Understanding Ultra-Processed Foods: A Key to Preventing Premature Aging
In recent months, I attempted to coin a new term to describe the modern influences accelerating aging, such as obesity, stress, heatwaves, and environmental pollution. I suggested labeling our current situation as an “aging environment,” inspired by the commonly understood concept of an “obesogenic” environment. Unfortunately, my term hasn’t gained traction, but there’s another critical aspect that requires attention—ultra-processed foods (UPFs).
What Are Ultra-Processed Foods?
For those unfamiliar, ultra-processed foods are pre-packaged items that undergo extensive manufacturing, commonly containing refined ingredients like sugars, fats, and proteins, along with potentially harmful synthetic additives such as dyes and preservatives. Typically low in essential nutrients like fiber and vitamins, these foods are high in fat, salt, and sugar. Common examples include:
Microwave meals
Salty snacks
Mass-produced breads
Sugary drinks
Instant noodles
Ice cream and candy
Baked goods
Processed meats
Condiments like mayonnaise and ketchup
Rising Consumption of Ultra-Processed Foods
Over the past five decades, UPFs have increasingly dominated Western diets. In high-income countries, including the UK, over half of caloric intake now comes from these harmful foods. While the trend has plateaued in recent years, global demand for UPFs remains high, largely due to their convenience and affordability.
Health Risks Linked to UPFs
Research has consistently shown that a high intake of UPFs correlates with a range of chronic health issues, including:
Obesity
Cancer
Type 2 diabetes
Cardiovascular disease
Inflammatory bowel disease
Fatty liver disease
Kidney disease
Moreover, a growing body of evidence indicates that high UPF consumption increases overall mortality risk. Studies conducted in Spain, France, and the US found that individuals with the highest UPF intake were significantly more likely to die compared to those with lower consumption.
UPFs and Premature Aging
Recent research points to a strong connection between UPFs and premature aging. A 2024 study examined the diets of 16,055 U.S. adults aged 20 to 79, revealing that a higher percentage of calories from UPFs corresponded to accelerated biological aging. Specifically, every 10% increase in caloric intake from UPFs was associated with a 0.21-year increase in biological age.
Though skeptics may question the accuracy of biological age measurement, it is crucial to note that these studies compare groups rather than individuals, mitigating measurement biases. Even modest increases in biological age have been linked to higher risks of chronic disease and mortality.
Implications and Future Research
While studies like NHANES primarily snapshot dietary impacts, they suggest that UPFs contribute significantly to the aging environment alongside other factors like obesity and environmental stressors. Researchers debate whether it’s the poor nutritional quality of UPFs or the processing methods that cause accelerated aging.
Despite the unknowns, two substantial studies across diverse populations consistently link high UPF consumption to accelerated aging. The takeaway is clear: if possible, avoid ultra-processed foods.
While navigating a world saturated with UPFs is challenging, prioritizing whole, real foods remains beneficial. Let’s raise awareness and combat the aging environment we live in.
Exoplanet K2-18b has generated immense intrigue due to hints of potential life; however, an extensive analysis of radio signals revealed no evidence of an advanced civilization.
In 2025, Nick Madhusudan and researchers from the University of Cambridge claimed that K2-18b, located 124 light-years away, may exhibit traces of dimethyl sulfide (DMS) molecules in its atmosphere. Given that a significant amount of DMS on Earth is produced by biological processes, Madhusudan and his team suggested these signals might indicate signs of life on K2-18b.
Further observations, however, indicated that the DMS signal could be attributed to non-biological sources. Current scientific consensus holds that K2-18b is abundant in water, potentially featuring oceans or a water-laden atmosphere.
Madhusudan and fellow researchers are now exploring the possibility of extraterrestrial intelligent life on K2-18b by searching for radio signals, akin to those humans have been broadcasting since the 1960s.
Utilizing the Very Large Array Telescope in New Mexico and the MeerKAT radio telescope in South Africa, researchers observed K2-18b in multiple orbits around its star, focusing on radio frequencies similar to those emitted from Earth. They might have detected a signal from a transmitter with strength comparable to that of the now-defunct Arecibo radio telescope in Puerto Rico.
After meticulously eliminating potential terrestrial interference sources, researchers found no signals indicating that K2-18b possesses a powerful radio transmitter. Select researchers remained unavailable for comments to New Scientist regarding their findings.
“If a beacon akin to Arecibo were continuously transmitting from K2-18b, we likely would have detected it,” said Michael Garrett from the University of Manchester, UK.
“Of course, a lack of detection does not imply the absence of life; it simply restricts a specific and likely rare type of signal: a continual, relatively narrowband radio transmitter operating within the observed frequency range,” Garrett explained. “Civilizations, should they exist, might not utilize radio technology in this manner or may transmit intermittently, directionally, or at lower power levels. Furthermore, in aquatic environments, very low-frequency radio waves could be more common.”
Garrett posits that while alien water worlds may support simple life forms, the absence of exposed land could complicate the evolution of advanced intelligent life capable of developing technology. “The pathway to establishing complex infrastructure could vastly differ from what we have experienced on Earth.”
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Used electric vehicle (EV) batteries have the potential to fulfill two-thirds of China’s grid storage requirements by storing energy when renewable sources are plentiful and delivering power during peak demand periods.
During times when the wind isn’t blowing and the sun isn’t shining, the generation of renewable energy may decline, risking supply shortages, particularly during peak demand times in the mornings and evenings, as well as in winter. Typically, natural gas and coal plants compensate for this gap. Countries like China, the USA, the UK, and Australia are constructing large-scale battery-based grid storage solutions to harness renewable energy for later use.
As electric vehicle adoption rises, experts like Ma Ruifei from Tsinghua University argue that repurposed EV batteries can be integrated into the power grid, accelerating the transition to a carbon-neutral power system more affordably. Their research indicates that used batteries could meet 67% of China’s power grid storage needs by 2050, while simultaneously reducing costs by 2.5%.
EV batteries naturally degrade over time with repeated charging and discharging cycles and are often discarded once they reach about 80% of their original capacity. Although this degradation impacts the vehicle’s range and acceleration, it has minimal effect on grid storage applications, where multiple batteries are charged and discharged over extended periods.
“It still retains ample power, and when utilized for storage, its degradation is relatively slow,” says Gil Lacy from Teesside University, UK.
“Materials that are costly to mine and process for batteries should not be wasted when the cells still have 80% usable capacity,” asserts Rhodri Jarvis from University College London. “There’s significant interest in utilizing second-life battery packs, not only for cost reduction but also for enhancing sustainability.”
In a related study, researchers have drawn differing conclusions regarding whether energy storage using used batteries is more cost-effective than new lithium-ion batteries, whose prices are steadily decreasing.
However, with the increasing popularity of electric vehicles, used batteries may become a more economical option. Over 17 million electric vehicles are set to be sold in 2024, accounting for about 20% of global car sales, with nearly two-thirds being purchased in China.
The study projects that in a scenario where various battery chemistries are procured across China and utilized at 40% of their original capacity, second-life grid storage will grow significantly after 2030, as the demand for new batteries stabilizes. By 2050, total capacity is anticipated to reach 2 trillion watts.
In a contrasting scenario that relies solely on new batteries and pumped hydro storage (where water is pumped into a reservoir and released to drive turbines), the total capacity would only reach about half of this figure.
Second-life battery storage remains largely untested; however, US startup Redwood Materials has implemented a 63-megawatt-hour project using 10-year-old car batteries to power a data center in Nevada. The company claims its system is priced under $150 per kilowatt-hour and can deliver power for over 24 hours, exceeding the capabilities of new lithium-ion batteries.
Nonetheless, sorting and grouping used batteries by similar capacity levels is essential. If not, the management system must bypass individual batteries; otherwise, the group will cease to charge once the weakest battery reaches capacity.
Furthermore, damaged batteries need to be identified, and every several hundred cells must be equipped with temperature and voltage sensors. Overheating can result in significant fire hazards.
“The risks are obviously elevated, so ensuring safety, isolation, balance, and implementing robust risk-reduction measures is crucial,” Lacey emphasizes.
Time crystals present a remarkable concept in quantum physics. New research indicates that these intriguing materials could play a pivotal role in the development of ultra-accurate clocks.
All crystals are characterized by a repeating structure. Traditional crystals consist of atoms organized in a repeated pattern, while time crystals exhibit structures that repeat over time. Observing a time crystal reveals a consistent repetition of configurations. This cyclical behavior occurs naturally, not because the material is forced, but because it represents its lowest energy state, much like ice is the stable phase of cold water.
Ludmila Viotti and a team from Italy’s Abdus Salam International Center for Theoretical Physics have demonstrated that time crystals could serve as excellent components for precise quantum timekeeping devices.
The researchers performed a mathematical analysis of systems with up to 100 quantum mechanical particles. Each particle displayed two states defined by its quantum spin properties, akin to how a coin has two sides. The specific spin system they investigated can exist as either a time crystal or a conventional phase that lacks spontaneous time oscillation, providing potential for clock functions in either form. The study compared the accuracy of timekeeping using spins in both the time crystal and normal phases.
As Viotti explains, “In the normal phase, seeking finer temporal resolutions results in exponentially decreased accuracy. However, the time crystal phase offers significantly improved precision at the same resolution.” For instance, standard spin-based clocks tend to lose accuracy when measuring seconds over minutes, a challenge that could be mitigated with time crystal configurations.
Mark Mitchison, a researcher at King’s College London, acknowledges the promising applications of time crystals in horology but notes that rigorous evaluations of their advantages have been scarce. His research group has previously established that random sequences can function as clocks. However, systems that maintain self-sustaining oscillations inherently possess a more clock-like nature.
“While time crystals have been theorized for nearly a decade, the methods to utilize them remain unclear,” remarks Krzysztof Sasha from Jagiellonian University in Poland. “Just as regular crystals find diverse applications in both jewelry and computing, we anticipate that time crystals will pave the way for similarly innovative technologies.”
While time crystals may not surpass the accuracy of today’s leading atomic clocks, they could offer viable alternatives to satellite-based timekeeping systems like GPS, which are vulnerable to interference. Additionally, clocks based on time crystals may lay the foundation for sensitive magnetic field sensors, as minor magnetic disruptions can affect clock performance, according to Mitchison.
Despite the potential, Viotti emphasizes that extensive research is needed before practical implementation. She indicates that their spin system should undergo comparisons with other accurate clock systems and require experimental validation involving real spins.
Recent findings highlight the emergence of early mining and hunting tools.
Raul Martin/MSF/Science Photo Library
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In headlines about human evolution, terms like “oldest,” “earliest,” and “first” dominate. I’ve authored numerous articles featuring these phrases.
This isn’t just an attention-grabbing tactic; it serves a purpose. When researchers identify evidence suggesting a species or behavior predates previous estimates, it elucidates our understanding of timelines and causations.
For instance, it was once believed that all rock art originated no earlier than 40,000 years ago, attributed solely to Homo sapiens, as Neanderthals were thought to have vanished by then. New evidence suggests that some prehistoric art predates this threshold, indicating Neanderthal artistic expression.
The past month has unveiled a flurry of “earliest” discoveries, prompting reflections on the reliability of such timelines. How can we ascertain the true age of early technologies?
Let the Exploration Begin!
During excavations in southern Greece, archaeologists unearthed two wooden tools estimated to be about 430,000 years old—possibly the oldest known wooden tools. One is believed to be a drilling rod, while the function of the other remains uncertain.
These tools are closely dated to the previous record holders, including the Clacton spear from Britain, approximated at 400,000 years old, and wooden spears found in Schöningen, now reassessed to nearly 300,000 years old.
Bone tools also emerged in Europe during this epoch. For instance, in Boxgrove, England, remnants from an elephant-like creature, possibly a steppe mammoth, were fashioned into hammers. These elephant bones date back 480,000 years, marking the oldest known utilization of elephant bone in Europe. However, in East Africa, ancient humans were crafting tools from elephant bones over 1.5 million years ago—perhaps much earlier.
Shifting our chronological lens, a recent discovery in Xigou, central China, reported a collection of 2,601 stone artifacts dating between 160,000 and 72,000 years ago, featuring composite tools attached to wooden handles—possibly the earliest evidence of such technologies in East Asia.
Moreover, an archaeological revelation in South Africa indicated that 60,000 years ago, early humans employed poisoned arrows for hunting, as evidenced by five arrowheads lined with toxic plant fluids.
Each of these findings carries deeper implications.
Examining the Past
Traces of plant toxins discovered on arrow points
Marlize Lombard
The oldest verified wooden tools we have may not represent the absolute earliest. Preservation issues plague prehistoric wooden artifacts; they tend to decay, leading to gaps in the historical record.
According to Katerina Harbati, who directs the wooden tools excavation, people likely used such tools well before 400,000 years ago, but prior examples remain undiscovered.
Woodworking is simpler than stone crafting, and since chimpanzees can fashion rudimentary wooden tools, it is plausible that wooden tools represent humanity’s earliest technological forms. An unexpected finding of a million-year-old wooden tool, though astonishing, would not be entirely improbable.
Consequently, significant narratives on human technological advancements shouldn’t solely pivot on the age of the earliest wood tools. Confidence in tool usage timelines necessitates rigorous investigation into various age groups.
As for poisoned arrows, these are recognized as the earliest validated forms of poisoned arrowheads. Nonetheless, designs akin to contemporary poisoned arrows have been identified from tens of thousands of years ago. Like wood, poison’s organic nature leads to rapid decay.
We should be cautiously assured. Poison arrows exemplify composite technological advancements and emerged later in the evolutionary timeline, possibly not even tracing back to early hominids such as Ardipithecus or Australopithecus.
Turning to prehistoric art, we find a wealth of complexity.
Exploring Prehistoric Graffiti
Hand stencils from a cave in Indonesia
Ahdi Agus Oktaviana
While cave paintings are iconic, other forms like carvings and engravings offer their own challenges in dating. If a sculpture is buried in sediment, its age can usually be determined based on sediment analysis. However, dating cave art proves trickier. Charcoal-based works that are less than 50,000 years old offer more reliable carbon dating, whereas those beyond this window yield inconclusive results.
Recently, hand-painted stencils found in caves on Sulawesi island were dated to at least 67,800 years, competing with a similar stencil in Spain attributed to Neanderthals, arguably the oldest rock art known.
Notably, the phrase “at least” matters significantly in this context. Dating relies on surface rock layers created through mineral deposits, which are only minimally informative. The artworks beneath could be much older.
The goal here isn’t to assert that we lack all knowledge, but rather, we possess a wealth of understanding, much of it newly uncovered in the last two decades. We must strive for a coherent timeline in human evolution and cultural development while acknowledging uncertainties.
In paleontology, having numerous specimens enhances reliability. Instead of studying charismatic prehistoric animals like dinosaurs, paleontologists often focus on smaller organisms that leave abundant fossil records, enabling deeper insights into their evolutionary progress.
However, in human evolution, the fossil record is uneven. Individual hominid species may number in the dozens, yet the early specimens remain scarce, hindering our understanding of their longevity and geographical spread. The relationship between evolved species also eludes clarity amidst possible complicated derivations.
