In November 2025, scientists seized a historic opportunity when the interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS passed between ESA’s Jupiter Icy Moons probe (JUICE) and NASA’s Europa Clipper spacecraft. This unique alignment allowed one spacecraft to capture the comet’s dazzling dayside while the other focused on its dusty nightside.
In November 2025, 3I/ATLAS passed between ESA’s Juice spacecraft and NASA’s Europa Clipper spacecraft. Image credit: NASA/ESA/Southwest Research Institute.
“As the comet journeyed between Juice and Europa Clipper, we successfully coordinated informal observations between the two spacecraft,” stated Dr. Kurt Retherford, a planetary researcher at the Southwest Research Institute.
“We notably observed emissions of hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon,” he added.
“These elements arise when gases leaking from a comet’s core break down into atoms upon exposure to sunlight.”
This exceptional observation leveraged the ultraviolet spectrometer (UVS) instruments aboard both the Juice and Europa Clipper spacecraft.
“Studying interstellar comets has provided exciting bonus science,” remarked Dr. Philippa Molyneux, also from the Southwest Research Institute.
“The resulting rare data set includes valuable insights into gas emissions and airborne dust.”
“This marks the first instance of directly observing the coma of a gas-emitting comet from two perspectives simultaneously.”
“While Europa Clipper captured the comet’s night side, abundant with dust, Juice documented the glowing gas of the day side.”
Early findings indicated that carbon emissions from 3I/ATLAS were unexpectedly high compared to typical solar system comets, corroborating other observations regarding the origin and composition of interstellar comets.
By examining trends in emissions over multiple days, researchers can track changes in the molecular ratio as the comet traverses the solar system.
“Studying the ratio of water ice to dry ice allows us to compare this interstellar comet’s composition with those from our solar system,” Molyneux explained.
“This analysis will illuminate whether the solar system in which 3I/ATLAS formed is similar to or different from our own.”
“I found the collaboration with Europa Clipper to be a rewarding demonstration of how both projects can synergize their observation programs,” Dr. Retherford commented.
“The SwRI team is involved in both missions, making this a special highlight in our collaborative efforts.”
The recent discovery of fossils, including those of a giant tortoise, ground sloth, a lion-sized armadillo relative known as pampatea, a striped-toothed cat, and others such as horses, camels, and mastodons in Bender’s Cave on Texas’ Edwards Plateau, may unveil a previously unknown warm period about 100,000 years ago.
An artistic representation of Ice Age mammals: Fossils of species resembling the armadillo-like pampatea and giant sloth were found in a Texas water cave. Image credit: Jaime Chirinos.
Bender’s Cave, situated on private land in Comal County, serves as a crucial fossil repository. This underground water channel, significant for central Texas’ groundwater system, is reported to be dense with fossils.
“I’ve never encountered a cave with so many fossils scattered around. The bones were literally everywhere,” commented John Moretti, a paleontologist at the University of Texas at Austin.
The bones were believed to have entered the cave through a sinkhole triggered by erosion and flooding thousands of years ago, where they have been preserved ever since.
“Evidence suggests that these fossils could be from the last warm interglacial phase, approximately 100,000 years ago,” Dr. Moretti stated.
“Despite extensive paleontological studies in the area over the past century, no fossils from this epoch had been previously identified in central Texas.”
“This discovery is providing invaluable insights, showcasing the area’s unique environmental and animal communities, which are unlike anything documented before in Texas.”
Dr. Moretti and local caver John Young extracted fossils from 21 distinct zones within Bender’s Cave.
To access the fossils, we donned goggles and snorkels, crawling along the riverbed where collecting was effortless—simply pulling bones from the river’s bottom without needing to excavate them.
Remarkable finds include hespero test do giant tortoise bones, giant sloth Megalonix Jeffer Sonnypanpasser, and remains from scimitar-toothed cats homotherium serum, horses, camels, and mastodons.
All fossils displayed a polished, rounded appearance with comparable rust-red mineralization, indicating they were deposited in the cave at roughly the same time.
“This study highlights the fact that even in a well-explored region like central Texas, new discoveries continue to emerge,” commented Dr. David Ledesma from St. Edward’s University, not involved in the research.
The team’s findings are published in the journal Quaternary Research, detailing how these late Pleistocene megafauna could hold evidence of the last interglacial period. For more information, visit the published study.
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John A. Moretti and John Young. 2026. Discovery of late Pleistocene megafauna at Bender’s Cave on the Edwards Plateau in Texas may indicate evidence of the last interglacial period. Quaternary Research 131: 134-160; doi: 10.1017/qua.2025.10071
A groundbreaking synthetic process has successfully engineered bacteria to produce Gadusol, a natural compound that protects transparent fish eggs from harmful sunlight. This innovation brings us closer to creating a sustainable sunscreen alternative for humans, which is more environmentally friendly.
Naturally found in species like zebrafish, salmon, and sturgeon eggs, as well as in coral, Gadusol offers vital protection against UV damage. Its limited availability from natural sources makes it impractical for widespread use as a sunscreen.
A team led by Jiang Ping at Jiangnan University in China successfully inserted zebrafish genes into Escherichia coli to provide the necessary enzymes for Gadusol synthesis. The research team enhanced Gadusol production by using small RNA molecules and optimizing growth conditions, achieving an impressive nearly 93-fold increase—from 45.2 mg to 4.2 grams per liter of culture medium.
Initial experiments indicate that Gadusol possesses antioxidant properties comparable to vitamin C, potentially neutralizing harmful free radicals that damage cells. However, researchers from New Scientist did not respond to interview requests regarding further details.
Unlike melanin, Gadusol is transparent, effectively blocking UV rays while allowing for stealth in organisms. James Gagnon from the University of Utah, a key contributor to the research, noted, “I don’t think we necessarily get the credit we deserve. This is an amazing molecule.” Gagnon emphasized the need for further studies but mentioned that Gadusol is likely safe for humans and the environment since many animals already utilize it. Its transparency avoids the milky residue left by conventional sunscreens.
“Everyone is hinting this could be a great sunscreen for humans,” Gagnon explains. “However, two hurdles remain before Gadusol can be commercialized: developing a cost-effective manufacturing method and finding chemical combinations that provide long-lasting formulations.”
“While Gadusol may be the active ingredient, future sunscreen products will involve a variety of components to ensure Gadusol adheres to the skin and resists washing away,” Gagnon states. “There is still significant work to be done in materials science.”
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A tooth discovered in Sunjiadong, China. Homo erectus.
Credit: Qiaomei Fu, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences
For the first time, researchers have successfully extracted significant amounts of preserved protein from fossils attributed to ancient humans, specifically Homo erectus.
While previous discoveries of H. erectus fossils exist, this is the first instance revealing substantial insights into this species. The recovered protein indicates interbreeding between H. erectus and another ancient Asian hominin, the Denisovans.
H. erectus is recognized as one of the longest-lived and widely dispersed species of hominins. They emerged in Africa approximately 2 million years ago and reached Eurasia around 1.8 million years ago, as evidenced by fossils found in Dmanisi, Georgia. Notably, some traveled to the island of Java, now part of Indonesia, where they thrived until roughly 108,000 years ago.
In 2020, a research team led by Fried Welker from the University of Copenhagen successfully extracted protein from the tooth enamel of a H. erectus specimen from Dmanisi. While this provided proof that proteins could be recovered from ancient fossils, John Hawkes of the University of Wisconsin-Madison noted that the data gathered was underwhelming, lacking substantial information about the Dmanisi fossils.
Recently, a team led by Qiao Meifu at the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology in Beijing analyzed proteins from six designated H. erectus teeth. These specimens are approximately 400,000 years old and were sourced from various Chinese sites, including Zhoukoudian, Hexian, and Sunjiadong. The team identified a distinctive protein called amelogenin Y, finding that five teeth belonged to males, while one belonged to a female.
Mr. Fu did not respond to interview requests.
Among the six teeth analyzed, two unique protein variants were identified. One variant had not been observed in any human population, suggesting it is characteristic of H. erectus. The other variant was previously identified in Denisovans, who inhabited East Asia during the last several hundred thousand years. This raises intriguing questions about Denisovan interbreeding with an unidentified hominin group, potentially linked to H. erectus.
Hawkes acknowledges that while this interpretation is plausible, it’s merely one of three possible explanations for the data.
The critical uncertainty for Hawkes lies in whether the six teeth genuinely belong to H. erectus. Although results from the three sites seem reliable, the isolated tooth raises doubts regarding its classification, as its morphology does not match known H. erectus characteristics. Additionally, the historical context of H. erectus fossils in China complicates this determination, since all previously discovered fossils date back over a million years.
Hawkes posits an alternative scenario where the group may not actually be H. erectus at all but could be Denisovan. This potential mutation in protein may reflect variation within Denisovan populations. Supporting this idea, recent research analyzing Denisovan DNA across 30 modern human populations has indicated connections from three distinct Denisovan groups, each of which interbred with early Homo sapiens.
Alternatively, if the interbreeding between Denisovans and H. erectus did occur, Hu’s team suggested it hints at a lineage of Denisovans possessing H. erectus traits.
To resolve these possibilities, more fossil and molecular data will be essential, as noted by Hawkes.
Such uncertainties are not uncommon, as the study of ancient proteins is still in its nascent stages. Hawkes compares these early challenges to those faced during the initial exploration of ancient DNA.
Three views of Neanderthal teeth showcasing ancient dental work
Ma’anshan City He County Culture, Tourism and Sports Bureau
A remarkable 59,000-year-old Neanderthal tooth discovered in a Siberian cave exhibits signs of intentional treatment for a deep cavity, marking the earliest known instance of dentistry, predating previous evidence by 45,000 years.
This lower second molar, suspected of harboring bacterial caries, shows distinct drilling marks made with a skilled stone tool that penetrated all the way to the pulp in three different stages. Although the procedure would have been painful, the patient likely experienced less discomfort and was able to continue using the tooth, according to Kseniya Korobova from the Russian Academy of Sciences.
<p>“Our findings challenge existing notions about Neanderthal cognitive abilities, demonstrating that they were capable of making causal connections about health,” she stated. “We have confidence in the evidence derived from our microscopic examinations.”</p>
<p>Located in the Altai Mountains of southwestern Siberia, where Neanderthals migrated roughly 70,000 years ago, researchers identified molars with irregularly shaped depressions partially overlapping the pulp chamber.</p>
<p>Initially, the research team speculated if the tooth was broken posthumously. As more scientists examined it, questions regarding its deformation arose. Previously, the earliest evidence of deliberate dental treatment was dated to about 14,000 years ago among <em>Homo sapiens</em> in Italy, where techniques involved scratching rather than drilling.</p>
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<p>The team, including <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lydia-Zotkina">Lydia Zotkina</a>, conducted in-depth analyses revealing clear indicators of human intervention. Enhanced imaging techniques unveiled cavities and abrasions consistent with repeated toothpick use, alongside marks from sharp stone tools that possibly originated from the same cave.</p>
<p>The cavity's shape suggests an attempt at restoration, likely with the aim of accessing the pulp chamber and removing tissue. The smooth contours of the teeth indicate they were still in use long after the drilling, Korobova noted.</p>
<p>"We began with skepticism," she remarked. "Gradually, we recognized we were uncovering something truly groundbreaking, rewriting an important chapter in Neanderthal history."</p>
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data-caption="The Chagyrskaya cave in southwestern Siberia, Russia, where the tooth was found"
data-credit="Ksenia A. Kolobova"/>
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<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Title">Chagyrskaya Cave: Discovery Site of the Neanderthal Tooth</p>
<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Credit">Ksenia A. Korobova</p>
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<p>To further validate their findings, researchers conducted experimentation with various drilling and scraping techniques using a replica pointed jasper stone tool along with three additional stone tools. Due to the rarity and age of Neanderthal teeth, comparisons were made with molars from <em>Homo sapiens</em>—both modern and prehistoric. The team successfully created a similar cavity in just 50 minutes, emphasizing the need for precision and skill to avoid further damage.</p>
<p>"This was not an amateur attempt," Krivoshapkin stated regarding the Neanderthal case, emphasizing that the operators exhibited a sophisticated understanding of dental procedures. "They knew where and how deep to drill, reflecting remarkable cognitive and motor skills."</p>
<p>Neanderthals, as genetic evidence suggests, were more sensitive to pain compared to <em>Homo sapiens</em>. "The pain experienced would have been tremendous, leading us to believe that either the patient was remarkably stoic, the provider worked quickly, or perhaps both," he stated.</p>
<p>This invasive procedure likely resulted in nerve death, alleviating pain. "What we see here is invasive, intentional, and functionally effective," Korobova noted. <a href="https://www.unibo.it/sitoweb/stefano.benazzi/en">Professor Stefano Benazzi</a> from the University of Bologna expressed confidence in these results, highlighting the increasing evidence of Neanderthal sophistication. "Such discoveries indicate advanced cognitive and behavioral abilities beyond previous assumptions," he explained.</p>
<p>However, Benazzi cautions that this doesn't amount to advanced dental practices. "The pain must have been so intense that methods like rubbing the area were likely employed." He suggested referring to this phenomenon as 'proto-dentistry' or a similar term.</p>
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<h3 class="SpecialArticleUnit__Heading">Neanderthals, Ancient Humans, and Cave Art in France</h3>
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<p>Embark on a fascinating journey through time from Bordeaux to Montpellier, exploring the major Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites of southern France.</p>
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In 2025, wildfires will severely impact the boreal forest of Manitoba, Canada.
Anadolu (via Getty Images)
The increasing frequency of wildfires across the Arctic is having a more substantial impact on global warming than previously understood. While initial assumptions suggested that primarily recent vegetation was burning, soil core studies reveal that these fires are igniting ancient carbon deposits accumulated for over 5,000 years.
“Soil combustion has the potential to release long-term stored carbon from soil, which was previously considered a carbon sink,” explains Meri Rappel from the Finnish Meteorological Institute in Helsinki. Current climate models neglect the release of this ancient carbon.
In the cold conditions of the Arctic, plant growth is slow, leading to the accumulation of organic matter in the soil as peat and other forms over centuries or even millennia. This factor positions Arctic and adjacent boreal soils as significant carbon sinks, which effectively remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
However, increasing wildfire incidents are changing this dynamic. Rappel’s research team has collected soil cores from recently burned areas to study the impact of these fires.
Their findings indicate that while surface vegetation may burn quickly, the underlying organic material smolders for a longer duration, releasing considerable amounts of soot and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Black carbon, a byproduct of these fires, absorbs sunlight, contributing directly to atmospheric warming. Moreover, in colder regions, black carbon can accumulate on ice and snow, accelerating melting processes that would otherwise not occur.
“We discovered that the age of the carbon released during fires varied significantly depending on soil depth and burn intensity,” Rappel stated during the European Geosciences Union Conference in Vienna.
The risk of releasing ancient carbon is particularly high as it tends to increase toward the North Pole, where organic matter accumulates close to the surface. For instance, in Canada’s Northwest Territories, fires are penetrating soil just a few centimeters deep, unleashing carbon stored for up to 400 years.
In Greenland, fires can consume up to 10 centimeters of soil, releasing carbon that is over 560 years old, with some areas experiencing burns of up to 15 centimeters, releasing carbon that has been stored for 1,000 years.
Remarkably, a boreal forest site in Quebec, Canada, has been identified where fires released carbon dating back 5,000 years. “However, this occurrence is not widespread,” said Ruppel at the conference.
The critical question remains: how much ancient carbon is currently being released by wildfires? Rappel emphasizes that this study is merely the starting point, indicating the need for further research to quantify the released carbon.
