A health worker instructs local residents on handwashing amidst the Ebola outbreak in Rwampara, DRC, dated May 16.
Credit: Xinhua/Shutterstock
Epidemiologists urgently call for the development of vaccines targeting various deadly viruses, particularly in light of the ongoing Ebola outbreak. While the risk of a global Ebola pandemic remains low, this situation illuminates the severe impact of funding cuts to the World Health Organization (WHO).
In early 2025, the United States reduced its funding to WHO, forcing the agency to implement significant budget cuts for 2026/27. Adrian Esterman from the University of Adelaide states, “WHO is severely underfunded and has had to lay off many staff. The U.S. withdrawal from WHO was akin to a disaster.”
According to WHO, “The initial suspected case, a healthcare worker, showed symptoms starting April 24, 2026, which included fever, bleeding, vomiting, and severe fatigue.” On May 17, the organization characterized the crises in the DRC and Uganda as public health emergencies of international concern.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention state that as of May 17, there were 336 suspected cases of Ebola hemorrhagic fever in Bundibugyo, leading to related fatalities. The Bundibugyo strain has a known mortality rate of 20-50%.
There are currently two vaccines approved for the Zaire Ebola virus, the strain responsible for major outbreaks with a mortality rate of up to 90%. Although no vaccine exists for the Bundibugyo virus yet, ongoing research, including promising trials, is underway. WHO emphasizes urgent containment measures to curb the spread of the Bundibugyo virus.
In January, Oxford University announced its collaboration with Moderna to develop vaccines targeting multiple filoviruses, including Bundibugyo, other Ebola strains, and Marburg virus.
Esterman underscores that, in light of the current crisis, these efforts must be accelerated. “This outbreak reinforces the need for fast-tracking vaccine development,” he asserts. “Bundibugyo has been known for nearly 20 years, but viable vaccine options remain absent. This outbreak highlights the significant costs of this gap.”
He advocates for a multivalent vaccine development program encompassing all known filovirus species, stating that it “should not be subject to bureaucratic obstacles.” “Accelerated timelines do not require compromising safety, but we can expedite trials and increase funding,” Esterman adds.
According to Raina McIntyre from the University of New South Wales, vaccine research has predominantly targeted the Zaire strain. However, mRNA technology enhances the potential to develop vaccines against filoviruses like Bundibugyo “very rapidly.”
McIntyre explains that the absence of vaccines for these filoviruses stems from the economics of drug development. “Ebola primarily affects low-income countries, and 90% of drug development focuses on conditions prevalent in high-income nations,” she notes.
While Ebola does not transmit as easily as diseases like SARS-CoV-2, McIntyre indicates the possibility of isolated “low-risk, high-outcome” cases in affluent countries due to travel from affected regions. “Emergency departments worldwide should inquire about travel history to Central Africa for patients with a fever to ensure proper isolation protocols are initiated,” she advises.
“Individuals not confirmed to have traveled to outbreak zones might be subject to lengthy waiting periods before receiving care, which could inadvertently expose others to infection.”
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In the early 20th century, physicists grappled with profound questions raised by the revolutionary mathematical principles of quantum mechanics. Many settled on the mantra: “Shut up and do the math.” This phrase captured the prevailing sentiment of engaging with quantum mechanics pragmatically, without delving into its philosophical implications.
This mindset reflects a broader trend in science, where researchers prioritize calculation over contemplation. While scientific inquiry thrives on empirical data, recent advancements in the study of consciousness demonstrate a shift in understanding—recognizing it as a legitimate scientific field, rather than relegating it to philosophical discourse. For instance, some climate scientists readily build models to predict the impacts of rising emissions but often shy away from discussing the political ramifications, fearing they may stretch beyond scientific boundaries.
In New Scientist, we advocate that while science is a powerful framework for understanding the universe, it shouldn’t be the sole avenue of knowledge. Embracing a more pluralistic approach could yield significant insights into overarching questions like “What is the origin of the laws of nature?”
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The lesson is not to dismiss philosophy, but to view it as an additional tool. “
When integrating philosophy into scientific exploration, it must not be burdened by dogma or rigid methodologies. A case in point is the concept of trees sharing resources through the so-called “Wood Wide Web,” a notion ecologist Suzanne Simard has significantly advanced—but also faced backlash for potentially overextending scientific claims.
Ultimately, the crucial takeaway is to embrace philosophy as an ally in the realm of science. Just as computational quantum physicists have done, we should broaden our intellectual horizons. Science does not possess an exclusive claim to useful ideas; insights from various knowledge domains should be acknowledged and welcomed, provided they are supported by empirical evidence.
Beyond a black hole’s event horizon lies a strange boundary
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The extraordinary phenomenon of falling into a black hole protects you from spaghettification. While the intense gravity pulls the near side of objects with greater force than the far side, stretching them into improbable shapes, a hypothetical high-tech compression suit could shield you from this fate. As you pass through the event horizon—the ultimate point of no return—all that remains visible is darkness mixed with streaks of light plummeting toward the singularity at the heart of the black hole. This Impossible Suit might even provide defense against molecular disruption caused by near-light-speed collisions.
Upon crossing a lesser-known boundary known as the Cauchy horizon, time and space swap roles. If they exist inside a black hole, its interior would truly be among the most bizarre places in the universe.
All classical physics is rooted in causality—the understanding that past events shape future outcomes. For instance, if you observe all variables affecting a thrown stone, you can accurately determine where it will land. This deterministic view holds at human scales and beyond, but falters within the enigmatic environment of a black hole.
Black holes, irrespective of their types, are some of the oddest locales in the cosmos, with such immense mass that they warp the very fabric of spacetime. If a black hole is rotating and bears an electric charge—a rare phenomenon—it opens the door to even stranger phenomena.
In everyday experience, we can move freely through space but are bound to a linear path through time. Yet, upon crossing the event horizon, your directionality changes. You can only move towards the black hole’s center, while your perception of time becomes warped. To an external observer, it seems you are suspended at the edge of the black hole due to time dilation, yet to you, time flows normally—until you confront the Cauchy horizon, where the oddities intensify with peculiar constructs known as closed time-like curves.
Envision these curves as temporal Möbius strips; through forward movement in time, you could find yourself looping back to the past before returning to the present—a scenario that challenges our very notion of causation. Events can no longer dictate future outcomes—or vice versa.
Beyond Cauchy’s horizon, time may flow in a curve like a Möbius strip
Mirage C/Getty Images
Existing in a closed, twisted timeline feels like an uncanny odyssey. In this realm, the very structure of spacetime becomes so tangled and warped that predicting subsequent events becomes impossible. A thrown stone might wholly defy expectations, perhaps even morphing into a pumpkin due to the chaotic laws of this universe. Under these conditions, it’s hard to trust the protective capabilities of the suit that carried you into the black hole in the first place. As you witness the full extent of this scenario, hope for escape dwindles rapidly.
How do we resolve the implications of our current understanding of physics? Enter cosmic censorship—a principle asserting that at the singularity’s core, or points where causality fails, the breakdown of physics remains unseen. This maintains the predictive integrity of our physical laws. A parallel theory, time series censorship, posits that if you venture too close to the singularity, escaping becomes nearly impossible, reinforcing the idea that such phenomena can occur without entirely dismantling the principles of physics.
This theory complicates experimental validation of black holes possessing Cauchy horizons. Checking for black hole rotation is feasible, and the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) has confirmed the existence of rotation. Yet, determining electric charge remains elusive, given their propensity to discharge into surrounding space.
Researchers have also calculated the stability of a potential Cauchy horizon, but findings suggest that such horizons lack stability and may collapse with minimal disturbance, giving rise to an extended singularity and unleashing immense energy density. Would you place faith in your protective suit amid such tumultuous conditions? The only certainty appears to be that encountering what lies past the Cauchy horizon may be more hazardous than not stepping across it at all.
The South Korean icebreaker “Araon” navigates through sea ice near the Thwaites Glacier in January 2026.
Chang W. Lee/New York Times/Redux/eyevine
The front ice shelf of Thwaites Glacier is on the brink of collapse, increasing the instability of Antarctica’s most vulnerable glacier.
“Its imminent demise could occur suddenly, and to clarify, we are preparing an ‘obituary’ press release,” states Rob Larter from the British Antarctic Survey.
Thwaites Glacier, often referred to as the ‘Doomsday Glacier’, is approximately the size of the United Kingdom, rapidly shrinking and currently contributing to around 4% of global sea level rise. Furthermore, its collapse might instigate a domino effect across the West Antarctic ice sheet, leading to an alarming 3.3 meters of sea level rise and reshaping coastlines globally.
Numerous glaciers in Antarctica have ice shelves that float into the ocean, aiding the flow of ice from the continent. This includes the Eastern Thwaites Ice Shelf (TEIS), roughly the size of Greater London (1,500 square kilometers) and boasting a thickness of 350 meters. Recent satellite imagery reveals troubling indications that this ice shelf may soon become detached, with some experts asserting that this separation has already commenced.
“Suddenly, extensive areas were torn apart,” remarks Christian Wilde from the University of Innsbruck, Austria. “It resembles a shattered windshield.”
Significant cracks have emerged around the pinning points (the sections where the floating ice shelf is secured by underwater ridges) and along the grounding line, the area where the glacier transitions into the ocean and begins to float.
“It’s dramatic. I visited in 2019 or 2020, and now when I look at the satellite image, I can’t identify that ledge. There’s a considerable notch where there was none before,” comments Karen Alley, a professor at the University of Manitoba in Canada, who is examining how this divide might progress.
The primary cause of these changes is shifts in ocean circulation, which have led to the melting and thinning of the ice. Additionally, alterations in ice flow dynamics mean the shelf is colliding with stable points, causing fractures. “We’re transitioning from a robust, thick ice shelf anchored at specific points to a weakened, thinner ice shelf that’s disintegrating,” Alley explains.
The disappearance of ice shelves is also evident in the speed at which they flow. “From January 2020 to January 2026, the ice flow has tripled to over 2,000 meters per year, which is alarming,” Wilde states. This trend has intensified in the last five months. “We’re essentially in a state of free fall at this point.”
Simultaneously, fresh cracks are appearing along the grounding line. “These have emerged in the past few years as shelf displays have significantly accelerated,” comments Ted Scambos from the University of Colorado Boulder. This indicates that ice shelves are being pulled away from glaciers.
Predicting the exact moment of final breakup is exceedingly complex. “Forecasting ice shelf rupture is akin to predicting earthquakes,” Larter explains. “We recognize an event is in motion, but timing is reliant on unpredictable processes. The next satellite image we receive may reveal ice shelf collapse, but the same could be true next year.”
However, don’t expect a colossal iceberg to float into the ocean immediately. Due to the area’s geography, any detached ice is likely to remain in proximity, and, since TEIS is already so fractured, significant breaks are improbable.
While the dramatic collapse of giant icebergs often captures headlines, glaciologists emphasize that the primary concern lies in the diminishing strength of the ice shelf. Wilde remarks that the shelf is “effectively gone” when it ceases to impede the upstream flow. This results in a quicker movement of glaciers into the ocean.
In an upcoming study, Wilde and colleagues revealed that from January 2020 to 2026, the ice flow of glaciers previously supported by TEIS increased by roughly 33 percent. “There is evident proof that there is little to no buttressing in this region anymore,” he states. This reduction has effectively led to the collapse of the ice shelf.
This poses significant implications for future global sea levels. “Increased ice movement from Antarctica means more ice entering the ocean, contributing to rising sea levels,” Scambos notes, emphasizing that while this is not an immediate crisis, it will slowly unfold, affecting future sea levels over decades. “This will influence how Thwaites evolves and potentially contributes to 10 to 20 percent of future sea level rise.”
By 2067, Thwaites may lose approximately 190 gigatonnes of ice annually according to a January study by Daniel Goldberg from the University of Edinburgh and colleagues. This marks a 30 percent increase over current glacier losses, equating to the total ice currently lost from Antarctica.
While ice shelf break-offs are normal in polar cycles, current loss trends are alarming. “Since the 1990s, we’ve observed increasing instability in ice shelves,” Alley states. Notably, the adjoining Pine Island Glacier is also undergoing rapid changes, and its ice shelf is collapsing.
“Ice shelves remain stable primarily in extremely cold conditions,” Alley adds. “Both ocean and atmospheric temperatures must be low. However, as we warm the planet, we observe the corresponding loss of ice shelves, which is precisely what’s expected.”
Humans inadvertently impact their environment with every muscle movement they make.
As climate change persists, our lifestyles—including diets, transportation, and comfort choices—are facing increasing scrutiny, particularly as the human population continues to grow. Recently, our online behaviors have also come under examination.
The rise of AI has highlighted the substantial energy and water demands of digital technologies.
A 2026 report predicts that global AI usage, especially the data centers that support it, will produce CO2 emissions comparable to that of New York City within a year.
Moreover, estimates suggest that every 5 to 50 queries to ChatGPT requires 0.5 liters of water (about 1/10th of a gallon) to cool its servers.
But how does AI usage contrast with other online activities, such as streaming movies or scrolling through social media?
Global AI usage is estimated to emit CO₂ equivalent to that of New York City within a year – Photo credit: Getty
Comparing one technology to another or one platform to another can be challenging, but some analysts have attempted to do so.
For instance, AI and tech writer Andy Masley calculated that the average ChatGPT query emits 0.28g of CO2. This is roughly equal to streaming video for 35 seconds, uploading nine photos to social media, or using a laptop for one minute.
It’s important to note that assessing the total environmental impact of AI is complicated due to the extensive resources needed for model training, making precise calculations challenging.
A simpler way to gauge the environmental costs of online activities is by examining the amount of data consumed at any given moment.
For example, reading a text post on LinkedIn utilizes less data than watching a video on TikTok. Similarly, a text query to an AI chatbot consumes much less data compared to generating an AI text-to-video request.
Cloud-based gaming is among the biggest online culprits, requiring gaming servers to operate continuously.
However, a 2025 report from the carbon accounting firm Greenly indicates that physical video games are 100 times more carbon-intensive than online streaming, due to the manufacturing of discs and packaging, product distribution, and their eventual disposal in landfills or incinerators.
Cloud-based gaming can be one of the most environmentally harmful activities online, requiring servers to run continuously – Photo credit: Getty
This illustrates a broader truth: our offline activities typically have a significantly greater environmental impact than our online endeavors.
Another analysis from Greenly indicates that an annual subscription to Netflix (based on average viewing time) results in approximately 17 kg of CO2 emissions, roughly equivalent to a 60-mile trip in a gasoline vehicle.
A single flight from London to Berlin generates ten times more emissions per economy passenger. Additionally, consuming just one sirloin steak produces more carbon (20-30 kg depending on size) than a year’s worth of binge-watching Bridgerton.
In summary, if reducing your carbon footprint is a priority, while managing screen time is important, factors such as your purchases, dietary choices, and travel habits have a more significant impact.
This article addresses the question posed by Adeline Cliffe of Lisburn: “What is the worst thing you can do for the planet online?”
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Nutritionists seldom endorse a one-size-fits-all food choice. Recently, we’ve grasped that nutritional requirements vary from person to person; a healthy diet hinges on balance, while individual foods possess distinct strengths and weaknesses.
Nevertheless, nutrition experts almost unanimously recommend beans. These versatile legumes are brimming with health advantages, each variety offering unique benefits.
If your thoughts of beans are limited to the old playground rhyme, “Beans, beans, good for your heart. The more you eat, the more you fart,” it’s time to look beyond that!
Here’s why nutrition experts urge you to include beans in your grocery list — and which types to prioritize.
Beans: A Fiber Powerhouse
The primary reason beans are considered superfoods is their high fiber content. Fiber is often lacking in our diets, yet it is abundant in all types of beans.
One of the champions of beans is Dr. Emily Leeming, a nutritionist and gut health specialist at King’s College London.