Conversely, stone tool records are extensive, dating back to the 3.3 million-year-old Lomekwean stone tools in Kenya. We might encounter even older tools. Early humans like Ororin (6-4.5 million years ago) and Ardipithecus (5.8-4.4 million years ago) likely spent most time in trees, making their tool-making unlikely.
Wooden tools present their own challenges. Our knowledge remains limited and fragmented, largely due to preservation issues. A reliable timeline for the evolution of wooden tools seems elusive.
When it comes to ancient art, the challenges are primarily technical. Preserved artworks are available, yet accurate dating techniques are limited. Creating a chronology for artistic development poses immense challenges, although advancements in technology may facilitate progress over time. With any luck, by retirement, I hope to have a clearer understanding of the evolution of ancient human artistic practices.
In essence, all narratives about human evolution are, to some degree, provisional. This holds true across paleontological studies, especially for narratives with more uncertainty. The timeline of non-avian dinosaur extinction is quite clear-cut; however, human evolution allows for more variability. Further excavations and improved dating methods should refine our understanding, but some uncertainties may remain.
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A newly photographed newborn marsupial, weighing less than a grain of rice, is seen crawling towards its mother’s pouch for the first time. This remarkable observation highlights the unique gestation and development process of marsupials.
Unlike placental mammals, which give birth to more developed young, marsupials experience a brief gestation period before their young must navigate to the mother’s pouch to continue their growth.
According to Brandon Menzies from the University of Melbourne, this remarkable process remains largely unknown for many of Australia’s rare marsupials, even for those in captivity. Menzies and his team care for several hundred fat-tailed dunnarts (Smithopsis crassicaudata) and aim to work with Colossal Biosciences to potentially resurrect the extinct Tasmanian tiger.
Despite establishing the colony decades ago and monitoring female fertility closely, the exact details of how marsupials give birth and the young’s attachment to the teats have never been documented before now.
Menzies explained that this phenomenon is difficult to observe due to the lack of pregnancy tests for this species, their nocturnal habits, and the fact that births occur at night. During a 12 to 24-hour period, a swarm of newborns is born, taking just 30 minutes to reach the pouch.
Adult Fat-tailed Dunnarts
Emily Scicluna
In 2024, researchers noted blood in an enclosure. An examination revealed tiny newborns, just 5 milligrams each, making their way towards their mother’s pouch.
“We observed the pouch waving, crawling, and wriggling,” Menzies stated. “It’s a freestyle swim type of crawl, similar to a commando crawl.”
Young Dunnarts in Their Mother’s Pouch
Emily Scicluna
Realizing this was a groundbreaking moment, Menzies captured 22 seconds of footage before carefully returning the mother to her enclosure. The team believes gravity plays a crucial role in guiding the young towards the pouch.
Researchers estimate the newborns achieved around 120 movements per minute while crawling.
Reaching the nipple is just the first challenge. Many marsupials, including fat-tailed dunnarts, produce more offspring than nipples available for nursing. While they can carry up to 17 pups, they can only care for 10, contrasting with the Tasmanian devil that has the capacity to produce 30 pups with just four nipples.
Menzies expressed amazement at how fat-tailed dunnarts can give birth to such mobile pups merely 14 days after conception. It was previously believed these tiny babies couldn’t independently enter the pouch without maternal assistance.
“The ability to crawl independently into the pouch underscores the remarkable developmental capabilities of this species,” he remarked. “Just a week ago, these were fertilized eggs consisting of mere cells.”
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Discover the Massive Solar Power Plant of Port Augusta, South Australia
Brooke Mitchell/Getty Images
As South Australia progresses toward achieving its ambitious goal of operating entirely on solar and wind energy, electricity prices have decreased by one-third over the past year, making them the lowest in Australia. This state serves as a leading example of the economic advantages linked to large-scale grid decarbonization.
“Tim Buckley, an independent energy analyst at Climate Energy Finance, an Australian think tank, highlights that South Australia has emerged as a global leader in renewable energy transition. While this transformation comes with challenges, we take pride in our successes. South Australian consumers are now reaping the benefits of consistently low electricity prices,” he states.
In the final quarter of 2025, South Australia generated an impressive 84% of its electricity from solar and wind sources. This exceptional percentage makes it the highest among major global power grids, with plans to reach 100% by the end of next year.
This renewable energy push is driving electricity prices down. The Independent Australian Energy Market Operator (AEMO) reported that South Australia’s average wholesale electricity price fell by 30% in the last quarter of 2025 compared to the previous year. Consequently, the state now shares the title of Australia’s cheapest state with Victoria, which also boasts a significant share of renewable energy.
This is a significant achievement for the South Australian government, previously criticized for rising electricity prices due to rapid renewable energy implementation. Occasionally, electricity bills surged as the state relied on costly gas energy when wind and solar outputs dwindled. Gas producers charged high prices to meet sporadic demand, a challenge exacerbated by rising petrol prices in Australia, which surged by 500% following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine.
To reduce price fluctuations, South Australia has developed seven extensive batteries comparable to football fields. These batteries harness energy generated by nearby solar and wind farms on sunny, windy days, providing backup power when conventional sources fall short. The introduction of two new batteries in 2025 significantly contributed to lowering energy costs.
The success of these batteries has motivated other Australian states to invest in similar technologies. Last week, consultancy Rystad Energy noted in a report that utility-scale batteries are no longer merely supplementary technology in Australia’s energy landscape, actively replacing gas fueled generation across several states. Consequently, Australia is becoming a global showcase for the effectiveness of battery technology in energy storage.
A new massive wind farm in South Australia, named Goyder South, which opened in October, is also contributing to lower electricity prices. With a capacity of 412 megawatts, it is the largest in the state and is expected to boost wind energy generation by 20%. Buckley emphasizes, “Basic economics indicates that increasing supply leads to reduced prices.”
AEMO’s report also highlighted that wholesale electricity prices were negative for approximately 48% of the time in the past quarter, indicating that the state produced more electricity than consumed, resulting in incentives for electricity suppliers to halt production during excess generation periods.
For instance, in November, South Australia achieved a remarkable milestone when it met 157% of its electricity demand solely through renewable energy. In these instances, excess wind and solar power caused temporary disconnections from the grid, allowing batteries to store the surplus energy for later use or export to nearby Victoria.
Many households in South Australia are also reducing their dependency on grid electricity by generating their own power. Over half of the residences now have solar panels installed, harnessing daytime sunlight for energy. Additionally, nearly 50,000 households have invested in home storage batteries, charged during the day and utilized after sunset. Since the launch of a 30% rebate on household batteries in July 2025, South Australia leads the nation in per capita home battery installations.
In December, the state concluded agreements to construct two additional large-scale wind farms, vital steps toward achieving its goal of 100% net renewable energy by next year. “We are well on our way to achieving this target, and the new wind farms will play a critical role in this success,” Buckley stated.
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Innovative Gene Therapy Delivered as a Mist for Lung Cancer Treatment
Nico De Pasquale Photography/Getty Images
An innovative inhaled gene therapy targeting lung cancer is rapidly advancing toward potential approval following encouraging results from clinical trials.
Dr. Wen Wee Ma at the Cleveland Clinic highlighted the findings at a recent American Society of Clinical Oncology conference in Chicago, stating, “Very encouragingly, this proves our hypothesis that the lung tumor actually shrunk.”
This groundbreaking treatment employs a virus to introduce immune-boosting genes into lung cells, enhancing their natural ability to combat tumors. Unlike traditional gene therapies, which often replace defective genes, this method focuses on modifying existing lung cells.
The unique inhalation delivery method represents a significant advancement in cancer treatment. “This is a completely different approach to anti-cancer treatment,” said Ma. Directly targeting the lungs enhances the efficiency and effectiveness of the treatment, particularly since lung cancer is notoriously difficult to treat with standard oral or intravenous therapies.
The therapy utilizes a harmless, modified herpes virus to inject two critical genes into lung cells: interleukin-2 and interleukin-12. These proteins, naturally produced by the body, help inhibit tumor growth. Unfortunately, tumors often diminish their effectiveness, necessitating the need for gene therapy to restore their production.
Since 2024, clinical trials have been ongoing with patients suffering from advanced lung cancer who have exhausted all other treatment options. The therapy is administered via a fine mist inhaled directly into the lungs.
At the oncology conference, Ma reported that the gene therapy has successfully reduced lung tumor sizes in three out of eleven trial participants, while also halting growth in another five. Although some patients reported side effects, such as chills and vomiting, no severe safety issues were noted.
Based on these promising outcomes, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recently granted “Regenerative Medicine Advanced Therapy Designation” to the gene therapy, facilitating expedited approval processes for patient access.
However, it is important to note that this gene therapy is specifically designed for lung tumors and does not address tumors that have metastasized to other body parts. To expand its efficacy, Ma and his team are exploring combinations with immunotherapy and chemotherapy in a trial involving approximately 250 patients.
Crystal Biotech, the developer of this gene therapy, previously introduced the first FDA-approved gene therapy targeting the skin, using a similar modified herpes virus to treat patients with recessive dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa, a rare skin condition. The company is also developing inhaled gene therapies for cystic fibrosis and alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, both inherited lung diseases.
The ancestors of Britain’s Bell Beaker people inhabited wetlands and heavily relied on fishing.
Sheila Terry/Science Photo Library
Analysis of ancient DNA has meticulously unveiled the origins of a fascinating group that emerged in Britain around 2400 B.C., nearly displacing the builders of Stonehenge within just a century.
This group is associated with the Bell Beaker culture, which emerged in Western Europe during the Early Bronze Age, named after the distinctive pots they left behind. While previously thought the culture stemmed from Portugal or Spain, recent research indicates that the people who populated Britain originated from the delta regions of Northwest Europe, across the North Sea. Remarkably, this resilient group maintained aspects of their hunter-gatherer lifestyle and ancestry for thousands of years, despite the spread of early farming communities across Europe.
David Reich and his team from Harvard University analyzed the genomes of 112 individuals who lived in present-day Netherlands, Belgium, and western Germany throughout the period of 8,500 to 1,700 BC.
“The Netherlands was once considered a mundane place, with every square inch traversed millions of times. Yet, it reveals itself as one of the most intriguing areas in Europe.”
The DNA sequenced in Reich’s lab indicates that this population emerged from the Rhine-Meuse delta, bordering the Netherlands and Belgium. This group derived from resourceful hunter-gatherer communities, thriving on fish, waterfowl, game birds, and diverse plant life found in the flooded wetlands surrounding these expansive rivers.
Originating in Anatolia, Neolithic farmers began to expand throughout Europe around 6500 BC, likely due to their agricultural advantage, allowing for larger family units compared to hunter-gatherers. This led to the near disappearance or significant dilution of hunter-gatherers’ genetic ancestry in regions where farmers settled.
However, research reveals that these wetlands served as zones where farmers’ genetic influx remained minimal for thousands of years. The dynamic, often flooded environments of rivers, swamps, dunes, and peat bogs posed significant challenges for early farmers, yet offered abundant opportunities for those adept at surviving in such terrains, as noted by Luc Amkreutz at the National Archaeological Museum in Leiden, Netherlands. “These hunter-gatherers charted their course from a position of strength.”
Genetic testing indicates that, despite their enduring hunter-gatherer lifestyle, the people of the wetlands engaged in gradual integration with farmers through intermarriage. While their Y chromosomes passed through male lineages, their mitochondrial DNA and X chromosomes displayed a steady influx of genetic contribution from farmers’ daughters. “This revelation was unexpected for us,” remarks Evelyn Altena of Leiden University Medical Center. “Without DNA, this knowledge would remain elusive.”
Reich posits that this interaction was likely peaceful, characterized by men remaining at homesteads while women migrated. Nonetheless, an aspect of conflict cannot be dismissed, although the extent of reciprocal exchange remains uncertain due to the preservation challenges of DNA from arid farmer regions.
Bell Beaker Pottery from Germany
Peter Endig/DPA Picture Alliance/Alamy
Archaeological findings indicate that, over time, these hunter-gatherers adopted pottery techniques, cultivated grains, and domesticated animals, yet they retained core aspects of their original way of life.
Then, circa 3000 BC, a nomadic group known as the Yamuna, or Yamnaya, began migrating west from the vast steppes of modern Ukraine and Russia. Their interactions with Eastern European farmers birthed the cord-shaped pottery culture characterized by decorative cord patterns. Although their descendants spread throughout much of Europe, they had minimal influence on the delta region.
Excavations revealed a skeleton from this era that bore the Yamnaya Y chromosome alongside pots, some evidently used for cooking fish. This exemplifies how wetland inhabitants creatively integrated foreign objects into their traditional practices, though overall, very few people bore steppe ancestry.
The dynamics shifted with the arrival of the Bell Beaker culture around 2500 BC. This group, characterized by a hybrid of steppe and farmer ancestry, introduced steppe genes into the DNA of the wetland peoples while retaining notable portions of both hunter-gatherer and early farmer genetics, approximately 13 to 18 percent. They may have begun to fade into history from that point onwards, yet the saga was far from over.
Human remains analyzed from Oostwoud, Netherlands
North Holland Archaeological Depository (CC by 4.0)
Recent studies reveal that those who arrived in Britain around 2400 BC bore an almost identical genetic mixture of Bell Beaker and wetland community ancestry. Within a century, they were largely or entirely replaced by Neolithic farmers who constructed Stonehenge. “Our model shows that at least 90 percent, and up to 100 percent, of original ancestry has vanished from Britain,” observes Reich.
It remains uncertain if this transition commenced with the influx of the Bell Beaker culture or if other groups preceded them. Before their arrival, Britons commonly cremated their deceased, resulting in minimal DNA preservation.
Regardless, the extent of change was “so dramatic that it defies belief,” according to Reich. The rapid populace replacement has captured archaeologists’ attention since its initial suggestion in a 2018 study. Reich theorizes that a plague-like disease, possibly affecting individuals in continental Europe, may have played a role. Conversely, the native population in the UK might have been more susceptible to such ailments.
Team members contend that religious fervor likely did not influence the transition, as indicated by Harry Fockens from Leiden University. “Monuments like Stonehenge and Avebury continued to see use and expansion even after their creators disappeared.”
Michael Parker Pearson from University College London is intrigued by the ways in which the new inhabitants adopted British monument styles, like henges and stone circles, whilst simultaneously introducing new lifestyles, including different pottery and clothing styles.
The Bell Beakers also introduced metalworking to Britain, with certain gold ornaments discovered in Beaker tombs in England bearing striking similarities to those found in Belgium.
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Most everyone has tales of lost love or romantic rejection, and psychologist Paul Eastwick is no exception. As an undergraduate at the turn of the millennium, he fell for a student named Anna—a stunning, tall aspiring poet fluent in Russian. While he may have seen himself as more of a “6” to her “9,” they did spend some time together before he was “friend-zoned,” and ultimately she pursued relationships elsewhere.
Eastwick, who has coined a term “EvoScript” to describe a prevalent view in the dating world, explains that rejection often seems inevitable. In this “marketplace” of dating, individuals possess unique “mate values” based on various factors like looks, intelligence, and social status, selectively pairing with the highest-value partners for the best possible offspring. He notes, however, that navigating this marketplace often leads to a hierarchy of potential partners. Reflecting on his findings, he emphasizes, “Either find your place and stay put, or run wild like Icarus,” his observations now part of his role as a psychology professor at the University of California, Davis.