“Rappel’s work is vital and underscores the urgency,” noted Sandy Harrison from the University of Reading. “It’s evident that substantial old carbon exists in high-latitude soils and peat. As new fire regimes evolve, destroying topsoil layers and peatlands, this ancient carbon will be released into the atmosphere.”
Researchers have unveiled a groundbreaking method for determining if black hole mergers transpired within dense clouds of dark matter, paving the way for new insights into one of astronomy’s greatest enigmas.
The gravitational waves recorded by LIGO captured the final moments of two black holes merging into a larger, rotating black hole. Image credit: T. Pyle / LIGO.
Dark matter is an elusive, virtual substance that doesn’t interact with electromagnetic forces, making it invisible and difficult to detect directly.
This mysterious matter allows light, magnetic fields, and other energies to traverse without leaving any observable trace.
The existence of dark matter is inferred solely through its gravitational influence, observable in how gravity bends around galaxies.
Astronomers recognize that this bending indicates a gravitational field, an influencing force outside a galaxy’s own gravity, responsible for lensing phenomena.
Current estimates suggest that dark matter constitutes more than 85% of the universe’s matter, yet its true nature remains hotly debated.
One theory posits the existence of light scalar particles, significantly lighter than electrons, as a form of dark matter.
The researchers hypothesize that dark matter behaves as both a particle and a wave as it approaches a black hole.
When dark matter waves interact with a rapidly spinning black hole, energy may be transferred, amplifying these waves through a phenomenon known as superradiation.
This results in a dense swirling of dark matter reminiscent of cream stirred into butter.
At extreme densities, this light scalar dark matter could leave distinctive imprints on gravitational waves emitted from colliding black holes, although questions remain about the specific nature of that signature.
Would such a signature be detectable in gravitational waves traveling from merging black holes millions of light-years away?
To explore these questions, MIT physicist Jos Aurecoechea and collaborators developed a model predicting gravitational waveforms that would occur if two black holes collided within a dark matter-rich environment instead of a vacuum.
“We know dark matter permeates our universe; it simply must be dense enough for us to observe its effects,” Dr. Aurekoetsea noted.
“Black holes serve as a unique mechanism for increasing dark matter density, and we can investigate this by studying the gravitational waves they emit during merges.”
The research team analyzed signals captured in the initial three observations from LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA (LVK), a global network of observatories dedicated to detecting gravitational waves from black hole mergers and other celestial events.
Among the 28 prominent signals, 27 were identified as originating from black holes merging in a vacuum.
However, one signal, a pattern identified in GW 190728, exhibited indications of a potential dark matter signature.
It’s important to note that, as of now, dark matter has not been directly observed.
This innovative approach provides a promising means to scrutinize gravitational wave data for hints of dark matter, which could be subsequently validated through other methods.
“This statistical significance isn’t high enough to confirm dark matter detection, and further verification by independent teams is essential,” Dr. Orekoetsea cautioned.
“Notably, without models like ours, a black hole merger occurring in a dark matter context might be mistakenly classified as having occurred in a vacuum.”
“As the LVK continues to gather data over the coming years, we may uncover new insights into dark matter surrounding black holes,” said Dr. Soumen Roy from the Catholic University of Leuven and the Royal Observatory of Belgium.
“This is an exhilarating time to delve into new physics through gravitational wave analysis.”
Dr. Rodrigo Vicente of the University of Amsterdam remarked, “Harnessing black holes to search for dark matter represents a monumental leap in our capabilities.”
“We can explore dark matter phenomena on a much smaller scale than previously possible.”
For further details, refer to the findings published today in Physical Review Letters.
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Somen Roy et al. 2026. Scalar Field Around the LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA Black Hole Binary. Physics Review Letters 136, 191402; doi: 10.1103/fv9z-zkxx
An asteroid, potentially capable of catastrophic destruction, is expected to pass close to Earth next week. The object, 2026JH2, will come within an estimated 90,917 kilometers — merely a quarter of the distance to the Moon.
“In astronomical terms, that’s about the closest approach you can have without a collision,” states Dr. Mark Norris from the University of Lancashire, UK.
Only five known asteroids will traverse within the Moon’s orbit this year, and 2026JH2 is among the closest.
Discovered recently by the Mount Lemmon Survey in Arizona and the Far Point Observatory in Kansas, 2026JH2 will make its
closest approach at 9 p.m. on May 18th (UTC). Dr. Norris notes that visibility may be challenging even for Southern Hemisphere
astronomers, as the asteroid is brief in sight from the North and moves at a pace of 9.17 kilometers per second, similar to a
satellite’s speed across the sky.
With an estimated diameter between 16 and 36 meters, data from Solmano Observatory
suggests that a collision could bring city-level destruction, according to Dr. Norris.
Astronomers believe that they have tracked nearly all asteroids larger than 1 kilometer in our solar system. Advances in observation
methods are expanding the database to include smaller objects. However, asteroids like 2026JH2 remain difficult to detect.
As noted by Dr. Mark Burchell from the University of
Kent, UK, “light reflection is minimal.”
Should 2026JH2 strike Earth, it could result in an event akin to the 2013 Chelyabinsk meteorite, possessing around 30 times the
kinetic energy unleashed by the Hiroshima bomb, warns the head of the European Space Agency’s Planetary Defense Directorate, Richard Moisle.
A recent study on the radiation haze phenomenon in Pennsylvania revealed that bacteria thriving in fog droplets actively multiply and consume toxic pollutants like formaldehyde, demonstrating remarkable biological activity in our atmosphere.
Foggy fields in Pennsylvania harbor beneficial bacteria that help detoxify the air. Image credit: Thi Thuong Thuong Cao.
“The atmosphere contains thousands to millions of bacterial cells per cubic meter,” states Dr. Thi Tuong Tuong Cao from Arizona State University and his research team.
“It’s still uncertain whether these microorganisms are active and growing in their environment or simply transported in an inactive form.”
“Our understanding of the types of bacteria present in ground-level fog is still quite limited.”
To explore the role of atmospheric droplets as microhabitats for these microorganisms, Cao and his team executed an experimental study involving 32 radiation fog events over two years in central Pennsylvania.
While they found that less than 1% of fog droplets harbored bacteria, their collective presence indicated a surprisingly high lifespan.
“Combining all the droplets reveals that their bacterial concentration parallels that of the ocean,” noted Ferran García Pichel, another Arizona State University professor.
“A single thimble of mist contains around 10 million bacteria.”
Among these microorganisms, Methylobacteria were particularly notable. Air samples taken before fog formation showed fewer of these bacteria than those collected after the fog appeared, suggesting that fog enhances their population.
Methylobacteria utilize simple carbon compounds, including harmful chemicals like formaldehyde, known for contributing to ozone smog and posing health risks.
“Upon microscopic examination, we observed that the bacteria were enlarging, dividing, and reproducing,” Cao explained.
“We discovered they use formaldehyde as a nutrient for growth.”
Remarkably, these bacteria eliminated significant amounts of formaldehyde swiftly, indicating that they were not merely feeding on it. At elevated levels, this chemical can be toxic to bacteria, prompting them to degrade it into carbon dioxide, a beneficial process for both microorganisms and humans.
“Awareness of biological activity in clouds has only recently gained traction, leaving much still unexplored,” commented Pierre Herkes, an Arizona State University professor.
“For instance, nighttime presents fewer atmospheric chemical reactions, primarily driven by sunlight. However, if bacteria maintain their activity at night, they hold significant ecological importance.”
“The fascinating aspect is how much remains unknown about the micro-ecosystem within fog and clouds. Do bacteria vary by fog origin? What sustenance do these other bacteria seek? And how do they influence air quality?”
“The sky truly is the limit!” exclaimed Professor García Pichel.
The study is published in this week’s edition of mBio.
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Thi Tuong Tuong Cao et al. 2026. Growth of photoheterotrophs and formaldehyde degradation by Methylobacterium in radiation fog. mBio 0:e00463-26; doi: 10.1128/mbio.00463-26
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Exploring Different Kinds of Fields
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As I prepared to launch my column for New Scientist, my editor inquired about a title. I proposed “Field Notes from Space and Time.” This title serves a dual purpose for me as a physicist, subtly referring to the scientific practice of field observations—notes recorded in the field akin to a lab notebook—while also hinting at a critical concept in particle physics: the field itself.
In classical terms, one might envision a “field” as a vast agricultural space, but in physics, it embodies a more abstract notion. A field represents a mathematical framework that assigns numerical values to points across both space and time, characterizing various physical phenomena. For instance, when a magnet approaches a refrigerator door, a magnetic force exists between them, with a corresponding magnetic field value that intensifies as the distance decreases.
Intriguingly, the term “field,” in this scientific context, emerged thanks to 19th-century scientist Michael Faraday, who investigated the magnetic properties of bismuth. While working on my recent manuscript, I delved into Faraday’s diary and examined his initial references to field concepts. One can’t help but wonder how he conceptualized these ideas, particularly given his working-class origins and an upbringing deeply intertwined with the land. I envision Faraday pondering the invisible forces at play in the expansive environments familiar to his family.
The notion of fields extends beyond magnetism. A groundbreaking advancement in the 20th century arose at the intersection of electromagnetism and quantum physics, leading to the realization that particles and waves share a dual relationship. Notably, particles such as electrons can also be perceived as waves, while electromagnetic fields can be represented as particles (termed photons). As the scientific community embraced wave-particle duality, a deeper connection between quantum theory and fields became apparent.
To forge a complete quantum model of photons, we once again turned to fields—this time, quantum fields. Just as magnetic fields quantify the magnetic force at specific points, quantum fields determine the creation and annihilation of particles at various locations. Consequently, all electrons emerge from a quantum electronic field. It is believed that a similar undiscovered realm of dark matter also exists, behaving as if composed of particles despite being invisible to the naked eye. Our universe brims with particles springing from a vacuum, facilitated by quantum fields. Thus, when I contribute to this column, I am genuinely crafting field notes from both space and time.
What are you reading?
I am captivated by The Herman Melville Declaration by Barry Sanders.
What are you watching?
I am enjoying the final season of Hacks.
What are you working on?
Following the US launch of The End of Space and Time, we are currently focusing on its release in the UK!
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Electromagnetism/
Quantum Physics
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The use of AI chatbots, including ChatGPT, by UK government departments and public bodies is now subject to Freedom of Information (FOI) laws. This shift allows for greater public access to records related to AI interactions, as confirmed by the Information Commissioner’s Office (ICO), the UK’s data protection authority.
Recent guidance from the ICO states that “when public sector employees utilize AI for work purposes, the information generated is subject to FOIA,” including the prompts used by these AI systems.
Significant Precedent Set
Last year, a breakthrough occurred when New Scientist successfully requested the ChatGPT logs from then UK technology secretary Peter Kyle under the FOI Act, marking a potential world first. This prompted various news organizations to seek further information, although many requests were either denied, citing cost reasons or a vague label of “It’s infuriating,” allowing authorities to refuse requests.
However, the clarification from the ICO could transform this landscape. As John Baines from Mishcon de Reya explains, “Currently, it would be very difficult for public authorities to argue that AI-related requests are not subject to FOIA.” He emphasizes that if information is “held” in any recorded form by a public authority, it is fundamentally subject to FOIA, including both inputs and outputs related to AI systems.
The Consensus Among Experts
“I think that should be uncontroversial,” states Tim Turner, a data protection expert based in Manchester, UK. “If records were collected by public officials performing their duties, they are within scope. This should apply equally to AI interactions and Post-it notes.”
The new guidelines may empower government employees to successfully request prompts used with AI tools. The ICO has also suggested that public authorities might be required to utilize AI to summarize large documents and datasets when responding to requests, potentially overcoming previous costs that led to request rejections.
Criticism and Concerns
Despite these advancements, some critics have voiced concerns regarding the use of FOI laws to access AI chat logs. Matt Clifford, chair of the UK Advanced Research and Inventions Agency (ARIA), expressed on social media that the decision to release Mr. Kyle’s interactions with ChatGPT is “absurd,” arguing that it may discourage ministers from using AI. Notably, ARIA enjoys exemptions from FOI laws.
When asked about the impetus for the new guidelines, New Scientist reported that the ICO did not provide a response. However, a spokesperson noted, “We regularly attend events and seek feedback on areas where both public authorities and requesters value further clarity and guidance. Our recent guidance on AI and FOI reflects what we’ve heard from organizations, and we’ve tested it with external stakeholders to ensure the content is as clear and useful as possible.”
What is the Weirdest Peeing Animal? The animal kingdom offers a variety of intriguing answers.
A male Amazon river dolphin can be seen lying on its back as it pees in an arc, allowing its urine to cascade near its head. This behavior is not just about competition; it serves as a rich flow of chemical information that other dolphins can detect while swimming.
Meanwhile, male porcupines mark their territory to signal to potential mates, assisting females in becoming sexually receptive. Likewise, Siberian chipmunks cleverly smear bits of snake urine on their fur, which helps them camouflage from predators.
In the grand scheme of things, despite the fascinating peeing habits across species, there can only be one ultimate champion of unusual urine production. As you might suspect, reptiles hold the title for producing solid urine.
When animals digest food, proteins and nucleic acids degrade, resulting in ammonia as a byproduct. This waste can be toxic and must be eliminated. Aquatic creatures, including most teleost fish, directly excrete ammonia into the water. In contrast, mammals convert ammonia into a less harmful substance called urea, which is then excreted in urine.
However, reptiles, insects, and birds take a different approach: they convert ammonia to uric acid. While uric acid isn’t toxic, its poor solubility in water means that their urine is often solid, semi-solid, or pasty in consistency.
Under a microscope, uric acid appears to consist of small crystals.
A 2025 survey published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society found that researchers collected urine pellets from over 20 reptile species for lab analysis. Each sample contained visible urate globules.
Reptiles don’t urinate liquid; instead, they excrete solid urate (shown left), made up of microspherical uric acid crystals (shown right) – Image credit: Journal of the American Chemical Society 2025, DOI: 10.1021/jacs/5c10139
Ball pythons, Angora pythons, and Madagascan tree boas all produce urate that forms microspheres with tiny irregularities. These microspheres range in diameter from 1 to 10 micrometers, roughly equivalent to the width of spider silk.
X-ray analysis has unveiled that each microsphere consists of even smaller nanoparticles of uric acid and water. These nanoparticles are remarkably tiny, boasting a large surface area relative to their volume, and bear a slight negative charge.
This combination enables the nanoparticles to interact with positively charged salt ions, aiding not only in regulating uric acid levels in these animals but also in maintaining salt balance. This adaptation likely evolved to help reptiles and other species in arid habitats conserve precious water resources.
Interestingly, humans produce small amounts of uric acid as well, which can accumulate. Excess can lead to complications in the urinary tract, such as kidney stones, or in the joints, causing gout.
Investigating how reptiles process uric acid could pave the way for treatments for related human health issues in the future.
So while the urinary habits of baby reptiles may seem odd by human standards, they serve a purpose—and one day, we might all be thankful for these evolutionary developments.
This article addresses the curious question posed by Brendan Wood from Leicester: “What is the weirdest peeing animal?”
For inquiries, feel free to reach out to us at:questions@sciencefocus.comor contact us onFacebook, Twitter, orInstagram(please include your name and location).
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Unusual gases emerging from geothermal springs in Zambia’s Kafue Rift hint at the formation of deep cracks in the Earth’s crust, potentially indicating the early development of a new tectonic boundary.