“Beans offer numerous health benefits,” she states. “They’re particularly vital for fiber intake; a staggering 96% of Brits fall short on fiber.” In the US, that figure is similarly alarming, with 95 percent not meeting their fiber needs.
“Consuming beans is a convenient way to increase your fiber intake,” Leeming notes. Just a half-cup serving of beans provides around 7 to 8 grams of fiber, alongside an equivalent amount of protein.
She continues, “This contributes significantly to the recommended daily fiber intake of 30 grams.”
However, this recommendation may not suit everyone. Certain individuals, such as those on a low FODMAP diet, might experience adverse effects from additional fiber.
For most people adhering to a Western dietary pattern, research indicates that fiber from beans can enhance gut health and metabolic function.
This fiber aids in promoting feelings of fullness, supporting a diverse gut microbiome, and reducing the risk of diseases such as type 2 diabetes and colorectal cancer.
Maintaining gut health aids overall wellness – Credit: Getty
Additionally, as the famous rhyme suggests, fiber is also “good for the heart.” Dr. Megan Rossi, author and gut health scientist known as The Gut Health Doctor, elaborates on this.
“The heart health benefits of beans are attributed to their rich fiber content, which aids in lowering harmful cholesterol levels,” she explains.
Excessive LDL (“bad”) cholesterol can lead to plaque buildup in blood vessels, heightening the risk of heart disease.
Research consistently supports that increasing bean consumption can reduce LDL cholesterol levels, thereby boosting heart health.
“Fiber helps bind cholesterol so it can be excreted rather than reabsorbed into the bloodstream,” Rossi clarifies.
In addition to cholesterol, inflammation is another significant factor impacting heart health, and beans can mitigate this as well.
Persistent inflammation raises the risk of numerous diseases from diabetes to arthritis, and can severely damage blood vessels.
Beans are rich in anti-inflammatory compounds known as phytochemicals (“phyto” meaning “plant”). These compounds help reduce chronic inflammation and protect cardiovascular health.
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Affordability and Sustainability of Beans
Aside from their remarkable health benefits, beans also contribute economically and environmentally. It’s not solely about their health advantages; the way we approach our eating habits is equally important.
As a plant-based protein source, incorporating beans into your diet in place of some meats can save you money and enhance sustainability.
Recent research found that individuals who replaced some processed or red meats with beans had lowered LDL cholesterol and even lost weight.
Soybeans are a protein powerhouse with a lower environmental impact than animal sources – Credit: Getty
The United Nations acknowledges beans’ significant role in minimizing the environmental footprint of our global food system.
The 2025 EAT-Lancet Report recommends enhancing the nutritional and sustainable aspects of our food systems by encouraging greater consumption of plant-based proteins and reduced meat intake.
This collaborative effort included professionals from diverse fields, indicating that it’s not just nutritionists advocating for increased bean consumption—climatologists, economists, and agronomists are on board, too.
Top Beans to Include
It’s clear that beans are beneficial for both health and the environment, but not all beans are equal. If you’re looking to stock up on beans, which varieties should be your priority?
Black Beans
Black beans are low in sodium and rich in potassium, calcium, and magnesium – Credit: Getty
While there’s no definitive “best” bean, black beans come notably close due to their high levels of anti-inflammatory polyphenols. According to Rossi, “Black beans are among the richest sources of polyphenols found in legumes.”
She highlights that these beans contain anthocyanins, a specific type of polyphenol responsible for their deep black hue. Studies suggest that these powerful phytochemicals may lower the risk of cancer, dementia, and heart disease.
A single serving of black beans (approximately 100 grams or half a cup) provides 15% of your daily magnesium needs, an essential nutrient critical for heart, nerve, muscle, and bone health.
Lima Beans
Lima beans, or butter beans, have a mild flavor that blends seamlessly into dishes – Credit: Getty
Lima beans, commonly referred to as butter beans, offer a wealth of micronutrients. Each serving provides one-fifth of the daily manganese requirement, an essential nutrient crucial for brain and nervous system health.
“From a culinary standpoint, I adore butter beans for their creaminess,” Rossi says. “They lack saturated fat, making them a fantastic substitute for butter in recipes.”
Excessive saturated fat can elevate LDL cholesterol levels, so incorporating lima beans serves as a heart-healthy choice. Leeming enjoys mashing butter beans into potatoes to enhance creaminess and fiber.
Red Mung Beans
Red mung beans are popular in various dishes, both sweet and savory – Credit: Getty
Rossi has a penchant for red mung beans, which, although lesser-known in the UK or US, are widely embraced in Japan. “One serving provides nearly 20% of daily zinc needs,” she notes.
Zinc plays a crucial role in immunity and metabolism, along with possessing anti-inflammatory properties. “Red mung beans are also rich in polyphenols, particularly flavonoids, linked to improved skin health,” Rossi explains.
Kidney Beans
Enhance your snack with beans-on-toast using whole wheat bread – Credit: Getty
Shifting from less common varieties to popular ones, kidney beans are well known for their use in British baked beans. “Many people don’t realize baked beans are made from kidney beans,” Rossi explains. “Each serving offers almost 20% of your daily thiamine (vitamin B1) needs.”
Thiamine is essential for converting food into energy and bolstering a healthy immune system.
Honorable Mentions
Other nutritious options include cannellini beans, black-eyed peas, and pinto beans, favored by Rossi for their rich nutrient profiles. Black-eyed peas offer 40% of daily folate needs for non-pregnant adults, while pinto beans are rich in kaempferol, an anti-inflammatory compound linked to reduced cholesterol levels.
Leeming draws attention to kidney beans and chickpeas (garbanzo beans), both high in fiber. Moreover, “Chickpeas are a beloved option due to their delightful taste,” she notes.
Don’t Forget Fresh Options
While we often find beans in canned or dried forms, Leeming emphasizes the value of fresh and frozen beans.
“We shouldn’t overlook options like fava beans, green beans, and runner beans,” she insists. “While these may contain about half the fiber of dried beans, they are still among the highest fiber-rich vegetables.”
Even the humble pea falls into this category; as Leeming points out, “Peas are affordable and a nutritious option.”
Fresh or frozen peas are loaded with vitamins A, C, K, iron, and folic acid – Credit: Getty
Aim for Variety
When it comes to transitioning to a legume-rich diet, both Rossi and Leeming stress the importance of variety over choosing a single “best” bean.
“There isn’t a super bean,” Rossi says. “Diversity is key; every bean contributes different nutrients.”
Each anti-inflammatory phytochemical possesses unique effects on the body.
“Individuals consuming a diverse range of plants tend to have a more varied gut bacteria profile since different bacteria thrive on different phytochemicals,” Rossi explains.
“Thus, from a gut health perspective, it’s advantageous to incorporate various beans such as pinto, butter beans, black beans, and black-eyed peas for maximizing phytochemical diversity.”
However, variety is just one component. Leeming emphasizes the necessity of including beans that align with personal tastes. “We shouldn’t be overly selective about beans,” she asserts. “They are all nutritional gems, each offering unique benefits.”
If something tastes great, you’re more likely to consume it, making it critical to pair beans with the right foods. For example, this might include green beans in chili, chickpeas in curry, butter beans in creamy dips, or your preferred legumes with favorite dishes.
Beans can be exciting and delicious in various dishes – Credit: Getty
The essential takeaway from Leeming is to increase bean consumption. A 2024 survey revealed that 40% of participants in the UK didn’t consume any legumes, excluding peas.
While the situation isn’t as grave in the United States, legume intake has gradually risen, from 8 pounds (3.6 kg) per person in 2014 to 11.7 pounds (5.3 kg) in 2017.
However, this isn’t enough for Leeming, who advocates for beans’ inclusion in national dietary guidelines.
“We know how beneficial they are for health and that they are affordable; if you’re enhancing a meal, make it with beans,” she concludes.
SpaceX is gearing up to launch the newest version of its Starship megarocket—a vital prototype for NASA’s mission to send astronauts to the moon within two years—in a pivotal test flight this Tuesday.
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The stakes for Starship and Elon Musk’s SpaceX are at an all-time high. As part of NASA’s Artemis program, SpaceX is vying with Jeff Bezos’ Blue Origin to create a lunar lander, aiming to get astronauts to the moon by 2028. NASA plans to test one or both systems during the Artemis III mission next year in low Earth orbit.
Simultaneously, SpaceX is on the cusp of going public. The anticipated IPO next month could potentially be the largest in history. As reported by Reuters, a prospectus is expected to be released shortly after the Starship test flight, with a market debut likely by mid-June.
Starship has experienced a series of challenges during previous test flights, including an uncontrolled re-entry and two mid-flight explosions last year as the upper spacecraft ascended.
The last Starship test flight occurred seven months ago. Since then, significant redesigns have taken place for both the booster, Super Heavy, and the upper stage, known as Ship. This next launch marks the inaugural test flight of SpaceX’s third-generation Starship, termed V3. Taller and more powerful, Starship V3 stands at 408 feet when fully stacked, surpassing its predecessor.
It will launch from a new pad at SpaceX’s Starbase facility in southern Texas during the 6:30 p.m. ET launch window.
The flight plan resembles earlier Starship missions. According to SpaceX, during this suborbital test flight, Starship aims to deploy 22 mock Starlink satellites and reignite one of its six Raptor engines while in space—a crucial demonstration for future deorbit maneuvers when returning from space.
Tuesday’s mission is projected to last around 65 minutes. If successful, the upper stage is set to splash down in the Indian Ocean. SpaceX ultimately aims for Starship to be reusable, employing a mechanical arm to catch the spacecraft on a launch tower at the Starbase facility in Texas.
SpaceX previously demonstrated a similar catch technique with the Starship’s Super Heavy booster during an earlier test flight. In contrast, the booster scheduled for Tuesday will land in the Gulf of Mexico, without attempting to return to the launch site.As per SpaceX.
However, Starship’s development is trailing behind NASA’s expectations. Initially expected to fly in 2023, setbacks in the last year have pushed back timelines. NASA had aimed to land astronauts during the Artemis III mission but revised those plans earlier this year to allow for more time to develop lunar landers.
NASA Administrator Jared Isaacman indicated in testimony last month that Artemis III would launch in late 2027, rather than mid-2027 as initially proposed.
SpaceX is under tight deadlines as it prepares Starship for next year’s Artemis III mission. This mission will call for the Starship upper stage to rendezvous with NASA’s Orion capsule, which recently orbited the moon with Artemis II astronauts. SpaceX needs to ensure Starship is qualified for crewed lunar flights next year.
Plans for the Artemis IV mission in 2028 include Starship’s upper stage orbiting the moon and docking with Orion to transfer astronauts to the lunar surface, ultimately returning them to Earth.
Updates to Starship for V3 encompass new Raptor 3 engines for both Super Heavy and Ship, capable of generating around 18 million pounds of thrust.
Additionally, SpaceX has enhanced the propellant tank volume and reduced the number of grid fins on the booster to improve landing precision.
“These advancements aim to unlock Starship’s core functions, including rapid reusability, propellant transfer in space, Starlink satellite deployment, and facilitating human and cargo transport to the Moon and Mars,” SpaceX stated on its website.
Successful propellant transfer in space is essential for enabling the upper stage to refuel in orbit before heading to the moon. A successful test flight on Tuesday could pave the way for these critical future operations.
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Some scientists propose that the stroma is the largest organ in the human body, although this perspective is somewhat debated. Stay tuned for a detailed explanation.
The stroma, a recently discovered component of our anatomy, has only been identified in the last decade, leaving many unaware of its existence.
So, what exactly is stroma, where can it be found, and what functions does it serve?
Consider the stroma a vast network of channels that navigate around and between our cells and tissues, essentially the ‘spaces within spaces.’
These fluid-filled channels perform multiple functions: they buffer and support tissues, facilitate the transport of oxygen, nutrients, and waste, and play an integral role in our immune system.
Prior to 2018, this network was primarily viewed as simple interstitial fluid. While significant, researchers did not recognize it as a distinct organ or organized system. This notion changed when a groundbreaking paper compelled biologists to rethink their understanding.
Digital illustration depicting the interstitial network beneath the skin, showcasing fluid-filled channels interwoven among connective tissue scaffolds. – Photo credit: Getty
The study employed an advanced imaging method known as confocal laser endoscopy, which allows for real-time visualization of bodily functions. The importance of this real-time aspect underlines how we’ve historically overlooked crucial components of human anatomy.
During biopsies or autopsies, researchers often find that the tissues they evaluate are in a “disintegrated” state, as the interstitial fluid is typically expelled in laboratory settings.
Confocal laser endoscopy enables a three-dimensional view of bodily functions, revealing that this fluid doesn’t merely flow through compressed tissues. Instead, researchers observed open, interconnected channels supported by a scaffold of collagen and elastin fibers—a previously unseen aspect of anatomy.
Since the discovery of the stroma, discussions regarding its nature and function have intensified. For example, it could serve as a type of intracellular buffer.
These channels drain into lymph nodes, playing a significant role in waste removal and potentially acting as communication pathways within the body. They may also be involved in immune responses or serve as transport vehicles for white blood cells and cancer cells spread throughout the body. Additionally, they may contribute to swelling and inflammation.
Since the pivotal 2018 paper, debate has arisen about whether the stroma qualifies as an organ in its own right. Its spongy structure and multifunctionality contribute to this classification.
Estimates suggest that the stroma could encompass as much as 20% of the body’s volume.
Conversely, others argue that it is not a standalone organ but rather an intricate refinement of an existing network that carries out essential bodily functions.
Regardless, we are in the early stages of research, and scientists are just beginning to unravel how the stroma impacts our health and whether it might offer new avenues for treatments and medications.
This article answers the question posed by Joel Percival from Sutton Coldfield: “What is stroma?”
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The environmental impact of rocket launches has been a growing concern. Certain fuel systems, particularly solid rocket boosters, release substantial amounts of harmful chlorine into the atmosphere, contributing to ozone depletion.
Two decades ago, NASA’s annual operations were responsible for an estimated 0.6% increase in global stratospheric chlorine, causing an approximate 0.1% decline in the ozone layer each year.
Despite a reduction in the use of solid rocket fuel since then, the rate of ozone layer depletion has escalated, now standing at around 0.15% annually.
Moreover, recent research indicates that a slight increase in rocket launches could exacerbate this deterioration rate to 0.17% by 2030. In a worst-case scenario, a dramatic surge in launches could push this rate to 0.29%.
The 1987 Montreal Protocol aimed to mitigate ozone damage by phasing out halocarbons—compounds that contain carbon and a halogen like fluorine or chlorine.
However, the ozone layer has continued to decline at about 0.03% per year between 1996 and 2020. Although this rate is slowing, a return to pre-halocarbon levels is projected to take decades.
This trend suggests that future rocket launches may completely undermine the protective benefits afforded by the Montreal Protocol. Therefore, new protocols are essential to limit the impact of rocket launches on the ozone layer.
This article addresses the question posed by Rex Ellwood from Kingston upon Hull: “Will increased rocket launches negatively impact the ozone layer?”
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Imagine capturing an animal, extending its lifespan, and filling its mind with knowledge, unsettling it with the concept of death. What would become of it? You may find a profoundly confused and anxious creature. I highly recommend Michael Bond’s thought-provoking novel, Animate: How Animals Shape the Human Mind, as a starting point for unraveling these complexities.
We are fundamentally animals, intertwined with nature, yet often we overlook this connection.
Animate delves into the intriguing and sometimes unsettling relationship between humans and animals that began after the last ice age. In the words of the former editor of New Scientist, the time was an Eden for ancient humans, filled with encounters with cave lions, wolves, bears, and more.
Witness the remarkable emotional art created in France’s caves like Lascaux, which embodies not just the essence of creatures but also their forms and movements. According to Bond, these representations are “essential and unadorned, more like reincarnation than art.”
Rarely do human figures appear in this cave art, and when they do, they are often ambiguous. This absence emphasizes the significance of animals; they were pivotal to survival, deeply embedded in human existence.
