eye spacing, a pronounced graveller depression, and a lower elongated frontal bone, all of which are evident in the Yunxian 2 fossils.
Researchers further posit that the Yunxian fossil is likely the oldest within the Homo Longhi clade, making it particularly significant.
“With geological ages ranging from 0.94 to 1.1 million years, Yunxian is closely aligned with the theoretical origins of the Longhi and Sapiens clades,” the team stated.
“Phylogenetically, it is nested within the Homo Longhi clade. However, its mosaic characteristics retain some plesiomorphic traits seen in Homo Erectus and Homo Elgustar. While Kabwe and Petralona show shared apomorphic traits, Homo Longhi and Homo sapiens may exhibit transitional functions close to the clade’s origin.”
“The narrow temporal gap between Yunxian and the deeper Longi nodes suggests a swift, early diversification of the Longi clades, similar to those of Sapiens and Neanderthals.”
A study detailing these findings will appear in the journal Science this week.
____
Xiaobo Feng et al. 2025. The phylogenetic position of the Yunxian head in relation to Homo Longhi and Denisovan. Science 389 (6767): 1320-1324; doi: 10.1126/science.ado9202
When the Mendocino earthquake erupted off the California coast in 2024, it shook structures from their very foundations, triggered a 3-inch tsunami, and sparked intriguing scientific investigations in the server room of a nearby police station.
More than two years prior to the quake, scientists had installed a device known as the “Dispersed Acoustic Sensing Interrogation Room” at the Alcata Police Station located near the coast. This device utilizes a laser directed through a fiber optic cable that provides internet connectivity to the station, detecting how the laser light bends as it returns.
Recently, researchers revealed in a study published in the Journal Science that data collected from fiber optic cables can effectively be used to “image” the Mendocino earthquake.
This research demonstrates how scientists can convert telecommunication cables into seismometers, providing detailed earthquake data at the speed of light. Experts noted that this rapidly advancing technology has the potential to enhance early earthquake warning systems, extending the time available for individuals to take safety measures, and could be critical for predicting major earthquakes in the future.
James Atterholt, a research geophysicist for the US Geological Survey and lead author of the study, stated, “This is the first study to image the seismic rupture process from such a significant earthquake. It suggests that early earthquake warning alerts could be improved using telecom fibers.”
The study proposes equipping seismometers with devices capable of gathering sparse data from the extensive network of telecommunications cables utilized by companies such as Google, Amazon, and AT&T, making monitoring submarine earthquakes—often costly—more affordable.
Emily Brozky, a professor of geoscience at the University of California, Santa Cruz, asserted that “early earthquake warnings could be dramatically improved tomorrow” if scientists can establish widespread access to existing communication networks.
“There are no technical barriers to overcome, and that’s precisely what Atterholt’s research emphasizes,” Brozky mentioned in an interview.
In the long term, leveraging this technology through fiber optic cables could enable researchers to explore the possibility of forecasting some of the most devastating earthquakes in advance.
Scientists have observed intriguing patterns in underwater subduction zones prior to significant earthquakes, including Chile’s magnitude 8.1 quake in 2014 and the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami in Japan.
Both of these major earthquakes were preceded by what are known as “slow slip” events that gradually release energy over weeks or months without causing noticeable shaking.
The scientific community is still uncertain about what this pattern signifies, as high-magnitude earthquakes (8.0 or greater) are rare and seldom monitored in detail.
Effective monitoring of seismic activity using telecommunications networks could enable scientists to accurately document these events and assess whether discernible patterns exist that could help predict future disasters.
Brodsky remarked, “What we want to determine is whether the fault will slip slowly before it gives way entirely. We keep observing these signals from afar, but what we need is an up-close and personal instrument to navigate the obstacles.”
While Brodsky emphasized that it’s still unclear whether earthquakes in these extensive subduction zones can be predicted, she noted that the topic is a major source of scientific discussion, with the new fiber optic technology potentially aiding in resolving this issue.
For nearly 10 years, researchers have been investigating earthquake monitoring through optical fiber cables. Brodsky stated that the study highlights the need for collaboration among the federal government, scientific community, and telecommunications providers to negotiate access.
“There are valid concerns; they worry about people installing instruments on their highly valuable assets and about the security of cables and privacy,” Brozky explained regarding telecom companies. “However, it is evident that acquiring this data also serves the public’s safety interests, which makes it a regulatory issue that needs to be addressed.”
Atterholt clarified that fiber optic sensing technology is not intended to replace traditional seismometers, but rather to complement existing data and is more cost-effective than placing seismometers on the seabed. Generally, using cables for earthquake monitoring does not interfere with their primary function of data transmission.
Jiaxuan Li, an assistant professor of geophysics and seismology at the University of Houston, noted he was not involved in the study but mentioned that there are still technical challenges to the implementation of distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) technology, which currently functions over distances of approximately 90 miles.
Li also pointed out that similar methods are being employed in Iceland to monitor magma movements in volcanoes.
“We utilized DAS to facilitate early warnings for volcanic eruptions,” Li explained. “The Icelandic Meteorological Office is now using this technology for issuing early alerts.”
Additionally, the technique indicated that the Mendocino tremors were rare “supershear” earthquakes, which occur when fault fractures advance quicker than seismic waves can travel. Atterholt likened it to a fighter jet exceeding the speed of sound.
New research has serendipitously uncovered patterns associated with Mendocino, providing fresh insights into this phenomenon.
“We still have not fully grasped why some earthquakes become supershear while others do not,” Atterholt reflected. “This could potentially alter the danger level of an earthquake, but the correlation remains unclear.”
The Yunxian 2 skull, although deformed, has been reconstructed to resemble an early Denisovan.