Map highlighting expansion zones within Zambia’s Central African Plateau. The Kafue Rift is interconnected with the Luano and Luangwa rifts to the northeast, alongside the western branch of the East African Rift System in the Rukwa Rift (RRB) and Rungwe Volcanic Province (RVP). Image credit: Karolytė et al., doi: 10.3389/feart.2026.1799564.
Research led by Professor Mike Daly from the University of Oxford indicates that the helium isotope signature of hot springs in the Kafue Rift reveals a direct connection to the Earth’s mantle, found 40 to 160 km beneath the surface.
This fluid connection supports the notion that the Kafue Rift fault boundary is active, possibly signifying the onset of the breakup of sub-Saharan Africa and influencing the Southwest African Rift.
The Kafue Rift forms part of an extensive 2,500 km rift valley stretching from Tanzania to Namibia, extending towards the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
Researchers focused on this area due to its unique terrain, geothermal anomalies, and numerous hot springs—indicators of a potentially undiscovered rift system.
Verifying the existence of these new fissures required evidence of cracks penetrating the Earth’s crust, allowing mantle fluids to surface.
“A fissure represents a major crack in the Earth’s crust that triggers subsidence and accompanying elastic uplift,” explained Professor Daly.
“Although a fissure can transition into a plate boundary, such activity often ceases before the lithosphere completely splits.”
Scientists investigated eight geothermal wells and hot springs in Zambia, six located within the suspected Rift Valley and two outside it.
Gas samples were collected from bubbling water and analyzed in a lab to identify the isotopic composition of each element.
Isotope testing could reveal gases originating from surface mantle fluids, providing critical insights into rifting processes.
The isotopes found in the Kafue Rift samples mirrored those from the East African Rift System, an established rift zone, while samples from outside the rift exhibited different characteristics.
Additionally, the samples revealed carbon dioxide levels consistent with gases derived from the mantle.
Helium isotopes serve as indicators of early-stage rifting. With the East African Rift System as a reference, scientists predict that carbon dioxide will become more prominent as volcanic activity intensifies over time.
“Many attributes of the Kenyan Rift Valley suggest that it could eventually serve as Africa’s primary dividing line,” added Professor Daly. “Nevertheless, the East African Rift System exhibits slow rifting.”
“Fragmentation and dispersion face challenges due to the presence of mid-ocean ridges that hinder east-west and north-south development across Africa.”
“The Southwest African Rift system presents another possibility. This rift has essential features and a regional basement structure—a natural weakness in the Earth’s crust—that aligns with surrounding mid-ocean ridges and continental topography.”
“Such alignment may lower the intensity threshold necessary for continental breakup.”
“This study primarily assesses helium data across a vast area of the Southwest African Rift Valley,” concluded Professor Daly. “Following this initial research, a broader investigation is ongoing, with results expected later this year.”
For further details, refer to the study published in the latest issue of Frontiers of Earth Science.
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Ruta Carolite et al. 2026. Southwestern Africa Rift Valley: Isotopic evidence of early continental rifting. Frontiers in Earth Science 14; doi: 10.3389/feart.2026.1799564
For decades, scientists have studied the yellow-eyed penguin (Megadyptes antipodes). Previously thought to consist of two large populations, new genomic research has unveiled three distinct lineages of this endangered species that have been isolated for thousands of years, well before humans arrived in New Zealand (Aotearoa).
Geographical distribution of yellow-eyed penguins. Image credit: Guhlin et al., doi: 10.1038/s41559-026-03062-w.
In 1841, Jacques-Bernard Ombron and Honoré Jaquinot first described the yellow-eyed penguin as an endangered species endemic to New Zealand.
The indigenous Maori people of New Zealand consider these penguins taonga (cherished things) and refer to them as huiho or takaraka.
Since 2019, respiratory distress syndrome has affected chicks in mainland New Zealand, significantly reducing the number of breeding pairs to under 115.
“As one of the world’s rarest penguin species, the yellow-eyed penguin is an essential indicator of ecosystem health. Its population trends mirror broader ecological changes,” stated Professor Gemma Geoghegan from the University of Otago.
“Conserving yellow-eyed penguins is vital for biodiversity and the health of coastal ecosystems.”
“They also play a crucial role in local wildlife tourism, significantly contributing to the economy.”
“Their decline indicates a biodiversity crisis, leading to cultural and economic losses.”
In a recent study, Professor Geoghegan and collaborators sequenced the complete genomes of 249 yellow-eyed penguins from mainland New Zealand (Northern Ranges), the sub-Antarctic Enderby (Auckland Islands), and the Campbell Islands (Southern Ranges).
Rather than observing two simple population structures, the researchers were surprised to discover three genetically distinct groups with minimal interbreeding.
These findings suggest that each group warrants formal recognition as a separate subspecies due to significant genetic variations.
“In this study, we utilized population genomics to explore the evolutionary history and disease susceptibility of the endangered yellow-eyed penguin,” said Professor Geoghegan.
“Supported by Genomics Aotearoa, we generated comprehensive genomic data from these 249 penguins, enabling us to understand the reasons behind the severe respiratory disease affecting mainland chicks.”
Unexpectedly, we found that the yellow-eyed penguin consists of three distinct subspecies, showing no evidence of migration among them.
Our analysis indicates these populations have been separated for thousands of years, much earlier than previously believed.
This means the endangered northern population is not merely a recent offshoot of the southern lineage, but rather a unique evolutionary group.
We have identified potential genes related to immune function and respiratory biology, which may contribute to the northern populations’ vulnerability to respiratory distress syndrome.
“These findings shed light on the role of host genetics in wildlife diseases and have significant implications for conservation management.”
After discussions with Ngāi Tahu, the species’ kaitiaki (guardians), the authors suggest new subspecies names based on Māori geography: Megadyptes antipodes Murihiku (Hoiho Murihiku) for the northern residents, Megadyptes antipodes Motu Maha (Hoiho Motu Maha) for Enderby Island in the Auckland Islands, and Megadyptes antipodes Motu Ifupuku (Hoiho Motu Ifupuku) for Campbell Island.
“Collaborating with Ngāi Tahu, the Kaitiaki of Hoiho, we aim for this research to support urgent conservation efforts for each subspecies, particularly the declining northern lineage with fewer than 115 breeding pairs,” stated Professor Geoghegan.
The team’s research paper is published in the journal Nature Ecology and Evolution.
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J. Gurin et al. Population genomics of yellow-eyed penguins reveals subspecies divergence and candidate genes associated with respiratory distress syndrome. Nat Ecol Evol, published online May 12, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41559-026-03062-w
Scientists suggest that the lethal hantavirus, which infected 11 passengers on a Dutch cruise ship, may have existed alongside humans for millennia. However, insights into human infections largely stem from a limited number of outbreaks over the past century.
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The first recorded hantavirus outbreak occurred during the Korean War in the 1950s, impacting around 3,000 UN soldiers, who fell ill from a mysterious disease later identified as hantavirus.
It wasn’t until 1978 that scientists connected the virus to rodents in the Hantan River area of South Korea, leading to the naming of hantavirus.
In 1993, the first case was diagnosed in North America, followed by Argentina reporting the first known case of human-to-human transmission in 1996.
While hantaviruses are rare, they are significantly more lethal than respiratory viruses such as coronaviruses and influenza. Only one strain, not found in the continental U.S., can be transmitted between humans, linked to outbreaks on cruise ships that necessitated worldwide quarantines for passengers.
Previous limited cases of hantavirus infection provide insights into how cruise ship passengers fell ill, though medical experts assert that more research is needed.
“The study was exceptionally challenging due to the rarity of the disease,” stated Dr. Charles Chiu, a laboratory medicine and infectious diseases professor at the University of California, San Francisco.
Between 1993 and 2023, fewer than 900 hantavirus cases were reported in the U.S. Investigating each case can be complicated, as many patients succumb soon after symptoms develop, with fatality rates reaching up to 50% depending on the strain and transmission method.
“This recent outbreak will offer further insights, as we rarely encounter such a situation with more than a handful of cases,” noted Dr. Gregory Martz, professor emeritus of internal medicine at the University of New Mexico.
Below is an overview of significant hantavirus outbreaks in recent history.
Outbreaks in the Four Corners and Yosemite
In 1993, public health officials initiated an investigation into a mysterious outbreak in the Four Corners area of the United States, where Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah intersect.
The first incident that raised alarms involved a 19-year-old distance runner from New Mexico, whose fiancée had recently died from an unexplained respiratory illness. He sought medical attention twice due to symptoms including fever, muscle aches, and gastrointestinal issues but was misdiagnosed and ultimately passed away just before his fiancée’s funeral.
“Some doctors recognized a pattern in multiple cases and suspected they were dealing with an unfamiliar illness,” commented Mertz, who contributed to the outbreak investigation.
The CDC later confirmed hantavirus via antibody testing and autopsy findings. At the time, it was unknown whether the virus infected humans in North America. This specific strain, named “Sin Nombre,” was linked to deer mice, which proliferated in the Four Corners region following an unusually wet spring. By August 1993, about 30 confirmed cases of infection were reported in the southwestern United States, 20 of which resulted in fatalities.
Dermatologists compare your face to the earth’s crust, explaining that you accumulate more wrinkles along that “fault line” as your skin ages.
Similar to the boundaries between tectonic plates, these fault lines experience various pressures, eventually leading to permanent wrinkles.
Moreover, sleep isn’t the only factor putting pressure on our facial features. While some wrinkles are a natural result of aging—your skin sags as it becomes thinner and less elastic—others are influenced by facial expressions. Sleep wrinkles, however, differ as they are caused by the stress and pressure placed on your face during sleep.
A 2022 study shows that people’s upper eyelids tend to droop on the side they prefer to sleep, indicating increased asymmetry.
Patients who favor one sleep position exhibited significantly lower upper eyelid height on their preferred side compared to the other side. However, no differences were observed in lower eyelid position, eyebrow position, or eyelid skin overlap.
So, what can we do about these sleep wrinkles? Brazilian researchers suggest in a dermatology journal that staying hydrated is crucial for keeping skin cells plump and supple, which helps maintain natural elasticity and a smooth appearance.
Getting a good night’s sleep is one of the best ways to protect your skin – Image courtesy of Getty Images
When your skin is adequately hydrated, it is less likely to become dry and flaky, with fine lines appearing softer. Hydrated tissues effectively prevent folds and cracks.
Researchers recommend sleeping on your back to protect your skin from stretching and compressing overnight.
By minimizing long-term strain on facial tissues that can occur when sleeping on your side, back sleeping may help maintain smooth contours and support your skin’s natural resilience as you age.
Additionally, ensuring you get a good night’s sleep—without excessive tossing or turning—can also contribute to skin health.
However, attempting to sleep on your back when you prefer your side, or needing to get up to hydrate can be challenging…
Similarly, the so-called anti-wrinkle pillows that claim to help might look more like gimmicks than actual solutions, with unproven benefits.
Instead, it may be easier to remain expressionless to reduce the appearance of nasolabial folds.
This article (by Patricia Russell of Philadelphia) addresses the question, “Does sleeping on your side cause wrinkles?”
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An extensive analysis of 470 species of flowering plants reveals that whole-genome duplications have surged during Earth’s turbulent environmental crises. This finding suggests that nature’s contingency plans are more evident than previously thought.
Chen et al. revealed that their study of 470 flowering plant genomes uncovered 132 ancient whole-genome duplication (WGD) events clustered around critical environmental changes. Image credit: Chen et al., doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2026.04.008.
Typically, organisms possess two sets of chromosomes, one inherited from each parent. However, many flowering plants exhibit additional sets due to random whole-genome duplications.
For instance, cultivated bananas often contain three sets of chromosomes, while wheat can display up to six sets, a phenomenon known as polyploidy.
Whole-genome duplications occur frequently in the plant kingdom, though they can impose significant costs.
Enlarged genomes demand greater nutrient resources, thereby heightening the risk of harmful mutations and potentially impacting fertility.
Consequently, only a limited fraction of the duplicated genome is retained and transmitted across generations in natural settings.
Conversely, genome duplication promotes genetic variation and may facilitate the evolution of new gene functions.
These genetic alterations can enhance an organism’s resilience against stresses like heat and drought.
“Whole genome duplication is typically viewed as an evolutionary dead end in stable environments,” notes Dr. Yves van de Peer, a researcher at Ghent University.
“However, in harsh conditions, it can yield unforeseen advantages.”
To discern why certain duplicate genomes endure, van de Peer and his team scrutinized the genomes of 470 flowering plant species, constructing one of the largest genomic datasets available.
They identified gene blocks that appear in nearly identical pairs, serving as markers for previous whole-genome duplication events.
Subsequently, they compared this data with findings from 44 plant fossils to estimate the timing of these duplications.
The analysis brought to light a notable pattern: genes that persist for extended durations predominantly originated from whole-genome duplications during significant periods of environmental upheaval.
These environmental events include a mass extinction caused by an asteroid 66 million years ago, various global cooling episodes that led to ecosystem collapses, and the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) around 56 million years ago, characterized by rapid global warming.
This discovery sheds light on the enduring prevalence of polyploidy while underscoring the need for ongoing research into plant genomes throughout history.
In extreme conditions, polyploid plants may have acquired a competitive advantage.
Traits typically viewed as disadvantages, such as sustaining a larger and more intricate genome, might actually confer benefits in these contexts.
This study also offers insights into how plants may adapt to contemporary climate challenges.
During the PETM, global temperatures escalated by approximately 5 to 9 degrees Celsius over about 100,000 years—a warming trend comparable to that of today.
“While our current climate is warming at a much faster rate, insights from the past indicate that polyploidy could aid plants in navigating these challenging conditions,” concluded Dr. van de Peer.
A significant ocean current system that plays a crucial role in regulating the climate across the Northern Hemisphere is projected to weaken more dramatically by the end of this century than previously anticipated, according to a new study published in Scientific Progress.
The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is an extensive ocean current system transporting warm water north from the tropics, releasing heat into the atmosphere before descending and returning south.
“This system essentially forms a loop that transports heat from the equator to the North Atlantic,” stated Dr. Valentin Portman, the lead author of the study from France’s Bordeaux Southwest Research Center, during an interview with BBC Science Focus.
“Warm, salty water flows north, releasing heat, thickening, sinking, and then traveling south through deep ocean currents.”
Research indicates a projected 51% slowdown by 2100, a figure approximately 60% higher than average projections derived from conventional climate models, with significantly lower uncertainty.
The weakening of AMOC could lead to severe consequences. Sea levels along the northeastern U.S. coast are already rising faster than the global average, partially due to a weakening AMOC.
Globally, the tropical rain belt is expected to weaken and shift southward, jeopardizing the monsoons on which millions in West Africa and South Asia depend for agriculture.
In Europe, these changes could result in harsher, colder winters as the conveyor belt of warm water to the continent decelerates.
Worryingly, each additional weakening increases the system’s proximity to a tipping point where complete collapse becomes more probable, posing potentially catastrophic risks.
The AMOC extends across the Atlantic Ocean, forming a part of a vast network of ocean currents – Photo credit: Getty
Understanding a Complex System
Predicting the future of AMOC as the Earth warms is notoriously challenging due to the system’s vast complexity and influence from both local and global factors.
Previous forecasts about AMOC’s future varied significantly based on the employed climate prediction models. While most agree the system is weakening, the degree of potential collapse ranges from minimal to complete failure.
The new study identified two systematic errors prevalent in much of the prevailing modeling: underestimating salinity in the South Atlantic and overestimating coldness in the North Atlantic.
These biases cause models to underestimate how dense, saline water sinks and maintains current flow across the system.
By correcting these variables using a statistical approach called ridge-normalized linear regression, seldom applied in climate research, the expected weakening escalated to 51%, significantly lowering uncertainty surrounding the results.