While Eastwick’s theory rests on psychological literature, it has become widely accepted in popular culture. In his informative new book, Bonds through Evolution: What We Get Wrong About Love and Connection, he refutes this narrative, asserting that it is fundamentally flawed.
“
Passion tends to fade merely weeks after potential romantic partners connect “
Many experiments supporting EvoScript evaluated mate value based on participants rating images of unfamiliar individuals. In these instant assessments, people often agree on attraction, suggesting an innate ranking based on genetic traits. However, this approach disregards the reality that first impressions can easily diminish after personal interaction. Although such studies require time and effort, Eastwick and his team demonstrated that as people genuinely connect, the perceptions of their mate value rapidly shift.
In essence, supposed mate value can be fleeting. As Eastwick summarizes, “Even if I find you attractive, there’s only a 53% chance that others will concur.” This could be disheartening news for those who consider themselves physically appealing. He continues by stating that “Potential romantic partners seem to lose their allure just weeks following their meeting.”
Eastwick proposes that compatibility ultimately plays a crucial role in determining who we love, albeit challenging to foresee. Although individuals can readily articulate preferences—such as being drawn to extroverted or adventurous people—his research indicates these traits have minimal impact on actual relationship choices. Intriguingly, we are more likely to be content with partners exhibiting three unrelated traits: being friendly, intelligent, and successful. “What truly counts,” he notes, “is not matching a worn-out checklist, but rather the feelings stirred within you,” which are fostered through chaotic conversations.
Similarly, Justin Garcia, executive director at the Kinsey Institute, reaches a comparable conclusion in his recent publication, Intimate Animals. Although Garcia employs the market-based vocabulary Eastwick challenges, he acknowledges that first impressions surrounding dating abilities can mislead. “We quickly judge partnerships appearing mismatched at first sight, yet the overall value of each partner is considerably more intricate than we assume,” he argues.
Both authors highlight the significance of “self-aggrandizement” in intimate relationships. Garcia emphasizes that personal growth, new experiences, and fresh viewpoints often prove attractive in partnerships.
These insights resonate with both seasoned and novice daters. While online dating has broadened the pool of potential partners, choices often stem from superficial evaluations that evolve once mutual acquaintance deepens. Consequently, many face disappointments prior to finding “the one” (or at least “the right one”).
Considering compatibility’s importance, Eastwick suggests giving most individuals at least three chances before forming a judgment about whether to continue dating. He states, “Third impressions generally offer a more reliable predictor than much of the currently tested information.” He also encourages creative encounters beyond traditional settings like dinners or drinks, urging couples to explore diverse activities such as roller skating, karaoke, or chocolate tastings as a means of assessing compatibility.
Continuing to nurture real-life friendships is equally important. Evidence shows that we are significantly more inclined to find love with someone we are familiar with rather than a total stranger. Social connections, at the very least, can yield numerous advantages, enhancing both physical and mental wellness.
For these reasons, Eastwick recommends maintaining a positive relationship with dating partners. Reflecting on his experiences with Anna, he realized that platonic relationships are indeed attainable. After a difficult period, his emotions for her faded, paving the way for friendship and an expanded social circle. “The joy of broadening your connections is incredibly fulfilling, and Anna appreciated that,” he concluded. It appears that the friend zone may not be such a negative space after all.
After numerous books advocating cynical strategies for “playing” the dating game, it’s refreshing to encounter two works that present evidence-based optimism regarding our chances of discovering love that resonates with our true selves. Embrace opportunities to connect with others, remain honest and respectful, and observe how feelings evolve. It’s straightforward, yet these simple strategies might just elevate your love life.
David Robson is the author of The Laws of Connection: 13 Social Strategies that Will Change Your Life.
3 Essential Reads on Relationships
Find Love: Navigating modern relationships and discovering your ideal partner by Paul C. Brunson
Is it increasingly challenging to find romance in the 21st century? Tinder’s scientific advisor elaborates on evolving ideals and highlights common pitfalls in our search for love.
This book provides evidence-based techniques for fostering mutual growth in long-term relationships, including strategies for enhancing communication and tackling inevitable challenges.
Single at Heart: Embracing the power, freedom, and joy of single living by Bella DePaolo
Society often emphasizes the need to pair up; however, as social psychologist DePaolo illustrates, an increasing number of individuals find joy in singlehood. This myth-busting exploration stands as a counter to the frenzy surrounding Valentine’s Day.
Finding an exercise you love is crucial for maintaining a consistent workout routine. When you look forward to your fitness activities, you’re more likely to stick with them. However, it’s equally important to vary your workouts. This practice, known as cross-training, can significantly enhance your fitness levels and overall health.
Recent research from Harvard University reviewed physical activity data from over 70,000 women and approximately 41,000 men over a span of 40 years. The study concluded that participants engaging in a diverse range of exercises—cycling, running, and strength training—were 19% less likely to die from any cause compared to those who stuck with one type of workout, despite similar activity levels. Additionally, they experienced a 13-41% lower risk of dying from heart disease, cancer, and other health issues.
Why is variety so effective? Exercise challenges our bodies, fostering adaptations that lead to greater strength and resilience. However, as shown in this study, the health benefits of certain activities can plateau. For instance, individuals walking 5 hours weekly had similar mortality risks to those walking 20 or even 40 hours. By engaging in a mix of activities, individuals may surpass these limits.
Different exercises target our bodies in unique ways. For example, aerobic exercises like running stress your cardiorespiratory system—meaning your heart and lungs—while strength training, like weightlifting, focuses on muscle contraction and growth. Combining both can enhance endurance and strength simultaneously.
Incorporating aerobic exercises can yield additional benefits. A 2018 study involving high school runners found that those who substituted two of their easy runs with elliptical workouts demonstrated improved oxygen efficiency while running at the same pace as their peers.
Cross-training also reduces the likelihood of injuries that could affect longevity. An analysis of nine studies involving nearly 5,000 soccer players revealed that incorporating balance exercises lowered the risk of ankle injuries by over 35% compared to training programs lacking these elements.
Therefore, adding variety to your fitness routine is highly recommended. Last year, I focused primarily on running, which adversely affected other aspects of my fitness, such as mobility. That’s why I now incorporate Pilates and yoga to enhance my flexibility and strength, which may contribute to a longer, healthier life.
Grace Wade is a health reporter at New Scientist. Subscribe to her newsletter, Get Healthier in 8 Weeks, at newscientist.com/healthier-you.
While I’m generally not a fan of novellas or short stories due to their brevity, compelling authors like George Saunders keep me turning the pages. This week, I present two thought-provoking reads, starting with Stay Up All Night.
In Stay Up All Night, prize-winning author George Saunders, known for his hit Lincoln in the Bardo, introduces us to Jill “Doll” Blaine, a ghost who returns to Earth to observe the last hours of K.J. Boone, a wealthy oil tycoon.
Jill’s mission is to provide comfort to restless souls, but she discovers that Boone, despite his life full of deception and environmental damage, is content with his choices.
Set in the final hours of Boone’s life, the narrative unfolds with the arrival of other ghosts and family members seeking closure. Jill, frustrated by Boone’s indifference, navigates her own past, returning repeatedly to his bedside.
True to Saunders’ style, the prose is vibrant and enchanting. He deftly avoids the mundane, making even the darkest themes shine.
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When intriguing authors continue to craft engaging novellas, I feel compelled to explore them. “
However, I found myself yearning for deeper insights into Boone’s psyche and hoped for a narrative reckoning that never fully materialized. Jill, with her rich backstory, was by far the most captivating character, and I wished for more exploration of her journey.
Nonetheless, Saunders’ brilliance and the pressing themes explored in Stay Up All Night make it a compelling read—one worth delving into at least twice.
Next up is Rainseekers by Matthew Cressel. This narrative blends a series of interconnected short stories, featuring protagonist Sakunja Salazar, an influencer-turned-journalist on Mars amidst the transformative terraforming of the planet.
With newly formed water bodies and breathable air, Sakunja embarks on a thrilling journey into the Martian wilderness to witness the first rainfall. This quest is both poetic and thought-provoking.
As Sakunja interviews fellow “rainseekers,” their unique stories weave into a rich tapestry that enhances the overarching narrative.
Kressel excels in crafting poignant, concise narratives, lending weight to this visionary future of the solar system.
While Sakunja lacked the depth to truly engage me, the human elements and the fun exploration of terraforming resonate strongly, reminiscent of classics like Kim Stanley Robinson’s Red Mars trilogy.
If you’re intrigued by the intersection of oil barons and climate change, this evocative novel is for you. Set in a distant future, it explores consequences for those who have wronged the planet—an excellent choice for this month’s New Scientist Book Club.
Emily H. Wilson is the author of the Sumerian series (including Inanna, Gilgamesh, and Ninshbar, all published by Titan) and is currently penning her first science fiction novel. A former editor at New Scientist, she can be followed on Instagram @emilyhwilson1.
The fascinating debate surrounding the dinosaur Spinosaurus continues: was it an exceptional swimmer capable of diving to catch prey or a “hell’s heron” that snatched giant fish from shallow waters? Recent fossils of a new species, Spinosaurus mirabilis, discovered approximately 1,000 kilometers inland, may provide clarity, asserting that it resembled a sandpiper, as suggested by Paul Sereno from the University of Chicago.
The discussion of Spinosaurus lifestyles among paleontologists is ongoing, characterized by distinctive features such as large sails, massive claws, wide feet, and crocodilian jaws. Previous depictions in the 2025 BBC series Walking with Dinosaurs presented them as aquatic hunters.
In 2019, local guides led Sereno’s team to a remote Niger desert, where they unearthed a fragment of jaw bone identified later as belonging to a type of spinosaur. The COVID-19 pandemic delayed their return to the site.
During their second expedition, researchers discovered about ten Spinosaurus bones. Remarkably, they observed large crests atop the skulls and unique sails along their spines shortly after their initial find.
Sereno stated, “This was a shining moment because we recognized it as a new species of Spinosaurus that would significantly enhance our understanding of these dinosaurs.”
Named Spinosaurus mirabilis, this species is estimated to have roamed the Earth around 95 million years ago, growing to lengths of about 10 to 14 meters, comparable to the renowned Spinosaurus aegyptius. Sereno warned, “You wouldn’t want to be close to this animal; it could take you down in about three seconds.”
Similar to Spinosaurus aegyptius, this new species possessed a noticeable crest, though its crest was significantly larger—potentially reaching at least 40 centimeters in height for larger individuals. Researchers believe that, comparable to modern crowned birds such as the guinea fowl, these crowns were likely covered with a keratin sheath, standing at least 50 centimeters high.
The delicate crest probably served not as a weapon but as a visual display. “It likely boasted bright colors,” Sereno remarked. “It signals, ‘I’m here, I’m healthy.’
The significant sails of the Spinosaurus might also have been utilized for visual signaling. Sereno suggests it raised questions about their purpose in mating and territorial protection. “Such environments, like beaches and riverbanks, enhance visibility, allowing animals to spot rivals and mates over long distances,” he explained.
Crested Skull of S. mirabilis
Credit: Keith Ladzinski
Modern sandpipers, like the great blue heron, exhibit similar display characteristics, reinforcing the migration theory posited by Sereno. When comparing various animals based on the proportions of their jaws, necks, and hindlimbs, spinosaurids were found adjacent to heron-like species.
Although Spinosaurus struggled to swim efficiently due to its large sails, it could dive to depths of about 10 feet (3 meters) as an adult, according to Sereno.
Evidently, most spinosaur fossils have been discovered near oceans, while S. mirabilis thrived far inland. Sereno notes, “No marine predator weighing over a ton has entered freshwater habitats.” The absence of major freshwater predators, like river killer whales, supports the idea that these creatures were adaptations, similar to modern herons.
Sereno mentions, “This study validates the consensus developed regarding these animals. They aren’t super swimmers or deep divers; rather, they resemble herons and storks, foraging through shallow waters for their primary diet of fish.”
David Horn from Queen Mary University of London remarked, “The unique crest suggests a new species, and variations in jaws and teeth further solidify this point.”
Mark Witton at the University of Portsmouth, UK, emphasized that the lengths of the legs indicate Spinosaurus was capable of efficient movement, countering claims of a predominantly aquatic lifestyle.
Dinosaur Hunting in Mongolia’s Gobi Desert
Join an exciting expedition to uncover dinosaur fossils in the expansive Gobi Desert, a renowned hotspot for paleontological discoveries.
The film Hamnet, based on Maggie O’Farrell’s acclaimed novel, poignantly highlights the profound connection between humanity and nature. Set against a rich backdrop, we meet Agnes (played by Jessie Buckley, as shown above), the mother of Hamnet and wife of William Shakespeare, who is depicted gathering medicinal herbs in the woods.
Shakespeare’s understanding of this interconnectedness is showcased throughout his works. In Hamlet, the King inquires about Polonius’s fate, while the Prince philosophizes about life cycles, stating, “It’s not where we eat, but how we consume… We nourish ourselves at the expense of other living beings.”
Shakespeare intricately weaves humans into the food chain. In the thought-provoking narrative of Hamnet, O’Farrell and director Chloé Zhao beautifully reinterpret the essence of Shakespeare’s themes into their cinematic portrayal.
Rowan Hooper Podcast Editor, London
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An incredible 30-second exposure captures the Falcon 9 upper stage re-entering the atmosphere over Berlin, Germany, on February 19, 2025.
Photo by Gerd Baumgarten
A SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket ignited a plume of vaporized metal as it re-entered the atmosphere, raising concerns about atmospheric pollution across Europe. This type of contamination is expected to surge as the number of spacecraft and satellites continues to grow.
The Falcon 9’s upper stage, intended for recovery in the Pacific Ocean, suffered an engine failure that led to its uncontrolled descent over the North Atlantic on February 19, 2025.
Witnesses throughout Europe observed fiery debris streaking across the sky, with some fragments landing behind warehouses in Poland. Researchers from Germany’s Leibniz Institute for Atmospheric Physics employed lidar technology to monitor the atmosphere. They noted a tenfold increase in lithium concentration— a significant component of the rocket’s structure— twenty hours after the re-entry event.
Using atmospheric models, researchers concluded that the lithium plume drifted approximately 1,600 kilometers from the re-entry site. This investigation represents the first instance of tracking high-altitude contamination resulting from a specific spacecraft re-entry.
According to Wing, small metal particles could catalyze ozone depletion, create clouds in the stratosphere and mesosphere, and interfere with sunlight’s passage through the atmosphere. “However, this field remains largely underexplored.”
As commercial space launches surge and companies expand their satellite constellations, such as SpaceX’s Starlink and Amazon’s Kuiper, concerns regarding contamination are becoming more pronounced. Currently, around 14,500 satellites orbit Earth, and SpaceX recently applied to deploy an additional 1 million satellites to support Elon Musk’s vision of creating orbiting data centers for artificial intelligence.
To mitigate a potential cycle of collisions that could generate more space debris, satellites are often permitted to deorbit and burn up at the end of their operational lives. Experts warn that space debris could increase by fiftyfold over the next decade, potentially contributing to more than 40% of the mass currently entering the atmosphere from meteorites.
There is a common misconception that space debris simply burns up and disappears in the atmosphere. According to Daniel Cizzo of Purdue University, who did not partake in this study, “We need to be cautious and thoroughly analyze the potential impacts of this material.”