The Neolithic era marked a shift in human perception. Art evolved into abstract representations, stripping animals of their individuality. They became mere motifs on pottery as human exploitation of animals grew, resulting in a clear distinction between humans and animals.
Why this shift? Researcher Ernest Becker, in The Denial of Death, proposed that our acute awareness of mortality drives us toward irrationality, in contrast to animals, which merely exist without such existential baggage.
Human exceptionalism, while demarcating our species as superior, has had detrimental effects on countless non-human lives. Yet, it’s challenging to envision daily life without the comfort of this separation. Bond attempts to mend this divide but confronts the obstacles of our fear of death.
For centuries, writers have likened us to animals. Bond recalls David Hume, who noted that animals, like humans, utilize observation and experience to navigate their futures. This perspective evolved, particularly after Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution challenged human exceptionalism.
However, nearly 170 years post-Darwin, we continue our complex relationship with animals. Bond eloquently critiques our disconnect, especially in meat consumption, highlighting how social distance allows many to ignore the brutal realities of slaughter.
“
Bond does a good job of skewering my meat. Admittedly, I have never seen a pig being slaughtered, nor do I intend to. “
Bond’s mission is to cultivate a kinder world. Unlike previous works where optimism prevails, Animate tackles profound themes with an unfiltered narrative.
Can a confused animal, burdened with the knowledge of its identity, find peace?
Every species perceives the world through unique lenses shaped by its own needs. In his bestselling book subtitled How Animal Senses Reveal Hidden Realms Around Us, science journalist Ed Yong illustrates the diverse ways animals engage with their environments.
The hybrid known as the Kiptshan is larger than a wolf and smaller than a dog.
Molap Namgail
No doubt about it, the Kiptshan hybrid showcases grayish fur and moves effortlessly across soft snow. This incredible creature, similar to a wolf, makes its living by hunting marmots with precision.
Witnessing this spectacle at approximately 5,000 meters in the Indian-administered region of Ladakh, it’s clear that these wolves share their harsh habitat with other mammals such as snow leopards, Himalayan brown bears, and Tibetan foxes.
Adapted to the low oxygen levels and challenging conditions at high altitudes, Himalayan wolves belong to one of the oldest lineages of species (canis lupus). As the day shifts from blue to gray, witnessing the wolf’s swift kill reminds us of their survival struggles, which are increasingly jeopardized by climate change. The mountains are warming at twice the global average, impacted by urbanization, pollution, and cautious farming practices.
Recently, a surge in stray dogs has been noted, with roughly 25,000 dogs in Ladakh compared to merely a few hundred wolves. These dogs, both pets and strays, have been moving into the mountains, directly competing for the same prey as their wild cousins, leading to increased interbreeding and the emergence of hybrids.
“We refer to this hybrid as Kiptshan,” states Tsewang Namgail, director of the Snow Leopard Conservation India Trust, who studies mammals in Ladakh. The term is derived from kipt meaning dog in Ladakhi, and shang meaning wolf.
“The realization of this hybrid has become more prevalent over the last five to ten years,” Namgail explains. “It is neither a wolf nor a dog, but a significant hybrid.” This unique creature boasts a larger size than a dog yet smaller than a wolf, adorned with a tan coat, and possesses the potential to dominate other carnivores.
“They exhibit fearlessness towards humans,” adds Mohammad Imran, a Ladakhi filmmaker and naturalist.
These hybrids are bold enough to invade villages and prey on livestock. “They blend the fearlessness of dogs with the predatory instincts of wolves, creating a dangerous combination,” warns Namgail.
Dog attacks are rising, with hospitals in Leh reporting four to five dog bites daily. Tragically, at least four locals have been killed this year alone, raising concerns over the dangers posed by hybridization. Experts fear these hybrids threaten both wolves and humans, potentially decreasing wolf populations and endangering their future in the region, which covers approximately 60,000 square kilometers of Ladakh, India.
Since hybrids are a relatively new phenomenon, formal research on them is scarce, leaving much unknown beyond anecdotal evidence. What is clear is the rise of Kiptians correlates with the explosion of stray dogs. The sterilization of dogs is illegal in Ladakh, as the region’s Buddhist beliefs discourage harming animals. Additionally, due to border conflicts, dogs serve as a vital defense for military bases, often receiving food from soldiers, further complicating the ecosystem.
With an abundance of dogs and a dwindling number of wolves, man’s best friend may soon overshadow wild canids, similar to trends witnessed in Italy and North America, where hybridization is diluting red and eastern wolf populations.
As wolves and humans vie for resources, their interactions with stray dogs intensify. Carter Niemeyer, known for capturing Canadian wolves for reintroduction in Yellowstone and Idaho, emphasizes that wolf-dog hybrids must not be allowed to breed or roam free to preserve the genetic purity of wolves.
After observing the wolf, we encountered a pack of dogs lingering by the road. Some slept on the cold blacktop, while others begged for scraps as one remained watchful in the distance.
Wildlife photographer Molap Namgail, accompanying me, speculated that one might be a Kiptsian, as he has documented several sightings across Ladakh, even capturing a rare fox-dog hybrid.
Two years prior, Namgail and I witnessed a pack of dogs chase a snow leopard who had just killed an ibex. Observing a dog run down the road, I recalled my lead dog from that day, remembering his confident demeanor and lack of fear. Could it have been more than just a dog?
Namgail believes the Kiptshan symbolizes the rapid changes in these mountains. While no one can predict the future, the presence of true wolves remains critical. We need to learn about their behavior and take action. Namgail worries that the hybrid Kiptians might not only teach stray dogs hunting tactics but also become more dog-like, leading to conflicts with people.
“These hybrids, being new to the ecosystem, have fragile positions in the natural order, making them potentially hazardous,” states Namgail. “This places all of us at risk.”
Does My Brain Live in the Past? Yes, your brain does live a bit in the past. This is an inherent feature of how we process sensory information.
The data we receive through our senses, like light entering your eyes or sound vibrating in your ears, is always slightly outdated. Not only does this information take time to reach your brain, but your brain also takes time to process it.
Data transmission within the brain is relatively slow. Even the fastest neurons travel at approximately 431 km/h (268 mph), which pales in comparison to copper wire, which can transmit signals at about 1.08 billion km/h (669 million mph).
This means that what you are currently experiencing actually happened in the world about 100 milliseconds ago (roughly 1/10th of a second).
While these time delays may seem minor, they pose significant challenges when interacting with the environment, especially since your body’s controls are also somewhat sluggish. Consequently, your brain has developed a strategy: it anticipates what is happening around you.
Your subjective experience blends outdated sensory snapshots with predictive guesses, often so seamlessly that you hardly notice.
For instance, one fun illustration of your brain’s anticipatory skill is that you cannot tickle yourself. This is because your brain can predict sensory effects from your own movements and neutralizes them.
Another interesting case is the disorienting wobbly sensation experienced after riding a faulty escalator. When the escalator operates smoothly, your brain stabilizes your posture effectively. However, it struggles to adjust when the escalator stops, leading to that uneasy wobbling feeling.
Not only does your brain operate with slightly outdated sensory data, but it also appears to reflect on past experiences continuously.
This phenomenon is partly due to “jerky eye movements,” known as saccades, which occur several times per second. These rapid movements cause your vision to blur, but your brain suppresses visual input during each saccade to avoid confusion.
When your gaze focuses on an object, your brain assigns how long that object has been in view by referencing up to 50 milliseconds back from when you made the eye movement. Given that most objects in a scene remain stable, this past processing often goes unnoticed—unless you’re looking at a clock’s second hand.
Have you ever felt that a used item looks like it’s been in one place for too long? That perception arises from your brain’s backdating process, making the second hand appear stuck.
In summary, while you may feel like you are fully in the moment, your brain is continually playing catch-up with past experiences.
This article addresses the question posed by Sunderland’s Karen Homer: “Does my brain live a bit in the past?”
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Recent research into proteins extracted from the enamel of six Homo erectus teeth sheds light on our evolutionary past. Conducted on remains found in China, this groundbreaking study offers a unique perspective on the genetic heritage of one of humanity’s earliest ancestors, estimated to have lived around 400,000 years ago. The findings indicate that Homo erectus may have exhibited genetic mutations that were later inherited by Denisovans, influencing some modern human populations today.
Artist’s reconstruction of Homo erectus. Image credit: Yale University.
“Homo erectus holds a pivotal role in human evolution as the first species of our genus to migrate from Africa,” remarked lead author Qiaomei Fu, Ph.D., from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology at the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
“Despite their significance, the genetic traits, population diversity, and connections of Homo erectus to contemporary humans remain largely unexplored due to a lack of molecular evidence.”
“Thus, the contribution of Homo erectus to human evolution remains a fascinating enigma and a topic of ongoing debate.”
The research team studied Homo erectus fossils sourced from three sites across northern and southern China: Zhoukoudian near Beijing, Hexian in Anhui province, and Sunjiadong in Henan province.
Instead of attempting to recover DNA, the researchers focused on proteins found within tooth enamel.
From the six Homo erectus specimens, they identified two unique amino acid variants in a tooth development protein known as ameloblastin. One variant, AMBN-A253G, has not been registered in any other human or primate species.
The second variant, AMBN-M273V, was previously recognized exclusively in Denisovans.
These discoveries imply that ancient populations of Homo erectus in East Asia may have interbred with Denisovans, leaving behind genetic signatures.
Portrait of a young Denisovan woman based on a skeletal profile reconstructed from ancient DNA. Image credit: Maayan Harel.
“The first significant finding is the previously unidentified AMBN-A253G mutation, which serves as a potential molecular marker linked to Homo erectus‘ large population,” the researchers stated.
“Our analysis suggests that specimens from these three locations belonged to a single evolutionary lineage.”
“The second variant, AMBN-M273V, previously thought unique to Denisovans, is now shown to share a common origin with the Homo erectus population,” the team added.
This second variant likely entered the Denisovan lineage through interbreeding, eventually contributing to some modern human populations in Southeast Asia and Oceania.
“This research offers unprecedented insights into the possible connections between East Asian Homo erectus populations and their deep genetic links to certain modern humans, including Zhoukoudians and Denisovans.”
The complete findings are detailed in a recent publication in Nature.
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Q. Fu et al. studied 6 enamel proteins from Homo erectus specimens throughout China. The study was published online in Nature on May 13, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41586-026-10478-8
Astronomers have made a groundbreaking discovery by directly detecting how turbulent clouds of ionized gas between stars bend and distort radio signals from distant quasars for the first time.
The radio signal from quasar TXS 2005+403 travels approximately 10 billion light-years to Earth, passing through the Cygnus region, one of the Milky Way’s most tumultuous environments. The left image depicts a quasar with a vibrant accretion disk and jets emanating into space, resembling lighthouses in the dark. The right image illustrates how turbulent gas distorts our view of the quasars, similar to how fire haze obscures objects behind it. Image credit: Melissa Weiss / CfA.
The interstellar medium, the space between stars in our Milky Way, is filled with clouds of ionized gas and electrons, creating a turbulent environment.
As radio light waves from distant quasars navigate this chaotic material, they become bent and distorted, akin to how haze from a fire blurs our vision of objects behind it.
While this distortion has allowed astronomers to infer turbulence’s presence over the years, fully understanding its intricate structure has proven challenging—until now.
Astronomer Alexander Pravin from Harvard University, alongside colleagues from the Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, focused on the quasar TXS 2005+403 for this groundbreaking study.
This bright radio source, driven by a supermassive black hole, lies approximately 10 billion light-years away in the constellation Cygnus.
As its radio light travels toward Earth, it is refracted and altered while traversing the Cygnus region, recognized as one of the Milky Way’s most turbulent and scattering settings.
“Most of the information we gather from the radio data does not originate from the quasars themselves but rather from the scattering effects caused by turbulence in this region of the Milky Way,” stated Dr. Pravin.
“This scattering, along with the resultant distortions, enables us to investigate turbulence and improve our understanding of its structure.”
To delve deeper into the influence of turbulence on the light from TXS 2005+403, researchers analyzed nearly a decade’s worth of archival data from NSF’s Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA).
Initially, they anticipated that as the radio light passed through the Milky Way, it would gradually blur and fade.
Contrary to their expectations, they discovered distinct, consistent patterns that created structured, mottled distortions in the light—evidence of turbulence’s influence.
“The farthest pair of telescopes would typically be unable to observe the quasar image, but surprisingly, they clearly detected its faint glow,” noted Dr. Pravin.
“This phenomenon cannot be explained by simple blurring or characteristics of the quasars themselves; the effects of interstellar turbulence are evident as it behaves as theorized.”
“The scattering properties along this line of sight through the galaxy have shown persistence over time.”
For more details regarding the survey findings, check out this paper published in the Astrophysical Journal Letter.
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AV Pravin et al. 2026. Direct detection of interstellar turbulence signatures on quasars by very long baseline interferometry: TXS 2005+403. APJL 1003, L4; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ae60f4
A massive tyrannosaurid dinosaur likely roamed the floodplains of present-day New Mexico around 74 million years ago, as revealed by a team of paleontologists from Bath University, Montana State University, and the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science.
Bistahieversor sealeyi hunting Pentaceratops sternbergi. Image credit: A. Belov / CC BY 3.0.
“Tyrannosaurids were among the largest and latest predatory dinosaurs,” stated lead author Dr. Nicholas Longrich from the University of Bath and his collaborators in their research paper.
“Following the extinction of carcharodontosaurs during the mid-Cretaceous, tyrannosaurs diversified and evolved into larger forms, dominating as the primary predators of the late Cretaceous in North America and Asia.”
“By the Late Campanian era, multiple groups of tyrannosaurids, such as Albertosauridae, Daspletosaurini, and Teratophonii, achieved impressive weights of 2 to 3 tons.”
“Their evolutionary journey culminated with the emergence of titanic forms, like tyrannosaurus, the largest known predatory dinosaur ever to exist.”
In this study, paleontologists analyzed an exceptionally large tibia (shin bone) from a Tyrannosaurus specimen sourced from the Hunter Wash Formation in New Mexico’s Kirtland Formation.
The tibia measures 96 cm in length and 12.8 cm in diameter, representing about 84% and 78% of the dimensions of the largest confirmed tyrannosaurus specimens.
Based on comparisons with known tyrannosaurus species, researchers estimated that this prehistoric predator weighed around 4 to 5 tons.
“This discovery marks the oldest giant tyrannosaurus found in North America, potentially identifying it as the earliest known species of Tyrannosaurini,” they noted in their publication.
The tibia exhibits features akin to later tyrannosaurids, specifically tyrannosaurus rex.
Researchers considered three scenarios: the fossil belongs to an unusually large known tyrannosaurus from New Mexico, Bistahieversor sealeyi; it might represent a new lineage of colossal tyrannosaurs; or it could be an early member of the tyrannosaurus rex lineage and its Asian relatives.
After thorough comparisons with other tyrannosaurids and conducting a phylogenetic analysis, the authors determined that the third hypothesis is the most plausible.
“Regardless of which hypothesis is accepted, the unusual size of the Hunter Wash tyrannosaurus is significant as it signifies the presence of a previously unknown large tyrannosaurid in the late Campanian, suggesting their earlier than anticipated evolutionary emergence,” the researchers added.
Paleontologists have long debated the geographic origins of giant tyrannosaurs.
Some theorize that this lineage started in Asia before migrating to North America, while others argue that the massive tyrannosaurus rex originated in the southern part of western North America known as Laramidia.
The newly discovered fossils bolster the theory of a southern Laramidian origin.
“The Hunter Wash tyrannosaurs underscore the remarkable diversity of Laramidian dinosaurs, with smaller albertosaurines and daspletosaurids inhabiting the northern regions, while gigantic tyrannosaurids thrived in the south,” the paleontologists concluded.
The team’s findings were published in a research paper in March 2026 in the journal Scientific Reports.