“Typically, only one variable is used in studies, such as a singular observation of AMOC’s strength in the past,” Portman explained.
“This study aimed to incorporate more information by leveraging multiple variables simultaneously, which is vital due to AMOC’s complexity and dependence on various processes.”
The current strength of AMOC is already notably weak. Recent observations suggest a decline of 10% to 20% since the mid-2000s, equating to hundreds of millions of gallons of water no longer flowing north each second.
A 2025 study disclosed that the recent weakening of currents has contributed to nearly 50% of flooding along the northeastern U.S. coast since 2005.
However, attributing this decline to human-induced climate change rather than natural fluctuations remains a challenge. Experts state that it may take until 2033 (with 29 years of data) to confidently distinguish between the two.
Not a Complete Collapse—But It’s Worrisome
Results from this recent study are concerning, but researchers emphasize clarity regarding what they do and do not illustrate. In the 6th assessment report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) expressed confidence that AMOC would diminish throughout this century, albeit with “moderate confidence” that it would not collapse by 2100.
Yet, such assurances may offer little comfort given the extensive changes that collapse could entail, whether prior to or following this century’s conclusion.
For instance, a 2025 study in Geophysical Research Letters predicted that under such circumstances, temperatures in London could plummet to -20°C (-4°F) and -48°C (-54°F) in Oslo, despite global warming driven by greenhouse gases.
Moreover, a weakening AMOC risks crossing an unknown tipping point threshold. A study suggests that the AMOC may hold two stable “on” or “off” states, with reversals potentially taking thousands of years to rectify.
The exact location of this threshold remains uncertain. Extending existing models beyond the typical 2100 cutoff, a 2025 study in Environmental Research Letters indicated AMOC shutdowns could occur in 67% of high-emission scenarios and 30% under moderate conditions.
“We don’t definitively know where the threshold lies or if this situation truly applies,” Portman noted. “We can speculate that this decline, even more significant than predicted, may be approaching a tipping point.”
Critical Action Window
Portman’s team tested four distinct emissions scenarios. Three (ranging from moderate to very high) consistently yielded results of approximately 50% weakening, suggesting that many impacts of human-induced climate change could become irreversible beyond a certain threshold.
“We are introducing considerable heat into the ocean, which will persist for centuries,” Portman stated.
However, the most optimistic scenario, marked by robust and sustained emissions reductions, resulted in only about a 20% decline.
“There are two perspectives here. One is that it may be a bit too late, given significant CO2 emissions leading to long-term effects,” Portman explained.
“Conversely, if we dramatically lower CO2 emissions prior to hitting the tipping point, we can avert a serious decline.”
While Portman expresses confidence in his research’s projections for this important ocean system, he acknowledges that other significant processes may still need to be considered.
“This necessitates prudence regarding the findings,” he emphasized. “Substantial uncertainty remains in climate models concerning AMOC’s future. Addressing this issue is vital.”
In 1986, the CEO of an energy company felt guilty about his firm’s coal-fired power plant project in Connecticut after learning about climate change. Ultimately, his company invested in tree planting initiatives in Guatemala, aimed at incentivizing farmers to preserve intact forests while offsetting carbon emissions from coal plants.
This initiative holds the potential to create a marketplace for “voluntary” carbon credits, enabling companies to offset their emissions via investments that combat deforestation. Proponents argue land users should be financially rewarded for preserving forests, while critics claim land users often never intended to clear the forest.
But who is right? A growing body of research reveals that both sides have merit. According to a recent study, many early projects successfully reduced deforestation, yet they sold an average of nearly 11 times more carbon credits than the actual forest saved.
Historically, forests have acted as significant carbon sinks, particularly tropical forests, which absorb approximately half of humanity’s fossil fuel emissions. However, rapid deforestation continues due to agricultural expansion, especially for cattle ranching and palm oil in low-income regions.
“Forests are under severe threat, and we need financial mechanisms that can compensate for their protection,” says Dr. Tom Swinfield, leading research at the University of Cambridge. “Carbon financing is among the most viable options for forest conservation.”
Despite alarming deforestation rates, with over 40,000 square kilometers of forest lost in 2025 alone, the funding gap remains vast—requiring an additional $216 billion annually to meet the global goal of halting deforestation by 2030.
Prior to the COP30 climate summit in November, Brazil introduced the Tropical Forest Forever Facility, a fund designed to incentivize countries for each hectare of forest preserved. However, only $6.6 billion of the $125 billion target has been raised.
Carbon credits have not fulfilled their promise in addressing governmental funding shortages. A 2023 investigation by The Guardian, Die Zeit, and Sourcematerial revealed that 90% of rainforest credits issued by major credit bureaus are essentially worthless. Consequently, the market value of these discretionary loans plummeted by 60% in one year, with most values remaining suppressed.
In response, Swinfield and his team evaluated 44 projects compliant with UN guidelines under the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) framework. They found that 36 projects achieved at least a slight improvement in deforestation metrics compared to what would have occurred without intervention, while only one project saw a significant rise in deforestation.
However, only about 1/11 of all credits issued were genuinely justified. This average was skewed by eight projects that did not effectively reduce deforestation but issued numerous credits. Excluding these top nine credit sellers, approximately 25% of the credits were legitimate.
Swinfield attributes the over-issuance of credits to two main factors stemming from unintended errors. Credit developers relied on “reference areas” that had experienced greater deforestation to estimate potential future clearing rates. This approach often led to selecting reference areas closer to roads or those with rolling terrain, producing inflated future deforestation predictions.
The study highlights a project in the Peruvian Amazon that sought to provide alternative livelihood options for 18 local communities. The French firm responsible for the project utilized the nearby rainforest as a reference area, which was more vulnerable to deforestation, thus exaggerating the benefits of their project area.
“While many of these projects may have sound intentions, the methodologies used to calculate credit issuance were often flawed,” remarks Swinfield.
If project developers and credit agencies adopt the more precise methodologies highlighted in this research, excess credit issuance could be mitigated. Nonetheless, reduced credit supply leads to increased costs, requiring companies to pay more for carbon credits to maintain net-zero emissions claims, according to Dr. Julia Jones from Bangor University.
“The era where companies can offset carbon emissions cheaply is over. Achieving equitable and effective forest conservation cannot come at a low cost,” she asserts.
Currently, deforestation avoidance credits correspond to one ton of CO2 emissions prevented and are available for just a few dollars, while high-quality credits can range into the tens of dollars. In contrast, credits for technologies actively removing carbon, such as tree planting and direct air capture, start at several hundred dollars.
“We need a marketplace for high-quality carbon credits that genuinely contribute to preventing deforestation,” Jones emphasizes.
Research indicates that while deforestation avoidance credits can mitigate some emissions, they conflict with the Paris Agreement’s net-zero emissions target. As per Danny Cullenward from the University of Pennsylvania, “these credits are often acquired to offset emissions instead of actual reductions.”
For effective forest and climate preservation, companies should prioritize high-quality credits or simply contribute to forest protection, instead of merely “retiring” credits in their emissions budgets. Accurate assessment of deforestation risks is crucial for informed interventions.
“We must safeguard tropical forests and, through improved measurement strategies, pay for and quantify the benefits without relying solely on carbon credits,” he concludes. “This can be accomplished both with and without credit systems.”
Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) has undergone a significant rebranding. At the recent European Endocrine Society congress in Prague, renowned endocrinologist Helena Teed announced that it will now be referred to as polyendocrine metabolic ovary syndrome (PMOS).
This new terminology is more than just semantics; it corrects prevalent misconceptions about the condition. It highlights the crucial metabolic and hormonal features of PMOS that extend beyond the ovaries.
Reflecting on my diagnosis of PCOS over 20 years ago, I recall suffering from severe acne and irregular periods—common symptoms that prompted a distressing ultrasound. I was shocked to see what were labeled “cysts” on my ovaries. The fear of infertility and potential emergency surgeries left me feeling confused and devastated.
My journey led me to explore recent PCOS/PMOS research through New Scientist, unveiling the extensive misinformation surrounding the condition. After publishing an article on my findings in 2018, I discovered my story resonated with many others seeking clarity.
The major revelation is that the “cysts” associated with PCOS are misidentified; they are not cysts but rather underdeveloped eggs that remain trapped due to an excess of immature follicles in the ovaries. This shift in understanding allows for a more accurate perspective on ovarian health.
This overabundance can disrupt normal ovulation and menstrual cycles, potentially delaying pregnancy due to infrequent egg release. However, studies show that women with this condition are still likely to achieve their desired family size: 80% conceive without medication or IVF. Despite my challenges, including five miscarriages, I eventually had the three children I had always wanted.
Moreover, researchers now recognize that PMOS impacts the entire body, characterized by elevated male hormone levels like testosterone. This can lead to symptoms such as acne, excessive body hair, and thinning scalp hair. Insulin resistance is also prevalent, increasing the risk of weight gain, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular issues. Mental health challenges, including anxiety and depression, are also common.
On a positive note, recent findings suggest that individuals with PMOS may have enhanced egg reserves, potentially delaying the onset of perimenopause and menopause, which could enhance reproductive options even in later years.
According to Tehi Piltonen, president of the International Society for Androgen Excess and Polycystic Ovary Syndrome and professor at Oulu University Hospital in Finland, the prevalence of this condition—affecting one in eight women—might have been advantageous for our ancestors, allowing them to store energy during times of food scarcity, thus prolonging pregnancy and reproductive viability.
While today’s environment of plentiful high-calorie foods presents challenges for those with PMOS, effective symptom management is available. Historically, attention was only given to ovarian health, particularly fertility concerns, but this new classification aims to broaden the approach.
Teed, who has campaigned for over a decade to reclassify PCOS, collaborated with 56 patient and professional organizations to establish a name that accurately reflects the science. If this change alleviates confusion and anxiety linked to former diagnoses, then the effort will have been well worth it.
The Fragile Nature of Monogamy: A Deep Dive into Human Relationships
Monogamy is often regarded as a sacred institution, the default setting for romantic relationships. Yet, behind the facade, monogamy can feel fleeting, negotiable, and at times, nearly impossible to maintain. If sexual exclusivity is a natural trait for humans, why does it often require significant effort and societal reinforcement to uphold?
A Cultural Perspective on Non-Monogamy
Human culture is rich in examples of non-monogamous relationships, including polyamory, infidelity, and casual dating. Research conducted since the 1960s indicates that 87% of pre-industrial societies embraced some form of polygamy, suggesting that today’s fascination with monogamy might stem from rapid cultural shifts.
Interestingly, while polygamous relationships were widely accepted, only a fraction of individuals engaged in such partnerships, keeping monogamy as the prevalent norm. Moreover, fewer than 10% of mammal species form long-term pair bonds, although this rate is about 25% among primates. Notably, our closest relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos, are often promiscuous, engaging with multiple partners to strengthen social ties.
Why Monogamy?
A compelling theory proposes that monogamy evolved as a defense mechanism against male infanticide. A landmark study published in 2013 examined 230 primate species and revealed that males of promiscuous species often killed the offspring of rivals, prompting a shift toward monogamous relationships for protection.
In contrast, female chimpanzees often mate with various males to obfuscate paternity and mitigate the risk of infanticide. Bonobos, on the other hand, utilize casual sex as a way to nurture social bonds and ease conflicts.
Additionally, male provision of resources to females is believed to increase their attractiveness as mates, further supporting the evolutionary narrative favoring monogamous pairings.
Understanding Human Pair Bonding
Despite their complex origins, it’s evident that humans have a biological inclination to form tight-knit partnerships. However, it’s essential to distinguish between pair bonding and the modern interpretation of monogamy, which usually implies emotional and sexual exclusivity.
Biologists categorize monogamy into three types: social, sexual, and reproductive. Socially monogamous pairs share resources, raise offspring together, and may also engage in sexual exclusivity. In the animal kingdom, reproduction and sexual monogamy are often intertwined, especially since contraception does not exist.
In humans, strong romantic bonds are a hallmark of our species. According to Professor Agustín Fuentes of Princeton University, these connections foster extensive networks of care, such as compassion and cooperation. Research on prairie voles highlights the powerful neurochemistry involved in forming these bonds, showcasing how brain chemicals like oxytocin foster strong pair bonds.
The Statistics Behind Monogamy
Dr. Mark Dyble from the University of Cambridge emphasizes the challenges in quantifying human mating systems, particularly due to discrepancies in self-reported sexual behavior. Recent studies utilizing genetic data reveal that approximately 66% of human siblings are full siblings, indicating a faculty toward monogamy, albeit with considerable variability.
Despite approximately 25% of marriages in the UK ending in divorce within ten years and significant rates of infidelity reported among men and women in the U.S., these findings align humans more closely with socially monogamous mammals, ranking seventh behind species like the Eurasian beaver.
Cultural Constructs and Changing Norms
Human sexual and marital practices vary widely across cultures, influenced by factors like resource allocation and socio-economic conditions. As Fuentes indicates, contemporary definitions of monogamy can shift from “one person for life” to “one person at a time,” a phenomenon known as serial monogamy.
As individuals age, many gravitate toward forms of semi-monogamy, often signaling a return to monogamous norms. For some, monogamy feels natural; for others, it can be stifling. Yet for many, it remains a conscious choice with continually evolving terms influenced by societal norms.
Conclusion: The Dual Nature of Human Relationships
So, how monogamous are humans? The answer is nuanced: it varies. We possess an innate capacity for deep attachment, bolstered by ancient brain chemistry that facilitates pair bonding. Additionally, intricate cultural frameworks shape our relationships, oscillating between enforcing and relaxing monogamous norms. Ultimately, while humans may strive to practice monogamy, our success in doing so remains complex and multifaceted.
For more insights on human relationships and the evolution of monogamy, explore our additional resources here.
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Aerial View of the Kafue Rift’s Southern Boundary Fault Zone
Photo by Michael Daly
The African continent may be undergoing significant geological changes, as new evidence suggests that gas emissions from a series of hot springs in Zambia originate from deep within the Earth’s crust. This indicates the potential emergence of new tectonic plate boundaries.
Rift valleys, such as the prominent East African Rift stretching from the Red Sea to Mozambique, have showcased the gradual separation of continents over tens of millions of years. While it typically requires long periods for such tectonic activities to manifest, researchers are excited about the early signs of this process in Zambia’s Kafue Rift, according to Ruta Carolite from Oxford University.
The Kafue Rift forms part of an extensive 2,500-kilometer rift system stretching from Tanzania to Namibia and potentially reaching the Atlantic Ocean. Geologists hypothesize that this region is showcasing early indications of a new plate boundary due to its unique topography, gravity anomalies, elevated underground temperatures, and minimal seismic activity. Until recently, however, there was a lack of geochemical confirmation.
In their recent study, Karolytė and colleagues analyzed gas samples from five hot springs and three geothermal wells in central Zambia. Their findings showed that the isotopic ratios of helium and carbon in the gas closely resemble those found deep within the Earth’s crust. This suggests the presence of fluids originating from the mantle, as deep as 190 kilometers below the surface, indicating the awakening of tectonic rifting in the area.
“Our data confirm that this geological system is currently ‘active’ and in motion,” Carolite stated. “While the existence of an active rift valley doesn’t guarantee the formation of an ocean over the next 100 million years, the possibility remains.”
During the initial phases of continental rifting, gases trapped in rocks for millions of years are released. Notably, helium—a critical resource for high-tech and medical industries—has been detected in concentrations as high as 2.3% in the Kafue Rift’s fluids. This high concentration is drawing interest from industrial sectors.