The Falcon 9’s plume is estimated to contain around 30 kilograms of lithium. However, given the alloy composition of the rocket’s hull, it likely contained significantly more aluminum.
When evaporated aluminum interacts with atmospheric oxygen, it forms aluminum oxide particles, which serve as surfaces for chlorine compounds to decompose more easily. The chlorine radicals generated through this process react with and deplete ozone molecules in the stratosphere.
Researchers estimate that the burnout of spacecraft releases approximately 1,000 tons of aluminum oxide into the atmosphere annually, a figure that continues to rise. This exacerbation could extend the ozone hole in the Southern Hemisphere, which has been shrinking as nations phase out ozone-depleting gases. The loss of ozone allows more harmful ultraviolet rays to penetrate, increasing the risk of skin cancer.
“In terms of metals, we are entering a new paradigm where anthropogenic pollution increasingly influences the upper atmosphere, overshadowing natural sources,” says Eloise Marais from University College London. “Space debris risks reversing the progress made in healing the ozone hole.”
Metal oxide particles also function as nuclei for water vapor to coalesce into droplets, potentially leading to the formation of cirrus clouds that trap heat in the upper troposphere.
Scientists have detected particles from a burned-out spacecraft within cirrus clouds. While the effect on global warming is currently considered minor compared to greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, it could still pose increased risks.
“Substantial evidence indicates that this substance may adversely affect the atmosphere. It is now our responsibility as scientists to assess whether these effects are occurring and the degree of their negativity,” Cizzo stated.
Potential solutions include constructing satellites from wood-like materials—though these may emit black carbon soot upon re-entry—or relocating satellites to high-altitude “graveyard orbits.”
“You must take a moment to consider your intentions before proceeding,” Wing advises. “This rapid growth in satellite launches poses questions that remain unanswered.”
Pollution has made many urban areas uninhabitable for humans, leading to the devastation of families and communities alike. Ants, which rely on specific hydrocarbons on their exoskeletons for recognition, are severely affected. A recent study indicates that ozone exposure alters these hydrocarbons, resulting in ants failing to recognize their nestmates. Instances of aggression within colonies have been observed, where some ants even attack their own relatives.
With approximately 20 quintillion ants on Earth, human-induced pollution could unearth unprecedented levels of destruction.
This alarming scenario exemplifies anthropomorphism, the attribution of human traits to non-human entities, exemplified by comparing ant colonies to human families. While some scientists criticize anthropomorphism as misleading, others advocate for drawing parallels between ant behavior and human social dynamics to shed light on evolutionary concepts.
Notably, entomologist E.O. Wilson used ants to support his “sociobiological” theory, proposing that animal behavior stems from evolutionary necessity. Wilson asserted that insights into ant behavior could illuminate biology’s impact on human development and accomplishment.
However, evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould emerged as a notable critic, denouncing Wilson’s ideas as “biological determinism,” cautioning against potential eugenics-inspired policies. The debate surrounding biology’s role in human society persists in academia, with sociobiology now often referred to as evolutionary psychology.
A significant shift has occurred in studying ant behavior. Deborah Gordon, a Stanford University biologist, revealed that ant behavior operates on algorithms. Her research involved years of studying various ant species, culminating in collaborations with computer scientists to demonstrate how ants utilize effectively distributed signaling networks. For instance, when a worker ant finds a large food source, she lays a pheromone trail for others to follow. Encountering other ants, she evaluates the available resources and efficiently recruits additional foragers.
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Algorithmic determinism has replaced biological determinism, but the end result for ants is still the same. “
There is no central authority instructing ants; they succeed through decentralized communication, much like how distributed computer networks manage data flow. Gordon likens this process to internet activity, underscoring how networks efficiently allocate resources.
Gordon’s findings contrast sharply with Wilson’s theories, as she draws comparisons between ants and computers rather than humans. Nevertheless, as AI companies invest heavily in replicating human cognition with algorithms, the parallels between ant behavior and artificial intelligence become more pronounced. Algorithmic determinism may overshadow biological determinism, but the implications for ants remain significant. While humans often reference ants to explain behaviors observed in other species, we frequently overlook the intricate nature of the ants themselves.
Returning to my research on human pollution and its impact on ants, Gordon’s Antenet approach relies heavily on colony members collaborating and exchanging critical information. However, when ozone interferes with the hydrocarbons in ants, they lose their ability to recognize one another, disrupting crucial coordination. This could lead to colony demise.
For humans, such recognition isn’t vital; we don’t rely on scent to coordinate food gathering or childcare. Nevertheless, we share the planet with extraordinary wildlife, and if we fail to mitigate ozone pollution, we risk obliterating their social structures. It is time to shift our perspective from viewing ants simply as metaphors for humanity and machines to appreciating their intrinsic value.
What I Am Reading: H.G. Wells’ “The War of the Worlds”: The Martians are cyber-vampires.
What I See: My life is murder, A delightfully corny detective series starring Lucy Lawless.
What I Am Working On: Finding a place to live in a new city.
Annalee Newitz is a science journalist and author. Their latest book is Automatic Noodles, and they co-host the Hugo Award-winning podcast Our Opinion Is Correct. Follow @annaleen or visit their website: techsploitation.com.
It’s easy to feel hopeless about the state of our planet. The climate crisis is intensifying, extinction rates are alarming, forests are vanishing, water cycles are disrupted, and pollution is suffocating urban areas, creating marine dead zones. The science that explains climate change is often disregarded as “scammer’s work.”
Yet, I remain optimistic. Green energy technologies are rapidly advancing and becoming more affordable, even catching the attention of influential figures like President Trump—especially since China‘s strong commitment to low-carbon solutions is reshaping global energy dynamics.
You might call me overly hopeful, but pessimism stifles action. Here are five reasons to be at least a bit optimistic about the future of our planet.
Reason 1: Nature is making a comeback in numerous regions. Species are adapting, evolving, and reclaiming spaces even in the most polluted landscapes. Wolves are roaming across Europe, and tiger populations are on the rise in India. While we must remain vigilant about biodiversity loss, it’s encouraging to see that nature is resilient. Many areas are now being returned to natural habitats as farmers step back from cultivation.
Reason 2: The population crisis is stabilizing. The once-feared baby boom is no longer considered an imminent threat. In fact, many couples today are opting for significantly fewer children, reflecting a reduction in birth rates. Trusting individuals to make their own reproductive choices is proving more effective than coercive policies, such as China’s former one-child policy.
Reason 3: Advances in technology are providing effective solutions to environmental challenges. When the Climate Change Treaty was established in 1992, renewable energy sources like wind turbines were just emerging. Today, over 40% of the world’s electricity is generated from affordable low-carbon technologies, signaling a shift toward reducing fossil fuel dependence.
Reason 4: A peak consumption event is occurring. The material consumption per person in places like Britain has dropped significantly this century, from 16 tons to 11 tons annually. Modern manufacturing processes create more value with fewer resources, and consumers are increasingly prioritizing experiences over material goods.
Reason 5: Local knowledge is a beacon of hope. Recent studies suggest that rural regions are often protectors of the environment rather than its adversaries. Indigenous lands serve as safe havens for biodiversity; deforestation rates are lower within these areas.
The prevalent notion that greed leads to environmental collapse—the so-called tragedy of the commons—is misguided. I believe that collective action by communities can enhance local environments, benefiting the global commons of our atmosphere, climate, and oceans.
While I acknowledge that the worst outcomes are still possible, the path to avoidance lies in decisive action, powered by optimism.
Feedback is New Scientist Your go-to source for the latest in science and technology news. To share feedback or suggest topics of interest to our readers, please email us at feedback@newscientist.com.
It Rains Cats and Dogs
A new measurement unit has been adopted, particularly relevant to recent weather events. Reader Alan Baker noted a freezing rain warning on CBS News in Austin, Texas. Meteorologist Avery Tomasko highlighted that central Texas could expect up to half an inch of freezing rain, which would freeze upon contact.
To emphasize the seriousness, Tomasko explained that “ice is heavy,” posing risks such as tree branches potentially falling onto power lines. Even a mere half inch of ice can accumulate to over 7,000 pounds, or roughly the weight of 109.5 full-grown golden retrievers on a 30-foot tree,” he elaborated.
While there are many adorable dogs around, the imagery of a hundred retrievers precariously perched does raise some concern about the effectiveness of conveying the dangers associated with freezing rain.
Moreover, I find the phrase “approximately 109.5” amusing; there’s little room for approximation when counting fluffy companions. It evokes an unsettling thought about an odd situation that might leave one dog counted as half.
AI’s Map Mishap
In the realm of AI blunders, one notable instance involved erasing Canada from the world map. When asked how many countries end with ‘nada,’ the AI inaccurately responded, claiming, “No countries have official English names ending with ‘nada,’” while erroneously qualifying Canada’s name as ending with ‘a.’
Furthermore, the error omitted Grenada, which also ends with ‘nada.’ There was a small disclaimer warning users of possible AI errors, but the mix-up was glaring.
This information stems from a screenshot circulating on social media. While it may be fabricated, it features a logo from Reddit’s AI tool, Reddit Answers, which prompted Feedback to question the AI again.
Feedback revealed: “No countries end in ‘nada.’ This mishap seems to underline the AI’s limitations rather than provide factual insights into country names.” While somewhat insightful, this response still lacked clarity.
An editor noted variations in phrasing, which led Feedback to ask the AI the original question again. The AI reiterated that “there are no countries that end in ‘nada,’” yet acknowledged countries ending in ‘anada’ or ‘ada,’ prompting contemplation over the discrepancies.
Further, the AI named Canada and Grenada correctly but misidentified Granada as a country instead of a Spanish city. Unfortunately, it also claimed Uganda as another ‘ada’ country and humorously mentioned a fictional “Wacanada,” possibly mixed up with Black Panther’s Wakanda.
This chaotic exchange serves as a reminder to remain skeptical of supposed “fun facts” shared by AI; they may be neither entertaining nor factual.
Reflections on Life and the Universe
The Feedback team experienced the viral “6-7” sensation that swept the globe during the 2025 outbreak. Children began chanting “six seven” joyfully whenever the numbers appeared. Now that the trend has dissipated, we can finally reflect on it.
The phrase “6-7” seems to originate from Skrilla’s song “Doot Doot (6 7),” yet its meaning remains unclear. Some speculate it was simply a placeholder of sorts. Discussions surrounding its use often leaned into absurdity, with Feedback Junior, our resident expert on youth culture, confirming that it holds no intrinsic meaning.
However, we may have unearthed the true essence of “6-7,” thanks to an Instagram screenshot that proposed: “The ultimate question about life, the universe, and everything is: ‘What on earth is 6 7?'” This prompts thoughts reminiscent of Douglas Adams’ famous quote from The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, where a supercomputer reveals that the answer to the ultimate question is simply 42, albeit with the challenge of discerning the actual question.
Thus, the Instagram post humorously yet aptly suggests that the AI miscalculated by interpreting space as a multiplication operation. This might very well be the most significant AI misstep documented.
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Imagine inhaling fungal spores, then feeling a peculiar sensation—maybe something biting. Suddenly, terror spreads as chaos ensues.
This dire scenario is central to the plot of Refrigerated, a thrilling film following a trio of unlikeliest heroes racing to avert an apocalypse. Their formidable foes? Mutated strains of Cordyceps sinensis—a fungus now infecting warm-blooded animals due to a malevolent twist of solar radiation. Sounds familiar, doesn’t it?
Traditionally, Cordyceps sinensis overtakes invertebrates, invading their systems and manipulating their behavior to ensure spore dispersal. Eventually, grotesque growths erupt from the decaying host, releasing spores into the environment, continuing the cycle of horror.
The shift to mammals is alarming yet plausible. This fungal nightmare isn’t new; it inspired works like The Girl with All the Gifts, which unleashed a zombie apocalypse in 2016, and HBO’s The Last of Us, which also utilized bioterrorism as a gripping theme. With a radio drama titled Spore releasing soon, the cultural fascination with this fungus is at an all-time high.
This obsession with Cordyceps sinensis misrepresents the vast fungal kingdom, which includes over 4,500 documented species in the UK National Collection of Pathogenic Fungi, far surpassing the limited narrative of terror.
Fungi boast incredible traits. For instance, Japanese oak mushroom is the largest organism on Earth, spanning approximately 10 square kilometers beneath Oregon’s Malheur National Forest. Fungi are also ancient ecosystem engineers—research indicates they colonized land before modern plants, laying the groundwork for soil. Some species, like the gill-splitting mushroom (Schizophyllum commune), exhibit remarkable sexual flexibility with over 23,000 mating types to increase reproductive success.
From decomposing organic matter to symbiotic relationships with 90% of plants, fungi play crucial roles in sustaining life. They’ve also given humankind antibiotics like penicillin, treatments for various ailments, and even contributed to beloved foods like sourdough and beer.
Despite representing only about 10% of the fungal diversity, these organisms inspire untold narratives for science fiction—from plastic-decomposing fungi to predatory strains with microscopic lassos. How will climate change affect fungal behavior to threaten crops?
Nonetheless, such inspirations remain overlooked, limiting imaginative portrayals. The fixation on Cordyceps sinensis fosters a narrow narrative that oversimplifies the rich tapestry of fungi. I urge writers to broaden their perspectives—this strange kingdom of fungi is ready to inspire and amaze.
Nick Crampton is a researcher at the Natural History Museum in London and a published children’s author.
At the galactic center lies the enigmatic supermassive black hole, Sagittarius A*. Some researchers propose that this may not be a black hole at all, but rather clusters of dark matter.
Dark matter, which comprises about 85% of the universe’s matter, does not interact with light or normal matter outside of gravitational forces. Despite its significance, our understanding of dark matter is limited. As Valentina Crespi from the National University of La Plata (UNLP) notes, “While we know dark matter exists at the galaxy’s edge, the core remains a mystery.”
Crespi and her team developed a model of a galactic nucleus made of dark matter consisting of light particles called fermions. Their findings suggest that fermion dark matter can clump in ways that resemble supermassive black holes from afar.
“From Earth, this scenario appears akin to what one would expect from a black hole; however, a spacecraft could pass through without any issues,” explains Carlos Arguelles, part of the UNLP research team. “Even if you were swallowed by a black hole, you wouldn’t perish; you would pass through safely.”
The researchers base their model on the orbit of a star near Sagittarius A* and a small gas cloud, aligning with observations of galaxy rotation and imagery from the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) from 2022. This imaging reveals a glowing ring of superheated matter around Sagittarius A*, potentially influenced by a dark matter core.
However, observation support for the dark matter theory does not confirm its validity. Gaston Gillibet from New York University stresses, “While this simple explanation aligns with the evidence, I still believe the central object is likely a black hole.” He emphasizes the necessity of remaining open to all possibilities in this fascinating debate.
Concerns arise regarding the model’s applicability to observations near the event horizon. Shep Doeleman from Harvard University notes that the distinctive spiral pattern of the magnetic field in this region corresponds closely with black hole characteristics.
Moreover, fermion dark matter’s clumping is limited to about 10 million times the Sun’s mass. Although this could explain the majestic size of supermassive black holes, images of M87*—a black hole substantially larger than Sagittarius A*—complicate this theory as M87* closely resembles Sagittarius A* despite its size of approximately 6.5 billion solar masses.