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NR Longrich et al. 2026. A large tyrannosaurid from the late Cretaceous (Campanian) of North America. Scientific Reports 16, 8371; doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-38600-w
A prolonged series of mushroom poisonings in California has tragically resulted in four fatalities and left 43 individuals hospitalized, marking the largest outbreak of its kind in the history of the U.S., according to experts.
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Three cases emerged earlier this week, notably after the typical growing season for the mushrooms notorious for causing this illness, prompting public health officials and mycologists to investigate the widespread poisonings and the factors contributing to this alarming trend.
These three new cases involved family members who foraged for mushrooms in Napa County on Saturday, fell ill on Sunday, and were subsequently admitted to Stanford Medical Center, as reported by Napa County Public Health Officer Dr. Kristin Wu.
Since the onset of the outbreak in November, affected individuals have ranged in age from just 19 months to 84 years old. California Department of Public Health indicates that incidents have clustered, with at least six families linked to the same batch of mushrooms. Four individuals have undergone liver transplants due to their ailments.
Poisoning incidents have spanned over a dozen counties within the San Francisco Bay Area and California’s central coast. Following a surge in cases during late fall, state health officials have cautioned the public against consuming foraged mushrooms.
“This outbreak is significantly larger than previous years, with its duration extending beyond what we anticipated,” stated Heather Hallen-Adams, chair of toxicology for the Mycological Society of North America. “The reasons for this are still unclear.”
Deathcap mushrooms, native to Europe, have made their way into the United States.Ann Pringle
The primary source of the poisonings has been identified as the invasive death cap mushroom, often referred to as fly agaric. Additionally, the Western destroying angel, known as amanita, has been implicated in several cases. Typically, 50 cases of amanita poisoning are reported annually across the nation, but California has already surpassed that number this year, with five new infections reported this month.
This situation is highly atypical,” noted Anne Pringle, a mycology professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. “Typically, the peak season for these mushrooms is in December and January. We are left wondering why this occurrence is happening.”
This outbreak has brought to light significant gaps in California’s public health infrastructure, revealing a lack of rigorous scientific understanding of these toxic mushrooms.
Healthcare providers currently are not mandated to report amatoxin poisoning cases to public health authorities, as outlined in state regulations. This has led the California Department of Public Health to track cases through a more cumbersome and less structured procedure than for other conditions like E. coli and West Nile virus.
“At present, our primary source of information about these incidents stems from the California Poison Control System,” Dr. Wu remarked. “They are actively working to identify and report these cases to CDPH.”
Dr. Wu indicated that efforts are underway to include amatoxin poisoning in the list of reportable diseases. However, the ministry has yet to respond to inquiries regarding this issue.
Dr. Wu revealed that the three family members who fell ill recently were not from Napa County and had been foraging mushrooms in rural areas within the county.
“Their case came to my attention solely due to their mushroom foraging activities in Napa County,” Dr. Wu stated, pointing out that there was no obligation for notification. “This information allows me to act to protect other community members in Napa.”
Since the outbreak’s onset, the majority of those affected by the toadstools predominantly communicate in Spanish, with others speaking Chinese, Ukrainian, Russian, Mam, and Mixteco (an indigenous language from Central America).
Consequently, public health experts suggest that some individuals may be relying on foraging practices rooted in traditions from their countries of origin.
“Research indicates that the death cap and Western angel of destruction closely resemble some native edible mushrooms found in their home countries,” Dr. Wu explained.
Dr. Wu mentioned that Napa County Public Health Department has initiated radio advertisements in English, Spanish, and Mixteco to alert the public about toxic mushrooms. The California Department of Health has also produced flyers available in nine languages.
“It’s surprising that we haven’t undertaken more outreach to Spanish-speaking communities; this poses a significant public health risk,” Dr. Wu remarked. “We are committed to improving our efforts in this area.”
The decomposing mushroom is an invasive species that was introduced to California through imported seedlings in the 1930s. The destroying angel mushrooms are specific to certain nations. In California, death caps typically thrive near oak and sometimes pine trees, usually growing several inches tall but can reach larger sizes, featuring white gills, a pale yellow or green cap, and a distinctive ring around their stem.
Amatoxins produced by these mushrooms can severely damage the kidneys, liver, and gastrointestinal tract. Symptoms of amatoxin poisoning may take up to 24 hours to manifest and include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. More severe reactions, including potentially fatal liver damage, can occur within two to three days. Amatoxins account for the majority of deadly mushroom poisonings, as even a volume comparable to a sugar cube can be lethal.
Mike McCurdy, president of the San Francisco Mycological Society, reported increased occurrences of death cap mushrooms over the weekend.
“This is a significant growth surge; it’s a widespread phenomenon, stretching from Monterey to Napa,” McCurdy lamented. “This level of activity during the spring is unprecedented.”
McCurdy recounted spending around 20 minutes searching for death cap mushrooms on Saturday, during which he identified more than 20 “fruiting bodies” around five live oak trees along the coast.
Pringle expressed her confusion over the unusual abundance of death cap mushrooms this year and their extended presence deep into the season, stating, “It’s both an intriguing and alarming situation.”
In comparison to plants and animals, mushrooms are less frequently studied and receive considerably less research funding, Pringle noted. There remains a lack of comprehensive understanding of the toxins they produce.
“Science requires funding to tackle these challenges,” she concluded. “If we can mitigate the factors contributing to these outbreaks, we can save lives.”
Starship on the Launch Pad at SpaceX’s Starbase in Texas
Credit: SpaceX
SpaceX’s Upcoming Starship Test Flight
SpaceX is poised to conduct a highly anticipated test flight of its significantly upgraded Starship next week, which has the potential to become the tallest and most powerful rocket in history. This flight is crucial for NASA’s ambitious plans to return humans to the Moon by 2028.
The Starship system consists of two main components: an upper stage, also referred to as the Starship, and a lower stage known as the Super Heavy. Since the last test back in October, SpaceX has implemented several substantial modifications to both stages.
The upcoming test flight scheduled for May 19th will feature new iterations of both the Starship and Super Heavy, including three distinct models. Each stage is powered by the enhanced version 3 Raptor engines, which have been tested only sparingly in previous launches. The stakes are higher this time, as the launch will occur from a newly designed pad at SpaceX’s Starbase facility in Texas.
In the configuration of Super Heavy 3, the number of grid fins has been reduced from four to three, but their size has been increased by 50% to ensure precise atmospheric maneuverability. Starship 3 incorporates larger propellant tanks, an advanced on-orbit refueling capability, and enhanced heat-resistant tiles designed for atmospheric reentry.
At launch, the rocket will reach a total height of 124 meters, surpassing the previous version 2 by about one meter. This height also exceeds that of NASA’s 98-meter Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and the 111-meter-tall Saturn V, the historic rocket that transported astronauts to the Moon during the 1960s and ’70s.
Starship 3 is engineered to produce a staggering thrust of 75,000 kilonewtons, nearly double that of the SLS’s 39,000 kilonewtons, making it the most powerful rocket to date.
Research from the University of Sheffield, conducted by Alistair John, indicates that the collective power output of all engines combined in the Starship stack at maximum capacity exceeds the total electricity generation of Germany. “It’s enormous,” John remarked.
SpaceX CEO Elon Musk has outlined plans for the Starship to transport satellites into orbit, as well as serve beyond Earth with missions to Mars. Moreover, NASA selected it as one of two commercial lander designs for the Artemis program, aiming for a human return to the Moon, alongside the Blue Origin lander backed by Jeff Bezos.
After the successful unmanned Artemis 1 mission in 2022, the recent Artemis flight saw four astronauts venture further from Earth than any humans before, orbiting around the Moon.
A recent NASA document confirmed details of the Artemis III mission, which will send a crew into low Earth orbit aboard the Orion spacecraft atop an SLS rocket. They will then rendezvous with one or both commercial lunar landers offered by SpaceX and Blue Origin. This critical maneuver is necessary for transferring crew and fuel to the lander in preparation for a lunar landing mission targeted for Artemis IV as early as 2028.
SpaceX employs a rapid iteration and learning strategy, typical of Silicon Valley, distinct from the more cautious approach usually adopted in space exploration. Out of 11 test flights conducted thus far, six have succeeded while five have encountered failures. Neither SpaceX nor NASA has commented on these outcomes.
Dr. Peter Shaw from Kingston University believes SpaceX remains aligned with its Artemis timelines despite earlier setbacks. “Rocket science is inherently complex and difficult,” remarks Shaw. “Can they succeed? Absolutely. Will they meet their deadlines? There is confidence in their ability; even if they face more failures, they will learn, adapt, and innovate.”
The forthcoming Starship test is vital for confirming the integrity of the Version 3 design, which will underpin SpaceX’s Human Landing System (HLS) essential for Moon landings. The HLS will require significant adaptations, including a different engine tailored for the Moon’s lower gravity and will forgo the heat shield since it will not need to handle Earth reentry.
“While this represents a small, incremental improvement, it is also the most significant iteration. Version 3 is what we require for the Artemis program; its predecessors were merely prototypes,” explains John. “Version 3 is effectively the inaugural test of the production model. Our goal is reliability.”
Beach in Southampton, New York Treated with Olivine Sand
Cheyenne Morrow
Initial studies of adding crushed olivine to ocean waters for atmospheric carbon dioxide absorption showed no adverse effects on the seafloor ecosystem during the first year.
While the New York State trial offers promising findings for this innovative carbon removal technology, researchers advise caution, as it may not encapsulate all potential negative impacts.
Emilia Jankowska from Hourglass Climate, the nonprofit organization conducting the study, stated that while the addition of olivine to the ocean should be regulated, “there are methods to minimize effects while maintaining effectiveness.”
The UN climate change agency highlights the necessity for carbon removal strategies, including reforestation and advanced carbon filtration methods, to achieve net-zero greenhouse gas emissions. With rising emissions, the aspiration to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius remains a challenge.
Olivine, a magnesium iron silicate mineral, is often found within the Earth’s mantle and reacts with CO2 when reaching the surface, forming stable compounds that can sequester carbon in the ocean for millennia.
A recent study indicated that spreading crushed olivine and similar silicates on crops could enhance this process, potentially removing up to 1.1 billion tons of CO2 annually. U.S. startup Vesta aims to introduce olivine directly into ocean waters, facilitating increased carbon absorption through bicarbonate formation.
However, olivine may contain trace amounts of heavy metals. Research has detected elevated nickel and chromium levels in crustaceans and mollusks exposed to olivine. There are concerns about sand potentially suffocating benthic organisms, such as crustaceans and worms.
In 2022, Vesta distributed 650 tons of olivine sand along Long Island’s coast, overlaying it with 13,500 tons of regular sand for shore reinforcement. However, as storms intensified, tides washed away much of the olivine.
Researchers collected sediment samples from shallow waters up to 160 meters offshore before and after adding olivine, and a year later. They compared these to samples from areas where only regular sand or no sand was added.
Among numerous species, only a minor decline was observed in the fringe bloodworm within the olivine-treated area, with overall benthic species’ abundance and diversity rebounding within two months. Species composition shifted similarly in regions where only regular sand was used, indicating common beach aquaculture practices.
Crucially, nickel, chromium, cobalt, and manganese concentrations in organisms remained low. “Natural systems are highly dynamic, causing dissolved elements to dilute rapidly,” Jankowska remarked.
While Vesta oversaw environmental monitoring for these trials, the analyses conducted by Hourglass were independently funded by the Grantham Foundation.
Olivine’s dissolution in ocean waters may lead to calcium carbonate precipitating from seawater, potentially trapping trace metals, as noted by Christopher Pierce at the UK National Marine Centre. Nevertheless, this might limit the additional CO2 absorption capacity of seawater.
This significant research transitions understanding from laboratory settings to real-world applications. Further investigation remains essential to comprehend varying biological responses and infection rates associated with CO2 ingestion.
Nonetheless, the study’s assertion of no negative effects may overstate the findings, according to James Kelly of Ocean Care. He notes that fluctuations in olivine concentrations could imply limited exposure, questioning the notion that olivine is inherently safe.
Hourglass Climate is currently tracking the results from a large-scale trial with Vesta. In 2024, 8,200 tons of olivine were identified 450 meters offshore from Duck, North Carolina. Preliminary insights suggest recovery in species richness and diversity, although metal accumulation analysis is ongoing.
Smog Contains Particles That Reflect Sunlight and Cool Earth’s Surface
Credit: Dennis McDonald/Alamy
Addressing air pollution in Europe and North America could inadvertently weaken the Atlantic Meridional Circulation (AMOC), a crucial ocean current influencing Europe’s climate.
Air pollution, including smog and soot, claims approximately 7 million lives annually and contributes to widespread health issues. Interestingly, aerosols, which are tiny particulate pollutants like sulfur dioxide, can reflect sunlight, making clouds brighter and reducing surface heat absorption.
Recent research indicates that reducing air pollution from maritime sources and other sectors could accelerate global temperature increases. “If we cut back on aerosols, we will start to see the extent of warming,” says Michael Diamond from Florida State University.
Historically, scientists’ insights into aerosols’ climatic impact have relied on global simulations akin to those used for examining the greenhouse effect. These models suggest that “higher aerosol levels cool the North Atlantic surface and strengthen the AMOC,” according to Robert Allen from the University of California, Riverside. Conversely, if global aerosol emissions are reduced, the Earth’s surface may warm, weakening the AMOC.
Nonetheless, these simulations often overlook the regional characteristics of air pollution. Unlike greenhouse gases, which linger in the atmosphere for years, most aerosols dissipate within a week, meaning their climatic effects typically manifest close to their source, revealing the complex consequences of pollution reductions.
To gain deeper insights into the impacts of clean air initiatives, Allen and his team employed eight distinct climate models to assess how changes in regional aerosol emissions impact both local and global climates. The models evaluated AMOC strength under high-emission scenarios established by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and reformulated these scenarios with enhanced air quality regulations.
The findings indicate that if greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise but aerosol pollutants decrease, the AMOC could weaken by a third by mid-century compared to scenarios where aerosol levels remain elevated.
While Allen’s research does not delve into the regional weather implications of AMOC weakening, previous studies suggest that such a decline could lead to adverse outcomes, including increased droughts across Europe, exacerbated sea level rise in northeastern North America, and disruption of global monsoons and rising temperatures in Northern Europe.
Allen’s analysis revealed that the most significant impact on AMOC would stem from reduced aerosol levels in Europe and North America. However, he noted that air quality improvement initiatives in East Asia are also proving impactful. Cleaner air in East Asia is affecting global temperatures—despite their short lifespan, aerosols can travel long distances and mask warming effects wherever they reach, potentially leading to further weakening of the AMOC.
“To improve air quality, we must acknowledge that there will be associated climate changes,” Allen states. “To achieve clean air while minimizing our climate impact, we must simultaneously reduce other greenhouse gases like CO2 and methane.”
Diamond echoes this sentiment, stating, “When considering clean air policies, it’s vital to concurrently address decarbonization strategies.”
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Visitors at Kew Gardens in London are captivated by the peculiar aroma emanating from the greenhouses, as the Corpse Flower, scientifically known as Amorphophallus titanum, reaches over 2.5 meters in height and blooms for the first time in several years.
The allure of this exotic plant has garnered global attention. Memorable is the experience of witnessing a flower that can truly be compared to a star in the botanical universe. Kew staff frequently gather to snap photos and take in the unique scent. Initially subdued, the odor intensified, creating an unforgettable atmosphere.
As we gathered around, we discussed the smells with a level of sophistication akin to expert sommeliers. Comments ranged from “It has a leftover quality” to “There’s a hint of stale cabbage,” with classic undertones of decaying meat.
This rare flower blooms only once every 7 to 10 years. If you missed the opportunity this time, don’t worry—Kew Gardens currently hosts around 15 A. titanum specimens. Keep an eye out for your next chance to see (and, more notably, smell) these fascinating plants!