Gary Todd (CC0)
Our species’ origins may extend further back than previously believed, and the same could hold true for both our extinct Neanderthal and Denisovan relatives. A recent analysis of fossil remains suggests that the common ancestors of these groups emerged over a million years ago.
“If these ancient divergences are accurate, we might be overlooking significant details about the early history of these lineages,” states Chris Stringer from the Natural History Museum in London.
This finding could clarify the search for “ancestor X,” the lineage from which modern humans, Neanderthals, and the population that produced the Denisovans descended. It also may imply that the Denisovans were our closest relatives, potentially even closer than Neanderthals—a point that remains debated.
Stringer and his research team, which includes Xijun Ni from the Institute for Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology in Beijing, revisited the Yunxian fossil collection located in central China.
Two partial skulls were unearthed on a terrace above the Han River in 1989 and 1990; reported in 1992. Both skulls were crushed during their discovery, although the YUNXIAN 2 specimen sustained less damage.
Using advanced techniques, Stringer, Ni, and their colleagues reconstructed the Yunxian 2 skull. These methods include CT scans that digitally separate individual bone fragments from the surrounding sediment. “The skull is elongated and has a prominent brow ridge,” Stringer notes. “Additionally, it features a slight beak-like nose, small third molars, and larger teeth.”
The Yunxian 2 skull dates back between 940,000 and 1.1 million years. Specimens of this age are often classified as Homo erectus, which appeared around 2 million years ago in Africa before dispersing to South Asia and Indonesia approximately 108,000 years ago. However, Stringer asserts that Yunxian 2 doesn’t conform to this profile; many of its features are characteristic of later specimens, including Neanderthals.
To better understand the Yunxian 2, the research team compared it with 56 other fossils of the same group. They constructed a family tree based on the morphology, grouping related fossils together. This analysis revealed three significant lineages, encompassing most fossils from the past million years.
One lineage consists of modern humans (Homo sapiens), another includes Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) who lived in Europe and Asia for several hundred thousand years before disappearing around 40,000 years ago, and the third represents the Denisovans from East Asia.
Denisovans were first identified in 2010 through DNA from a bone fragment, and it took 15 years to connect this lineage with larger fossils. Stringer was involved in interpreting the Harbin skull from China, which was identified as Denisovan in June based on molecular evidence. Yunxian 2 appears to fall into the early Denisovan category, much like several other Asian fossils.
This discovery provides important links among these fossils in the Denisovan lineage, according to geneticist Aylwyn Scally at Cambridge University: “This allows us to form better hypotheses about the Denisovans’ whereabouts, lifestyle, and species characteristics.”
Recognizing that Yunxian 2 is a Denisovan reshapes our recent understanding of human evolution in two significant ways. First, it appears to alter the timeline of the emergence of these three groups. Traditional genetic narratives suggest that the common ancestor, “ancestor X,” diverged into two branches. However, the reconstruction indicates that Neanderthals separated first about 1.38 million years ago, before the divergence of modern humans and Denisovans around 1.32 million years ago.
If validated, this hypothesis posits that Denisovans were indeed more closely related to us than Neanderthals, challenging established genetic theories. Nonetheless, Scally expresses caution, noting the complexities of inter-group histories: “In reality, straightforward phylogenetic trees don’t provide a complete picture.” The research relies more on “entangled networks” than traditional models. Furthermore, Scally suggests that genetics may provide clearer insights into these relationships than morphology, especially with only partial skeletal evidence available.
The second significant change is that all three groups appear to have emerged much earlier than previously thought. Genetic evidence generally indicates that modern humans split from their Neanderthal and Denisovan relatives around 500,000-700,000 years ago. However, Yunxian 2 suggests that the Denisovan lineage was already distinct one million years ago.
Scally adds that there may not be a single definitive date for these splits; instead, they likely occurred over extended periods with intermittent separations and reunions. In this case, Stringer and his colleagues may be correct that divergence began over a million years ago, stretching across hundreds of thousands of years.
This extended timeline raises new questions. The oldest known fossils of modern humans date to around 300,000 years ago. So where are the earlier ancestors from millions of years ago? “We either lack those fossils, or they’re present but unrecognized,” Stringer comments.
We also know little about “ancestor X”—its appearance and habitat remain a mystery. “Ten years ago, I would have stated that the likely origin of most of these groups was Africa,” Stringer reflects. “It now seems plausible that their forebears lived outside Africa, potentially in regions of Western Asia. This suggests that ancient sapiens ancestors likely migrated to Africa, evolving there for a large portion of that million-year timeline.”
Stringer highlights the scarcity of known fossils from Western Asia dating back a million years, noting that even India has limited evidence. Only one human fossil from that period exists. “There are numerous regions where our fossil record is strikingly thin,” he asserts.
A significant source of information is the Yunxian site. In 2022, a third skull was uncovered that seems to be in better condition, although it has yet to be analyzed.
Neanderthals, Ancient Humans, Cave Art: France
Join New Scientist’s Kate Douglas on an enthralling journey through time as she delves into significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Archaeologists have unearthed two Neanderthal track sites across various regions in Europe. At Monte Clerigo, approximately 78,000 years ago, three distinct trackways illustrate how Neanderthals traversed the dune landscape. This behavior implies advanced route planning, as the dune environment may have been conducive for ambush hunting and stalking prey. Additionally, a solitary footprint found at the Praia do Telheiro site indicates the presence of Neanderthals in the Dune Ecosystem 82,000 years ago.
Following guidance, a reconfiguration scenario for Monte Clérigo TrackSite generated by AI tools. Image credit: JM Galán/ai.
“Footprints provide a snapshot of a specific moment, capturing events such as group movements, tracking, and interactions with particular landscapes.”