Researchers admit that both dark matter and black hole theories hold equal plausibility. Crespi notes, “While we have enhanced tools today, confirming the nature of these phenomena is still not foolproof.” Achieving the necessary image resolution for this identification would extend far beyond the capabilities of even the next-generation EHT, indicating that definitive answers may be decades away.
If Sagittarius A* is indeed a manifestation of dark matter, it would profoundly impact our understanding of the universe. Fermion dark matter, which current cosmological models do not predict, could revolutionize not only our comprehension of black holes but also our entire cosmic paradigm.
Explore the Mysteries of the Universe: Cheshire, England
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Recent research reveals that symbiotic bacteria residing within insect cells possess the smallest genomes of any known organism. This groundbreaking discovery challenges the boundaries between organelles like mitochondria and highly simplified microorganisms.
“It’s challenging to define where this highly integrated symbiont ends and the organelle begins,” states Piotr Łukasik from Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Poland. “The line is exceedingly blurred.”
Planthoppers are unique insects that exclusively consume plant sap, relying on an ancient symbiotic relationship with bacteria to enhance their nutrition. Over millions of years, these microbes have adapted to inhabit specialized cells in the planthopper’s abdomen, generating essential nutrients that the insect’s sugary diet alone cannot provide. Many of these bacteria have become dependent on their hosts, having drastically reduced their genetic structures compared to their ancestors.
Łukasik and his team explored the evolution of this relationship and the minimization of bacterial genomes. They sampled 149 insects across 19 planthopper families, extracted DNA from their abdominal tissues, and sequenced this DNA to map the genomes of symbiotic bacteria like Vidania and Sulcia.
These bacterial genomes are notably small, with a total length of under 181,000 base pairs. In contrast, the human genome spans several billion base pairs.
Vidania, with its genome measuring a mere 50,000 base pairs, holds the record for the smallest known form of life. Previously, Nasuia, a symbiotic bacterium from leafhoppers, held this title with just over 100,000 base pairs.
To put this in perspective, Vidania‘s genome size is comparable to non-living viruses, such as the COVID-19 virus, which has a genome of about 30,000 base pairs. Remarkably, Vidania contains only around 60 protein-coding genes, the fewest recorded.
Planthoppers Depend on Symbiotic Bacteria for Nutrients
Provided by: Anna Michalik et al.
These bacteria have co-evolved with their insect hosts for approximately 263 million years and have independently developed very small genomes within two distinct categories of planthoppers. Notably, one of their primary functions is producing the amino acid phenylalanine, crucial for strengthening insect exoskeletons.
Research suggests that significant gene loss may occur when insects consume new food sources rich in nutrients previously supplied by bacteria or when other microbes colonize and assume these roles.
The characteristics of these highly reduced bacteria bear a resemblance to mitochondria and chloroplasts—energy-producing organelles in plants and animals that evolved from ancient bacteria. Symbiotic bacteria, like organelles, live inside host cells and are transmitted across generations.
“‘Organelle’ is a term open to interpretation, and it’s acceptable to classify these entities as organelles,” states Nancy Moran from the University of Texas at Austin, who was not part of the study. “However, the distinctions between them and mitochondria or chloroplasts remain clear.”
Mitochondria, which have a longer evolutionary history of over 1.5 billion years, only contain about 15,000 base pairs in their genomes.
Łukasik posits that these bacteria and mitochondria function along different points on an evolutionary “gradient of dependence” on their hosts, hinting that even smaller symbiont genomes may still be undiscovered.
In the field of medicine, acting too quickly can lead to catastrophic results. A prime example is the thalidomide scandal associated with morning sickness. Pregnant animals were never tested, reflecting the risks of changing procedures based on insufficient evidence. However, slow responses can also pose dangers, as seen with the reliance on body mass index (BMI).
For years, BMI, a straightforward calculation based on weight and height, has proven inadequate for distinguishing between fat and muscle or accounting for global variations. While it is a quick and cost-effective measure, its prolonged use has misclassified millions, leading to denied fertility treatments and surgeries.
Fortunately, alternative measurements are gaining traction. In a pivotal move last year, The Lancet urged that BMI not be the sole metric for assessing obesity, a recommendation embraced by 75 international medical organizations.
This shift indicates a potential resolution to the medical inertia stemming from insufficient evidence, lack of consensus, and leadership necessary for progress, especially after the errors of the 20th century.
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We need only look to COVID-19 vaccines to illustrate that rapid, safe, and evidence-based actions can indeed be achieved. “
The rapid development of COVID-19 vaccines, which saved approximately 14 million lives within their first year, serves as an exemplary model of fast, evidence-based action in healthcare.
This type of proactive response is crucial in various underdeveloped healthcare sectors, including enhanced menopause care, innovative psychiatric treatments, additional male contraception options, and new antibiotics.
While caution is essential, it’s crucial to act swiftly without compromising safety and effectiveness.
Feedback is New Scientist. This online platform and magazine deliver top-notch science and technology news through expert journalism. To share feedback on topics you believe our readers would find captivating, please email feedback@newscientist.com.
Athlete Nomar
Feedback has been astonished—shocked—to discover that a grove of trees in northern Italy was believed to predict a solar eclipse.
You might wonder, “Are you suggesting that some thought trees could genuinely forecast solar eclipses?” Surprisingly, the answer is yes.
The partial solar eclipse occurred on October 25, 2022. Botanists led by Alessandro Chiorerio had previously inserted electrodes into Norwegian spruce trees to monitor their bioelectrical activity. In a report published in April 2025, they claimed that “Trees anticipated the eclipse and synchronized their bioelectrical behavior hours in advance, with older trees showing greater anticipatory behavior due to initial time asymmetry and increased entropy.”
Ultimately, the errors became apparent. A paper published in Trends in Plant Science on February 6th reported this finding, with insights from journalist Matthew Sparks, who should likely receive recognition for his contributions.
Authors Ariel Nowopransky and Hegyi Isak noted that the drop in sunlight during the eclipse was minimal, ensuring the trees had sufficient light. Moreover, such solar eclipses occur every 18 years or so. The oldest trees in the study, around 70 years old, may not have lived long enough to learn patterns, since solar eclipses trace various paths across the Earth’s surface.
Feedback has examined the original study, but it seems unnecessary to delve deeply to debunk it. The team only wired three trees and five stumps. While sample size isn’t everything, it does matter.
The paper also includes a lengthy section on “Theoretical Analysis of Quantum Field Theory.” Yes, the Q word! “A tree is open, thus dissipative. The system continuously exchanges (releases and receives) matter and energy with the environment in various forms.” Aging of the system and the evolution of time (arrow of time) are discussed, although after the first paragraph’s analysis, it felt like we entered a quantum state where we lost interest.
Interestingly, the electrical activity of the trees was synchronized in the 14 hours leading up to the eclipse. How can we explain this? Novoplansky and Isak suggested, “A total of 664 lightning strikes occurred from October 22 to 25, 2022,” including three strikes within 10 kilometers of the site during the 14 hours prior to the eclipse. Perhaps that’s a factor.
Please Don’t Spill It
Continuing our theme of “People inadvertently sending out amusing press releases,” Feedback received great news about tea.
“Recent scientific research indicates that consuming a daily cup of tea can offer heart-healthy benefits, with growing evidence supporting its effects on cholesterol levels, blood pressure, inflammation, and blood clotting.” As regular tea drinkers, Feedback finds this news uplifting—especially for Mrs. Feedback, whose bloodstream is approximately 70% tea.
Who delivered this news? The Tea Advisory Committee of course. Feedback had not previously heard of them, although their website claims they are “supported by the organization” and receive a restricted educational grant from the UK Tea & Infusions Association, the trade association for the UK tea industry. Their purpose is to “provide the media with unbiased information about the health benefits of black tea.”
The final statement of the press release reads: “Previous research has indicated that the ideal amount is four cups of tea daily, yet only a third (35%) of Brits report drinking three to four cups a day. Our challenge, as tea experts and nutritional scientists, is to ensure the public understands the heart health benefits of tea.” Feedback has more details, but we adore espresso.
Universal and Free
In our ongoing quest to identify exemplary and flawed technical abbreviations, Feedback uncovered a fantastic initiative undertaken by researchers at Carnegie Mellon University.
The concept is straightforward. From Legos to Stickle Bricks, a myriad of construction toys exists. However, they often lack interoperability; with few exceptions, you can’t connect parts from different systems.
Golan Levin and Shawn Sims took it upon themselves to create an open-source 3D printable adapter that allows components from various construction systems to be combined. If you own a 3D printer, you can download the design for free and fabricate your own hybrid toy.
It’s quite impressive. The designers explain their goal to enable “radically hybrid constructive play, creating designs previously deemed impossible, ultimately providing more creative opportunities for children” and to deliver “a public service that corporate interests cannot or will not fulfill.”
Feedback believes this kit deserves wide usage. However, we suspect that the name “Free Universal Construction Kit” might limit its appeal to parents somewhat.
Have a story for Feedback?
You can email your article to Feedback at feedback@newscientist.com. Please include your home address. This week’s feedback and past editions can be found on our website.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly dominating discussions in our daily lives. Since the introduction of ChatGPT in November 2022, we’ve adapted to AI’s influence in various sectors, including banking, healthcare, and smart technology.
In the new three-part BBC documentary AI Confidential, mathematician and broadcaster Hannah Fry delves into the transformative impacts of AI. She highlights some unforeseen challenges that this rapid evolution presents, sharing insights on how AI is reshaping modern mathematics and the global economy.
Beethan Ackerley: This show investigates the effects of AI on our relationships and perceived reality. What insights can you share about this phenomenon?
Hannah Fry: Historically, AI has operated in a flattering capacity. Users would receive excessive praise, but with recent improvements, we’re beginning to see fundamental discrepancies. Just as in meaningful relationships, we often need to face difficult truths, and over-reliance on AI might undermine that experience.
People increasingly depend on AI, sometimes to the point of confusion or emotional detachment in their personal lives. Those who relied on AI’s advice over human interaction faced significant repercussions, with some even losing jobs in the pursuit of profitable AI-driven endeavors.
Has your AI usage changed in light of these observations?
Now, I actively challenge AI to confront my biases and encourage critical thinking without flattery.
If AI cannot provide that, what should it aim to achieve?
It depends on the context. Take AlphaFold, for instance, an AI predicting protein structures demonstrates significant breakthroughs. However, effective AI must connect conceptually with human understanding to facilitate progress.
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AI can perform superhuman tasks, just like forklifts. “
Every day, we hear about groundbreaking mathematical problems being resolved by AI. Does this energize you?
Think of mathematics as a vast map, with human mathematicians orbiting specific areas. AI can illuminate unexplored connections, thus exciting the field without overshadowing the core human contribution that drives innovation.
Misconceptions surrounding AI persist. Which one would you most like to clarify?
Many view AI as an omnipotent entity. While it can excel in specific tasks, it’s crucial to understand that AI tools are still limited in scope and certainly not infallible.
Should we entrust AI with sensitive decisions?
No! Just like you wouldn’t give a forklift access to your bank details, we need to view AI as advanced tools rather than sentient beings.
Why the tendency to anthropomorphize AI?
Humans naturally gravitate towards social interactions, making it easy to project human traits onto seemingly intelligent machines.
How can we mitigate the anthropomorphic tendency?
Relying on individuals to resist this urge is unrealistic. Proper design and thoughtful interfaces can significantly reduce the likelihood of users falling into this anthropomorphic mindset.
Can AI address significant social issues like isolation?
While AI might assist lonely individuals in certain contexts, relying on chatbots to solve deep-rooted emotional problems poses risks and limitations.
Looking ahead, how relevant are extreme AI doomsday scenarios?
While it’s vital to consider the potential risks of AI, such scenarios often divert our attention from pressing issues like algorithms making life-altering decisions. Understanding these implications can empower us to establish safety mechanisms effectively.
Will we achieve artificial general intelligence (AGI)?
While there is no consensus on the definition, gradual advancements hint that AGI—where machines match human cognitive abilities—is approaching. Exciting developments in the next 5-10 years could redefine our relationship with technology.
What major changes do you foresee?
I anticipate a transformation in our economic systems based on labor exchange, which may prompt fundamental societal shifts. Emerging breakthroughs in various fields will redefine our understanding of value and work.
What can be done to ensure AI doesn’t displace workers?
Addressing these challenges requires a reevaluation of our economic principles, particularly the tax framework based on income instead of assets.
Valued for Centuries: Peruvian Pelican and Booby Droppings
Biljana Aljinovic/Alamy
A potent fertilizer derived from seabird droppings likely played a crucial role in the rise of Peru’s agricultural kingdom 900 years ago, contributing to its eventual conquest by the Incas.
Recent chemical analysis of ancient corn cobs from southern Peru revealed elevated nitrogen isotope levels, indicating the maize was fertilized with a nutrient-rich blend of seabird excrement, feathers, and organic matter known as guano. This discovery represents the strongest evidence yet that indigenous Chincha farmers and traders sourced this exceptional fertilizer from nearby islands to enhance their crop yields and elevate their socio-economic status, according to Jacob Bongers at the University of Sydney.
“Access to vital resources can pave the way to power; here, the Chincha kingdom had the upper hand, while the Incas did not,” he states. “Social change may have originated from an unexpected source: bird droppings. It’s quite the intriguing narrative.”
Between 1000 and 1400 AD, the affluent and populous Kingdom of Chincha dominated one of Peru’s most fertile coastal valleys until its eventual incorporation into the Inca Empire in the 15th century.
The Chincha Valley lies just 25 kilometers from the Chincha Islands, home to large colonies of Peruvian pelicans (Pelecanus sagus), Peruvian boobies (Sula variegata), and Guanaius (leucocarbo bougainvilli), as well as penguins and gulls. These islands are known as guano islands. Bird droppings became renowned globally in the 19th century for their remarkable nutritional properties, primarily due to their high nitrogen content.
The use of guano by the Incas is well documented in early colonial records, which describe stringent state regulations governing the islands and substantial penalties for harming seabirds. However, until now, researchers lacked solid archaeological proof that the ancestors of the Chincha were already exploiting this valuable resource. Historians have long suggested that seabird fertilizers significantly bolstered the kingdom’s economic success, Bongers notes. Images of seabirds depicted on ceremonial artifacts, textiles, pottery, and architectural features further indicate that these birds held special significance for the Chincha people.
Bongers and his team gathered numerous ancient corn cobs (possibly offerings for the deceased) from Chincha tombs, hoping to unlock this mystery.
He collaborated with Emily Milton from the Smithsonian Institution, analyzing 35 corn cobs from 14 cemeteries in the Chincha Valley for their carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios. Together with Bongers, Milton and their colleagues also examined collagen from the bones of 11 ancient seabirds from the region, including pelicans, boobies, cormorants, gulls, and penguins, to establish a local isotope baseline for guano.
The bone analysis showed elevated nitrogen-15 levels typical of seabirds, while many corn cobs displayed even higher nitrogen isotope ratios indicative of guano fertilization.
These findings confirm that the Chincha people were utilizing island resources by at least 1250, says Joe Osborne from Texas A&M University.