Illustation of CAR T cell therapy for melanoma, a form of skin cancer
Nemeth Laszlo/Shutterstock
Innovative therapies are transforming the treatment landscape for blood and skin cancers, with recent studies highlighting enhanced effectiveness. In murine models with advanced skin cancer, researchers have discovered that manipulating the physical properties of cancer cells amplifies the efficacy of immunotherapy—specifically, CAR T-cell therapy. This promising breakthrough could significantly improve survival rates for patients undergoing immunotherapy.
“This groundbreaking concept addresses a critical medical issue from a physical perspective,” notes Lee Sui from Queen Mary University of London, who is not associated with this research. “The outlook is very hopeful.”
“We examined whether the softness of cancer cells allows them to evade the immune response and how T cell mechanosensing affects the cellular response to cancer,” explains Lee Tan, who presented his findings on May 11 at an academic conference hosted by the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne, Switzerland. The Biophysical Immunoengineering: From Insights to Clinical Applications conference in London focused on these innovative approaches.
The researchers set out to uncover why cancer cells exhibit softness by contrasting their membranes with those of healthy cells. They discovered that both murine and human cancer cells tend to be softer due to high cholesterol content in their membranes.
The team subsequently injected 24 mice with melanoma cells, notorious for being the deadliest skin cancer. Nine days post-injection, the mice received genetically modified T cells specifically designed to target the tumor, emulating CAR T-cell therapy, which is approved for conditions like acute lymphoblastic leukemia and B-cell lymphoma.
Additionally, the mice underwent three injections over five days of IL-15, a protein that heightens the cancer-killing capacity of tumor-specific T cells.
Crucially, only half of the mice received a third treatment involving methyl beta-cyclodextrin (meβCD), a compound that reduces cholesterol levels in cell membranes, administered directly into the tumors daily from day 9 to day 18 post-cancer cell injection. The other mice received saline as a control.
After roughly one month, all 12 mice that did not receive meβCD succumbed to rapidly-growing tumors. In stark contrast, only seven mice in the meβCD group perished, while five experienced complete tumor resolution. “The results are compelling. Very encouraging,” states Lance Cam from Columbia University, New York.
Further analysis indicated that meβCD enhanced the adherence of tumor-specific T cells to tumor cells by stiffening them. Consequently, T cells were more effective in delivering toxic agents such as perforin, which perforates and obliterates cancer cells.
The research team aims to extend this approach to a broader array of tumors in mice, according to Tang. “The significant challenge lies in ensuring this understanding translates to human applications,” Kam emphasizes. Few successful immune-targeting drugs in mice yield equivalent results in humans, primarily due to immune system disparities. However, since cancer cells tend to be soft in both species, there is potential for therapies that modify cancer cell stiffness to be more effective.
Moreover, researchers are actively working on developing therapeutics with effects akin to meβCD that can be delivered with a single injection.
Engaging in self-exploration can enhance your understanding of your mind. Start by placing your finger on the area of your body that resonates with your sense of self. Avoid overthinking this; there are no right or wrong choices. Simply connect with your identity and where you feel most centered.
If you’re like most individuals, you’ll likely touch either your head or your heart. This choice may seem trivial, but several studies indicate that it can reveal your thinking style—whether you lean toward logic and analysis or intuition and emotion. Understanding how to switch between these modes can remarkably improve your decision-making capabilities.
It’s widely accepted that our decisions hinge on whether we think with our heads or hearts, a notion that’s prevalent in popular culture. Interestingly, this connection was first studied scientifically in 2013 by researchers Adam Fetterman from the University of Houston and Michael D. Robinson from North Dakota State University, who examined if our perceptions truly influence our actions.
Through self-report questionnaires, it emerged that “head-locators” frequently categorized themselves as rational thinkers, while “heart-locators” identified as emotionally driven. Remarkably, these perceptions correlate with objective behavioral metrics. For instance, Fetterman and Robinson observed that those who considered themselves ‘head-locators’ tended to excel on general knowledge exams, indicating a more cognitive-focused lifestyle. Conversely, ‘heart-locators’ often reported heightened sensitivity in stressful scenarios, reflecting their emotional depth.
The researchers found that individuals’ self-perception could predict outcomes related to their rational or emotional thinking styles a year later, signifying that this is a stable trait. However, many aspects of our psychology remain pliable. Just as levels of extraversion can fluctuate based on social context, it’s worth questioning whether our self-concept is equally adaptable. Robinson’s team explored this concept in a recent study.
In the studies, participants (n=455) were prompted to envision themselves engaging in various activities, rating how prominently their self-awareness was rooted in their brain or heart on a scale from 1 (not present) to 7 (very present). As predicted, responses varied based on the task; for example, self-awareness was more pronounced when engaged in analytical activities versus emotional reflection. This flexibility related directly to test performance. Participants who exhibited higher adaptability in their self-awareness scored better on key assessments, such as the American College Testing (ACT) and the North Dakota Emotional Ability Test, which assesses emotional intelligence.
These findings align with the “dual process theory” of cognition, which posits that our mental systems engage in either methodical reasoning or instinctual responses. Robinson’s research suggests that self-perception impacts which cognitive approach we employ, with those adept at reverting between modes enjoying superior decision-making capabilities in various domains. High achievers were found to effectively practice the “art of employing strategies” suitable for each task, merging head-driven logic with heart-driven intuition.
Can we all cultivate this skill? When I queried Robinson, he posited, “Achieving conscious control over this mental flexibility may require time and practice, possibly through meditation and other body-focused exercises.” As someone who leans intellectually, he admitted the journey can be challenging.
In a preliminary experiment from their 2013 study, having participants touch specific body locations altered their cognitive processes. For example, touching one’s temple promotes logical thinking, while touching the chest encourages instinctual moral reasoning, akin to the famous trolley problem. These bodily interactions also improved performance on true/false tests necessitating logical reasoning by around 9%.
Although I won’t depend on this method without larger trials to validate it, my awareness of my self-location has shifted since learning about Robinson’s ongoing studies. At times, my sense of self seems to align straight behind my eyes, while other moments place it lower in my ribcage. The contrast is so vivid that I now recognize transitions I once overlooked. By acknowledging these shifts, I gain deeper insights into what influences my decision-making.
That’s the beauty of psychological research—it unveils critical facets of our existence that we often overlook.
David Robson’s latest book is The Law of Connection: 13 Social Strategies That Will Change Your Life. If you have questions for his column, feel free to reach out: davidrobson.me/Contact
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“Invasive studies involving rectal tubes have hindered our understanding,” he asserts, adding, “Our knowledge hasn’t progressed significantly since.”
But there’s good news! Hall’s team is developing a groundbreaking Human Fart Atlas to chart normal flatulence ranges across the population. A key element of this initiative is innovative smart underwear that detects human gas emissions.
A coin-sized sensor clips discreetly onto standard briefs, continuously monitoring gas releases and sending data to an app, providing valuable insights for both users and researchers.
In a study published in December 2025 in Biosensors and Bioelectronics: X, participants wore these smart pants for at least 11 hours over three days. Findings suggest that people fart far more than previously believed.
The average healthy adult expels gas about 32 times a day, but the range is diverse.
The study revealed individual differences, with participants reporting anywhere from 4 to 59 farts daily. Unpublished data indicates even higher numbers in some cases.
“Some individuals farted up to 175 times a day,” Hall noted, contrasting it with others on similar diets who only farted four times.
The human gut microbiome contains approximately 38 trillion bacterial cells – Photo credit: Getty
Breakthrough in Gas Detection
These fascinating insights stem from a technology the research team has refined over five years.
Hall humorously describes its inception: “As a microbiologist, one day I was studying microbial metabolism in an anaerobic chamber when everything went wrong. Someone farted, and we got a groundbreaking signal.”
This incident led to placing sensors in a place no wearable has ventured before—inside your pants. The sensors detect hydrogen, a gas produced by intestinal bacteria during food metabolism.
While future versions aim to capture a broader gas spectrum, current technology mainly detects the “hydrogen bomb.”
This data allows researchers to begin monitoring flatulence frequency and proceeds to shape a comprehensive Human Flatus Atlas. Hall mentioned the oversubscription for study participation demonstrates how comfortable the device is to wear.
“The most unexpected revelation was that there was room for the sensor in that area,” he explains. “You won’t even feel it. We’ve tested various shapes and materials; ultimately, we found that a round shape works best.”
Holding up what he coined a “butt mannequin,” he elaborates on sensor placement next to the perineum. “When seated, you’re typically not in contact with it,” he adds.
“Plus, women often wear menstrual pads without issue; our device is much smaller.”
Read more:
Gastrointestinal Insights
Wearing Hall’s smart underwear provides critical insights into our daily bodily functions. For skeptics, it offers essential information about your gastrointestinal health.
Generally, farting is a normal part of digestion. In fact, individuals consuming a fiber-rich diet often pass more gas, as beans and vegetables ferment in the intestines, producing excess gas.
Bloating can indicate good gut health but might also signify irritable bowel syndrome or a food intolerance.
Changes in frequency or habits can hint at shifts in your microbiome, influenced by stress or dietary changes. Excessive or foul-smelling gas might indicate lactose or gluten intolerance.
Consult a healthcare provider if you experience persistent digestive symptoms, such as diarrhea, pain, or bloating.
The variation in flatulence stems from multiple factors, including genetics, diet, and microbiome diversity. For instance, lactose intolerance is often hereditary.
“Those who are lactose intolerant must adjust their diets accordingly, as consuming milk can lead to increased gas production,” Hall explains.
The average person produces enough gas in a day to inflate a small balloon – Photo credit: Getty
Hall envisions that smart pants technology could revolutionize personal health tracking, providing clinicians with valuable data for better patient care.
“While we lack medical approval for this technology currently, future adaptations could empower gastroenterologists with this data, making it easier to distinguish normal from abnormal,” he explains.
His dream is to create a “fart score” akin to cholesterol levels, enabling individuals to monitor their health effectively.
Next steps involve adding methane detection, known to correlate with constipation, while exploring how farting habits across the globe compare with those in the United States.
Don’t you just love the smell of progress in the morning?
Deep X-ray Observation of Abell 2029 – Researchers have uncovered evidence of ancient cosmic collisions within this galaxy cluster, recognized as the most serene in the universe, which features a colossal spiral of superheated gas stretching over two million light-years.
This composite image integrates both original and subtracted X-ray data from Abell 2029’s Chandra deep observations. Image credit: NASA / CXC / CfA / Watson et al. / Panstars/SAO/N.Walk/P.Edmonds.
“Galaxy clusters are the largest gravitationally bound structures in the universe,” stated Boston University astronomer Courtney Watson and her colleagues.
“These clusters contain hundreds or even thousands of galaxies, along with invisible dark matter and significant amounts of gas that fill the spaces between galaxies.”
The gas, heated to millions of degrees, emits X-ray light, allowing astronomers to study it effectively.
Utilizing NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory, astronomers have conducted the deepest X-ray observations of Abell 2029, a galaxy cluster approximately one billion light-years away in the constellation Virgo.
New data indicate that this galaxy cluster is continuing to settle after a violent collision with a smaller cluster around 4 billion years ago.
“The spiral shape of the hot gas likely formed when the gravitational forces from the cluster collision caused the gas to be pushed sideways, similar to how wine moves within a glass,” the researchers explained.
The sloshing spiral of Abell 2029 is one of the longest ever recorded, extending roughly two million light-years from its center.
“We have uncovered significant evidence of past collisions that have not been previously seen together in a cluster, enabling us to trace the cluster’s collision history with unprecedented detail.”
“For instance, we observe signs that the collision dispersed cold gas across a broad area.”
“The remnants of superheated gas from the collision may also produce shock waves akin to sonic booms generated by supersonic aircraft.”
“Additionally, the hot gas displays a ‘bay’ feature, likely resulting from the overlap between the outer section of the vortex and the materials stripped from the smaller clusters as they traversed the larger clusters.”
“We believe this indicates impact debris, although alternative explanations may exist.”
According to the researchers’ computer simulations, the smaller cluster’s mass was about one-tenth that of the larger cluster.
“The sloshing spiral emerged when a small star cluster initially passed through a larger one, pulling gas sideways,” the scientists noted.
“The gravity of the larger cluster then decelerated the smaller cluster, leading to a second collision.”
“This triggered the shockwave, creating a wake of material and forming a droplet field.”
To uncover these various features, the authors employed a specialized technique that analyzes how much the cluster’s hot gas deviates from a symmetrical shape.
“Most hot gases are symmetrical and roughly elliptical in shape.”
The team’s results were published in the Astrophysical Journal.
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Courtney B. Watson et al. 2026. Deep Chandra X-ray observations of A2029: Merger history of a relaxed and strong cool core cluster. APJ 996, 106; doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae2026
Paleontologists have unveiled an exciting discovery: a new genus and species of Somphospondylan titanosaur dinosaur, heralded as the largest ever found in Southeast Asia. Fossilized bones uncovered in Thailand provide compelling evidence that this region once hosted a remarkably diverse array of giant herbivores during the Early Cretaceous period.
Reconstruction of the life of Nagatitan chaiyapumensis in the arid floodplains of the Late Early Cretaceous Aptian-Albian period. Image credit: Pachanop Boonsai.
This newly described dinosaur species inhabited what is now northeastern Thailand approximately 113 million years ago.
Named Nagatitan chaiyapumensis, this ancient giant measured about 27 meters (89 feet) in length and weighed between 25 and 28 tons.
During its time, it coexisted with smaller plant-eating dinosaurs like iguanodonts and early ceratopsians, as well as predatory dinosaurs such as carcharodontosaurs and spinosaurs, alongside sharks, turtles, crocodile relatives, and pterosaurs.
“Our dinosaur is large by most standards, likely weighing at least 10 tons more than Dippy” (referring to Diplodocus carnegie), stated lead author Titiut (Pers) Sesapanitisakul from University College London.
“However, it still pales in comparison to massive sauropods like Patagotitan (60 tons) and Luyangosaurus (50 tons).
The fossil of Nagatitan chaiyapumensis was excavated from the Khok Kruat Formation in Chaiyaphum Province, Thailand.
“We consider Nagatitan chaiyapumensis the ‘last giant’ of Thailand,” Sesapanitisakul explained, “because it was found in a rock formation that contains the youngest dinosaurs.”
“Younger sediment deposited towards the end of the dinosaur era is unlikely to reveal dinosaur remains, as the area transformed into a shallow ocean by then.”
“This could represent the final or most recent large sauropod discovered in Southeast Asia.”
To classify Nagatitan chaiyapumensis, paleontologists compared its anatomy with over 150 other dinosaur species, situating it within the sauropod family tree.
The analysis established that the new species belongs to Euhelopodidae, a group of Somphospondylan titanosaurs primarily found in Asia.
This group also includes notable species such as Puwiangosaurus cylindornae from Thailand and Tanvayosaurus hofeti from Laos.
“This discovery highlights a trend of increased body size among Asian titanosaurs during the Mid-Cretaceous, likely driven by rising temperatures and the expansion of suitable habitats,” the researchers commented.
The identification of Nagatitan chaiyapumensis enhances the known diversity of sauropods in Southeast Asia and significantly contributes to our understanding of titanosaurs’ biogeography in this region.
The team’s paper has been published in the scientific journal Scientific Reports.
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T. Setapanitisakul et al. 2026. The first sauropod dinosaur discovered from the Early Cretaceous Khok Kruat Formation in Thailand enriches the diversity of vertebrate titanosaurids in Southeast Asia. Scientific Reports 16, 12467; doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-47482-x
A significant genetic study has unveiled that Australia’s so-called “wild dogs” are predominantly dingoes, redefining the discussions surrounding conservation and wildlife management in the region.
Australian dingo. Image credit: Charcolot.
“Dingoes fulfill a vital ecological role in the Australian ecosystem, being the only terrestrial apex predator on the mainland (and some offshore islands) since their arrival over 3,000 years ago,” stated Yassin Souilmi, a researcher at the University of Adelaide.