“The footprints reveal how Neanderthals utilized their environment, exploring coastal areas, forests, sand dunes, and riverbanks.
Neanderthal footprints have been identified at two distinct locations.
At Monte Clerrigo, five tracks and 26 footprints were left by both adults and children over a year old on the steep slopes of coastal sand dunes.
At Praia do Telheiro, isolated footprints were found, likely made by teenagers or adult women, alongside bird tracks typical for coastal and rocky environments.
“The quantity, size, and arrangement of footprints enable us to deduce the minimum number of individuals present, their age ranges (children, adolescents, adults), and even the specific activities (like a hunting party),” noted the researcher.
“Child and baby footprints, which seldom separate from archaeological traces, are identifiable due to their smaller size, offering insights into their social structure.”
“These footprints provide a unique perspective on daily life, serving as a snapshot from tens of thousands of years ago.”
A general view of the main truck site with the human trackway on the north cliffs of Monte Crerigo Beach, Portugal. Image credit: de Carvalho et al. , doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-06089-4.
The analyzed footprints reveal exercise strategies adapted to the landscape, suggesting planned routes, proximity to living areas, potential hunting activities, and coexistence with other species.
For instance, one track shows evidence of interactions with human footprints alongside newly formed deer tracks, supporting theories of pursuit or ambush tactics in the dune environment.
The findings confirm that Neanderthals primarily consumed deer, horses, and marine resources, exhibiting a varied dietary strategy.
“The consistent presence of these mammalian species underscores their role as reliable food sources, regardless of the varying environments occupied by Neanderthals,” stated the scientists.
“Additionally, the Neanderthal diet also included species from nearby coastal habitats, showing an extensive foraging strategy that utilized local biodiversity.”
The team’s research paper was published on July 3rd in Scientific Reports.
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Cn de Carvalho et al. 2025. The Neanderthal coast and the first Portuguese human track site. Sci Rep 15, 23785; doi:10.1038/s41598-025-06089-4
“Today’s solar panels will inevitably reach the end of their lives and will require recycling or disposal.”
Jacques Hugo/Getty Images
By the mid-2020s, solar energy had become a major player. It emerged as the most affordable form of power generation and was also one of the fastest-growing sources of energy. The lifespan of solar panels had extended significantly, lasting around 30 to 40 years. However, eventually, these panels would need to be recycled or disposed of. By 2050, predictions indicated that there could be as much as 160 million tonnes of solar module waste. While this amount was considerably less than that produced by fossil fuel sources, it still posed a challenge.
Researchers began exploring how to create self-healing and even self-organizing solar panels.
By the mid-2030s, advancements had led to the creation of live solar panels, also known as biological solar power generation (BPV), which were deployed globally. The aesthetically pleasing, natural look of this technology made it popular, leading to the mantra of “yes, in my backyard,” and rapid adoption of living sunlight technology.
One of the first benefits was easily observed in off-grid rural areas, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where BPVs provided energy for mobile phones and computers without the need for batteries. As the technology progressed, older buildings were revamped into BPVs resembling green walls and roofs, while new structures incorporated living solar panels right from the design phase, allowing more people to become less dependent on traditional grid energy. This also helped boost local biodiversity and enhance overall happiness.
BPV operates like a fuel cell, where electrons move from the cathode to the anode, generating electricity. In biological contexts, electrons are produced by photosynthetic organisms and subsequently transferred to the anode.
Back in 2011, scientists became intrigued by the phenomenon of electrical leakage from cyanobacteria in sunlight. They discovered that by placing cyanobacteria on electrodes, they could harvest current to power small electronic devices.
However, the electrical output was weak due to insufficient electron leakage from the bacteria. Scientists like Chris Howe from Cambridge University worked on genetically modifying cyanobacteria to enhance electron leakage, allowing them to be connected to electronic devices.
In 2022, Howe’s team found that they could power computers solely using photosynthesis. Soon after, scientists made significant strides in their ability to scale up current harvesting and develop devices powered by biological energy sources worldwide.
“
Members of Homo Photosyntheticus pledged to limit their electricity consumption strictly to that derived from photosynthesis. “
With the improvement in BPV technology, larger devices like mobile phones and refrigerators began operating on batteries charged by living solar cells. Electric vehicles could be charged using arrays of biological solar panels installed in garages and depots, leading to a reduced need for metals like lithium and manganese.
Remarkably, the devices continued to function in low light. At night, the cells metabolized compounds created during the day, producing a comparable amount of electrons to maintain power.
The rise of living solar technology had numerous implications. As buildings adopted a green aesthetic, urban planners started integrating more nature into streets and public areas. Even densely populated cities began to exhibit a vibrant green atmosphere, teeming with trees, plants, flowers, and wildlife.
The success of BPVs inspired a movement focused on integrating the organelles of plant cells responsible for photosynthesis. This enthusiastic group, identifying as members of Homo Photosyntheticus, drew inspiration from solar-powered sea slugs and incorporated chloroplasts sourced from plant leaves into their own biology.
Sea slugs have evolved methods to sustain and manage chloroplast functionality; however, they sometimes require additional chloroplasts. They possess a leaf-like structure that maximizes surface area, yet the energy obtained through photosynthesis only meets a small fraction of their energy requirements. For humans, without the cellular infrastructure to support chloroplast function or leaf-like shapes, this method could only yield negligible energy.
Nevertheless, for self-identified members of H. Photosyntheticus, the incorporation of chloroplasts held significant symbolic meaning. They engaged in what they referred to as “greening,” committing to utilize only electricity generated directly through photosynthesis—eschewing fossil fuels altogether! Additionally, they commonly tattooed chloroplasts on their skin as a visible testament to their dedication.