“Identifying the ideal tectonic conditions to concentrate and release helium in a capture-friendly format is a challenging task,” Carolite explained.
Patrice Rey, a professor at the University of Sydney, concurs that while the region lacks active volcanoes or significant seismic events, there are numerous indicators of ongoing tectonic activity.
Recent geochemical insights from hot springs suggest that the Kafue Rift is transitioning towards becoming a continental rift, with primordial helium-3-rich mantle fluids ascending through its fractures. “It is plausible to foresee the Kafue Rift evolving into a plate boundary in the foreseeable future,” he remarks.
Groundbreaking research by American scientists has unveiled a revolutionary device that interprets brain signals to automatically amplify the desired voice. This innovative technology could serve as a vital solution for the 430 million individuals globally affected by disabling hearing loss.
Participants wearing intracranial electrodes engaged in two overlapping conversations, while their neural activity was processed in real time. The system selectively amplified the participant’s chosen speech by leveraging low frequency (LF) and high gamma (HF) features. Image credit: Choudhari et al., doi: 10.1038/s41593-026-02281-5.
Deciphering speech amidst background noise is one of the primary challenges in auditory neuroscience and technology.
In noisy settings, individuals utilize selective attention to concentrate on the target speaker while filtering out competing voices and ambient noise.
Traditional hearing aids often fall short because they lack the ability to understand the listener’s preferences, thus amplifying all sounds indiscriminately. This results in limited effectiveness in real-world environments, leading to decreased user adoption and social isolation.
“Our innovative system functions as a neural extension of the user, harnessing the brain’s inherent skill to filter sounds in complex environments and dynamically isolate the desired speech,” stated Columbia University researcher Dr. Nima Mesgarani.
“This advancement enables us to envision a future beyond conventional hearing aids, moving towards technology that can restore the brain’s sophisticated ability to selectively hear.
In their study, Dr. Mesgarani and his team collaborated with surgeons and epilepsy patients undergoing brain surgery to accurately identify seizure triggers.
Patients who volunteered for the study had pre-implanted electrodes, enabling the team to monitor brain activity while attendees focused on overlapping conversations occurring simultaneously.
The system could detect the conversation the patient concentrated on and automatically adjusted the volume in real time, amplifying the chosen dialogue while reducing others.
One volunteer described the experience of controlling a brain-activated system as astonishing, even questioning if researchers were secretly adjusting the volume.
Others expressed excitement about the potential benefits for their hearing-impaired friends and family members, with one participant remarking, “It’s like science fiction.”
“A key unanswered question was whether brain-controlled hearing technology could evolve from theoretical models to practical prototypes that enhance hearing in real time,” Dr. Vishal Chaudhary of Columbia University noted.
“We demonstrate for the first time that a system leveraging brain signals for selective speech enhancement can provide significant real-time advantages.”
“This innovation transitions brain-controlled hearing from concept to practical application.”
Researchers have developed a fast machine learning algorithm capable of identifying which conversations patients are engaged in by analyzing their brain waves.
Once implemented, the system can swiftly determine which dialogues each listener focuses on to enhance clarity.
This capability was evident both when researchers directed participants to specific conversations and when participants freely selected, mirroring real-world interactions.
“To function effectively in real time, the system must be exceptionally fast, accurate, and stable, ensuring a comfortable experience for the listener,” Dr. Mesgarani emphasized.
Find the team’s research published in the latest edition of Nature Neuroscience.
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V. Choudhary et al. Real-time brain-controlled selective hearing enhances speech recognition in multi-speaker environments. Nature Neuroscience published online on May 11, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41593-026-02281-5
Fossils discovered at a secluded ranch in Argentina reveal a new genus and species of large sauropod dinosaur, identified by an international team of paleontologists from Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich.
Reconstruction of Vicaracosaurus dionydei. Image credit: Felipe Cutro-Lev.
The newly identified sauropod species roamed the southern region of the Gondwana supercontinent during the Late Jurassic period, approximately 157 million years ago.
Named Vicaracosaurus dionydei, this dinosaur measured around 20 meters (65 feet) in length.
“Sauropods are a key lineage of dinosaurs, representing one of the most significant groups of herbivorous vertebrates from the Mesozoic era,” said lead author Alexandra Reuter, a doctoral student at Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, alongside her research team.
“These giant herbivores first emerged in the late Triassic period and thrived until the end of the Cretaceous period.”
“Sauropods displayed considerable taxonomic diversity and included the largest terrestrial animals in history.”
“Neosauropoda eventually branched into two primary clades, Diplodocoideae and Macronariidae, early in their evolutionary journey. This major classification has been widely accepted since the 1990s, though there is ongoing debate regarding the classification of many Jurassic taxa into these subclades or Neosauropoda as a whole.”
Fossil remains identified as Vicaracosaurus dionydei, including vertebrae, ribs, and parts of a hip joint, were first reported to paleontologists in March 2001 by local farmer Dionid Mesa.
This fossil site belongs to the Canadon Carcareo Formation, located in central to northern Chubut province, Argentina.
Historically, researchers have relied heavily on fossils from North America, Europe, and other Northern Hemisphere regions to piece together the evolution of neosauropods.
Both the Canadon Carcareo Formation and the Tendaguru Formation in Tanzania stand out as rare Gondwanan deposits preserving skeletons of multiple sauropods.
“For years, the only significant archaeological site in the southern continent was in Tanzania,” stated lead author Professor Oliver Rauchat, a paleontologist at the Bavarian Institute of Paleontology and Geology, as well as Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich.
“The fossils from the Chubut province, including Vicaracosaurus dionydei, provide critical comparative material that enhances our understanding of these creatures’ evolutionary history, particularly in the Southern Hemisphere.”
Fossil evidence indicates that Vicaracosaurus dionydei is part of a giant herbivore group known as Macronaria, which later gave rise to iconic giants like Brachiosaurus.
Yet, this new dinosaur’s anatomy also shows remarkable similarities to diplodocids, another sauropod lineage that includes famous species like Diplodocus.
To ascertain its position within the dinosaur family tree, researchers employed two distinct phylogenetic datasets for analysis.
Most analyses positioned Vicaracosaurus dionydei as sharing traits with Macronaria and Brachiosauridae, including Brachiosaurus and the African giant Giraffatitan.
“Our phylogenetic analysis indicates that Vicaracosaurus dionydei is closely related to brachiosaurids, making it the earliest known brachiosaur to inhabit South America during the Jurassic period,” Reuter concluded.
The research team’s paper was published in the online journal Peer J.
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A. Reuter et al. 2026. Vicaracosaurus dionydei, a new giant herbivorous dinosaur (sauropod) from the Late Jurassic Canadon-Carcareo Formation in Argentina and insights into the early evolution of giant sauropods. Peer J 14: e20945; doi: 10.7717/peerj.20945
Data centers powering the AI revolution are consuming more electricity than many small countries. According to an International Energy Agency report,
energy demand could soar to 945 terawatt hours per year by 2030, surpassing Japan’s entire electricity consumption.
As AI technology continues to evolve, the hunger for power has led companies to consider not just earthly solutions but also outer-space options to harness constant solar energy.
Intriguingly, startup Panthalassa is working on an autonomous floating data center that harnesses computational power in the open sea.
Recently, the Oregon-based company announced $140 million in funding, stating that its innovative platform could bypass overloaded power grids while offering carbon-free computing at sea. However, it remains to be seen if relocating computing power offshore can truly ease the challenges faced by current data centers; it might simply replace one expensive issue with another.
“Wave energy is a well-established technology, but the ocean presents a brutal environment,” warns Jonathan Koomey, a data center energy utilization expert at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
“Saltwater and wave action can lead to mechanical malfunctions.”
Shaped like a golf ball atop a tee, Panthalassa’s floating data center stands 85 meters high (almost the height of Big Ben) and is constructed from sheet steel.
These structures are towed into position and can autonomously generate power to run AI workloads without relying on grid electricity, zero emissions, or traditional engines.
The “tee” section of the platform features a long tube with an open base that captures seawater as waves cause it to rise and fall. This movement forces water through the tube into the hollow “ball” section, which floats primarily due to trapped air.
The dynamic movement of water activates turbines that generate electricity, powering the vehicle’s GPUs, computing hardware, and satellite communication systems.
Conventional data centers consume significant quantities of water for cooling AI hardware.
In contrast, Panthalassa’s servers are housed in enclosed modules below the water surface, allowing the container walls to act as heat exchangers that dissipate heat into the cooler seawater.
While ocean mixing helps eradicate waste heat, the implications for local marine ecosystems remain uncertain.
Panthalassa aims to achieve what few data center operators have dared: to maintain crucial computing infrastructure beyond the oversight of human engineers.
“Our data consistently identifies power and network issues as the leading causes of data center outages,” states Jacqueline Davis of the Uptime Institute, a global authority on data center performance.
“These complications can be particularly challenging to manage in remote locales with limited or no staffing.”
Panthalassa did not respond to inquiries from the New Scientist before this article was published.
Automation within data centers mostly focuses on monitoring and analysis, with physical human intervention often necessary during unusual events, such as manual compressor restarts.
This presents a significant challenge for Panthalassa. Latency is another hurdle.
Data processed on the floating platform is sent to users on land via Starlink satellites, which have limited bandwidth and higher latency compared to fiber optic cables.
Consequently, while the node may work effectively for long-duration AI workloads—such as training advanced mathematical models—applications that require swift responses, like chatbots and search assistants, could face challenges.
“Constraints in power are most severely impacting extensive AI training data centers,” noted Davis. She suggests that Panthalassa’s model is more plausible when power demands for advanced AI become significant enough to align with AI training needs.
Until then, floating data centers may struggle to remain competitive with land-based options.
Although Panthalassa’s approach is innovative, the concept of offshore data centers isn’t entirely new.
Aikido Technologies is developing floating data centers integrated with offshore wind platforms, while Mitsui O.S.K. Lines is exploring ship-based computing systems designed to exploit ocean energy sources.
Past initiatives, like Microsoft’s underwater Natick project, have examined whether housing servers in or near water enhances cooling and efficiency.
Nevertheless, offshore computing remains predominantly experimental. Besides engineering challenges, firms must demonstrate that ocean-based systems can economically compete with traditional data centers linked to power grids and fiber networks.
“Data centers can achieve economies of scale by building at larger sizes, which is why they are typically so extensive today,” remarks Koomey.
“Scaling up to accommodate the fixed costs of computing is considerably more challenging and riskier on water.”
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In the iconic opening of 2001: A Space Odyssey, the first tool is presented as a club, used not only for hunting prey but also in the dramatic leap through time. This perspective suggests that the earliest tools served primarily as weapons.
This interpretation also extends to early stone tools. Round stones were employed for striking, while sharper stones were utilized for cutting and penetrating. We envision these primitive implements used for breaking, hunting, and lethal purposes.
Yet, early humans likely employed various tools crafted from other materials, particularly plant-based materials like wood, which, unfortunately, are less likely to be preserved. The Stone Age may well have also been the Vegetative Age (refer to Sophie Verdugo’s insightful 2024 article).
This opens up intriguing possibilities, particularly regarding the concept of containers. Imagine if the first tool was an object capable of carrying or storing valuable items.
As paleoanthropologist Mark Kissel from Appalachian State University notes, “Containers resolve a multitude of challenges,” emphasizing their critical role in early human existence. His team has developed an extensive database of prehistoric containers, encompassing hundreds of examples spanning over 100,000 years, though this likely represents only a small fraction of what once existed. “Containers were essential for humanity’s success,” Kissel asserts.
Exploring Prehistoric Containers
Compiling a comprehensive database of ancient containers is a daunting task. Kissel and his colleagues dedicated over a year to scouring scientific literature for examples, using a broad range of terminology to identify various types of containers, faced with the realization that they had to cease their efforts and recently published their findings in a study in the Journal of Human Archaeology on April 8th.
Determining what qualifies as a container posed another challenge. They opted for a wide definition: “Any object that functions as a container (holding contents and acting as a barrier) and can be transported by humans.”
This broader definition includes items not conventionally viewed as containers, such as spoons, which can also transport materials. Notably, examples of early lamps comprise small rock slabs with hollows to hold and burn animal fat. A renowned specimen from the Lascaux Caves in France is carved from red sandstone and features a handle.
Other containers might include hollow bones; for instance, tubes crafted from swan wing bones may have been utilized for needle transport. Similarly, robust ostrich eggs were likely employed in Africa for carrying water on lengthy journeys. Rock art raises further possibilities, depicting vessels and net-like objects found in Gennersdorf, Germany.
Fragment of Engraved Ostrich Eggshell Container from South Africa
Texier et al. 2013
The research team ultimately cataloged 793 mobile containers, exploring examples from the Pleistocene epoch, which spans 2.58 million years to 11,700 years ago; however, all findings seem to date back no further than 500,000 years.
Conventionally, archaeologists believed containers emerged in the last 10,000 years, closely tied to the agricultural revolution and the advent of pottery, attributed to the rise of agrarian societies that needed to store surplus food. Hunter-gatherer societies were thought to lack such surplus and mobility would render pots easily breakable.
However, Kissel argues this notion has largely been overturned, suggesting a more gradual and fragmented transition from prehistory to the Neolithic era. Evidence indicates that some indigenous Australian groups crafted pottery over 2,000 years ago; simultaneously, early gatherers in the Amazon, dating back 10,000 years, left pottery shards behind, with signs of ceramic production in China as early as 18,000 years ago.
This evolution implies a gradual development of containers over time. Kissel maintains, “It’s beneficial to observe containers along a spectrum.”
While container origins reach deep into our past, it’s worth noting that non-human primates like great apes do not utilize them; instead, they might use leaves as sponges to draw water. Kissel suggests this fundamental difference speaks volumes about human evolution.
The oldest container identified in their database is a bark tray or dish, unearthed at Kalambo Falls in Zambia, estimated to be between 400,000 to 500,000 years old. Kalambo Falls has showcased remarkably preserved wooden artifacts, including a structure potentially dating back 476,000 years. However, dating for the bark tray remains inconclusive.
This reveals a significant challenge Kissel’s team faced: numerous artifacts were excavated long ago, resulting in vital information obscured in outdated texts, often inaccessible online. The Kalambo Falls tray was excavated in the 1950s by archaeologist John Desmond Clarke, with minimal records available today.
Despite observable trends within the dataset, Kissel emphasizes they primarily reflect the archaeological record’s limitations rather than definitive prehistoric facts. Astonishingly, 87.8 percent of the identified containers were discovered in Europe, a statistic Kissel attributes to the extensive archaeological endeavors in that region rather than implying that Europe was the cradle for container innovation. Interestingly, the dataset’s oldest containers hail from Africa.
Furthermore, only two vessels in their records exceed 100,000 years old; nevertheless, Kissel posits that hominins likely employed containers far earlier than documented. Such artifacts may be undiscovered or have undergone degradation.
As Kissel puts it, a clearer understanding of how integral containers have been to human existence is emerging. In Europe, where archaeological research is robust, many examples persist despite conservation issues, indicating their necessity for human survival.
The Role of Containers in Human Evolution
One of Humanity’s Oldest Tools Remains in Use
Ron Giling/Alamy
Kissel theorizes that one of the initial applications of containers might have been for carrying infants in slings. Many anthropologists—especially women—have championed this concept for decades.
Great apes like chimpanzees typically carry their infants clinging to their bodies. However, as humans evolved with less body hair and an increased reliance on bipedal locomotion, baby carriers would have become essential for carrying helpless newborns. Millions of years ago, Australopithecus likely utilized slings, implying that even Lucy, a representative of Australopithecus afarensis, may have carried an infant snugly.