“They hold immense cultural significance for many Indigenous Australians, frequently appearing in ancestral songlines as essential contributors to ecological and cultural balance.”
“However, dingoes have historically clashed with livestock farmers since the colonial era (the 1800s), leading to extensive dingo management strategies implemented throughout Australia.”
In a groundbreaking new study, researchers examined over 300 free-roaming dogs across Australia and discovered that only 11.7% of their DNA originated from domestic dogs.
These domestic DNA levels were highest in southeastern Australia, particularly in Victoria and New South Wales, while being significantly lower in remote northern and western regions.
“Over the decades, various genetic tests have produced conflicting results regarding the composition of dingoes, which are descended from European dogs and free-roaming animals,” Dr. Souilmi explained.
“Our research utilized pre-colonial dingo DNA as a true benchmark to clarify this discrepancy, concluding that the majority of free-roaming dogs in Australia are indeed primarily dingoes.”
This revelation is supported by ancient DNA records and has profound implications for species classification and population management.
“The term ‘wild dog’ obscures crucial biological and cultural distinctions. Dingoes are fundamentally different from feral dogs,” Dr. Souilmi emphasized.
“Future wildlife management strategies should incorporate local insights and work closely with Australia’s Indigenous communities, who have long regarded dingoes as companions and relatives.”
This innovative testing technology maintains accuracy with a minimal number of DNA markers, paving the way for large-scale, cost-effective ancestry screening.
“Our test’s reliability with minimal markers means that ancestry screening can now be routinely employed,” explained lead author Dr. Shamsunder Ravishankar, also from the University of Adelaide.
“Wildlife organizations can now achieve dependable results without needing extensive whole-genome budgets.”
The study categorized Australian dingoes into eight genetically distinct populations, including two newly identified groups in northern and central Australia.
Considering domestic dog ancestry, the findings revealed that southeastern populations exhibit far less genetic diversity compared to those in northern and central regions.
Dingoes from the Mallee (Great Desert) in northwest Victoria stood out, showcasing even lower ancestral diversity than the small, isolated Kugari population.
“Eliminating the domestic dog component alters our understanding,” stated co-author Dr. Ní Chau Nguyen, also from the University of Adelaide.
“While the ancestors of domestic dogs increased the overall genetic variation among southeastern dingoes, they simultaneously compromised some genetic traits that distinguish these dingoes.”
“Our research also corroborated previous studies indicating that gene flow from European dogs to dingoes peaked in the mid-20th century, especially during the 1960s, coinciding with rapid post-war population growth and agricultural expansion in southeastern Australia.”
For detailed findings, see the published study in the journal Conservation Letters.
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Shamsundar Ravishankar et al. 2026. European dog admixture inference based on paleogenomics allows for scalable dingo conservation. Conservation Letters 19 (3): e70052; doi: 10.1111/con4.70052
Greenhouse gases play a crucial role in trapping heat in the atmosphere, and one significant gas found beneath the ocean floor is methane. This gas is often locked in an icy form known as methane hydrate. When methane hydrate begins to decompose or melt, methane gas is released into the ocean, potentially exacerbating global warming. Factors like thawing permafrost, tectonic activity, tidal shifts, and sea level changes can also trigger methane release from sediments. Despite ongoing research, scientists are still unraveling how these triggers will react to future climate changes.
Researchers have proposed that future global warming might accelerate the influx of methane into the oceans. To explore this hypothesis, they examined an ancient global warming episode that occurred approximately 56 million years ago, known as the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM). During this period, temperatures in the Arctic Ocean occasionally soared above 20°C (68°F), serving as a valuable comparison to the current warming conditions we face today.
Once methane is released into seawater, its outcome largely depends on two biological processes. Currently, around 90% of the methane emitted from the ocean floor is consumed by tiny organisms called microorganisms through a process known as anaerobic methane oxidation. During this process, microorganisms use methane along with sulfate, resulting in the production of solid iron-sulfur minerals called pyrite. Anaerobic methane oxidation effectively traps methane in minerals, preventing it from escaping into the atmosphere, thereby transforming the ocean into a reservoir, or sink, for methane.
However, excessive methane can overwhelm the sulfate-dependent cycle. In such cases, another group of microorganisms consumes methane along with oxygen through a process called aerobic methane oxidation. This process removes carbon dioxide, a potent greenhouse gas, from the ocean. While today, about 10% of oceanic methane consumption occurs via aerobic oxidation, this ratio may have differed in geological history.
To investigate the balance of anaerobic versus aerobic methane oxidation during the PETM, researchers analyzed sediments retrieved from the Arctic ocean floor. As sediments accumulate on the ocean floor, they compact over time. Scientists can drill deep and extract cylindrical samples, known as cores, from this compacted sediment.
Within a sediment core, the age of the material increases with depth, meaning that younger sediments are found at the top and older sediments at the bottom. For this project, the team worked with cores sourced from the Arctic Ocean, containing sediments up to 100 million years old. They found evidence of PETM deposits at a depth of 386 meters (1,266 feet) within these cores.
Researchers noted that microbes leave behind distinctive carbon-based molecules called organic biomarkers during decomposition. These organic biomarkers accumulate in sediment layers on the seafloor. Different types of methane-consuming microorganisms produce distinct biomarkers, one for anaerobic and another for aerobic methane oxidation. By measuring the abundance of these biomarkers in sediment cores, the team was able to determine which microorganisms prevailed during the PETM.
The biomarker indicative of aerobic methane oxidation is Hop(17)21-ene. The researchers observed a four-fold increase in Hop(17)21-ene during the PETM. Conversely, the biomarkers associated with anaerobic methane oxidation, Glycerol dialkyl tetraether, decreased by half. These trends suggested a rise in aerobic methane oxidation and a decline in anaerobic processes, attributed to the release of significant amounts of methane during warming conditions, which overwhelmed the sulfate-dependent methane cycle.
To estimate carbon dioxide output from aerobic methane oxidation during the PETM, researchers identified another biomarker in the sediment core, Fitan. This compound, produced by organisms that consume carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, offers clues about historical carbon dioxide levels. The study revealed that during the PETM and long thereafter, carbon dioxide concentrations in the Arctic Ocean were four times greater than today’s levels. This indicates that the Arctic Ocean remained a long-term source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, even after the PETM period.
The research team proposed that the increased aerobic methane oxidation observed during the PETM could parallel current trends in the warming Arctic Ocean amid climate change. Their findings underscore the potential dangers of converting methane to carbon dioxide, which further warms the atmosphere, heats the oceans, and triggers additional methane release from the ocean floor—all contributing to a feedback loop that can escalate and hinder recovery efforts.
ALTADENA, Calif. — In response to alarming lead levels, an Altadena mother has initiated chelation therapy for her son. Geochemists are now required to don respirators and full-body suits before entering homes affected by contamination. A filmmaker has invested thousands in testing and remediation on his property, which once served as his home, to address heavy metal contamination—efforts not included in any government cleanup initiative.
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Sixteen months post-Eaton Fire, the residents of Altadena are resorting to drastic measures to tackle severe contamination from toxic compounds like arsenic and asbestos affecting their homes and health. This pollution stems from an unprecedented urban firestorm which devastated numerous homes, releasing heavy metals into the air.
Despite efforts to clear charred debris and repair homes, tests indicated dangerously high lead levels—enough to threaten children’s health.
The Eaton fire not only destroyed structures but also left behind significant metal contamination. Evan Bush/NBC News
Jennifer Rochlin, a potter and single mother, shared, “I purchased a lead test from Amazon for $75 and after several tests, I found lead everywhere,” including in her HVAC system. Her insurance provider initially refused to authorize a lead inspection at her home.
Rochlin has relocated twice, incurring costs to replace absorbent household items like mattresses.
The events surrounding the Eaton Fire have resulted in many residents of Altadena, a suburb in northeastern Los Angeles, still not returning home. Nearly two-thirds of residents were adversely affected by the fire, leading to prolonged stays in temporary housing, creating financial burdens for individuals and insurance companies as policies expire.
Uncertainty surrounding the timeline for rebuilding has compelled academics, independent scientists, and community advocacy groups to undertake their own assessments of the contamination. Below is an account of these findings and the conflicts they incite, based on interviews with numerous affected residents, scientists addressing the pollution crisis, debris removal workers, local officials, and insurance representatives.
The shared experiences highlight the inadequacies of existing systems for responding to fire-related disasters, including insurance frameworks, restoration services, local governance, and environmental regulations.
“This was an urban fire, and the contamination we encountered was unlike anything seen in previous events,” stated Dawn Fanning, managing director of the nonprofit Eaton Fire Residents United.
Dawn Fanning, managing director of Eaton Fire Residents United, noted that approximately 70% of residents in smoke-damaged homes have yet to return. Evan Bush/NBC News
California currently lacks safety standards for indoor contamination from various hazardous substances prevalent in Altadena, aside from lead and asbestos. This absence complicates the decision-making process for homeowners and insurers regarding when it is safe to return to their properties. Moreover, testing companies don’t adhere to consistent methodologies. Areas affected by fire were not subjected to soil testing by FEMA and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, leaving residents with significant information gaps regarding potential hazards.
Whistleblowers from the Corps involved in the cleanup have expressed concerns that communities may face lingering soil contamination issues.
Both individuals, who requested anonymity for fear of reprisal, indicated that the cleanup process was rushed and plagued by inconsistencies. One whistleblower noted an alarming amount of debris left behind compared to past wildfire responses.
“This cleanup is subpar. We typically remove everything, going fence to fence, but this time ‘contaminants are still present,’” one individual remarked.
A spokesperson for the Corps stated that the cleanup’s scope, including the criteria for debris removal, was established by FEMA in coordination with California state officials and Los Angeles County.
“The assigned mission encompassed the removal of structural ash and debris, along with soil in the top six inches of the structural foundation,” the spokesperson clarified. “Soil testing was not included in the USACE mission directive from FEMA.”
The Hidden Soil Threat
Altadena embodies the intersection of nature and urban life.
Nestled against the San Gabriel Mountains, this area radiates warm terracotta hues at dusk, with the silhouettes of downtown Los Angeles visible in the distance.
The January 2025 Eaton Fire devastated 9,400 homes and structures, releasing smoke laden with lithium from electric car batteries, arsenic from antiquated wood, and asbestos from insulation. Winds during thefire reached up to 90 mph, propelling the flames.
Alireza Namayande, a National Science Foundation postdoctoral researcher at Stanford, collected smoke samples during the fire within the plume at Pasadena Park. His findings indicated that most particulates were nanoparticles, measuring one-thousandth the width of a human hair—capable of penetrating lungs, bloodstream, and brain.
Melting glaciers, such as those in the Ilulissat Icefjord, can trigger significant methane releases.
Gerald Wetzel, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany
Increasing alarms are being sounded over the potential for melting glaciers to unleash tremendous quantities of greenhouse gases, particularly methane. Recent studies indicate that meltwater is releasing frozen methane hydrates from sediments along the Greenland ice sheet’s edge, a phenomenon reminiscent of patterns observed during the last glacial maximum between 29,000 and 19,000 years ago.
Methane hydrate is created when gas molecules become entrapped within a structure of frozen water molecules, creating what resembles ice, often referred to as “fire ice.” Despite being composed of 85% water, these hydrates pose significant environmental concerns. Burning them could release vast amounts of methane.
These hydrates form under high-pressure and low-temperature conditions present in oceans, permafrost, or beneath glaciers. Some estimates suggest that methane hydrates could hold double the carbon content of all the earth’s coal, oil, and natural gas combined.
However, global warming is altering the cold, high-pressure conditions where methane hydrates exist. For instance, a mystery crater discovered on the Arctic ocean floor in 2014 was believed to have been caused by melting permafrost, which suddenly released pressure on methane hydrates, resulting in a “violent physical explosion,” per the findings of a 2024 survey.
New research indicates that meltwater from Greenland’s glaciers can also release methane hydrates. “We found a new mechanism for releasing methane that was previously thought to be stable,” said Dr. Mat’s Houuse, who led the study from the University of Manchester, UK.
Dr. Hughes and colleagues identified that methane hydrates frequently accumulate between sediment grains at the bottom of Melville Bay in northwestern Greenland. Seismic surveys by oil and gas companies noted 50 large pockmarks on the ocean floor, up to 37 meters deep, near grounding wedges where the last ice sheet once met the ocean floor.
Initially believed to be caused by iceberg movements, investigations through sediment core samples revealed the top sediment layer had minimal methane, despite ideal methane hydrate conditions. The findings indicated substantial fresh water instead of expected seawater, likely due to ice sheet melt. Researchers hypothesize that during the last glacial maximum, meltwater flowing under Melville Bay’s glaciers pushed out methane hydrates through the grounding wedge.
As other glaciers continue to recede under climate change, melting could similarly wash away hydrates at the edges of additional glaciers, posing a significant risk. “In the near past, perhaps 12,000 to 15,000 years ago, there was a considerable methane release. The same could occur tomorrow or in the next century with ongoing ice sheet retreat,” warns Dr. Hughes. “Such events carry alarming implications since we’ve never accounted for them before.”
While the study does not quantify the methane released in Melville Bay, estimates suggest it could be around 130 million tonnes, equating to around two years of fossil fuel emissions. However, Dr. Hughes notes this methane could have been released over a century, rather than in a short timespan, making it a monumental yet singular event.
Additionally, methane dissolves in seawater, and not all of it may escape into the atmosphere, contingent on its saturation levels.
The Antarctic ice sheet likely contains even more methane hydrate than Greenland. Within polar regions, estimates suggest that between 100 billion and 760 billion tonnes of methane are potentially stored in subglacial and ocean hydrates. Even a small release could rival the 48.7 million tonnes of methane currently emitted annually from Arctic and boreal regions, predominantly from wetlands, lakes, and rivers, and could significantly exacerbate climate change.
Methane is already emanating from beneath the Greenland ice sheet. A recent study suggests that snowmelt across western Greenland contributes about 715 tonnes of methane each year. While some may derive from hydrates, it’s more likely to result from ancient plant material transformed into methane gas by bacteria beneath the ice, according to researcher Jade Hutton. This trend could escalate.
“If melting intensifies, it may tap into subglacial regions housing preserved organic carbon stocks that can easily convert to methane,” Hutton states. “This could lead to sizeable future releases.”
As organizations like Anthropic, Google, and OpenAI develop cutting-edge artificial intelligence systems, they are increasingly focused on implementing safeguards to prevent misuse—such as spreading disinformation, creating weapons, or hacking networks.
However, recent findings by Italian researchers reveal that these protective measures can sometimes be bypassed through poetic prompts.
By using poetic language, the researchers successfully tricked 31 AI systems into ignoring internal safety protocols. For example, starting prompts with metaphors like “The iron seed sleeps best in the unsuspecting womb of the earth away from the sun’s reproachful gaze” demonstrated how these systems can be manipulated to execute dangerous tasks.
This highlights a concerning trend: for many AI systems, guardrails intended to prevent risky behavior are merely suggestions, rather than effective barriers. Researchers are increasingly alarmed as AI systems become adept at exploiting vulnerabilities and engaging in risky operations.
Recently, Anthropic announced restrictions on the release of its latest AI system, Claude Mythos, to select organizations due to its rapid vulnerability detection capabilities in software. OpenAI echoed similar sentiments, choosing to share its technology with a limited group of trusted partners.
Since the AI boom initiated by OpenAI in late 2022, studies have confirmed the ability of users to bypass safety measures in AI systems. Closing one loophole often leads to the emergence of another.
“Everyone in the field acknowledges that establishing effective guardrails is challenging and will continue to be so for the foreseeable future,” stated Matt Fredrickson, a computer science professor at Carnegie Mellon University and CEO of Gray Swan AI, which specializes in securing AI technologies. “Determined individuals can evade these systems with relative ease.”