Feedback is New Scientist Popular Sideways covers the latest in science and technology. You can reach out to Feedback@newscientist.com to share items you believe will captivate our readers.
The study reveals that high school students exhibit a “generally low interest in plants,” leading to “plant blindness.” Teachers, frustrated by the challenge of igniting interest in botany, often find themselves repeating tired lessons. Plants are deemed an afterthought, making visits to the garden seem less inviting. It’s disheartening; interest in botany should be more pronounced.
However, as autumn leaves begin to fall, researchers have proposed a novel solution: showing a Taylor Swift music video.
This might appear off-track. Swift wouldn’t typically be seen as a conventional instructional tool. Yet, her videos prominently feature numerous plants. “Out of the 61 official music videos on Swift’s YouTube channel, 53 (87%) contain elements related to plants,” the authors note.
By incorporating videos like green cardigan into the curriculum, educators can introduce concepts such as “photosynthesis, light competition, forest waste, nutrient cycling, seasonal changes, canopy structure, plant growth habits, and morphology.”
Botany is a captivating field, filled with beauty and challenges, and students show enthusiasm for learning about plants, echoing, “You look like my next mistake.”
Botany Communicator: This is a game-changer. Embrace it! Stop denying your inner Swiftie and start incorporating her videos as teaching tools. Soon, you’ll have your students engaged.
Feedback eagerly awaits updates from researchers who find inspiration in Showgirl’s Life, as I slowly drift towards my favorite city.
Acronyms Galore
Feedback continues its mission to uncover the most imaginative scientific acronyms. Readers have highlighted two noteworthy examples. Credit where it’s due for discovering them!
Firstly, Eric Foxcroft points out that Graham Lawton’s discussion of chronic sinus infections included a “number of pages in columns” which mentioned mid-nasal results or runny noses. This was literally beneath our noses! While our feedback addressed the concept of “runny noses” way back in 2001, it seems we had forgotten, so it’s time to bring it back.
Meanwhile, Johann Gottalt Olsen highlighted a recent SeptemberNature paper detailing unique rock formations discovered by the Mars rover, which may indicate ancient life on Mars. This was mentioned in New Scientist and notably included an acronym Olsen found that we missed.
One instrument is called Rimfax, a nod to the Norse mythical horse Hrímfaxi. The acronym cleverly stands for “radar imager for underground Mars experiments.”
But it gets better! “We also encountered Shelllock and Watson,” Olsen writes, representing “scanning habitable environments with Raman and organic matter emission” and “wide-angle terrain sensors for operation and engineering.” Olsen continued:
Feedback is curious as to why “patience” didn’t also lead to Raman rainbow colors and radiation tomography monitors. It’s essential to keep up with the feedback in New Scientist from time to time!
Creatures, Gremlins, and More
Exciting news from the Wall Street Journal reveals that OpenAI is producing its first film. Well, kind of. OpenAI is “lending tools and computational resources” to Vertigo Films, which will create films based on concepts from OpenAI’s “creative specialist” Chad Nelson.
The film is titled Cricktails, likely due to its clever spelling. A previous title, Creatures, belongs to a Science Fiction Comedy Horror film from 1986. The plot centers on “a forest creature embarking on an adventure following the destruction of its village by an outsider.”
This feature expands on the 2023 short film, Cricktails, which you can watch for free on YouTube. The short is noted as the first animated film crafted entirely using DALL-E’s generative AI, creating all visuals, characters, and backgrounds—the entirety of Crikterz’s world.
Only DALL-E could generate such unique designs as seen in Critterz. Where are the Wild Ones? Despite the desire for more animation, one YouTube commenter quipped, “I enjoy watching the whole movie with a character standing still, staring at me.”
Feedback has gathered ample content, so you can expect that the best joke is the film is narrated by “David Attenborough’s neighbor Dennis.” I’m eager to see how this unfolds as a full-length feature. Mark your calendars for its anticipated debut at Cannes next year!
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The addition of nanoparticles may provide a solution to a longstanding challenge in the plastic manufacturing industry. The question remains: how can we develop materials that are robust, durable, and easy to handle?
Hu-Jun Qian from Jilling University in China and his team refer to this dilemma as the plastic trilemma. Enhancing the polymer’s deformability often becomes challenging, leading to materials that are either overly viscous or difficult to manipulate.
To tackle this, the researchers incorporated polystyrene-based nanoparticles into several widely used plastics. For instance, they enhanced PEMA, a polymer commonly used in manufacturing hearing aids, artificial nails, acrylic glass for aquariums and glasses, as well as PVC used in construction and packaging.
The team subjected the modified material to various tests to determine its stretching capacity before failure. Overall, the newly developed materials exhibited improved performance across multiple assessments, sometimes showing remarkable differences. The findings indicated that PEMA became about 50% stronger with the inclusion of nanoparticles. “This lays down essential design principles for next-generation polymers featuring previously unattainable property combinations,” Qian explains.
To further investigate the advantages of incorporating nanoparticles, the researchers also performed computer simulations of the new materials. These simulations indicated that nanoparticles could shift and redistribute within the material under stress, enabling a slow and smooth deformation rather than catastrophic failure. This mobility was equally advantageous for plastics that become more fluid when molten, making them stronger, more durable, and viable.
Qian notes that this innovative approach aligns with existing industrial processes and can be scaled up effectively. “This method could transform applications needing lightweight, durable, and easily manufactured materials, including composites for automotive and aerospace, sustainable packaging, biomedical devices, and highly recyclable plastics,” he asserts.
“By challenging the concept of fixed personality types, we can enhance our happiness.”
Simone Rotella
Avoid trying to fit yourself into modern medical paradigms. The notion that you must conform to certain traits to be accepted is flawed. Traditionally, personality has been viewed as a set of stable characteristics, leading many to feel defined by their genetic predispositions. However, these ideas are misguided.