While these concepts are not groundbreaking, their prominence is gradually increasing, largely due to their early association with feminist interpretations of prehistory, which faced skepticism.
In 1976, anthropologists Nancy Tanner and Adrian Zillman posited that the earliest tools may have been baskets, utilized primarily by women for carrying food. Their work challenged the misconception of prehistoric male dominance, introducing a more nuanced portrait that included women’s contributions.
Mystery writer Ursula Le Guin influenced the narrative surrounding containers with her Carrier-Bag Theory of Fiction, emphasizing that without a vessel, food remains unattainable, and even the simplest container allows for preservation during adverse conditions.
Le Guin advocated for a reassessment of historical narratives, advocating narratives of community, nurturing, and environmental stewardship alongside tales of conflict. She asserted the necessity of fostering alternate narratives to enrich our understanding of humanity’s journey.
As this exploration unfolds, it’s important to track the data. There’s increasing evidence that humanity’s distinctiveness lies not only in intelligence, creativity, or aggression but in our capabilities for empathy and social connection. When isolated from one another, human beings face a notably higher risk of extinction due to the lack of cooperative networks.
Our survival as a species hinges on collaboration and sharing, as exemplified by the way one might offer a piece of their food stores to a friend in need using a homemade container.
Insights into Wear Patterns on Fossilized Teeth of Hadrosaurid Dinosaurs: Maiasaura peeblesorum – Recent studies suggest that juvenile Maiasaura may have consumed softer, nutrient-rich food compared to adults, indicating a significant level of parental care in these prehistoric creatures.
Artist’s reconstruction of adult and juvenile Maiasaura. Image credit: Brian Regal.
Maiasaura peeblesorum was a species of duck-billed dinosaur that lived approximately 75 to 80 million years ago during the late Cretaceous period.
These sizable herbivores were first discovered in Montana and are believed to have been highly social creatures, contrary to some dinosaurs that lived in more solitary habits, potentially showcasing varying reproductive strategies.
The extensive fossil discoveries of Maiasaura peeblesorum, especially its nest, have made it crucial for understanding the reproductive behaviors and ecology of numerous other duck-billed dinosaurs.
A recent study conducted by Dr. John Hunter from The Ohio State University and Dr. Christine Janis from the Universities of Bristol and Brown indicates that adults of Maiasaura peeblesorum exhibit more crushing wear on their teeth, while juveniles show more shearing wear. This suggests that juvenile dinosaurs were likely fed softer, more protein-rich foods than their parents.
“This behavior mirrors modern birds that feed their chicks while they are confined to the nest post-hatching,” stated Dr. Hunter.
“The instinct to nourish their young is an ancient trait.”
“Our findings suggest such nurturing behaviors existed long before the emergence of birds, likely extending back to the origins of dinosaurs.”
Juvenile Maiasaura peeblesorum were likely feeding on low-fiber, nutrient-rich foods like fruits, while adults consumed tougher, less nutritious, high-fiber plant materials.
Similar patterns of tooth wear can be seen in today’s herbivores, such as horses, antelopes, and cows, with young animals consuming low-fiber diets resembling tooth wear patterns found in young dinosaurs.
By analyzing the dental wear patterns in these dinosaurs, researchers propose that shifts in diet significantly contributed to early growth and development.
The study indicates that the adolescent diet of Maiasaura peeblesorum may have expedited growth during their first year.
Scientists are also exploring alternative interpretations of the findings. It’s possible that dinosaur parents shared partially regurgitated food with their young, a behavior still observed in modern avian species.
Alternatively, young Maiasaura may have ventured out and foraged independently, similar to behaviors seen in contemporary herbivorous lizards.
“While this scenario is unlikely since the young were probably helpless and dependent on parental feeding in the initial weeks post-hatching, understanding their remains could enhance scientists’ knowledge of dinosaurs’ advanced biological and social systems,” Dr. Hunter expressed.
“As we delve further back in time, the fossil record becomes sparsely populated, compelling paleontologists to draw insights from diverse sources throughout life’s history.”
“There remains much to uncover about even closely related dinosaurs.”
“Future studies should focus on the dental microwear of other younger dinosaur fossils and explore further hypotheses regarding dinosaur embryos and hatchlings.”
The team’s findings have been published in the journal Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology.
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John P. Hunter & Christine M. Janis 2026. Tooth wear in juvenile and adult hadrosaurs: Implications for hadrosaur parental care. Maiasaura. Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology 690: 113707; doi: 10.1016/j.palaeo.2026.113707
Recent genetic research reveals that the iconic Gentoo Penguin is actually comprised of four distinct species, including one that was previously unknown to science. Alarmingly, three of these species are increasingly threatened by climate change.
Geographical distribution of the four distinct species of Gentoo Penguins in the Southern Ocean. Image credit: Noll et al., doi: 10.1038/s42003-026-10081-7.
Among seabirds, the Gentoo Penguin Complex (Pygocelis papua) showcases a significant example of adaptive divergence, with unique morphological, ecological, and genetic characteristics among lineages in the Southern Ocean.
Recent studies indicate the presence of four to six distinct evolutionary lineages, each inhabiting environments with minimal ecological overlap. This suggests that local conditions may significantly influence their adaptive divergence.
“The taxonomy of the gentoo penguin has long been contentious,” stated Professor Lauri Bowie of the University of California, Berkeley. “For over a century, the debate over the number of species and subspecies has persisted.”
“This paper aims to resolve that issue using a cutting-edge integrative approach.”
Professor Bowie and colleagues have presented compelling genetic proof that what was once believed to be a single, widely dispersed species of gentoo penguin is actually four separate species.
“North of the polar front, where temperatures are warmer, there exists an eastern lineage: Pygocelis teniata, found on Crozet Island, Marion Island, and Macquarie Island. The northern lineage, Pygocelis papua, is limited to the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and Martillo Islands in South America,” the researchers explained.
“Just above the polar front is a newly identified southeastern lineage, Pygothelis kerguelensis, which evolved on Kerguelen Island and possibly nearby Heard Island.”
“Below the polar front, the most populous group is Pygocelis Elswati, found along the Antarctic Peninsula, the coast of Antarctica, and South Georgia Island.”
Pygothelis kerguelensis was previously overlooked due to its similarities to other gentoo species, with only subtle differences in size and vocalizations. Its distinctive white underside and black back provide effective camouflage against predators while hunting in marine environments.
However, genetic analysis has deemed it a cryptic species, substantially unique from its counterparts.
“In Antarctica, various species, not just gentoo penguins, are at risk due to climate change,” stated Professor Juliana Viana from Andres Bello National University. “Gentoo penguins face the most significant threats in the subantarctic region—a collection of widely distributed islands governed by several nations, including Chile, South Africa, France, the Netherlands, Australia, and New Zealand.”
“It is crucial for conservation agencies in all involved countries to recognize and protect these three unique gentoo penguin species.”
The team’s study was published in the journal Communication Biology.
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D. Knoll et al.. Integrative evidence reveals adaptive divergence and speciation in gentoo penguins. Commun. Biol. published online on April 23, 2026. doi: 10.1038/s42003-026-10081-7
Discover stunning new images captured by NASA/ESA/CSA’s James Webb Space Telescope featuring the barred spiral galaxy Messier 77, showcasing its mesmerizing swirl of dust, vibrant newborn stars, and an extraordinarily active nucleus.
This breathtaking image of Messier 77, taken by Webb’s Mid-Infrared Observatory (MIRI), illustrates its unique spiral arms, dust within its disk, and an exceptionally bright core. The orange lines radiating from the galaxy’s center are diffraction spikes, an optical phenomenon from Webb’s design. Image credit: NASA / ESA / CSA / Webb / A. LeRoy.
Situated about 62 million light-years from Earth in the constellation Cetus, Messier 77 ranks among the brightest and most extensively studied galaxies visible from Earth.
This galaxy, commonly referred to as the Squid Galaxy, NGC 1068, LEDA 10266, and Cetus A, boasts an apparent magnitude of 9.6.
First discovered in 1780 by French astronomer Pierre Méchain, Messier 77 was initially recorded as a nebula before its true galactic nature was revealed.
As technology advanced, astronomers like Charles Messier recognized the galaxy’s immense scale and complexity.
Measuring approximately 100,000 light-years in diameter, Messier 77 is one of the largest entries in the Messier catalog, with a gravitational influence strong enough to distort its neighboring galaxies. Additionally, it is one of the nearest galaxies exhibiting an active galactic nucleus (AGN).
Messier 77 is classified as a Type II Seyfert galaxy and is particularly luminous in infrared wavelengths.
According to Webb astronomers, “At the heart of Messier 77 lies a compact region filled with hot gas that shines brighter than the entire galaxy, surpassing even the capacity of Webb’s camera.”
“Powered by a supermassive black hole weighing 8 million solar masses, this AGN pulls gas into rapid orbits, causing collisions that generate immense radiation.”
This striking image of Messier 77, captured by Webb’s Near Infrared Camera (NIRCam), brilliantly showcases its features. Image credit: NASA / ESA / CSA / Webb / A. LeRoy.
“Messier 77 is not only recognized for its visible AGN but also as a vigorous star-forming galaxy,” they added.
“Near-infrared observations reveal a widening bar in the central region, untraceable in visible-light images of the galaxy.”
“This bar is encircled by a bright ring known as the starburst ring, formed by the inner sections of Messier 77’s two spiral arms.”
“Starburst zones in galaxies typically exhibit remarkably high star formation rates.”
“This ring, exceeding 6,000 light-years in diameter, displays intense starburst activity characterized by dense orange bubbles surrounding the ring.”
“Given Messier 77’s relatively close proximity to Earth, this starburst ring serves as an exemplary case study in galactic phenomena.”
“As an active spiral galaxy, Messier 77’s disk is abundant in gas and dust, both of which are vital for future star formation.”
“Webb’s MIRI highlights the galaxy’s view filled with the glow of interstellar dust particles, depicted here in blue.”
“These particles form massive vortexes of swirling filaments resembling smoke, with cavities interspersed.”
“Glowing orange bubbles, crafted by newly formed star clusters, can also be seen along the galaxy’s arms.”
“Beyond Webb’s focused field of view, Messier 77’s arms integrate into a faint hydrogen gas ring, thousands of light-years wide, where additional star formation is underway.”
“Delicate filaments of hydrogen gas stretch across this ring into intergalactic space, forming the outermost layer surrounding the galaxy.”
“These tentacle-like filaments contribute to the moniker Squid Galaxy for Messier 77.”
David Attenborough Filming The Trials of Life in Wales (1998)
Image Credit: Nick Upton/Nature Picture Library/Alamy
David Attenborough is a celebrated figure in British broadcasting, often regarded as one of the nation’s most trusted celebrities. His unique style sets him apart as a beloved broadcaster.
As he approaches his 100th birthday on May 8, it’s worth reflecting on his remarkable career, which began in natural history broadcasting in 1954 with Zoo Quest. This pioneering program followed London Zoo staff as they ventured to tropical regions to capture rare animals for the UK. Although a product of its era, it showcased Attenborough’s talents at a time when only a third of British households owned a television. It laid the groundwork for future nature documentaries, particularly the acclaimed series, Life on Earth, which debuted in 1979.
People frequently ponder who might take his place. However, the unique niche that enabled Attenborough’s evolution—embodied by the BBC’s dominant cultural influence and limited viewing options—is no longer present. Today, social media has spurred a proliferation of science communicators, each adapting uniquely to a rapidly changing landscape.
“
The truth is, the niche market that allowed Attenborough to evolve no longer exists. “
This fragmentation presents pros and cons. Platforms like TikTok, YouTube, and podcasts allow for flexibility beyond traditional television schedules, fostering a diverse array of voices. Even those who might not appreciate Attenborough’s style can explore various presenters offering fresh perspectives.
However, this multiplicity has downsides. Television editors traditionally shaped what viewers experienced, whereas algorithms now dictate content, often prioritizing quick gratification over substantive engagement. While many science creators, like Attenborough, focus on factual content, misinformation can also spread unchecked. We increasingly lose elements of shared cultural experience as audiences drift toward individualized content.
Fortunately, Attenborough’s programs remain accessible and continue to resonate. To celebrate his centennial, we encourage you to explore our curated list of his most impactful works.
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This Victorian-era chromolithograph illustrates Boudica’s revolt against the Romans around 60 AD.
Credit: Popper Photo (Getty Images)
Recent studies highlight the limited genetic influence of Roman occupation on modern British populations, revealing surprising insights into Britain’s genetic history.
“The Roman conquest’s genetic impact seems to be far less significant than previously thought,” says Rachel Pope, a PhD candidate at the University of Liverpool, who wasn’t involved in the research.
<p><a href="https://www.crick.ac.uk/research/find-a-researcher/marina-soares-da-silva">Marina Soares da Silva</a> and her team at the Francis Crick Institute analyzed the genomes of 1,039 ancient Britons, dating from the Bronze Age (2550 BC - 1150 AD) following the Norman Conquest. Roman rule in Britain lasted from 43 AD to 410 AD.</p>
<p>The findings indicated that nearly 100% of individuals living during the Roman period shared ancestry solely with Iron Age Britons, with only 20% exhibiting genetic contributions from outside Britain.</p>
<p>"Given the extensive lifestyle changes during Roman times, the mere 20% genetic influence is astonishing," notes <a href="https://www.lancashire.ac.uk/academics/duncan-sayer">Duncan Thayer</a> from the University of Lancashire, who wasn't part of the study. "I anticipated a more diverse genetic mix."</p>
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<p>"This implies that the Roman conquest was less about altering genetics and more about transforming lifestyles," Thayer explains. "Their focus was on converting Britain into a series of exploitable economies, driven by a select few."</p>
<p>This aligns with previous research indicating <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/41/9/msae168/7741671?login=false">minimal Roman genetic influence in rural regions</a>.</p>
<p>One notable area where the Romans influenced British society was in burial customs. Pre-Roman evidence suggests that women had significant autonomy, with practices such as matrilocality where women remained in their ancestral homes as men migrated.</p>
<p>In Iron Age Britain, burial practices typically followed maternal lineage, with individuals buried alongside maternal relatives rather than spouses. Silva and her research team discovered more sites in southwestern England evidencing these matrilineal burials extending into the late Iron Age.</p>
<p>"This discovery was unexpected, particularly the implications in the western regions," says Pope.</p>
<p>However, Roman burial sites displayed no discernible family patterns, suggesting a departure from Iron Age customs and lifestyles.</p>
<p>Pope notes that the enduring legacy of Boudica, the Aisni queen who led a revolt against the Roman Empire around 60 AD, reflects this loss. "Her story symbolizes a woman protesting against the inability to inherit property."</p>
<p>After the Romans departed, significant genetic changes occurred. Between 400 and 600 AD, various Germanic tribes like the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes migrated to and established dominance over modern England. The Anglo-Saxon populace remained influential until the Norman Conquest in 1066.</p>
<p>Silva’s analysis revealed a prominent influx of ancestry tied to Germanic-speaking tribes by the 6th century, impacting over 70% of the Anglo-Saxon demographic in southern Britain.</p>
<p>This observation parallels findings by <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05247-2">Thayer's research team</a>, where about 76% of genomes from the same era indicated similar genetic markers.</p>
<p>The results indicated a clustering of ancestral profiles, establishing a population labeled as early medieval Britain I. From the 8th to 10th century, this genetic lineage saw a decline, with increased presence from central and southern European ancestries.</p>
<p>The genetic influence of the Viking population was shown to be limited, despite the establishment of the Danelaw region, which was under Viking control from the 9th to 11th centuries. During this period, only 4% of Britons could trace their ancestry back to Iron Age Scandinavia.</p>
<p>This trend can be accounted for through two stages of Viking incursions, Thayer affirms. In earlier raids, genetics were predominantly Scandinavian, as Vikings captured individuals from Ireland and England. Conversely, later invasions resulted in a diverse genetic mix due to existing populations in Britain.</p>
<p>Silva's team analyzed 69 genomes from the post-Norman Conquest period, discovering similar evidence of genetic stagnation post-invasion, although most genomes were from a singular site in Leicester, limiting generalizability across the country.</p>
<p>Pope concludes that these findings illustrate the dynamic genetic influx into the UK from diverse populations across Europe. "What does it mean to be English?"</p>
<p>Thayer suggests, "Perhaps we are imposing modern concepts of ethnicity that held different significances in the past."</p>
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<h3 class="SpecialArticleUnit__Heading">Discovering Hadrian's Wall: An Insight into Roman Innovations</h3>
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<p>Experience history firsthand on an immersive walking tour along Hadrian's Wall, one of Britain's most iconic ancient monuments and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.</p>
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Annually, over 20 million tons of polystyrene plastic is manufactured, yet only a fraction undergoes recycling globally. Traditional recycling processes demand substantial energy and often employ harsh, toxic chemicals to break down the robust molecular chains of polystyrene. An innovative solution lies in harnessing sulfur, a cost-effective byproduct from crude oil refining. Sulfur’s unique chemical properties enable it to cleave the strong bonds within long plastic molecules. Despite its plentiful availability, sulfur is underutilized, and converting it into a more practical form typically requires excessive heat, limiting its usability over time.