Guano may have facilitated the economic expansion of the Chincha kingdom and enhanced its bargaining capacity when later absorbed into the Inca Empire, with broader implications for understanding how marine fertilizers influenced social transformations throughout the Andes, the researchers contend.
“It’s logical that ancient Peruvians harnessed guano as fertilizer,” remarks Dan Sandweiss from the University of Maine, who was not involved in the study. “Traveling to the islands for such a valuable resource would certainly have been worthwhile!”
Chincha guano is exceptionally valuable, possibly because its limited rainfall allows the nitrogen to remain largely intact. “This Peruvian guano was indeed a treasure,” he adds.
Explore Machu Picchu: The Science of the Incas in Peru
Dive into the pivotal ruins of the Inca civilization with two visits to Machu Picchu, and uncover the rich narrative that extends beyond a single site.
Core Samples from Nepal’s Lake Reveal Random Patterns of Historical Earthquakes
Zakaria Ghazoui-Schaus, BAS
While some experts argue that northern India and western Nepal are overdue for significant earthquakes, recent studies indicate this notion may be a myth. Historical data reveals small earthquakes have occurred randomly in the region for thousands of years.
Frequently, officials and media label densely populated fault-adjacent areas, such as Istanbul, Seattle, and Tokyo, as being “overdue” for a major earthquake. The last significant earthquake on the central Himalayan fault segment in India and Nepal was recorded in 1505. Some researchers suggest that earthquakes in the area occur approximately every 500 years, indicating that a major quake could be on the horizon, as highlighted in a study.
However, new findings reveal at least 50 earthquakes of magnitude 6.5 or higher have transpired in this region over the past 6,000 years, including 8 since 1505, according to this research. Notably, these earthquakes did not exhibit regular patterns, occurring randomly instead.
“It is essential to shift our focus from debating the periodicity of earthquakes in the Himalayas to acknowledging that they occur randomly, and assess the risks accordingly,” emphasizes Zakaria Ghazoui-Schaus of the British Antarctic Survey, who participated in the research.
The relentless collision of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates forming the Himalayas contributes to one of Earth’s largest seismic zones. This extensive 2,400-kilometer fault has generated powerful earthquakes, including the catastrophic 7.8 magnitude earthquake in 2015 that tragically claimed nearly 9,000 lives in and around Kathmandu.
Despite this, limited evidence of seismic activity has been found in the central fault section just west of Kathmandu, sparking concerns that pressure in this “seismic gap” could lead to a devastating magnitude 8 or 9 earthquake.
Ghazoui-Schaus suggests that this perception stems from a “knowledge gap” rather than tectonic inactivity. Traditional methods for locating earthquake evidence in the Himalayas often involve digging trenches to find surface cracks, which might detect major quakes but overlook smaller “shadow earthquakes” that did not cause surface damage.
Former British Geological Survey seismologist Roger Masson states, “Traditional paleoseismology only yields sparse records of the largest earthquakes, while historical catalogs generally suffice for earthquakes up to magnitude 4.” This bias leads to inflated estimates of long “occurrence intervals,” or “recurrence periods,” which represent the average time between earthquakes of a certain magnitude in an area.
To enhance the seismic record of the central Himalayas, Ghazoui-Schaus and his team visited Rara Lake in western Nepal in 2013, collecting a 4-meter sediment core using a rubber boat.
Research Team Prepares Equipment for Sediment Core Sampling at Rara Lake in Nepal
Zakaria Ghazoui-Schaus, BAS
The researchers analyzed sediment cores containing turbidites—layers that finely layer sediment on coarser sediments deposited on the lake bed by underwater landslides caused by earthquakes. Their analysis identified 50 earthquakes of magnitude 6.5 or greater over the past 6,000 years, each dated according to its core depth, likely releasing energy that alleviated fault tension, says Ghazoui-Schaus.
Statistical evaluations indicated that while earthquakes often occur in swarms, these swarms are random. This finding aligns with seismologists’ expectations based on contemporary records, marking one of the first confirmations through paleoseismological evidence.
If I were constructing a house in western Nepal, I would certainly prioritize building it more robustly,” notes Ghazoui-Schaus. Masson adds that despite the random occurrence of earthquakes, calculating the average interval between them remains valuable for anticipating seismic activity that could threaten vulnerable structures like bridges and dams.
“When planning for the next century, it’s crucial to estimate how many earthquakes of specific magnitudes may occur. Being prepared ensures we can withstand quakes whenever they strike, regardless of whether it’s next year or a decade from now,” he states succinctly.
The Royal Navy of Britain is embracing its sailing heritage with an innovative fleet of small, wind-powered robots.
The vessel, named C-Star, was developed by Ocean Ltd. in Plymouth, England. Measuring only 1.2 meters in length and weighing approximately 40 kilograms, C-Star utilizes solar panels to power its navigation, communication, and sensors, while its sails enable propulsion. These small vessels operate in clusters, forming an extensive sensor network.
“C-Star can be described as a self-deploying, position-maintaining offshore buoy,” stated Anahita Laverack, CEO of Ocean.
Each C-Star can cover around 80 miles daily at a speed of approximately 2 knots or remain stationary using the wind for propulsion. “In CCTV networks, speed isn’t a priority,” Laverack explained. “The goal is to position the sensors where they are most needed.”
In a recent test announcement, a larger robotic ship will deploy three C-Stars into designated areas. Once in position, C-Star will transmit acoustic signals from an unmanned submarine. In practical applications, numerous C-Stars will likely be utilized.
“With just one C-Star, adversaries could ascertain the general location of the submarine you’re communicating with. However, deploying 100 makes the submarine’s exact position unpredictable,” Laverack noted.
These unmanned vessels have the capacity to remain at sea for over six months, enduring even extreme maritime conditions. Last year, C-Stars set a precedent as the first unmanned vessel to provide live data from within a Category 5 hurricane, as part of a research initiative with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
If the Navy’s demonstration is successful, these robotic sailing ships could take on diverse roles. Their functions may include communication with submarines, gathering intelligence from undersea sensors, and establishing patrol lines to detect ships, approaching missiles, and drones attempting to elude radar detection.
C-Star is also envisioned as an ideal solution for submarine detection, offering an alternative to disposable sonar-equipped buoys that have a brief operational lifespan. Utilizing hydrophones, these vessels can listen for submarines and capture sonar signals reflecting off external sources such as warships. This would allow C-Star to effectively illuminate the surrounding area for detection.
According to Blair Thornton, a researcher at the University of Southampton, UK, the adoption of solar and wind-powered unmanned vessels has steadily progressed over the past decade, with around 100 such vessels now in operation. He emphasizes that autonomy will be crucial for these fleets.
“The operational cost of the platform is important, but so is the extent of monitoring required for its operation,” Thornton remarked. “Combining long-term durability with efficient performance while minimizing human intervention presents a significant advantage, facilitating the operation of extensive fleets of autonomous systems.”
The forthcoming demonstration aims to illustrate how seamlessly C-Star can integrate with existing naval systems. Should the Navy decide to proceed with an order, Oshen can deliver up to 1,000 boats within a nine-month timeframe.
“The next phase will involve software enhancements aimed at providing more detailed information and facilitating better coverage of larger areas with fewer C-Stars,” Laverack added.
Article Updated on February 12, 2026
Clarified communication details between C-Star and submarine during trials.
Imagine if postal workers could hand over flyers to volunteers on each block, who would then distribute them to neighbors. This approach could enable biologists to enhance gene editing for various medical conditions, significantly amplifying treatment effects.
The goal is to have each targeted cell replicate the gene editing machinery, subsequently passing it on to adjacent cells. This cascading effect can lead to transformative changes in the DNA of multiple cells, offering a breakthrough in treating genetic disorders.
In studies involving mice, Wayne Go and his team, including CRISPR pioneer Jennifer Doudna, successfully tripled the number of edited liver cells using this innovative method.
“We’re instructing the first cell to produce tiny lipid particles that carry the CRISPR machinery,” Ngo explained. “This transforms the cell into a factory, distributing these vital packets to surrounding cells.”
The first FDA-approved CRISPR treatment for sickle cell disease requires harvesting blood stem cells for editing outside the patient’s body, which makes it prohibitively expensive. However, many ongoing trials aim to develop methods for directly editing cells within the body, making treatments more accessible.
A major hurdle is delivering the CRISPR machinery to a significant portion of specific cells in the body. “To effectively cure sickle cell disease, about 20% of blood stem cells need to be edited,” Ngo noted. “Achieving that threshold has been challenging.”
Even if the initial delivery reaches only 10% of blood stem cells, local amplification could tip the scales to success by increasing that percentage to 30%.
To enable amplification, Ngo targeted proteins that assist in viral budding from cells. These proteins bind to cell membranes, forming small sacs or vesicles that can be transferred to other cells.
By linking the viral proteins to the CRISPR Cas9 editing protein, the Cas9 protein—which guides the gene editing process—can be encapsulated in vesicles and transported to neighboring cells.
In experimental tests, Ngo’s team injected a DNA sequence encoding the Cas9 viral protein into the livers of mice. Although only 4% of cells took up the DNA, they achieved a 12% overall gene edit rate.
Real-world applications of gene editing will utilize alternative delivery methods beyond pressure injection, which served only as proof of concept. “It’s not the most efficient method, but it demonstrates the potential of our system,” Ngo stated. “Tripling the amplification is a promising start, and we are actively exploring ways to refine our delivery systems to treat various diseases.”
This amplified gene editing approach not only enhances efficiency but could also allow for lower dosages, increasing treatment safety.
Researchers have been investigating vesicle budding strategies for many years. Gaetan Bourgeot of the Australian National University noted that Ngo’s team might be the first to validate these strategies in animal models for gene editing. However, Burgio emphasized the need for rigorous controls and validation of their results.
Current self-amplifying mRNA vaccines illustrate similar principles, where the delivered mRNA codes for mechanisms to produce more copies. This tactic aims to make vaccines safer and more cost-effective by reducing the required doses; however, the excess mRNA remains within the cells where it was produced.
Recent research has unveiled specific neurons in mice that enhance endurance following exercise, suggesting that similar cells may exist in humans. These findings could pave the way for targeted drugs and treatments to amplify exercise effects.
Traditionally, the understanding has been that brain changes from physical activity differ from those occurring in muscles. However, Nicholas Betley from the University of Pennsylvania contends that these brain changes regulate all physical responses.
To investigate further, Betley and his team observed neuronal activity in mice before, during, and after treadmill sessions, concentrating on neurons located in the ventromedial hypothalamus. Previous research revealed that developmental issues in this area hinder fitness improvements, a finding likely applicable to humans due to the structural consistency across mammals.
Post-exercise, the researchers noted that a specific group of neurons with SF1 receptors exhibited increased activity. These neurons, critical for brain development and metabolism, activated more significantly with each subsequent run. By day 8, approximately 53% of neurons were activated compared to under 32% on day 1. As Betley emphasizes, “Just as your muscles get stronger through exercise, your brain’s activity adapts as well.”
Utilizing optogenetics, which uses light to manipulate neuron activity, the researchers turned off these neurons in another mouse cohort trained on the treadmill five days weekly for three weeks. Observed post-session, neuron inhibition lasted an hour, followed by endurance tests.
The findings showed that these inhibited mice improved their running distances by around 400 meters, compared to control mice whose neuron activity remained unaffected.
While the exact function of these neurons remains ambiguous, team member Morgan Kindel, also at the University of Pennsylvania, indicates their likely role in fuel utilization. During endurance exercises, carbohydrates are depleted faster, necessitating a shift to fat for fuel. However, when these neurons were inhibited, mice utilized carbohydrates earlier, leading to performance limitations. They also discovered that inhibiting these neurons hindered the release of a muscle protein, PGC-1 alpha, which optimizes fuel use, while also facilitating energy replenishment and muscle recovery.
Although optogenetics isn’t applicable to humans due to its invasive nature, Betley suggests potential alternative interventions could be developed to target these neurons. “If we can identify methods, like supplements, to activate these neurons, we could significantly boost endurance,” he states.
In experiments boosting neuron activity instead of suppressing it, the mice exhibited extraordinary endurance, able to run over twice the distance of control subjects.
Such advancements may particularly benefit individuals struggling with exercise, including the elderly or stroke survivors, as noted by Betley.
Nevertheless, several challenges remain. First, the applicability of these findings to humans is not confirmed. There are concerns about potential side effects, highlighted by Thomas Barris at the University of Florida. These neurons seem to regulate cellular energy uptake, and overstimulation might pose risks like dangerously low blood sugar levels.
Even if safely activatable in humans, Betley believes it won’t serve as a stand-alone solution for health. “Exercise fosters a wide array of benefits: reducing depression and anxiety, enhancing cognitive function, improving cardiovascular health, and strengthening muscles,” he notes. However, stimulating these neurons alone won’t unlock all the positive outcomes associated with exercise.
Scanning Electron Micrograph of Bifidobacteria – Key Genera Found in Infant Colon
Dr. Gary Gaugler/Science Photo Library
A groundbreaking study has uncovered significant variations in the gut microbiome among infants globally. Notably, Western infants tend to lack specific microbes that are prevalent in infants from other regions. This finding could enhance the development of probiotics tailored for premature babies to help ensure effective colonization with beneficial bacteria.
The first 1,000 days are critical for a child’s microbiome development, impacting immune function, mental health, and long-term disease risk. Historically, our knowledge has been limited to Western populations, but a new global atlas of the infant microbiome is now expanding our understanding.
The research, led by Yang Xiao and researchers at the Wellcome Sanger Institute in South Cambridgeshire, England, identified Bifidobacterium longum as a key player in establishing a stable gut microbiota.
The study analyzed stool samples from the UK, Sweden, the US, and seven countries in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, including Bangladesh, Pakistan, Kenya, Malawi, Burkina Faso, Uganda, and Zimbabwe.
The focus was on two variants: B. longum longum and B. longum infantis, which have been the subject of most infant gut microbiome research to date. By integrating this data with previously sequenced genomes, the team discovered that about 70% of infants in African and South Asian countries carried B. longum infantis, while less than 2% of infants in the UK, US, and Sweden exhibited the same by two months of age.
“The infantis strain is fundamentally lacking in Western environments,” notes Xiao.
In stark contrast, around one-third of infants in Western countries are colonized by B. longum longum by two months, compared to fewer than 10% in the other regions studied.
This indicates diverse roles of B. longum longum and B. longum infantis in immune system development and protection against infections, which appear to thrive in different geographical environments.
Diet may play a significant role, as Bifidobacterium helps digest nutrients from breast milk, with its composition influenced by maternal diet. “B. longum longum adapts better to Western diets, while B. longum infantis is optimized for other regional diets,” Xiao explains. Other bacteria, such as Bifidobacterium breve, may also contribute to gut colonization.
This research significantly expands our understanding of gut microbiomes, particularly in underrepresented populations. Lindsay Hall at the University of Birmingham, UK, emphasizes the importance of this advancement.
While probiotics are not usually recommended for full-term infants, they can be beneficial for premature ones, as noted in health guidelines. Combining this research’s insights allows for tailored probiotics based on an infant’s region. For instance, B. longum infantis may be advantageous for infants in Africa and Asia but may not persist in Western infants’ guts as effectively. “Understanding bacterial diversity across regions is crucial for identifying the most beneficial probiotics for infants,” Hall concludes.