Personality traits support this fluidity. While many identify strictly as extroverts or introverts, Carl Jung, who coined these terms, said it’s a spectrum, with few being purely one type or the other. Your enjoyment of socializing can shift depending on circumstances—who you are on a chilly Wednesday might diverge from who you are on a sunny Saturday.
Regardless of your tendencies, maintaining social connections is crucial for well-being. Extroverted traits are linked to resilience against stress, such as elevated heart rates and blood pressure. The Harvard Study of Adult Development followed around 700 men over 80 years and found that nothing is more vital than nurturing social relationships.
Of course, many who favor intimate settings or require solitude also maintain rich social lives. During the loneliness crisis, introverted labels risk becoming shields to reduce social engagement.
Before the Covid-19 pandemic, younger individuals in the U.S. were more likely to identify as introverts compared to older generations. The pandemic accelerated this trend, pushing many toward isolation. A study showed that from 2021 to 2022, we experienced declines in openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness compared to pre-2020 levels . This is concerning, as one in six people report feeling lonely, a condition linked to cognitive decline, cardiovascular issues, and early mortality, with younger individuals being increasingly affected.
Even if you see yourself as a die-hard introvert, embracing a social side may be more feasible than you think. Indeed, research from 2022 shows that the more rigid your introverted self-image, the more stress you feel when attempting to be outgoing. This suggests that relaxing your self-perception could foster intentional shifts in behavior.
Are you already quite extroverted? You might find value in strengthening your reflective abilities—traits commonly seen in those who prefer quieter lives. Similarly, enhancing qualities tied to happiness, like emotional regulation or becoming more open to new experiences, has proven to be cultivable.
Challenging the notion of fixed personality types can lead to increased happiness for everyone. However, embracing this can first require confronting an uncomfortable truth: the effort to change is worthwhile.
Claudia Canavan is the head of functions at New Scientist
Ahmed Boug et al. 2025/Saudi Arabia’s National Center for Wildlife
Recent findings report the discovery of seven cheetah mummies, dating back thousands of years, in caves located in Saudi Arabia.
The cheetah (acinonyx jubatus) populations have seen drastic reductions due to habitat destruction, hunting, and the wildlife trade, leading to their disappearance from the Arabian Peninsula several decades ago. Ahmed Boug and his associates at the National Wildlife Centre in Riyadh revealed details about these seven mummified cheetahs along with 54 skeletal sites found in the Lauga Cave Network in northern Saudi Arabia during the years 2022 and 2023.
The mummies, preserved through a unique process that inhibits decomposition, date back approximately 4,000 to 100 years.
“These discoveries are incredibly significant,” states Anne Schmidt Künzel from the Cheetah Conservation Fund in Namibia. “While the mummification of Negrids isn’t wholly unexpected, this marks a groundbreaking and important find.”
“The stable temperature and low humidity in the cave environment likely aided the mummification process,” the researchers noted.
The reason for the cheetahs’ presence in the cave remains a mystery, as these animals typically do not utilize caves as dens or for storing carcasses. At the time of investigation, none of the five caves revealed any water supply.
Many of the remains were located in caves accessible solely via sinkholes, leading Schmidt Künzel to propose that the cheetahs may have fallen and become trapped. Additionally, remains of other animals including insects, wolves, striped hyenas, gazelles, and red foxes were also discovered here.
Upon examining 20 complete cheetah skulls, researchers found that six belonged to adults, while the rest were from individuals aged between 6 and 24 months. There were also nine cub skeletons located in the primary cave. The abundance of young cheetahs indicates that adult females might have used the cave for collective protection, according to Schmidt Künzel.
Camera traps set up during the investigation indicated that wolves were also using these caves. “This implies that during the cheetah’s lifespan, they may have frequented several, if not all, of these caves, enabling them to enter intentionally,” Schmidt Künzel added.
While there is only one species of cheetah, it is divided into four genetically distinct subspecies. The Southeast African cheetah (acinonyx jubatus jubatus) is the most populous, while the Northeast African cheetah (acinonyx jubatus soemmeringii) and Northwest African cheetah (acinonyx jubatus heck) exist in smaller, fragmented groups. The Asian cheetah (acinonyx jubatus venaticus), meanwhile, has very few remaining members in Iran.
Boug and his team sequenced the genomes of three sets of artifacts. Their research indicated that the mummified individuals are most closely related to the Asian subspecies, currently found in that region.
Schmidt-Künzel emphasizes that this work supports the notion that all cheetah subspecies can adapt to similar arid conditions, making it feasible to reintroduce them to the area through selective breeding of African subspecies.
Conservation and Rewilding in Central Apennines: Italy
A visit to Italy’s central Apennine region offers an enticing introduction to the concept and practice of rewilding.
With emissions continuing to rise, how can we foster hope for the future?
Qilai Shen/Bloomberg via Getty Images
In the media, the climate crisis can often seem overwhelming with daily warnings about environmental degradation and extreme weather events. However, how do climate scientists cope with the relentless reality of a shifting planet? What lessons can they share regarding the intense emotions that climate change provokes? Is there a way to leverage these feelings constructively?
New Scientist Recently, I spoke with New York-based climate scientist Kate Marvel and Tim Renton, a climate scientist at the University of Exeter, UK. Both have dedicated years to modeling the interactions of our planet in response to rising greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere. Each has authored recent works that provide insights on how to engage with and address climate emergencies.
At first glance, their books may appear quite distinct. Humanity by Marvel comprises a series of essays delving into the emotional responses elicited by climate change. In contrast, Renton’s work, A Positive Turning Point, emphasizes actionable strategies and solutions. It argues compellingly that with appropriate social, economic, and technological interventions, a significant shift toward a cleaner world is achievable.