Researchers at the Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics proposed that sulfur could aid in breaking down polystyrene waste to generate more valuable chemicals. They harnessed sunlight through a process known as light heat conversion to facilitate this reaction. The team successfully used this thermal energy to transform polystyrene and sulfur into useful compounds such as 2,4-diphenylthiophene, also referred to as Chemical D, and 1,3,5-triphenylbenzene, or Chemical T, which are essential in the production of semiconductors and chemical sensors.
To verify their hypothesis, the research team combined ground polystyrene and sulfur in a 1:0.5 molar ratio within a sealed glass tube. They attached a balloon to the tube and secured it on a steel stand. Sunlight was focused onto the tube’s base using a curved mirror. Upon heating, the yellow-white solid melted and transitioned to a red-black liquid after just 2 minutes. Following heating, the mirror was removed, allowing the system to cool before collecting gaseous products from the balloon and dissolving the remaining solids for further analysis and purification.
The researchers fine-tuned the reaction conditions to identify factors affecting the results. They examined the reaction without sulfur, varying the sulfur ratio from 0.2 to 0.8 and substituted elemental sulfur with alternative sulfur-containing compounds. Additionally, they explored incorporating known photothermal agents, particularly metal oxide additives, into their mixture.
To draw comparisons between sunlight and artificial light, the team replicated the experiment indoors using 100-watt LED bulbs while monitoring temperature changes with a thermal camera. A control experiment with only polystyrene was conducted to observe sulfur’s impact on yield under LED light. The team varied exposure times in increments of 1 minute, ranging from 1 to 6 minutes, to determine optimal conditions for yield under LED light. These assessments were crucial in understanding the necessary conditions for the reaction and how various elements influenced outcomes.
The results indicated that, without sulfur or alternative sulfur compounds, the reaction failed to produce Chemicals D or T under sunlight. Conversely, when sulfur was included, the reaction yielded a maximum of 34% D and 16% T at a sulfur ratio of 0.5. The introduction of metal oxides diminished chemical yields to 22% and 12%, respectively, suggesting these additives hindered the desired reaction. Notably, switching from sunlight to LED reduced the reaction yield to 26% for D and 13% for T.
The investigation also revealed the impact of reaction time on product formation, with yields gradually increasing and peaking at 4 minutes before stabilizing. The sulfur-containing mixture heated from room temperature to 320°C (608°F), while the control exhibited minimal temperature change. These findings confirmed sulfur’s dual role as both a reactant and a photothermal converter, facilitating the transformation of polystyrene into valuable chemicals.
Taking their research further, the scientists tested their method using real-world polystyrene waste, including food packaging and plastic foam. They successfully synthesized Chemicals D and T from these materials, demonstrating the practicality of their approach beyond laboratory conditions.
The researchers concluded that their study presents a simple, rapid, and solvent-free methodology for converting two abundant waste products into valuable chemicals utilizing sunlight. By merging polystyrene waste with excess sulfur, they establish a sustainable polymer upcycling pathway that leverages clean energy, applicable to common plastics.
Weight loss doesn’t need to be an exhausting struggle anymore. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) medications, such as Ozempic, Wegovy, and Mounjaro, have transformed obesity treatment, offering remarkable results with just a simple injection.
Research indicates that adults taking the maximum doses can experience weight loss of over 20% of their body weight within 16 months, providing additional health benefits for the liver, heart, and brain.
This trend is gaining traction in the U.S., where nearly 12% of adults, or about 41 million people, have tried GLP-1 treatments. This phenomenon is also noted across the Atlantic, with an estimated 1.6 million adults in the UK using weight loss drugs last year.
While the rise of GLP-1 usage seems like a win for weight management, a hidden challenge may be emerging.
Recent studies reveal that many individuals begin to experience essential nutrient deficiencies shortly after starting these medications.
For instance, research from the Cleveland Clinic indicates that out of 460,000 adults prescribed GLP-1 drugs, nearly 20% developed a nutrient deficiency within a year, many without even realizing it.
Micronutrients like vitamins and minerals, and macronutrients including carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and fiber, are essential for the body’s health – Credit: Getty
Moreover, a separate study involving 480,000 GLP-1 users showed that 13.6% developed severe vitamin D deficiency within the first year, and approximately 60% didn’t get adequate iron or calcium from their diets.
The issue runs deeper. Another study suggests that GLP-1 drugs might deplete a range of vital nutrients, including magnesium, potassium, and vitamins A, C, D, and E.
“While these nutrients are required in small amounts, their importance cannot be overstated,” states Professor Giles Yeo, a specialist in neuroendocrinology and obesity at the University of Cambridge.
Additionally, adults on GLP-1 may also struggle to consume adequate protein and fiber.
Despite this prevalence, nutritional deficiencies often go unnoticed by healthcare providers, as many GLP-1 users are not monitored for their nutritional status. This oversight has been labeled a “major oversight” by professionals, as mentioned in a 2025 article in the International Journal of Obesity.
Dr. Stephen Heimsfield, director of the Metabolism and Body Composition Institute at Louisiana State University and lead author of the Cleveland Clinic study, emphasizes, “Obesity is a chronic disease that should be managed appropriately; this includes conducting nutritional blood tests if these medications are prescribed.”
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Smaller Portions, Bigger Problems
So why are these deficiencies occurring? It largely relates to how these drugs alter food consumption.
GLP-1 medications mimic the natural satiety hormone, leading users to feel satisfied with smaller amounts of food, which is pivotal for weight loss.
However, this also reduces the chances of obtaining all necessary nutrients daily.
“Many people on these drugs may not have had a nutritious diet to start with, often lacking fresh produce and relying heavily on ultra-processed foods that lack essential nutrients,” explains Yeo.
“If you simply take medication without adopting better dietary habits, you’ll likely consume less food, which is not ideal,” he continues. “Neglecting to improve your diet can lead to nutritional deficiencies.”
Nutrient deficiencies among GLP-1 users mirror those commonly found in the general population, such as vitamin D, calcium, and iron – Credit: Getty
Consequently, the deficiencies prevalent among GLP-1 users closely mirror those routinely observed in the general population. Common deficiencies include vitamin B12 and iodine among vegetarians and vegans, iron in menstruating women, and vitamin D in areas with limited sunlight exposure.
“These deficiencies are already fairly common,” Yeo adds, “and are likely to worsen with the use of GLP-1s.”
Moreover, these drugs not only limit dietary intake and heighten deficiency risk but may also lead to other side effects.
“GLP-1 treatment decreases food consumption but can also trigger gastrointestinal symptoms like vomiting and diarrhea,” notes Dr. Heimsfield.
“With diarrhea, there’s a risk of losing nutrients that haven’t yet been absorbed.” In effect, some nutrients may be expelled from the body before absorption can occur.
This problem is significant, with nearly one-third of GLP-1 users experiencing diarrhea; almost a quarter report nausea and vomiting.
Tip the Scales
Experts warn that the scale of this issue is concerning. With millions currently using GLP-1 drugs, a significant proportion of the population may be facing nutritional deficiencies without their knowledge.
“This is important,” asserts Heimsfield. “We should not assume GLP-1s are completely safe. Only time will reveal the long-term implications of these deficiencies.”
In severe cases, nutritional deficiencies can escalate into medical emergencies. Some individuals have been diagnosed with a severe neurological condition characterized by slurred speech and disorientation due to vitamin B deficiency linked to GLP-1 medications.
Without strict nutritional monitoring, taking daily supplements may help mitigate deficiencies – Credit: Getty
While such cases are rare, common vitamin D deficiency can have severe long-term health consequences for the broader population.
Dr. Heimsfield notes that low vitamin D levels may lead to bone loss (osteoporosis), increasing frailty risks in older adults. Additionally, insufficient protein intake can escalate the risk of losing muscle mass—a condition known as sarcopenia—with weight loss.
“Individuals who are obese at 70 and using these drugs could be inadvertently heading toward sarcopenia and frailty,” warns Heimsfield, increasing their chances of falls and fractures later in life.
A Tale of Two Diets
This growing issue is a “real concern,” Yeo states. “It’s crucial to recognize that many users of GLP-1s are well-off, often with less concern about their initial dietary habits.”
Indeed, most GLP-1 users in the UK acquire the drug privately, with monthly expenses often exceeding hundreds of dollars in the U.S. Consequently, these individuals are likely more affluent and capable of affording nutritious food.
Nevertheless, the emergence of new pill formulations of GLP-1 may eventually reduce costs and increase accessibility for a broader audience.
“At some point, a significant number of less fortunate individuals, many of whom are not in control of their food choices, may gain access to these drugs, which could pose serious challenges,” remarks Yeo.
While supplements can help mitigate specific micronutrient deficiencies, Yeo stresses that they are not a substitute for proper medical guidance for those on GLP-1.
“We’re not trying to alarm anyone, as these drugs are indeed powerful tools,” he concludes. “However, we must be vigilant regarding micronutrients, which are already common deficiencies that can worsen when diets are restricted.”
Vietnam’s Ho Chi Minh City Faces Increased Flooding Risk Due to Rising Sea Levels
Getty Images
The rate of sea level rise has dramatically accelerated since 2012, as measured by satellites, and this trend has persisted.
While these sudden increases may result from natural fluctuations, they could also signify a response to exacerbated global warming, as noted by Lancelot Leclerc from the University of Toulouse, France.
Over the past 15 years, global average sea levels have risen by more than 0.2 meters due to multiple contributing factors. The melting of mountain glaciers and the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica, alongside the thermal expansion of warming oceans, play significant roles.
Satellite monitoring of sea levels commenced in the 1990s, revealing a previously stable rise estimated at approximately 3.6 mm per year. However, significant data collected by Leclerc’s team highlights a shift post-2012, with the average increase accelerating from 2.9 mm/year to 4.1 mm/year.
Jonathan Bamber from the University of Bristol, who was not involved in the study, comments, “That’s not a robust signal. We’re not observing centimeters per year.”
Despite this, Bamber acknowledges that analyzing satellite data alongside century-old tide gauge records indicates a clear acceleration in sea level rise.
The researchers believe this increase stems frommultiple factors rather than a single cause. In addition to ice sheets melting at an accelerated rate, there’s a notable decrease in freshwater stored on land, which contributes more water to the oceans.
Moreover, the rate of global warming has intensified since around 2010, primarily due to reduced aerosol pollution in countries like China. Aerosols have a cooling effect, historically mitigating the impact of rising CO2 levels.
Leclerc presented findings at the European Geosciences Union (EGU) conference in Vienna, suggesting that decreasing air pollution contributes to accelerating sea level rise, highlighted in research published on May 5th.
Team member Annie Cazenave from the University of Toulouse remarked, “The trend change observed around 2012 seems related, in part, to an increase in anthropogenic radiation forcing linked to reduced aerosol emissions.”
Another study at the EGU meeting indicated that ocean water deeper than 2 kilometers has begun warming and expanding within the last decade, contributing further to the rise.
Prior to 2016, all recognized causes of sea level increase accounted for the observed global average rise. However, Yang Chunxue from Italy’s National Research Council indicates that these factors alone no longer explain the total increase observed since.
Yang proposed that we’ve overlooked significant contributors, likely including deep ocean warming—an area lacking systematic temperature measurements below 2 kilometers depth. Presently, around 4,000 robotic probes measure oceanic temperatures, but none extend this deep.
Using ocean models, Yang and their collaborators suggest that warming within shallower depths may help clarify the gap in sea level measurements. Their study indicates substantial deep ocean warming is occurring, particularly in the North Atlantic off the US east coast.
“Research suggests deep ocean warming began around 2016,” states Kazunabe, another study contributor. “Further investigation is necessary to confirm its correlation with the early 2010s trend change.”
The research team has estimated that deep ocean warming contributes an estimated 0.4 mm per year to sea level rise, accounting for roughly 10 percent of overall increases.
Recent advancements in interstellar travel technology have brought us closer to utilizing light sails—massive sheets that harness reflected light to journey vast distances in space. Researchers have now developed a method to effectively pilot these innovative sails.
Kaushik Kudalkar from Texas A&M University comments, “We understood that any light or laser could transmit momentum, but our breakthrough allows for directional control.” His team has designed a compact device called the “metajet,” leveraging both refraction and reflection to enable motion in multiple directions simultaneously.
The metajet is crafted from a metasurface, a thin, textured material engineered to manipulate light. In this project, researchers inverted traditional applications by using light to influence the metasurface. A series of small pillars embedded in the material modulate the light intensity and momentum, controlling the device’s movement. The overall diameter of the metajet is approximately 0.01mm.
In experimental trials, the researchers submerged a silicon metajet in water and illuminated it with a laser, observing its movements through a microscope. Remarkably, the metajet managed to levitate and propel itself horizontally, achieving speeds of around 0.07 millimeters per second.
Metajet in Motion: Captured Every 10 Seconds
Kaushik Kudtarkar et al. 2026
Kudalkar emphasizes, “Now that we understand the forces acting on this device, we can redesign the metasurface for increased control.” They envision metasurfaces capable of changing shape dynamically, paving the way for advanced light sails in space exploration.
These technologies have implications beyond space; they can also be adapted for biomedical applications, such as directing drugs to specific sites. Kudalkar states, “While lasers can push drugs, they risk damaging sensitive molecules due to heat. With MetaJet, drugs can be delivered without exposure to harmful heat from the laser.”
The research team is exploring compatibility with various light wavelengths, particularly broad-spectrum sunlight, to enhance the effectiveness of light sails in space travel. “This pushes the boundaries of science fiction,” says Kudalkar.
We’ve all faced the struggles of bathroom visits. Instead of sitting uncomfortably and waiting for relief, why not explore some effective ways to enhance your experience?
Improving your time on the toilet can be achieved by incorporating fiber into your diet, staying well-hydrated, and maintaining regular exercise. These habits may take time to develop, but there’s a simple change you can make today.
According to Dr. Trisha Pasricha, a gastroenterologist and professor at Harvard Medical School, “The easiest way is to elevate your knees above hip level.” You can do this using a stool, a stack of books, or even high heels, depending on your stature.