Close-up of glass with Microsoft Flight Simulator Map Data
Microsoft Research
Innovative automated systems for storing vast amounts of data on glass could revolutionize the future of data centers.
In our data-driven world, everything relies on information—from the internet and industrial sensors to scientific data from particle colliders, all of which require secure and efficient storage solutions.
While their technique was impractical for industrial applications, Richard Black and his colleagues at Microsoft’s Project Silica have successfully demonstrated a similar glass-based technology. This innovation could pave the way for long-lasting glass data libraries in the near future.
“Glass can endure extreme temperatures, humidity, particulates, and electromagnetic fields,” explains Black. “Moreover, glass boasts a long lifespan and doesn’t need frequent replacement, making it a more sustainable medium. It requires significantly less energy to produce and is easy to recycle once it has served its purpose.”
The research team’s pioneering process starts with a femtosecond laser, which emits light pulses lasting just 100 billionths of a second. This technology etches tiny structures into a thin layer of glass to encode data. To minimize read and write errors, the researchers also incorporate additional bits into the data.
The data is read using a combination of microscope and camera systems, with images processed by a neural network algorithm that converts them back into bits. This entire process is easily reproducible and automated, making it a perfect example of a robotic data facility.
Remarkably, researchers successfully stored 4.8 terabytes of data on a square glass piece measuring 120 millimeters wide and 2 millimeters thick. This is roughly one-third the volume of an iPhone, equivalent to about 37 iPhones’ storage capacity.
Project Silica Glass Writing Instruments
Microsoft Research
Accelerated aging experiments, including heating the glass in a furnace, suggest that the data may remain stable and readable for over 10,000 years at 290°C, even longer at room temperature. Additionally, the researchers tested borosilicate glass, which, while cheaper, only effectively stored less complex data.
Kazansky highlighted Project Silica’s main breakthrough: delivering an end-to-end system scalable to data center size. Although the principles of glass-based data storage have existed for over a decade, this study confirms its feasibility as a technology.
Microsoft isn’t alone in exploring this groundbreaking technology. Kazansky also co-founded S Photonics, focused on preserving the human genome in glass. The Austrian startup Serabite proposes similar storage techniques using ultrathin layers of ceramic and glass.
Nonetheless, challenges persist, such as the cost of integrating the glass library into existing data centers and whether the Project Silica team can enhance glass capacity, potentially up to 360 terabytes as per Kazansky’s findings.
For now, Black identifies the primary potential applications for Project Silica’s technology in national libraries, scientific repositories, cultural records, and anywhere data needs to survive for centuries. Collaborations with companies like Warner Bros. and Global Music Vault are underway to safeguard data currently stored in the cloud for the long term.
Kazansky adds that this technology has even inspired cinematic portrayals. In Mission: Impossible – The Final Reckoning, a protagonist discovers the capacity and security necessary to trap an advanced artificial intelligence. “It’s a rare moment when Hollywood science fiction aligns with peer-reviewed reality,” he remarks.
Pediatricians play a critical role beyond just treating children’s illnesses. A recent study highlights their blood as a valuable source for developing treatments for common childhood diseases.
Mauro Pimentel/AFP via Getty Images
In the battle against common childhood diseases, researchers have looked at an unexpected asset: the blood of pediatricians. This blood contains a treasure trove of potent antibodies that can serve as effective preventive treatments. Shockingly, these antibodies surpass current approved therapies for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and typical cold viruses.
Pediatricians frequently encounter respiratory viruses, making them a potentially underutilized resource in the search for robust antibodies against these pathogens. While existing antibody treatments for RSV protect against some strains, the quest for broader-spectrum options continues.
A collaborative team led by Hui Zai at Chongqing Medical University Children’s Hospital analyzed the blood samples of 10 pediatricians with more than a decade of experience. This led to the identification of 56 exceptionally effective antibodies against RSV within the pediatricians’ immune cells.
Next, researchers engineered versions of these antibodies and conducted laboratory tests, discovering that three specific antibodies demonstrated significant efficacy against various strains of RSV. Remarkably, one of these antibodies also neutralized the human metapneumovirus, a virus closely related to RSV that is a frequent cold culprit but can lead to severe illness in certain children.
Subsequent studies involving mice and rats revealed that injections of these three pediatric-derived antibodies, either alone or in combination, prevented the emergence of symptoms in animals infected with RSV or human metapneumovirus. Notably, the pediatrician-derived antibody exhibited a blocking efficiency up to 25 times greater than existing antibodies called nirsevimab and clethrovimab, while also neutralizing a broader array of strains.
The findings align with pediatric wisdom that suggests medical professionals become more resilient to respiratory viruses as they gain experience. Dr. Trent Calcutt from Port Macquarie Base Hospital, Australia, noted, “After a decade of working with pediatric patients, I’ve seen a marked decline in serious respiratory illnesses in myself.”
Dr. Calcutt views the pediatrician-derived antibody’s potential as promising enough to justify further exploration in human clinical trials, stating, “Given the unusual nature of this intervention, it deserves serious consideration.”
Presently, two primary methods exist to safeguard infants from RSV: administering a maternal vaccine during pregnancy to afford protection post-birth and providing injections of nirsevimab or clethrovimab to neutralize the virus upon infection. However, these treatments are limited to specific RSV strains.
Interestingly, nirsevimab and clethrovimab were developed by screening the blood of adults who have dealt with RSV without being healthcare workers, identifying antibodies generated through natural infection. As of now, there are no approved vaccines or antibody treatments available for human metapneumovirus.
Individuals experiencing long-term grief disorder display increased brain activity in response to death-related images, indicating heightened emotional and memory processing.
Paul Mansfield/Getty Images
While grief is a natural response to loss, for approximately 5% of bereaved individuals, this grief becomes prolonged, evolving into prolonged grief disorder (PGD). Recent research has provided insights into the development of this challenging condition, potentially aiding healthcare professionals in identifying those who may require additional support following a loss.
Inclusion of PGD in the American Psychiatric Association‘s diagnostic manual in 2022 sparked significant discourse regarding its implications on the understanding of normal grief responses and the constraints of defining acceptable grieving timelines. Current studies analyzing brain activity suggest that PGD is indeed a distinct mental health condition.
Richard Bryant and researchers from the University of New South Wales in Sydney have compared brain activity patterns in individuals with PGD to those experiencing other grief-related conditions, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety. Their findings indicate that while some overlap exists, PGD patients consistently demonstrate more significant alterations in brain circuits related to reward processing.
For instance, studies indicate that PGD patients may experience greater activation in the nucleus accumbens, the brain region responsible for processing rewards and motivations, in response to grief-related stimuli compared to those not suffering from PGD. The strength of this activation correlates strongly with the intensity of longing for the deceased.
Individuals with PGD also exhibit distinct responses to reminders of the deceased, showing a preference for avoiding such stimuli, unlike individuals with PTSD and anxiety, who generally demonstrate behaviors aimed at avoidance.
Moreover, research indicates that PGD patients experience heightened amygdala and right hippocampus activation when confronted with death-related imagery, in contrast to typical grievers, who might display increased deactivation in response to positive images, highlighting a disruption in emotional regulation and a diminished capacity for positive emotional experiences.
Bryant elucidates that in PGD, the brain’s reward system becomes inextricably linked to the deceased, leading to an overwhelming yearning for the lost loved one. “The principal distinction between PGD and normal grief lies in the duration, indicating that individuals become ‘stuck’ in their grief, unable to heal like the majority,” he explains.
While this review provides valuable insights, the complexity of PGD makes it difficult to implement standardized diagnostic approaches, as noted by Catherine Shear at Columbia University. Access to brain scans is often unavailable for grieving individuals, and the intricate nature of grief complicates one-time assessments.
Shear also suggests that “two-person neuroscience” can enhance our understanding of grief by monitoring brain activity during interpersonal interactions, further unraveling how grief is influenced by social contexts, cultural norms, and individual support levels.
This comprehensive review aids in predicting individuals at risk for PGD post-bereavement. In a significant study, bereaved adults underwent brain scans shortly after their loss and periodically over the next six months. Stronger connections between the amygdala and regions involved in behavior regulation and information filtration observed during initial scans may forecast worsening grief symptoms, implying that such patterns can indicate a higher likelihood of developing PGD in the future.
Despite the identification of psychosocial factors that may predispose certain individuals to PGD, conclusive predictions remain challenging, according to Joseph Govias from the Medical College of Wisconsin. Early identification may facilitate intervention, ranging from support groups to specialized treatments.
Advancements in understanding specific neurobiological mechanisms reinforce the need to acknowledge PGD as distinctly separable from general grief, guiding tailored treatment strategies for affected individuals.
“Recognizing both the shared and unique neurobiological underpinnings may prevent misdiagnosis and inadequate care,” Govias states. “For instance, PGD less commonly responds to antidepressants, whereas focused grief therapy proves effective. Conversely, in cases where PGD coincides with major depression, a combination of antidepressants and grief-targeted therapies may yield optimal results.”
Pekingese and Japanese Chin dogs are at an increased risk for respiratory diseases.
Michael Schultze, Catamount/Alamy
Dog owners are urged to consider a broader spectrum of breeds when seeking a puppy, as recent studies indicate that serious breathing issues are more common than once believed.
Brachycephalic breeds—dogs with short snouts and flat faces—have surged in popularity, according to Francesca Tomlinson from Cambridge University.
However, along with their rising popularity, these breeds face increasing health concerns, primarily Brachycephalic Obstructive Airway Syndrome (BOAS), which can present as noisy or labored breathing. This condition severely hampers activities like exercise, sleep, and managing heat and stress.
While concerns about BOAS frequently focus on breeds like English bulldogs, French bulldogs, and pugs, research led by Tomlinson explored 898 dogs from 14 breeds including the Affenpinscher, Boston Terrier, Boxer, and Pekingese.
All subjects underwent comprehensive respiratory evaluations and detailed body and facial measurements.
Findings revealed that Pekingese and similar breeds are exceptionally vulnerable to BOAS, with over 80% affected. Breeds like the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, Shih Tzu, and others showed moderate risk, while only the Maltese and Pomeranian showed no significant health concerns.
Three major factors contribute to breathing issues: excess weight, narrow nostrils, and extreme facial flattening. Other traits, such as short or screw-shaped tails, may also be linked to BOAS-related anatomical changes. “It’s not solely flatness that influences risk; various factors play a role,” explains Tomlinson.
Prospective dog owners should seek puppies from health-tested parents and familiarize themselves with the potential health consequences of extreme physical traits, particularly those affecting the face.
“Our goal isn’t to eliminate defining breed characteristics but to support breeding that promotes function over mere appearance,” Tomlinson emphasizes.
She adds that the severity of physical trait exaggeration is crucial in determining health outcomes. “This suggests a practical approach: opting for less extreme physical traits may help lower disease risk.”
Anna Quine from the University of Sydney highlights that “cute” flat-faced dogs are more susceptible to chronic respiratory distress and heat stress.
Breeding dogs for a flat face is akin to “designing a car without a radiator,” she warns. “If we’re introducing dogs into the world, our first priority should be their welfare, not merely satisfying human aesthetic preferences.”
Paul McGreevey, also from the University of Sydney, concurs that the study validates what many veterinarians already suspect: compromised airways are common in flat-faced dogs, with variations across and within breeds.
“For dogs struggling with airway issues and carbon dioxide expulsion, breed labels become irrelevant,” he states, noting that classifications are human decisions.
Yet, he raises concerns regarding the study’s methodology, pointing out the subjective nature of classifying respiratory sounds. “This raises questions about consistency across the 14 distinct breeds,” McGreevy states. “Moreover, the authors admit that athletic assessments depend on individual speed and temperament.”
Tomlinson countered that the evaluation incorporates objective measures, including abnormal breath sound detection, following a standardized protocol. “The intention of the exercise test is not to assess exercise capacity but to observe how airways react to mild exertion,” she clarifies.
Artist’s depiction of QT45 superimposed on a microscopy image of a frozen environment conducive to RNA replication (based on AlphaFold3 predictions)
Microscope images by Elfie Chan and James Atwater
According to the RNA World Hypothesis, life initiated with RNA molecules that evolved to replicate themselves. Recent discoveries reveal an RNA molecule capable of this self-replication, executing essential processes, though not simultaneously.
“It’s been a long quest to reach a point where we confidently state RNA can replicate itself under the right conditions, showcasing its potential,” says Philip Holliger at the MRC Molecular Biology Laboratory, Cambridge, UK.
In living organisms, proteins are pivotal, catalyzing chemical reactions while their synthesis instructions are encoded in double-stranded DNA. RNA, existing typically as a single strand, serves as a chemical analog of DNA.
While RNA is not as reliable for information storage due to its instability, it exhibits a unique capability: folding into protein-like enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions. This dual function of RNA as both storage and catalyst led to the hypothesis in the 1960s that the genesis of life may have hinged on self-catalyzing RNA molecules.
However, identifying such self-replicating molecules has proved exceptionally challenging. It was previously assumed that self-replicating RNA would be relatively large and complex, yet large RNAs are cumbersome to spread and duplicate.
Furthermore, while shorter RNA molecules have been known to form spontaneously under suitable conditions, the likelihood of larger molecules doing the same remains low.
“This insight led us to reconsider; perhaps something simpler and smaller could efficiently complete this process,” Holliger explains. “That search yielded QT45.”
RNA comprises nucleotide building blocks. The research team initiated the process by generating 1 trillion random sequences, each 20, 30, or 40 nucleotides long. They selected three capable of binding nucleotides and combined them for several rounds of evolution, introducing random mutations to enhance performance.
The resultant molecule, QT45, is composed of just 45 nucleotides. In alkaline, near-freezing water, single-stranded RNA can serve as a template to join short strands of two or three nucleotides, creating complementary strands, including those that mirror itself. “Although the process is currently slow with low yields, this is expected,” notes Holliger.
QT45 can also replicate itself using its complementary strands. “This is the first instance of RNA that can generate itself and its coding strand, representing the two core reactions of self-replication,” states Holliger. However, the team has yet to achieve both reactions occurring within the same container. Future efforts will focus on further evolving the molecule and experimenting with conditions like freeze-thaw cycles to see if simultaneous reactions are possible.
“The most fascinating aspect is that once the system begins self-replication, it also starts self-optimization,” Holliger adds, as the error-prone process generates various variants, some potentially more effective at replication.
“The findings from the Holliger lab represent a vital step toward fully self-replicating RNA.” asserts Sabine Muller from the University of Greifswald, Germany.
“A key takeaway from this discovery is the identification of intermediate-sized RNA oligomers capable of self-synthesizing,” remarks Zachary Adam at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
The vast number of possible 45-nucleotide-long RNA sequences is “inconceivably large,” Adam notes, making the team’s discovery of QT45 from an initial batch of 1 trillion sequences mind-boggling.
In early Earth’s environment, a molecule akin to QT45 might have successfully replicated itself amidst conditions similar to those in modern-day Iceland, combining ice with hydrothermal activity that creates freeze-thaw cycles and pH gradients. Holliger believes compartmentalization is essential to segregate key components, with numerous possibilities for this occurrence, from pockets of meltwater in ice to cellular vesicles spontaneously formed from fatty acids.