Nonetheless, both books center around accepting our feelings about climate change, enabling us to reshape our thoughts and actions. During our discussion, Renton and Marvel emphasized why we should embrace anger, fear, pride, and hope regarding our future on this planet.
Rowan Hooper: Kate, your book discusses nine emotional perspectives on our changing planet. Would you mind starting with anger?
Kate Marvel: The chapter on anger was one of the most straightforward for me to write. I aimed to explore the historical context of climate change discovery, particularly how it intertwines with the actions of those who misrepresent it.
For example, there’s a research team striving to show that the majority of excess carbon dioxide in our atmosphere originates from fossil fuel sources, conducting innovative experiments to confirm this. They’ve deployed large ships to gather sea measurements and ultimately they’ve constructed a climate model with highly accurate predictions. Interestingly, the story traces back to an oil company, which fills me with anger. They were aware of the truths that many are just beginning to confront.
RH: Can this anger drive positive action?
KM: That’s my hope. It can be easy to fall into a negative spiral fueled solely by anger. Social media often exacerbates this outrage, but that sort of unproductive rage doesn’t lead to meaningful change.
RH: Your book also addresses emotions such as wonder, guilt, fear, sadness, surprise, pride, hope, and love. Can you share your approach to navigating these emotions?
KM: It was important for me to convey that there isn’t a singular way to feel about climate change. I often grew frustrated by narratives that insinuate you must adhere to one emotion—such as fear or anger. Living on Earth means acknowledging conflicting feelings; you care deeply about what unfolds here because your loved ones do as well.
Tim Renton examines “tipping points” within ecosystems that could impact the broader climate scenario.
University of Exeter
RH: Tim, what strategies do you use to handle the emotions tied to climate change research?
Tim Renton: My focus has been on climate tipping points that could have serious implications, some of which are already beginning to manifest. For instance, up to five billion people globally depend on tropical coral reefs that are currently threatened.
Having studied this for nearly 20 years, I’ve had to cultivate a mental framework that grapples with complex systems while seeking evidence that fosters my optimism. It’s about finding plausible pathways toward necessary changes without falling into naive hope.
RH: Is it vital to strike a balance between realism and hope?
TL: Yes, that’s what I consider conditional optimism. I remain hopeful that as people read, they might join me on this journey. History shows us that meaningful inspiration comes from a handful of committed individuals.
Madeleine Cuff: Tim, much of your work revolves around the notion of tipping points. For those unfamiliar, can you explain what that entails?
TL: A tipping point refers to a moment when minor alterations result in significant impacts on systemic states and destinies. In the context of climate change, this includes major ice sheets, ocean circulations, and key biospheric aspects that can transition between stable states. For instance, the Amazon rainforest could shift into a degraded forest or savanna.
MC: What does a positive turning point look like?
TL: Drawing from various fields over decades, I’ve seen that social changes can reach a tipping point. Social protests can appear to ignite a revolution, and technological advancements can also lead to significant shifts. There’s a point when a new technology can effectively replace an existing one.
RH: A clear example is the rise of electric vehicles and the decreasing costs of solar energy. How do these contribute to a positive turning point?
TL: We need to focus on actions that facilitate positive tipping points. We must accelerate the decarbonization process significantly. Fortunately, everyone plays a role in this transition.
At the most basic level, adopting new behaviors like reducing meat consumption or embracing technologies such as electric vehicles and solar power is crucial. Most individuals have investment funds, so it is essential to scrutinize where these funds are allocated.
The narrative surrounding positive turning points often begins with passionate social activists and innovators who envision new technologies or those eager to create change.
In her research, Kate Marvel seeks to enhance our understanding of the planet’s changing climate.
Roy Rochlin/Getty Images
MC: Kate, while we’ve touched on the negative emotions related to climate change, what about the positive feelings? How can they spur constructive actions?
KM: I began my book with a chapter on Wonder. When you take a step back to consider our planet and how much we understand it, it’s quite astonishing. This awe can forge connections and initiate conversations.
Typically, when I introduce myself as a climate scientist, people tend to disengage. But framing discussions around wonder can invite curiosity—for instance, asking, “Did you know that Earth’s water is likely older than our planet?” This fosters engagement. Utilizing a spectrum of emotions can be an effective communication strategy.
Research indicates that positively experienced emotions can be motivating. Pride in our achievements and the fulfillment of instigating change are significant. Social science data consistently points to love—love for family, friends, and community—as a powerful motivator for climate action. We all recognize the strength of such feelings.
My chapter on hope explores our complicated relationship with it. When asked if I hope for solutions to climate change, I compare it to asking if I hope to clean my bathroom; it’s not really a question of hope but a question of action we already know how to undertake.
As Tim rightly notes, many solutions are already at hand. We are making progress but need to increase the momentum to reach that critical turning point.
RH: We must confront our emotions, right? This might explain why so many struggle to engage with the issue—it can feel too immense to face.
KM: Absolutely. I ponder this daily, yet remain confounded by its complexity. The problem stems from global industrial activity, with CO2 and other greenhouse gases diffusing through the atmosphere and impacting life globally.
It’s daunting to distill such a vast issue into something easily digestible. The significance of what this entails and the actions required can span a lifetime of work.
Many Americans express concern about climate change and wish for governmental action. However, polls often reveal that individuals believe others are less concerned. One of the most impactful actions an individual can take regarding climate change is to discuss it openly. By talking about it, we begin to realize we are not alone.
RH: What do you hope readers will take away from your book?
KM: I want readers to explore how they can resonate with their communities through shared experiences and narratives.