“This adjustment makes bowel movements significantly easier, even for those who don’t realize they have issues,” Dr. Pasricha adds.
Research supports Dr. Pasricha’s claims. A 2019 study by Ohio State University examined the impact of defecation positions on 52 adults. Participants documented their bowel movements for two weeks: one group used a standard toilet posture while the other utilized a “defecation posture correction device,” or footstool.
The study revealed that after over 1,100 bathroom visits, those using the footstool experienced reduced time on the toilet, decreased strain, and enhanced feelings of emptiness afterward. You can read the findings here.
Why does this work? Dr. Pasricha explains that elevating your knees relaxes the rectum. “The rectum functions as a reservoir for stool,” she elaborates. “It contains the puborectalis muscle that wraps around it, acting like a sling.”
While this muscle’s function is beneficial to prevent premature release, sitting at a 90-degree angle can obstruct this process.
Conversely, squatting straightens your rectum, allowing for smoother bowel movements. A review of 42 studies concluded that squatting significantly reduces the likelihood of constipation and hemorrhoids.
Using your phone in the bathroom can be fun, but it may distract you from the task at hand – Credit: Getty
While squatting is a common practice globally, many in the US and Europe prefer sitting toilets.
Dr. Pasricha notes, “We’ve accepted sitting as the norm. I understand the preference for stability on a toilet, but we compromise our physiological function in doing so.”
For those comfortable with traditional toilets, using a footstool can provide the benefits of squatting without the hassle.
Raising your knees above your hips can open the rectum and facilitate easier bowel movements.
Even a small footstool can increase the anorectal angle by 10 to 15 degrees – Credit: Getty
It’s worth noting that while a footstool is helpful, recent research from Australia and Israel showed no significant changes for individuals suffering from constipation despite using it.
Nevertheless, Dr. Pasricha suggests this approach could alleviate an “artificial, self-created problem that is counter to our physiology.”
For optimal results, a Japanese study indicates that leaning forward can further enhance your bowel freedom.
So, if you find yourself struggling, remember: it’s not you, it’s your angle.
An ambitious engineering project looms on the horizon: constructing a dam between Alaska and eastern Russia. This innovative proposal aims to combat the dire consequences of a weakening ocean current, and is under serious consideration at a prominent conference this week.
The seeds of this groundbreaking idea were sown by Jere Soon and his collaborator Henk Dijkstra, a researcher focused on the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) at Utrecht University, Netherlands. This current system, including the Gulf Stream, is crucial for keeping northern Europe warmer than its geographical latitude would suggest.
Current data indicates that the AMOC is weakening. The potential effects of its collapse are uncertain, but many models hint at a possible significant drop in temperatures across Northern Europe.
The concept was inspired by the Pliocene era, when sea levels were considerably lower and a land bridge existed where the Bering Strait now lies. During this time, simulations revealed a stronger AMOC due to the presence of this land bridge. “I thought: can we replicate this?” says Soon.
To explore the implications of such dam construction, Soon and Dijkstra simulated various AMOC scenarios, adjusting the construction date and freshwater levels.
Freshwater plays a crucial role in this dynamic, currently flowing from the Pacific Ocean into the North Atlantic through the Bering Strait, which in turn disrupts the AMOC. Constructing a dam could either halt or considerably slow this freshwater flow.
In a recent study, Soons and Dijkstra obtained mixed results: in certain scenarios, dams seemed to enhance the AMOC, while in others, they produced the opposite effect. It’s important to note that these findings were derived from relatively basic, low-resolution models.
On May 5, Dr. Soons presented significant research results at the European Geosciences Union General Assembly in Vienna, Austria. Simulations were re-evaluated using a supercomputer that employed advanced climate models. The results indicate that closing the strait could reinforce the AMOC, particularly if dams are constructed by 2050. “I was surprised at how robust the recovery was,” Soon remarked.
The Bering Strait, at its deepest point, measures only 59 meters and features two small islands in the middle, suggesting the viability of constructing a barrier. Ed McCann, former president of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers and current head of expedition engineering, suggests that rather than concrete, using flotation machinery to build barriers with rock and dredged sand would be most efficient. “This type of construction is straightforward, albeit large-scale and costly,” he commented via email.
Jonathan Rosser, a researcher at the London School of Economics, finds the study intriguing. However, he emphasizes that due to the AMOC’s complexities, we cannot fully predict the outcomes of such interventions. “These drastic measures come with significant uncertainty.”
Suhn concurs, cautioning that while dam construction may benefit Northern Europe, it could lead to adverse effects elsewhere, such as altered rainfall patterns. “Are we ready to take this seriously? I don’t think we’re there yet,” he concluded.
This isn’t the first consideration of constructing gigantic ocean dams to address climate change. In 2020, Sjoerd Groeskamp from the Royal Netherlands Marine Institute proposed the “Northern European Enclosure Dam,” designed to create barriers around the sea between the UK and mainland Europe, protecting low-lying areas from rising seas.
Such dams would undoubtedly impact not only the climate but also marine mammal migration, tidal patterns, and transport access to isolated regions. Mr. Soons noted that he has explored ideas like constructing partial barriers or lowering them to a depth of approximately 10 meters. These concepts are “interesting,” he said, though he has yet to thoroughly analyze their feasibility.
The evolution of hi-fi systems began in the 1950s, featuring separate components like turntables and amplifiers that enabled precise control over sound reproduction. The 1970s marked the golden age of analog, establishing standards for audio excellence that enthusiasts continue to seek.
In the past 50 years, music technology and listening habits have undergone significant transformations. Hi-Fi engineers face the challenge of meeting rising expectations amid technological advancements. The advent of streaming has notably disrupted the landscape, raising the question: Does streaming sacrifice quality, or can it offer the richness of analog alongside the convenience of digital music?
Explore how Hi-Fi engineering is adapting to this new musical era.
For hi-fi to thrive in the future of music, it must evolve. Modern users demand convenience, high-quality sound, and smart features. “Listening to music has become effortless for younger generations, but crafting a listening experience that highlights the music we think we should hear has never been more challenging,” says Naim Audio, a leader in high-end audio. “That’s our mission.”
Hi-Fi manufacturers are stepping up to meet these modern demands. Let’s delve into the features you can expect.
Wireless Technology
Gone are the days of tangled wires behind your hi-fi system. Modern wireless setups offer aesthetic appeal and convenience. While earlier wireless options suffered from latency issues, today’s innovations strive for minimal delays and seamless playback.
Naim Audio excels in timing and low-noise design, partnering with French audio specialist Focal to create the Focal Diva Utopia active loudspeaker. This collaboration combines cutting-edge Naim electronics with Focal’s acoustic prowess, delivering convenience without sacrificing quality.
Exceptional Sound Quality
Recent advancements in digital signal processing (DSP) and audio compression have led to clearer, more immersive sound. While some analog purists criticize digital sound as overly “clinical,” the latest Hi-Fi tech enables listeners to experience the clarity of digital with the warmth of analog. Naim Audio engineers carefully fine-tune DSP filters to maintain the emotional depth and texture of music, preserving the critical PRaT (pace, rhythm, and timing) that makes music resonate.
Smart Features
Naim Audio’s premium systems seamlessly integrate into your home with built-in software, allowing music to flow effortlessly from room to room. Compatible with the Focal and Naim apps or voice assistants like Google Assistant and Siri, these systems adapt to modern lifestyles. Moreover, Naim and Focal systems support over-the-air firmware updates, enabling users to enjoy new features without needing to replace hardware.
Looking ahead, there’s immense potential for AI-driven systems that can automatically calibrate sound to suit room acoustics or individual listening preferences.
Founded in 1973, Naim Audio operates under the motto: “Hear it the way the artist intended.” This philosophy drives all innovations in Hi-Fi design, technology, and engineering. Both Naim and Focal product lines are crafted from premium materials and deliver outstanding audio performance.
The newly launched Diva Utopia speaker, a collaboration between Focal and Naim, exemplifies excellence and innovation. Click below to discover more about the Diva Utopia and other pioneering products from Focal.
A detailed review by paleontologists at the Field Museum of Natural History consolidates the latest fossil evidence of Archeopteryx, including the examination of five newly described specimens. The research highlights what the authors believe to be the most well-preserved specimen to date, offering an unparalleled insight into the ecology, behavior, and daily life of this iconic feathered dinosaur. Contrary to earlier assumptions, researchers assert that Archeopteryx was neither a solely terrestrial hunter nor a fully modern flier, but rather an ecological generalist capable of scrambling, perching, gliding, and flapping throughout coastal forests and tidal flats approximately 150 million years ago.
Reconstruction of Archeopteryx showcasing diverse locomotion modes in its habitat: (A) Flapping to a high perch; (B) Perched; (C) Gliding from heights; (D) Scansorial movements. Image credit: Field Museum / NICE PaleoVisLab Studio / Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology.
Around 150 million years ago, during the Jurassic period, a small creature navigated the scrublands of what is now southern Germany. This remarkable animal had teeth reminiscent of reptiles, the claws of a predator, and feathered wings indicative of a newfound ability to leave the ground.
Paleontologists have spent over a century debating the capabilities of Archeopteryx. According to paleontologists Jingmai O’Connor and Alexander Clark from the Field Museum, “Archeopteryx from the 150-million-year-old Solnhofen-Prattenkalk deposit is known as the oldest bird to exhibit feathered wings for voluntary locomotion, marking it as the oldest known dinosaur.”
The researchers highlight that while the slightly younger Baminornis (dated between 149 and 148 million years ago) has a more advanced pectoral girdle, Archeopteryx remains vitally important for understanding the evolutionary transition from terrestrial life.
In their comprehensive paper, the researchers synthesized existing knowledge and assembled fossils of Archeopteryx, including the five newly analyzed specimens, to reconstruct its life.
“The description of five new Archeopteryx specimens represents a significant advancement in our understanding of this taxon,” they state, noting that four of these specimens are either complete or nearly complete (including exceptional finds from Chicago and Thermopolis).
The Chicago specimen, in particular, has been meticulously prepared for scientific analysis, preserving novel soft tissues that provide crucial insights.
The new analysis posits that limited powered flight was plausible for Archeopteryx. Its primary plumage displays asymmetry similar to that found in today’s birds, a trait absent in their flightless relatives.
Unlike modern pigeons that take off vertically, Archeopteryx might have launched from high perches, navigating headwinds, or ascending slopes while flapping its wings.
“As the oldest known bird, critical questions persist about the feasibility of flight in Archeopteryx,” the researchers note. “The evidence suggests some capacity for powered flight alongside gliding when energetically beneficial, akin to many modern birds.”
An overview of Archeopteryx‘s possible food web illustrating an omnivorous diet throughout various life stages, including its significance as prey for other organisms. Image credit: Field Museum / NICE PaleoVisLab Studio / Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology / Samantha Clark.
One of the notable discoveries relates to Archeopteryx‘s first digit, or big toe. While the hallux of non-flying theropod dinosaurs typically faces forward and is designed for little grasping, in Archeopteryx, it is inverted, facing backward, suggesting an adaptation for gripping branches or rocks.
Although fossilized stomach contents remain undiscovered, the skull and mouth structure reveal intriguing clues about feeding adaptations that resemble those of modern birds. These adaptations include evidence of a primitive beak-like organ and a mobile tongue capable of manipulating food, suggesting that Archeopteryx targeted small, energy-dense foods such as insects and seeds to support its higher energy needs associated with flight.
The warm, seasonally dry climate of the Solnhofen Islands would have favored opportunistic omnivores by offering a varied year-round food supply.
“Evidence points to a primarily warm and dry climate with heterogeneous flora,” the researchers noted. “Fossil records indicate occasional wet seasons creating temporary water bodies, influencing food availability for Archeopteryx throughout the year.”
Regarding the bird’s coloration, chemical analysis of an isolated holotype feather hinted at white and black pigmentation. Such patterns may have provided camouflage against the open, weedy landscape, confusing potential predators.
Further analysis suggests that Archeopteryx was likely diurnal and active during bright daylight. “Given its diverse locomotion behaviors, Archeopteryx likely frequented the ground, medium- to large-sized plants, and the air, interacting with various substrates,” the researchers concluded.
Throughout its life, Archeopteryx would have utilized an array of food sources from the plant and animal kingdoms, supporting a wide range of organisms, from saprophytic parasites to apex predators.
The researchers emphasize that the differences examined in ecological terms reveal how flight adaptations may have influenced both the skeletal and soft tissue anatomy of Archeopteryx.
The team’s findings were published in a paper in the Journal of Ecology on April 21, 2026.
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JK O’Connor and AD Clarke. 2026. Archeopteryx. Journal of Ecology 2, 12; doi: 10.1007/s44396-026-00026-z
Understanding Genome Duplication in Flowering Plants
Credit: David Chapman/Alamy
Recent research indicates that extra copies of genetic material may have enabled flowering plants to endure mass extinctions, including the event that led to the demise of the dinosaurs.
A pivotal discovery reveals that angiosperms—flowering plants like daisies, grasses, and fruit trees—survived major ecological upheavals throughout Earth’s history due to accidental genome duplications. While multiple genomes can typically pose an evolutionary challenge, these tumultuous periods may have provided opportunities for angiosperms to flourish, allowing them to dominate today’s plant life.
Generally, sexually reproducing species possess two sets of chromosomes—one inherited from each parent. However, many plants, especially angiosperms, exhibit a phenomenon known as polyploidy, characterized by having multiple chromosome sets due to failures in meiotic division. Some plants, such as potatoes and specific wheat varieties, can have up to four or even more sets of chromosomes.
About one-third of current angiosperms are classified as polyploid. Researchers, including Hengchi Chen from the University of Göttingen, Germany, suggest that historical instances of genome duplication are relatively infrequent, though. “Most polyploid organisms went extinct during prolonged evolutionary transitions,” Chen remarks.
Chen and his research team sought to understand why certain ancient genome duplications in angiosperms took hold while others did not. They studied the genomes of 470 angiosperm species, constructing an evolutionary tree that illustrated 132 distinct instances of genome duplication over 150 million years.
These duplications clustered around nine significant prehistoric epochs, from 108 million to 14 million years ago, often coinciding with substantial environmental shifts or geological events, including climate changes, shifts in oxygen levels, and mass extinctions like the Cretaceous asteroid impact that eliminated non-avian dinosaurs. During these unstable periods, polyploid plants experienced significant advantages.
Although polyploidy can be a hindrance—impeding growth and complicating reproduction with non-polyploid species—these times of environmental stress may have facilitated the rise of polyploid plants. Factors such as extreme weather conditions could trigger reproductive failures, fostering an increase in ploidy levels, Chen explains. Additionally, polyploid plants exhibit heightened resilience to stressors like drought and salinity, allowing their extra genes to adapt to rapidly changing environments. As competitors faltered, new opportunities arose within these evolving ecosystems.
“Originally small and often overshadowed in their populations, polyploid individuals gained access to more resources and demonstrated adaptive advantages in response to stress,” Chen details, highlighting their improved survival rates.
The adaptive flexibility and redundancy of the genomes in angiosperms, he concludes, may be key drivers behind their evolutionary success.
Meanwhile, researchers like Pamela Soltis at the Florida Museum of Natural History in Gainesville, emphasize the need for large-scale genomic analyses across a wider array of angiosperm species to refine these findings. “This study is ambitious for its scale, yet the 470 species examined reflect just a fraction of the nearly 400,000 known angiosperm species,” Soltis states, noting the rapid pace at which new genomic data is becoming available.
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