There Can Be Too Much of a Good Thing When It Comes to Exercise
Reuters/Lucy Nicholson
Exercise is crucial for a long and healthy life; however, recent studies reveal that ultramarathons can significantly accelerate cellular aging in blood. Athletes completing 170 kilometers in mountainous terrain exhibit more age-related damage in their red blood cells compared to those who run shorter distances.
Long-distance running has been associated with health issues, including temporary immune system suppression and anemia. However, the impact on red blood cells, particularly in mountainous environments, is only beginning to be understood.
Angelo D’Alessandro and his team at the University of Colorado examined blood samples from 11 adults, approximately 36 years old, within hours before and after a 40km trail race. They conducted similar analyses on another group of 12 individuals of comparable age participating in a 170-kilometer ultramarathon over the same terrain.
The researchers discovered that participation in either race can lead to increased accumulation of damage in runners’ red blood cells due to reactive oxygen species. These highly reactive molecules are generated when red blood cells need to transport more oxygen throughout the body.
This cellular damage, which occurs naturally with aging, was markedly heightened in ultramarathon runners. D’Alessandro notes, “Anecdotally, the blood after an ultramarathon resembles that of someone who has just suffered a serious injury. Red blood cells accumulate damage, hastening cellular aging.”
Ultramarathon participation appeared to change red blood cells’ shape from disc-like to more spherical at an accelerated rate, a common occurrence as we age. The disc shape is crucial for navigating small blood vessels in the spleen, where aging red blood cells are typically destroyed. “This spherical morphology leads to entrapment in the spleen, resulting in immune cell clearance,” says Travis Nemkov, also from the University of Colorado Anschutz.
This damage likely stems from the inflammatory response triggered by intense exercise, which increases the circulation of red blood cells.
Additionally, ultramarathon runners experienced approximately 10% fewer red blood cells following the race. While this minor reduction isn’t indicative of a health issue or anemia, it suggests the body can probably recover swiftly from this change, according to Nemkov.
Current research efforts focus on analyzing ultramarathon runners’ red blood cells the day following a race to further comprehend the duration of these effects. Future studies aim to explore if these changes impact runners’ performance. Nemkov emphasizes, “This could reveal insights into the signals of damage that might enhance the body’s resilience to endurance running or indicate potential detriments.”
Engaging in unique experiences with your partner can foster deeper connection and personal growth.
Shutterstock/Mauricio Gleiki
Recall those profound connections in your life—a time when each day brimmed with renewed potential. It felt as if you had awakened to a transformed self and a vibrant world, creating an exhilarating yet slightly disconcerting experience.
This isn’t just nostalgia; research indicates that our most fulfilling relationships, be they romantic or platonic, embody a dynamic sense of personal growth. We’re drawn to partners who broaden our perspectives and encourage us to realize our full potential. To maintain a lasting love, continual nurturing of this growth is essential.
This concept, known as self-expansion theory, was first articulated by Arthur Aron and Elaine Aron from Stony Brook University in 1986. They later explored this theory by asking students to describe themselves in detail, leading to findings that those who partnered during the study often expressed increasingly varied self-descriptions. Their partners helped reveal dimensions of identity that may have otherwise remained hidden.
These revelations were not limited to informal reflections; formal psychological assessments showed that budding relationships enhanced self-esteem and self-efficacy, key indicators of personal growth.
Recent research on self-expansion has accelerated significantly over the past decade, examining its impact across diverse communities, including the LGBTQ+ community. In every scenario, increased feelings of personal growth correlated with amplified passion, commitment, desire, and overall relationship satisfaction.
Self-expansion may even influence the longevity of relationships. Various factors can lead to a breakup, but Brent Mattingly and colleagues at Ursinus College discovered that young couples reporting greater self-expansion at the study’s outset were less likely to consider splitting up within nine months. Conversely, studies have shown that those with lower self-expansion levels were more prone to contemplate infidelity.
The neurobiological effects of self-expansion were underscored in a study from Renmin University of China, which confirmed that individuals experiencing significant self-expansion exhibited synchronized neural activity patterns with their partners, indicating shared cognitive experiences.
Strategies for Growing Together as a Couple
Couples can foster self-expansion through various methods. Engaging in meaningful conversations exposes partners to new perspectives and insights, while mutual encouragement pushes each individual toward previously unimagined challenges. For instance, without my partner’s support, I might never have pursued writing a novel or launching a startup.
As a couple, when life paths intertwine, you may start perceiving yourselves as a unified entity. By sharing resources, your partner’s creativity can inspire you, leading to the phenomenon known as the “inclusion of others into the self.” For example, if my partner is an artist, I may feel more creatively inclined during our companionship. My passion for environmental sustainability could motivate them to adopt greener habits. Together, we discover new facets of our identities.
Lastly, shared experiences create opportunities for new hobbies and adventures, enriching your relationship.
Engaging in self-expansion can strengthen relationships significantly.
Matt Mawson/Millennium Images, UK
These dimensions can rekindle love and provide strategies for sustaining that emotional spark. For instance, engaging in profound conversations deepens understanding of one another. Interestingly, the Aarons formulated the popular “36 Questions for Falling in Love,” as featured in a New York Times article. Participants explored topics such as:
Do you have a secret premonition about how you will die?
What is too serious to joke about?
What is your most cherished memory?
Couples engaging in these discussions reported increased intimacy in a single hour compared to those involved in casual chatter. (For more details, check here, published on UC Berkeley’s esteemed Greater Good in Action site). It might seem challenging to delve deeper in an established relationship, but studies suggest that we often overestimate our familiarity with close ones. Taking the time to discover their thoughts and feelings can reveal surprising insights.
Additionally, elevate your shared experiences by exploring new locations and engaging in exciting activities. Research by Cheryl Harasimczak and colleagues at Carleton University found that couples who enjoyed novel and exciting date nights reported increased feelings of self-expansion, enhancing closeness and sexual attraction. Finding new experiences that push each of you beyond your comfort zones—whether that be wine tasting or stargazing—can be invigorating.
While this discourse focuses on self-expansion in romantic contexts, its advantages extend to solo pursuits as well. A recent study by Emine Yucel and Duygu Dincer at Istanbul Aydin University revealed that self-expansion can enrich platonic friendships. Regardless of whether you have a partner to motivate you, opportunities for growth await.
This Valentine’s Day, why not open yourself to new adventures? Sharing experiences with a loving partner enhances enjoyment, but you can initiate your journey independently.
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Illustration of CAR-T cell therapy (green) attacking cancer cells (pink)
Nemeth Laszlo/Science Photo Library
CAR-T cells, a revolutionary form of immunotherapy, have the potential to slow the progression of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) by eliminating dysfunctional immune cells in the brain.
“That’s not how to cure a disease,” notes Davide Trotti from the Jefferson Weinberg ALS Center in Pennsylvania. “The goal is to slow the disease’s progression.”
Individuals diagnosed with ALS typically have a life expectancy of only two to five years. Thus, any method to slow the disease’s advancement could significantly improve patient outcomes, Trotti said. This approach may also benefit the treatment of other neurodegenerative disorders.
ALS, or Lou Gehrig’s disease, results from the degeneration of motor neurons, the nerve cells responsible for voluntary muscle control. Physicist Stephen Hawking’s case was noteworthy, as he lived far longer than most individuals diagnosed with this condition. Fewer than 10 percent of ALS patients survive beyond a decade.
According to Trotti, strides have been made in ALS treatment development, focusing primarily on genetic mutations that constitute 5 to 10 percent of cases. However, there remains no cure for the sporadic type of ALS, whose etiology is largely unknown.
Research indicates that inflammation in the brain contributes to motor neuron death. Specifically, an overabundance of certain immune cells, called microglia, has been observed.
Microglia typically serve as protectors of the brain against infections, help clear debris, and prune unnecessary synapses. However, when overly activated, they can lead to the loss of neurons. “They go overboard,” Trotti explains.
In their studies, Trotti’s team analyzed brain and spinal cord samples from ALS patients, discovering that activated microglia exhibit high levels of a protein known as uPAR. “This protein acts as a marker, enabling us to trace and eliminate them from the central nervous system,” Trotti added.
His research group utilized CAR-T cells, engineered immune cells designed to target and destroy cells displaying specific proteins on their surfaces. CAR-T cells have shown remarkable success in treating certain cancers and are being tested for a broader spectrum of diseases, including autoimmune disorders like lupus.
In laboratory cell studies, the team found that CAR-T cells targeting uPAR effectively killed rogue microglia without harming healthy neurons. Although this therapy cannot restore lost motor neurons, it holds promise in significantly reducing further neuron loss.
Clinical trials are currently underway using mice with a mutation linked to a specific type of ALS. Results are anticipated in the coming year; the severity of ALS and the lack of effective treatments could prompt regulators to fast-track human trials should the findings be positive.
“Evidence of immune dysfunction in ALS is mounting,” states Ammar Al Chalabi from King’s College London, who is exploring immune-targeted therapies for ALS. “This represents a very promising approach.”
Moreover, microglia that exacerbate damage may play a role in other neurodegenerative diseases, potentially including certain forms of dementia, indicating that this therapy could have wide-ranging applications beyond ALS. “It could be instrumental in slowing down various neurodegenerative conditions,” Trotti remarks.
However, CAR-T therapies carry significant drawbacks, including severe side effects and high manufacturing costs, as they are typically derived from a patient’s cells. Fortunately, research teams worldwide are exploring safer and more cost-effective production methods, such as generating these cells within the body.
Your brain might contain a previously unknown network of blood vessels that assist in the elimination of metabolic waste. If further research substantiates this finding, it could transform our understanding of brain function and lead to novel treatments for conditions like Alzheimer’s disease.
“If this is confirmed, it’s a game-changer,” states Per Christian Eide from the University of Oslo, who was not part of the study. “This could signify a paradigm shift in our grasp of all neurodegenerative disorders, including stroke and traumatic brain injury, as well as our normal brain functions.”
The brain has its mechanisms for self-cleaning, utilizing the glymphatic system—a network of channels surrounding the brain’s blood vessels that integrates with the lymphatic system, which serves as the body’s drainage and filtration system.
Traditional imaging techniques have primarily focused on the protective outer layer of the brain without revealing lymphatic vessels. However, new research from Harvard University may have uncovered a concealed network of blood vessel-like structures akin to lymphatic vessels that connect to the glymphatic system. “This could be the most significant discovery of my three-decade career,” shares Lunn. “It’s a scientist’s ultimate dream.”
Researchers from Siju Gu‘s team at Harvard stumbled upon these structures while investigating beta-amyloid proteins in brain sections from mice exhibiting Alzheimer’s-like symptoms. Beta-amyloid is essential for neuronal function but can aggregate into toxic clumps associated with Alzheimer’s disease, often due to inadequate waste clearance.
Repeating their experiments in both mice with Alzheimer’s-like conditions and those without revealed consistent blood vessel-like structures across every brain region analyzed—highlighting areas like the hippocampus, crucial for memory formation, and the hypothalamus, which regulates sleep and body temperature.
These structures appear to envelope the brain’s blood vessels and meningeal lymphatic vessels, indicating they may play a role in waste removal via the glymphatic and lymphatic systems, according to Lunn.
Moreover, the research team identified similar tube-like formations in post-mortem samples from individuals who succumbed to Alzheimer’s disease, suggesting these structures are also present in asymptomatic individuals, Lunn adds.
The team postulates that these formations could be either a new type of lymphatic vessel lined with beta-amyloid or a protein that evolves into solid fibers relevant to Alzheimer’s pathology. These structures have also been documented in healthy brains.
To investigate further, they utilized protein markers specific to lymphatic vessels on mouse brain slices, resulting in consistent staining of the tubular structures, although not as prominent as recognized lymphatic vessels. Consequently, they coined the term nanoscale lymphatic vessels (NLVs) for these formations and determined they are unlikely to be beta-amyloid.
However, NLV markers may also attach to non-lymphoid tissues, suggesting that the faint staining might imply these NLVs are not traditional lymphatic vessels, as noted by Eide. “This is a completely new type of structure that was previously unknown. The question remains: what exactly are these?”
One theory posits that these formations could be artifacts resulting from the imaging method employed. According to Christopher Brown from the University of Southampton, UK, uneven swelling of tissue samples may introduce cracks that mimic blood vessels.
This could potentially clarify why prior brain imaging research utilizing more dependable methods, like electron microscopy, has not previously identified NLVs, Brown suggests. The research team aims to employ these techniques in the near future; Gu supports this notion, indicating that past studies may have misidentified NLVs as axons, which are long projections from similar-looking neurons.
“We’re approximately 90% confident in our findings,” Lunn confirms, referencing other research conducted by his team demonstrating that fluorescently tagged beta-amyloid in mouse brains appears to infiltrate nearby NLVs, indicating that NLVs may aid in waste fluid transport.
If further validations by other research teams confirm these results, it could enhance comprehension of Alzheimer’s disease and other protein misfolding conditions, such as Parkinson’s disease. For instance, if dilation of blood vessels aids waste clearance, it might pave the way for developing therapeutic drugs for these neurological disorders, Brown concludes.
Earth’s Magnetic Field Extends Thousands of Kilometers into Space
Getty Images/iStockphoto
Recent studies reveal that two massive, enigmatic rock formations beneath Africa and the Pacific Ocean may play a crucial role in generating Earth’s magnetic field. These formations could have contributed to the field’s destabilization over millions of years.
Scientists have long been aware of these continent-sized rock blocks, which stretch nearly 1000 kilometers from the outer core to the upper mantle. They exhibit unique properties that slow seismic wave passage, although their depth complicates measurements, making precise differentiation challenging.
Andrew Biggin, a researcher from the University of Liverpool, explored Earth’s magnetic field for insights. This protective magnetic field, created over billions of years by molten iron convection in the core, extends thousands of kilometers into space, shielding our planet from solar winds and cosmic radiation.
The magnetic field’s shape is influenced by the heat energy transfer from the hot core to cooler zones. Biggin and his team theorized that analyzing changes in the magnetic field could unveil details about heat movement within the Earth’s core.
To trace the evolution of the magnetic field, researchers compared ancient volcanic rock records that captured magnetic orientations over millions of years. They simulated the heat flow in the core with and without the influence of large hot rock masses, correlating results with actual magnetic measurements.
Findings indicated that simulations incorporating these rock blocks aligned most closely with ancient magnetic data. “These convection simulations can reproduce notable features of the core’s magnetic field only when considering significant variability in heat flow at the core’s upper layer,” says Biggin.
This implies that these hot regions have likely maintained higher temperatures than their surroundings for millions of years, leading to diminished heat exchange between the core and mantle. Such discrepancies in heat flow may have significantly contributed to the creation and stabilization of the Earth’s magnetic field.
While many geologists view the Earth’s magnetic field evolution as symmetrical over time, Biggin’s research revealed inherent asymmetries in ancient fields, likely instigated by these rock formations. This discovery could refine how geologists interpret the movement of ancient rocks and reveal changes in Earth’s deep structure over time, according to Biggin.
If accurate, these temperature contrasts in the rock formations could also exist in the upper outer core, potentially detected through seismic wave analysis.
However, Sanne Kottar from Cambridge University expresses skepticism. “Mapping core variations is extremely challenging due to the vast mantle material we must analyze before accessing the core,” she explains.
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