TL: My goal is for readers to feel empowered to act on what might seem like a daunting and insurmountable situation, instilling a sense of agency instead.
This is an edited version of the original interview conducted for New Scientist’s The World, The Universe, Us Podcasts.
What actionable steps can we take regarding climate change? Tune in to Matt’s explanation on how to transform despair into action on October 18th at NewsCientist.com/nslmag
The average size of trees in the Amazon Rainforest is gradually increasing as carbon dioxide levels rise. This means that these larger trees play a crucial role in determining whether the forest acts as a carbon sink.
How forests adapt to changing climates remains a significant question. One theory suggests that larger trees are more vulnerable to reductions as they face challenges from climate-related phenomena, such as droughts and high winds. Understanding how forests respond to these changes is crucial for future climate models.2 It’s essential to address atmospheric issues to mitigate global warming.
Adriane Esquivel-Muelbert from Cambridge University and her team at the Rainfor Amazon Forest Inventory Network have measured tree diameters in 188 plots averaging 12,000 square meters across the Amazon Basin. The monitoring period varied, with some plots observed for around 30 years. Meanwhile, 2 atmospheric concentrations are reaching near record levels.
“We monitor certain areas in the forest where the average tree size has increased over time. This indicates that these trees are capable of storing more carbon than they did in the past,” researchers noted, highlighting an average diameter increase of about 3.3% every decade.
“The structural composition of the Amazon forest is continually changing throughout the basin,” says team member Rebecca Bunberry Morgan from the University of Bristol, UK. “There are more sizable trees and fewer smaller ones, indicating a shift in average size towards larger trees.”
She adds that the average diameter of trees in mature, undisturbed forest areas remains relatively constant as they replace and grow larger trees where seedlings have fallen. Researchers believe that Amazon trees are responding positively to the increasing atmospheric 2 levels, resulting in enhanced growth and biomass accumulation. “Larger trees tend to thrive as they compete more effectively for light and water,” remarks Esquivel-Muelbert.
This implies that large trees are disproportionately vital for the carbon storage capacity of the forest, meaning their loss would have significantly adverse effects, she concludes.
“A key finding is that 2 wood serves as a globally significant carbon sink, functioning as a fertilizer that promotes tree growth while being influenced by many factors.” Peter Etchells at Durham University, UK, states, “However, this could change as climate continues to evolve, potentially impacting the balance of growth, nutrient availability, temperature, and CO.2?”
According to a widely referenced study, during waking hours, an average person blinks about 12 times per minute, with each blink lasting approximately a third of a second. Over a span of 16 hours, that totals around 11,520 blinks, equivalent to more than an hour of blinking time.
In a typical lifespan of 80 years, this amounts to around 3.5 years spent blinking. This raises the question: what other time might we be wasting?
How much time do you spend…
Yawning?
As adults, we yawn approximately nine times a day, and even more during our younger years, with infants yawning up to 25 times a day at 12 weeks old. This adds up to at least two weeks of yawning over a lifetime.
Putting on socks?
It takes about 20 seconds to put on a pair of socks. If you wear socks daily, this activity accumulates to nearly a week of your life.
Scratching?
Even without allergies, most people scratch around 97 times a day, with each scratch taking a few seconds. This totals approximately two months of your life spent scratching. And yes, I scratched again after reading this.
In the restroom?
If you’re scrolling on your phone, you may spend quite a bit of time in the restroom – Image credit: Robin Boyden
On average, people spend between one to three years in the restroom, influenced by both dietary fiber and how much time they spend on their phones.
Traveling by car?
In your lifetime, you will spend around three years driving. This means some individuals may actually spend more time on the toilet than in a car.
Swallowing?
Did you know you swallow at least 500 times a day? Most swallowing occurs when you aren’t even eating, as saliva continuously cycles from the mouth to the stomach and back into the bloodstream.
Research shows that normal swallowing rates average 1.32 times per minute, totaling nearly 2,000 swallows a day. Over an entire lifetime, this can add up to about 1 year and 9 months spent swallowing.
This article addresses a question posed by Marlowe Fox via email: “How much time do we spend in an average lifetime?”
We invite you to submit your questions to Question @sciencefocus.com or message us on Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram. Don’t forget to include your name and location!
Explore our ultimateFun Facts and more amazing science pages!
Carbon Capture and Storage Cement Plant in Padeswood, Wales
Padeswood CCS
Commercial carbon capture systems for cement facilities are currently being rolled out, signaling a potential turn towards net-zero emissions for one of the most challenging sectors in the industry.
As reported by German company Heidelberg Materials, the inaugural carbon capture cement plant has been operational in Norway since June, with the first “carbon cement” products slated for delivery to the UK and other European countries next month.
In tandem, construction of carbon capture infrastructure at the Padeswood cement plant in North Wales is set to commence shortly, following a subsidy agreement revealed this week between the UK government and Heidelberg representatives. Several similar facilities are also in the pipeline for Sweden, Germany, and Poland.
This advancement represents a critical leap forward in the cement industry’s quest to cut emissions, a long-recognized hurdle in decarbonization efforts. “That’s significant progress,” states Paul Fennell of Imperial College London, referring to the projects in Norway and the UK.
Cement contributes to roughly 8% of global carbon emissions, according to Chatham House, a think tank. Much of this carbon dioxide is emitted by the chemical processes that create clinkers, the primary component of Portland cement, the most widely used construction material. “Regular Portland cement production inherently generates substantial CO2 due to essential chemical reactions,” Fennell explains.
Capturing CO2 generated from these processes is regarded as the only viable option for significantly decarbonizing cement production. Yet, this method is costly, with estimates ranging from 50-200 euros needed to capture, transport, and permanently store large amounts of carbon from European cement operations, as outlined in an analysis by the Bank of Netherlands here.