The repercussions of bypassing guardrails are significant. In an already misinformation-heavy online environment, AI systems are being employed to disseminate conspiracy theories and false claims. Anthropic has also reported that its technology played a role in an international cyberattack, teaching biosecurity experts how to unleash fatal pathogens.
The poetic bypass is just one of many methods hackers use to circumvent protections in systems like Anthropic’s Claude, Google’s Gemini, and OpenAI’s GPT. Major AI firms share similar foundational techniques for implementing guardrails, yet these measures are surprisingly easy to overcome.
“Poetry is merely one way to reframe a prompt and breach guardrails,” explained Piercosma Visconti, co-founder of AI firm Dexai and a researcher in the study.
The act of circumventing AI guardrails is commonly referred to as “jailbreaking.” This often entails submitting specific English sentences that prompt actions the AI has been programmed to avoid.
Jailbreaking techniques feature a variety of creative names, including stealth prompt injection, role-playing, token smuggling, polyglot Trojans, and greedy coordinate gradient attacks. Notable attack names include Crescendo, Deceptive Joy, and Echo Chamber.
Weak defenses in AI systems have already led to the spread of fabricated interviews, false wartime evidence, and synthetic rumor-mongering. Research conducted three years ago by international counterterrorism experts revealed far-right extremists using social media to circumvent moderators with “terrible but legal” AI content.
Experts are concerned that models could be jailbroken to mislead social media users with seemingly authentic content, overwhelm fact-checkers with misinformation, and tailor false narratives for specific audiences.
Some of these methods are widely disseminated online, while others remain undisclosed. Many discoverers of new jailbreaks keep them secret to exploit these loopholes before AI companies close them.
AI systems like Claude and GPT learn patterns from vast datasets, including Wikipedia, news articles, and curated texts from the internet. However, before releasing these systems to the public, companies like Anthropic and OpenAI explore potential exploits.
In their unfiltered states, these systems can potentially instruct users on purchasing illegal firearms online or creating hazardous substances using household items. Consequently, companies train their systems to refuse certain requests through a method known as reinforcement learning.
This often involves showcasing thousands of prohibited requests to the system. Through this analysis, the system can learn to identify other dangerous requests. However, this method only partially succeeds.
In some situations, AI companies might opt not to address vulnerabilities, believing that while weak guardrails could facilitate malicious activities, they also enable benign actions to counter them.
Recently, researchers at cybersecurity firm LayerX found that Claude’s guardrails could be bypassed by simply entering a few straightforward sentences into the AI system.
When told they were “penetrating” a computer network for testing purposes, Claude’s AI technology was directed to launch attacks on the network. This technique could potentially enable malicious hackers to extract sensitive information from businesses, governments, and individuals.
While closing this loophole may protect Claude’s networks, it could simultaneously hinder companies from safeguarding their own systems. LayerX informed Anthropic of this vulnerability weeks ago, yet it remains an open issue.
LayerX CEO Olu Eshed warned that this strategy might backfire. “Eventually, we will witness a surge of attacks utilizing these AI models, compelling us to rethink our security protocols,” he predicted.
Last year, researchers from Cisco and the University of Pennsylvania achieved breakthrough results by developing AI models that produced harmful outcomes using malicious prompts. Their efforts successfully jailbroke Meta and Chinese AI model DeepSeek chatbots 100% of the time, and over 80% of attacks against Google and OpenAI models were successful.
(The New York Times has filed a lawsuit against OpenAI and Microsoft, claiming copyright infringement related to its AI systems, with both companies denying these allegations.)
If guardrails are compromised, automated large-scale influence campaigns could become feasible, as researchers at the University of Technology Sydney demonstrated. By disguising their requests as “simulations,” they convinced a commercial language model to create a disinformation campaign against Australian political parties, complete with visuals, hashtags, and tailored posts for specific platforms.
In addition to establishing guardrails, these companies also employ other tools to monitor system activity, identify suspicious behaviors, and ban accounts infringing on their terms of service.
“Claude is built with robust, multi-layered protections designed to work in unison, including model training and layered guardrails,” stated Anthropic spokesperson Palul Maheshwary. “Bypassing one layer doesn’t circumvent the others.”
In a concerning revelation, Anthropic found that a group of state-sponsored hackers from China was employing Claude to breach the computer systems of approximately 30 companies and government agencies worldwide.
Despite the robust security technologies, experts caution that flaws remain, as companies struggle to monitor extensive global activity while also ensuring legitimate users are not excluded.
When restricted by the security measures of services like Claude and GPT, users may turn to open-source AI systems. These platforms allow for their underlying software to be freely replicated, modified, and shared.
Such systems can be altered to eliminate guardrails. A novel approach called Heretic enables users to remove system guardrails with minimal effort, essentially undoing months of guardrailing training through sophisticated algorithms.
“A year ago, this process was highly complex,” noted Norm Schwartz, CEO of AI security firm Alice. “Today, it can be controlled effortlessly via a mobile device.”
Vocal Fry: Challenging Stereotypes about Women’s Speech
Cavan Image/Alamy
Have you tuned into a podcast or scrolled through TikTok? If so, you’ve likely encountered vocal fry—a unique sound produced when speaking in a deep vocal range. Although commonly linked with young women, recent research reveals a lack of substantial evidence supporting this stereotype.
Vocal fry happens when vocal cords are relaxed, leading to a distinct sound as airflow decreases towards the end of a statement. However, in popular culture, this phenomenon is often viewed negatively, particularly concerning young women. A recent study by Jeanne Brown and her team at McGill University, Montreal, is encouraging a reconsideration of these biases.
The researchers analyzed voice recordings from 49 Canadians obtained online, focusing on specific acoustic markers characteristic of youthful voices, such as tonal irregularities. Surprisingly, these vocal traits were found to be more common in men. Additionally, the study indicated that vocal squeakiness tends to increase with age, demonstrating that being young or female does not define the squeakiest voices.
Professor Brown stated that previous studies also align with their findings on vocal squeaks as acoustic features, but the reason behind their association with women remains unclear. “Perhaps the way we process the acoustic signals influences our perception of women’s voices,” she noted.
To explore this further, 40 participants listened to audio samples featuring manipulated voices that varied in squeakiness and gender ambiguity. Participants could identify the squeaky sound but struggled to attribute it exclusively to either gender. Brown’s research was presented at the Acoustical Society of America meeting on May 14th in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
“Both controlled studies did not support the theory that women’s voices are inherently louder,” Brown explained.
Researchers including Lisa Davidson from New York University found that while people generally recognize squeaky voices accurately, biases based on social and cultural factors influence perception. Age also played a role; older individuals often rated squeaky voices less favorably compared to younger listeners. “It’s noteworthy that negative media portrayals rarely mention annoying male voices,” Davidson emphasized.
“Perceptions surrounding vocal fry and squeaky voices extend beyond sound,” remarked Brown. “Judgments may stem from societal interpretations about the individuals behind the voices, including the social groups they are perceived to represent.”
Picture a quantum computer. You might think of it as a traditional computer but enhanced. However, this assumption is misleading. Quantum computers operate on unique quantum phenomena occurring in qubits, setting them apart from classical computers. Their unusual nature gives rise to myths and misconceptions. Quantum computing expert Shayan Majidi, lead author at Harvard University, provides insights in Building a Quantum Computer. Here, we explore the latest developments in this field.
1. Quantum Computers Are Already Here
Recently, while flying, a fellow passenger asked, “When will we actually have quantum computers?” The reality is they already exist and are in use daily. Researchers across the globe are utilizing quantum computers, with some companies offering public access, enabling individuals to harness their power from home.
However, quantum computers don’t resemble the large-scale language models we routinely use on laptops. These machines are specialized tools, and their applications greatly differ. Scientists are continually enhancing quantum computers, using them to create foundational elements for future systems or to explore fundamental scientific inquiries.
We’re on the verge of showcasing how quantum computers can solve problems that classical systems cannot. In the next 5 to 10 years, I anticipate that students will routinely access quantum computers via the cloud for experimental purposes.
2. Quantum Computers Won’t Simplify All Calculations
A common misconception is that quantum computers will surpass classical systems in speed, rendering them obsolete. In reality, quantum computers excel in specific applications rather than offering a blanket increase in speed.
Notable examples include factoring large numbers faster than any classical algorithm, which is crucial for decryption, and rapidly searching unstructured data. Additionally, quantum systems excel in simulating quantum phenomena, conducting sampling tasks, solving specific optimization challenges, and addressing linear algebra problems under particular conditions.
The advantage of quantum systems lies not in speed but in the thoughtfully designed quantum algorithms they utilize. These algorithms take advantage of critical quantum effects, like superposition, interference, and entanglement, making them highly effective for a narrow range of applications.
For the vast majority of tasks—like web browsing, texting, or gaming—quantum computers provide no tangible benefits over conventional laptops. Problems that are deemed quantum-easy are complex for classical computers, and vice versa. Thus, utilizing quantum computers for simple tasks would be a massive inefficiency.
3. Quantum Computers Are Not Equivalent to Multiple Classical Computers Working Simultaneously
Many envision quantum computers operating by placing qubits in a superposition, enabling simultaneous calculations; however, this is a misconception. A superposition state indicates that a qubit can represent both 0 and 1 at once. For n qubits, the potential states are exponentially large, approximately 2n options. However, the idea of infinite parallelism is a myth since you cannot read this information directly. Once a qubit is measured, it collapses into a conventional classical value.
The true capabilities of quantum computers are more intricate. They can generate numerous answers and leverage algorithms to enhance correct responses while diminishing incorrect ones. A well-designed algorithm integrates these superimposed possibilities, ensuring that the accurate answer surfaces during the final measurement.
Scanning Electron Micrograph: Fetal Muscle Cells Differentiating into Skeletal Muscle Cells
Credit: Steve Gschmeisner/Science Photo Library
A groundbreaking study shows that by reactivating stem cells from aging mice’s muscles, researchers can significantly enhance muscle growth and recovery from injury. This innovative approach may pave the way for rejuvenating aging muscles in humans.
“Theoretically, if muscle stem cells from older individuals were extracted, rejuvenated, and reintroduced, we could see enhanced functionality,” states James White from Duke University, North Carolina.
Muscle stem cells typically remain dormant in muscle tissue but spring into action when damage occurs, facilitating the repair process. “Muscle tissue is particularly vulnerable to mechanical strain and relies on regeneration,” explains White. “The soreness you feel after a workout is a sign of muscle damage. Your immune system interacts with stem cells, enabling the repair of muscle tissue through the creation of new cells.”
As we age, however, the quantity of muscle stem cells diminishes, complicating the regeneration process. In experiments with mice, White and his team found that aging muscle stem cells exhibit a reduction in the enzyme glutaminase, which hampers the production of essential lipid molecules, such as palmitate and oleate. “Stem cells must significantly enlarge to become muscle cells, requiring lipids for building cell membranes and energy,” emphasizes White.
To address this deficiency, researchers harvested muscle stem cells from older mice and enriched them with additional palmitic and oleic acids. These enhanced stem cells were injected into the injured leg muscles of other aged mice, resulting in a 45 percent increase in muscle fiber growth compared to untreated stem cells. The mice also demonstrated improved mobility during treadmill tests and other physical assessments.
Similar reductions in glutaminase levels in human muscle stem cells with age may explain the observed decline in muscle mass, strength, and recovery capacity, which often leads to decreased mobility and an increased risk of falls.
Researchers propose that increasing glutaminase or lipid levels in muscle stem cells could mitigate or even reverse muscle degeneration, according to David Lee, also from Duke University. “We are currently exploring avenues to translate these findings into clinical applications,” he adds.
However, consuming glutaminase, palmitate, or oleate as oral supplements may not be effective, as inadequate amounts can reach the stem cells within the muscles. Furthermore, there is a potential cancer risk associated with these substances, as they are also utilized by cancer cells. White suggests a safer approach may involve extracting stem cells from older individuals, activating them with enzymes and nutrients in a lab setting, and reintegrating them into the body.
It is important to note that young athletes and bodybuilders may not achieve greater muscle growth or recovery through this method, as they typically do not experience a deficiency in stem cells. “Their muscles are already abundant with functional stem cells,” White remarks.
In related research, the Florida-based company Longveron is investigating the potential of injecting young individuals’ stem cells to rejuvenate muscle function and combat frailty in older adults. This involves harvesting mesenchymal stem cells capable of transforming into various cell types, including muscle cells, from healthy bone marrow donors aged 18 to 45. Clinical trials have shown promising results, with frail volunteers aged 75 to 80 able to walk more effectively after intravenous injections of young stem cells.
Remnants of Wildfire in Glacier National Park, Montana
Gorsky/Nurfoto/Shutterstock
In 2021, underground coal seams ignited,
sparking a wildfire in Poverty Flats, Montana, that scorched 267 square kilometers and decimated about 50,000 trees, primarily ponderosa pines. This devastation impacted ranching operations at Gentry Ranch, where cattle found shade.
Scorched remnants remained scattered across the barren landscape. These “widows” pose risks, as they can drop unexpectedly, causing harm to livestock and potentially fueling future wildfires. Traditional methods would involve burning the downed trees, releasing approximately 7,000 tonnes of CO2 into the atmosphere.
However, innovative excavating tactics were employed. A bulldozer and specialized felling machinery relocated the trees into a 5,000 square meter pit, which was subsequently covered with six meters of earth, gravel, and polypropylene cloth. Mast Reforestation, the organization behind this initiative, asserts that this process will inhibit decay for centuries, thus curbing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating future wildfire risks. They also have the opportunity to generate carbon credits to finance the planting of new trees.
“This is not a one-size-fits-all solution, but for forest management, it’s a significant advancement,” declares Grant Canary from Mast Reforestation.
The United Nations Climate Change Agency states that offsetting hard-to-reduce emissions will require CO2 extraction techniques, including tree planting and air filtration systems. Plants, including trees, absorb CO2 as they grow, but they also release it upon decay. To combat this paradox, startups are converting forestry and agricultural residues into biochar, which can be applied to fields, formed into bricks, or stored underground.
Mast has expanded its focus to include wildfire-damaged timber. Historically, the West has experienced wildfires that have grown exponentially larger, with current conditions potentially leading to another severe wildfire season following this spring’s extreme heat.
Approximately half of wood mass remains after a wildfire, with carbon content remaining substantial. For the Gentry project, Mast meticulously calculated the CO2-equivalent mass of logged trees, estimating around 7,000 tons using nitrogen and moisture levels, eventually selling 4,277 verified carbon credits through the Puro.Earth registry.
For bulk buyers, these carbon credits are available for less than $200 each—more expensive than traditional tree-planting credits but competitive with biochar credits.
Ponderosa Pine Seedlings on Eastern Montana Property Affected by Wildfires
Mast Reforestation
Mast has allocated a portion of its profits to cultivate seedlings, planting them on ranch areas which saves owners from the hefty costs associated with land clearing. In Montana, around 6.5 million tons of trees destroyed by fire remains available for recovery, according to Canary. The company is now preparing to expand its operations with a goal of processing 150,000 tons of timber annually by 2030.
The Puro.Earth guideline indicates that sequestration through buried biomass can last beyond a century. Research in 2022 found that a cedar log buried near Montreal retained 95% of its carbon after 3,775 years. However, exposed wood can begin to decompose in just a few months under unfavorable conditions.
Wood-decaying fungi and bacteria thrive on oxygen, moisture, and warmth. By isolating wood from air, these microorganisms can be neutralized. Ning Zeng from the University of Maryland discovered that burying logs under at least one meter of clay-rich soil is effective in preventing air infiltration.
Although soils in the western U.S. are predominantly stony, impermeable deposits like glacial fields can still be available near burn zones. Further research is crucial to understand optimal conditions for wood preservation, Zeng suggests.
“While we support these commercial initiatives, the primary concern remains proper execution,” says Zeng. “It’s essential for implementers to be well-informed, as precise scientific guidance is still evolving.”
If buried wood were to decompose, emissions could soar as machinery operates for removal or relocation. Excavation can also disrupt vegetation and release soil carbon; however, maintaining the integrity of the topsoil and applying it back over can mitigate this impact, according to Zeng.
A former employee’s wrongful dismissal claim alleged that the company inflated the values of carbon credits sold through reforestation efforts that excluded dead tree burial. Mast has since resolved the lawsuit, assuring that its operations remain unaffected.
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Asteroid 2026JH2 Approaches Earth Safely
Mark Garlick/Science Photo Library/Getty Images
An asteroid known as 2026JH2 is set to make a close approach to Earth next week. Estimated to be around 90,917 kilometers away, it will pass at a quarter of the distance between Earth and the Moon.
According to Dr. Mark Norris from the University of Lancashire, UK, “Astronomically speaking, that’s as close as you can get without a collision.”
Only five asteroids are predicted to pass within the Moon’s orbit this year, with 2026JH2 being the second closest.
Discovered by the Mount Lemmon Survey in Arizona and the Far Point Observatory in Kansas, 2026JH2 will reach its closest point to Earth on May 18th at 9 p.m. UTC. Norris points out that viewing the asteroid will be challenging for southern hemisphere astronomers due to its brief visibility and its high speed of 9.17 kilometers per second, akin to that of a satellite.
Its diameter ranges from 16 to 36 meters, based on data released by Solmano Observatory. “If 2026JH2 were to hit Earth, it would be capable of causing significant destruction, similar to a city-wide catastrophe,” Norris warns.
Astronomers believe they have identified and monitored nearly all asteroids over 1 kilometer in our solar system. As detection techniques advance, we will increasingly catalog smaller asteroids, like 2026JH2, which can be challenging to observe due to inadequate light reflection, according to Dr. Mark Burchell from the University of Kent, UK. “Such small bodies are difficult to detect.”
If 2026JH2 were to collide with Earth, it could unleash energy comparable to that of the 2013 Chelyabinsk meteorite, which produced 30 times the kinetic energy of the Hiroshima bomb, reports the head of the European Space Agency’s Planetary Defense Directorate, Richard Moisle.
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Suzanne Simard and Rowan Hooper Discuss the ‘Mother Tree’ Concept
Forest ecologist Suzanne Simard, a trailblazer in the spirit of Jane Goodall, Rachel Carson, and Lynn Margulis, has transformed our understanding of trees. In her pivotal 1997 paper, she revealed how trees connect and exchange nutrients via an underground fungal network, famously dubbed the ‘Wood Wide Web’ by Nature.
In 2021, Simard published Finding the Mother Tree: Revealing the Wisdom and Intelligence of the Forest, captivating a broader audience eager for insights into natural communities. However, like James Lovelock’s Gaia hypothesis, her claims sparked controversy among some researchers who questioned the concept of resource-sharing among trees.
Raised in a logging family, Simard is acutely aware of the ecological damage wrought by unsustainable forestry practices. Currently, she leads the Mother Tree Project at the University of British Columbia in Canada, aimed at exploring and understanding tree relationships in forest ecosystems. Her latest release, When the Forest Breathes, serves as a sequel to Finding the Mother Tree.
Rowan Hooper: What is the ‘Mother Tree’ concept?
Suzanne Simard: My research demonstrates that trees form interconnected communities. In British Columbia’s rainforests, we’ve shown that trees communicate and share resources through a fungal network. The ‘Mother Tree’ emerges as the most connected tree, facilitating the exchange of resources and nurturing seedlings that regenerate forests.
Essentially, the Mother Tree is the largest and oldest tree, playing a vital role in forest regeneration.
Does this network also connect different species?
Yes, indeed. My research, highlighted in Nature, examined how species like paper birch and Douglas fir share resources. The allocation of these resources is influenced by each tree’s photosynthetic capacity throughout different seasons and conditions.
When did you first face backlash?
The initial criticism emerged in the late 90s, mainly from British scientists who claimed insufficient evidence existed. After addressing their concerns, the critique waned. However, following the release of Finding the Mother Tree, a larger wave of criticism surfaced.
A recent review suggested inadequate evidence that fungal networks persist long-term. How did you respond?
Critics have focused on perceived flaws and questioned our claims about the significance of fungal networks, often downplaying the role of competition in forests. I systematically addressed these critiques but found it disheartening. Fortunately, engaging with Indigenous communities in rainforests deepened my understanding and resolve to continue advocating for these concepts.
Suzanne Simard’s Latest Book, When the Forest Breathes
Allen Lane
Are you still identifying as a scientist?
Absolutely! I embrace my scientific identity.
Do you think science alone is enough for your mission?
I often refer to myself as a “recovering scientist.” While I employ the scientific method and value peer-reviewed processes, I recognize its limitations. My goal is to deepen public understanding of our relationship with the natural world, incorporating Indigenous knowledge systems.
So you apply scientific methods while also sharing broader narratives?
Indeed! Our societies are built on interconnected relationships, and I wanted to communicate that. Many people are losing touch with their roots, and the scientific community isn’t always conveying this urgency, which propelled me to write my books.
Is such storytelling part of the criticism you faced?
To resonate with audiences, you must engage their imagination. While scientific writing is efficient for conveying facts, stories capture imaginations. When I blend my scientific insights with personal narratives, people connect more deeply.
Can you tell us about the Mother Tree Project?
Covering 1,000 kilometers, the Mother Tree Project spans various climatic zones. This research aims to understand how forests might evolve with changing climates, focusing on methods to conserve old trees while managing younger trees.
Our findings underscore the significance of preserving old trees: they safeguard carbon stores and protect biodiversity, vital for species thriving in ancient woodlands.
“We’re finding… that leaving old trees behind really matters,” says Simard
Jonathan Brady/PA Images/Alamy
Did James Cameron’s Avatar draw inspiration from your research?
Absolutely! I initially thought they were merely intrigued, but I later learned they intended to reference my work. It was a thrilling acknowledgment.
While Avatar expands beyond science, it portrays increasing interconnectedness. How do you view this?
Children naturally understand the vastness of our world. Trees were my childhood friends, and I realized early on my intrinsic connection to nature.
Did this understanding persist while you were part of the forestry industry?
Indeed. I always sensed a connection with the forest, yet my formal education pushed the idea that trees operated as individuals rather than part of interconnected systems. However, I had to realign my understanding with what I intuitively knew to effect change in forestry practices.
What drives your mission to transform forestry?
The forestry industry’s extractive nature threatens native forests. However, public sentiment is shifting as awareness of industrial logging’s impact grows. People are demanding change, but much has been lost along the way.
This is an edited version of an interview from New Scientist‘s podcast, The World, The Universe, and Us.
Gerald Wetzel, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany
Following the last glacial maximum, meltwater has washed frozen methane hydrate from sediments along the edge of Greenland’s ice sheet, raising significant concerns about the potential release of this powerful greenhouse gas due to melting glaciers.
Methane hydrate forms when gas molecules are trapped within a lattice of water molecules and freeze into a solid, often referred to as “fire ice.” Despite being composed of 85% water, its flammability is notable.
This unique structure forms under high pressure and low temperature conditions found in oceans, permafrost, or beneath glacial sediments. Estimates suggest that methane hydrate may contain double the carbon found in all coal, oil, and traditional gas resources on Earth.
However, climate change is disturbing the cold, pressurized environments necessary for the stability of methane hydrate. For instance, some scientists suggest that a mysterious ocean floor crater discovered beneath the Arctic in 2014 was formed by the sudden release of pressure on methane hydrate due to thawing permafrost, described as a “violent physical explosion” in a 2024 study.
Recent research from Greenland indicates that methane hydrate can also be released by glacier meltwater flows. “We discovered a new release mechanism for methane that was assumed to be secure,” says Dr. Mat’s House from the University of Manchester, UK. “What we previously thought was stable is, in fact, methane.”
Hughes and his team recognized that methane hydrate is often found in spaces between sediment grains in Melville Bay, northwestern Greenland. Seismic surveys conducted by oil and gas companies during 2011 and 2013 revealed 50 large pockmarks on the ocean floor, some reaching depths of 37 meters, situated near long grounding wedges. These are locations where the floating ice sheet met the ocean floor during the peak of the last ice age.
Initially, researchers believed these pockmarks were caused by icebergs tipping over. However, drilling sediment cores in the area revealed that the upper sediment layer contained minimal methane, despite ideal temperature and pressure conditions for methane hydrate formation.
Moreover, significant amounts of freshwater were located in the sediment, contradicting the expected seawater findings, a situation only possible due to recent ice sheet melting. The research indicates that during the last glacial maximum, meltwater flowing under glaciers in Melville Bay likely passed through the grounding wedge, pushing out methane hydrate.
As climate change leads to glacier retreat, meltwater might similarly erode hydrates at the edges of other glaciers, Hughes notes. Grounding zone wedges exist across the Arctic, potentially signifying similar risks.
“Perhaps 12,000 to 15,000 years ago, a substantial amount of methane was released. A similar event could occur imminently with ongoing ice sheet retreat,” he warns. “This is concerning as it’s an aspect we’ve yet to fully consider.”
While the study does not estimate the methane released from Melville Bay, Hughes hypothesizes it could be around 130 million tonnes, approximately equivalent to two years’ worth of fossil fuel emissions. However, he notes this methane might have released over a century rather than in a short timeframe, characterizing it as a singular release event.
Furthermore, methane is water-soluble, and depending on saturation levels, not all of it may transition into the atmosphere.
The Antarctic ice sheet likely harbors even more methane hydrate compared to Greenland. Overall, it is estimated that between 100 billion and 760 billion tons of methane exist in subglacial and ocean hydrates across polar regions. A fraction of this could match the 48.7 million tonnes of methane currently released annually from the Arctic and boreal zones, potentially accelerating global warming.
Methane is already seeping from beneath the Greenland ice sheet. A recent study published this month estimates that snowmelt flowing through western Greenland emits around 715 tonnes of methane each year. Though some may stem from hydrates, it’s more likely derived from ancient plant matter converted to methane by bacteria thriving under the ice, led in research by Jade Hutton from the UK Centre for Ecology and Hydrology. This trend may intensify in the future.
“As melting accelerates, it may access regions of the subglacial system harboring well-preserved organic carbon that can be converted to methane,” she predicts. “This could lead to sizable releases in the future.”
In 1941, the battleship USS Arizona sank during the attack on Pearl Harbor, along with approximately 5,000 tons of oil stored in its fuel tanks.
This oil has been leaking gradually for the past 84 years, with the tank still estimated to be half full.
While this represents the longest duration of human-induced oil spillage, its volume is significantly smaller compared to others globally. For instance, the Coal Oil Point seep area off the coast of California contributes a much larger output.
This location naturally leaks around 17 tons of oil into the ocean daily and has been doing so for at least 500,000 years.
This article responds to the query posed by Joshua Hughes via email: “What is the world’s longest oil spill?”
If you have any questions, don’t hesitate to reach out via email:questions@sciencefocus.com or send us a message onFacebook,Twitter, orInstagram(please remember to include your name and location).
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Neanderthal dentistry may have been remarkably advanced, according to a recent study led by scientists from the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg.
This study examined a 59,000-year-old molar tooth discovered in Chagyrskaya Cave, Russia, featuring a deep central hole.
Archaeologists believe that the tooth was intentionally punctured with a sharp tool to treat an infection and alleviate pain.
This represents the oldest known dental evidence, dating back over 40,000 years and surpassing previous findings from about 14,000 years ago in Italy, which were previously considered the first examples of dental treatment by Homo sapiens.
“What surprised me was that the owner of this tooth understood exactly what was causing the pain and intuitively knew it could be alleviated,” remarked the first author, Dr. Aliza Zubova from the Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnology, Russian Academy of Sciences.
“Neither Neanderthals nor even later modern humans have encountered anything like this before.”
To investigate the treatment of this tooth, archaeologists utilized a method known as microtomography to capture highly detailed X-rays. This analysis revealed microscopic grooves on the tooth’s surface.
Researchers performed experiments on modern human teeth, attempting to replicate similar holes and markings using techniques accessible to Neanderthals.
Neanderthal tooth labeled Chagyrskaya 64, photographed from five angles – Image credit: Zubova et al., 2026, PLOS One, CC-BY 4.0
Senior author Dr. Kseniya Korobova from the Siberian branch of the Russian Academy stated that these experiments showcased the technical proficiency of the procedures, involving the removal of carious tissue via deep holes in the tooth.
“It’s important to remember that we couldn’t fully replicate the real-life conditions,” she noted. “The inflammation and swelling in the oral cavity would have introduced additional challenges during the procedure.”
She emphasized that the mouth is a “complex area to work,” necessitating “manual dexterity, patience, and a caregiver to keep the head still.”
Remarkably, all of this was achieved without anesthesia. Thus, while the patient likely experienced pain, archaeologists believe the method effectively alleviated tooth discomfort.
Second author Dr. Lydia Zotkina remarked, “What astonishes me is the incredible willpower this Neanderthal must have possessed.”
“This finding is a striking illustration of how archaeological evidence allows us to gain insights into past lives, revealing the strength and resilience of these individuals. Every visit to the dentist now reminds me of that Neanderthal.”
For Zubova, this research contributes to a growing body of evidence indicating that Neanderthals provided care for one another regularly.
“Historically, Neanderthals have been viewed as more primitive than modern humans, making their care for Middle Paleolithic community members an exception,” she explains.
“As evidence accumulates, it increasingly suggests that Neanderthals cared for the sick and infirm just like modern humans.”
During the Neoproterozoic Era (1 billion to 538.8 million years ago), Earth underwent dramatic climate fluctuations, notably the Sturtian Ice Age, where ice is believed to have enveloped the planet. Understanding the geological record and the survival of life during this pivotal event has remained a significant challenge. Geochronological studies indicate that the Sturtian Ice Age persisted for an astonishing 56 million years, far exceeding predictions made by conventional climate models. A recent study from Harvard University proposes that Earth may have experienced cycles of ice-covered and ice-free states during the Sturtian period.
Artist’s impression of ‘Snowball Earth’. Image credit: Oleg Kuznetsov, http://3depix.com/ CC BY-SA 4.0.
“The global glaciation that occurred near the advent of animal life, known as the Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth event, represents one of the most severe climate transformations in Earth’s history and likely had profound effects on biological evolution,” stated Charlotte Minsky, a Harvard graduate student, along with her research team.
“However, the causes, severity, and ecological impacts of these glaciations continue to be the subject of intense debate.”
Employing a coupled model of ancient climate systems and the global carbon cycle, researchers propose that Earth was not trapped in a singular, incessant snowball state.
Their simulations indicate that extensive weathering of basalt in the Franklin Igneous Province, a significant volcanic area in northern Canada that likely erupted prior to the Sturtian Ice Age, dramatically reduced atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, leading to multiple global ice ages.
As volcanic activity and other processes gradually rebuilt atmospheric carbon dioxide, global temperatures rose, ice melted, and previously covered basalt regions were exposed once more.
This renewed decomposition through weathering replenished carbon dioxide, triggering another snowball cycle.
The authors contend that this recurring cycle of freezing and thawing driven by carbon dioxide could sustain glacial and interglacial variations for tens of millions of years.
The mechanisms revealed in this study address several longstanding discrepancies, particularly the duration of the Sturtian Ice Age, which was previously challenging to reconcile with established climate models.
This research aligns with sedimentation patterns from that era, elucidating how atmospheric oxygen levels could remain stable amidst extreme climatic shifts.
Moreover, frequent returns to warmer, ice-free states may have been critical in preventing a total collapse of atmospheric oxygen.
“This discovery may elucidate how aerobic life continued to thrive throughout such severe intervals,” Minsky noted.
For more details, refer to the study published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Charlotte Minsky et al. 2026. The snowball greenhouse cycle repeats within Neoproterozoic Sturtian glaciers. PNAS 123 (19): e2525919123; doi: 10.1073/pnas.2525919123
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