The Brebik plant in Heidelberg, Norway, benefits from government subsidies. Its carbon capture infrastructure accounts for 50% of the cement facility’s overall emissions. It operates by removing CO2 from the exhaust of cement plants using an ammonia-based solvent known as amines. The extracted CO2 is then released from the solvent, liquefied, and stored beneath the seabed in Norway.
The Padeswood Plant employs similar amine technology, but when the carbon capture and storage systems become operational in 2029, it is projected to eliminate around 95% of the plant’s emissions, according to the UK CEO of Heidelberg Materials, Simon Willis. This translates to approximately 800,000 tons of CO2 annually. The Padeswood facility is anticipated to sequester more CO2 than the Brevik plant, but that is largely due to the lack of additional energy supplies required to achieve the 95% reduction at Brevik.
Construction is expected to start in the coming weeks, with the UK government agreeing to subsidize the operational costs of the technology—although details of this funding agreement remain undisclosed. “The fundamental premise is that the government is providing us with funds to assist in establishing and operating carbon capture facilities,” Willis states.
According to Leon Black from the University of Leeds, UK, government financial backing is crucial for constructing the initial fleet of cement plants focused on carbon capture and storage. “Carbon capture and storage would not be feasible without governmental aid,” he asserts.
However, emerging technologies hold the promise of enhanced energy efficiency, and costs are anticipated to decrease over time. In Germany, for instance, Heidelberg is collaborating with a consortium exploring Oxifuer technology, which involves recirculating exhaust gases back to the burner, increasing the CO2 concentration in exhaust gases to around 70%, thereby making the carbon capture process more efficient.
An international team of astronomers, as part of the Widefield Askap L-Band Legacy All-Sky Survey (Wallaby), observed DDO 137 (Wallaby J123424+062511). Their findings uncovered a vast bridge of neutral hydrogen, measuring 185,000 light-years, connecting the two galaxies, along with various arms and clouds that link to a longer gas tail (1.6 million light-years) previously identified by the Arecibo telescope.
Radio (left) and light (right) images of NGC 4532/DDO 137. Image credits: ICRAR/D. Lang, Perimeter Institute.
“This discovery marks a significant advance in our understanding of galaxy interactions,” stated Professor Lister Starley Smith from the University of Western Australia Node at the International Centre for Radio Astronomy Research (ICRAR).
“Our simulations indicate that the tidal forces between these galaxies play a crucial role in the observed gas dynamics in close vicinity to the massive Virgo clusters of galaxies.”
“As the galaxies approached the hot gas clouds surrounding the Virgo clusters—temperatures 200 times that of the sun—we experienced what is termed RAM pressure, resulting in gas being stripped away from the galaxy.”
“This phenomenon is analogous to atmospheric burn-up when a satellite reenters Earth’s upper atmosphere, albeit extended over a billion years.”
“The electron density and the velocity at which galaxies descend into these hot gas clouds sufficiently clarify why they were drawn from the galaxy toward the bridge and surrounding regions.”
This observation formed part of the Wallaby Survey, a comprehensive project aimed at mapping the sky and examining the hydrogen gas distribution across galaxies using CSIRO’s Askap Radio telescope.
“Neutral hydrogen is vital for star formation, making this discovery pivotal in understanding how galaxies interact and evolve, particularly in densely packed environments,” remarked Professor Kenji Bekki of ICRAR.
“This system exhibits striking similarities to our Milky Way and Magellanic Clouds, offering a unique opportunity for a detailed examination of such interactions,” noted Professor Stavely-Smith.
“Grasping the dynamics of these gas bridges is crucial for understanding galaxy evolution over time, the redistribution of galactic gases, and the various conditions impacting star formation within galaxies.”
“This enhances our overall understanding of the universe’s largest structures and their lifecycle.
result will be published in Monthly Notices from the Royal Astronomical Society.
____
L. Stavely-Smith et al. 2025. WallabyPilot Survey: Extensive interaction between NGC 4532 and DDO 137 and Virgo clusters. mnras 543(1): 526-539; doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf1443
When contraceptives were first introduced in the United States, women were not cautioned about potential side effects such as heart attacks or blood clots. It wasn’t until about a decade later that significant action was taken. In her 1969 book Physician’s Case of Medication, journalist and activist Barbara Seaman compiled testimonials from women who had suffered these symptoms for years. Her advocacy led to a Senate hearing on drug safety, which resulted in the inclusion of critical information regarding lower dosage and side effects.
This was not an isolated delay in addressing women’s voices, particularly regarding medications. Despite substantial anecdotal evidence from users, large trials connecting drugs to another side effect—depression—did not emerge until the 2010s linking studies began to surface.
The same can be said for individuals suffering from chronic fatigue syndrome, where 80% of those affected are women. Despite overwhelming testimony regarding debilitating consequences, research on this condition has been limited over the years in similar contexts (long-standing community) – leading to loss of funding.
“
When thousands of individuals express similar concerns regarding their health, we must heed their voices. “
This week’s 36-page feature article highlights recent developments. For decades, women suffering from endometriosis—a painful gynecological disorder—have also reported issues resembling autoimmune diseases. Significant correlations have only been explored in research over the last few years after thorough investigations. Just this year, a comprehensive analysis revealed a shared genetic pathway between these two conditions, paving the way for potential new therapies.
Why has progress been so slow? Insufficient funding for women’s health and the stigma surrounding women’s anatomy play significant roles. However, it’s crucial to recognize the attention given to women’s concerns and the lack of validation they often receive. When countless individuals articulate similar experiences regarding their health, we must proceed with caution. While robust data is required for specific medical recommendations and safe treatments, we could make faster strides by listening to experiential accounts, especially those of women.
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