A new genus and species of early monophenestratan pterosaur has been identified by paleontologists, based on a nearly complete and exceptionally preserved fossil skeleton found in Bavaria, Germany.
Holotype specimen of Laueropterus vitriolus viewed under natural light. Image credit: DWE Hone, doi: 10.7717/peerj.21204.
Pterosaurs were the first vertebrates to achieve powered flight, appearing roughly 210 million years ago and evolving from small birds to colossal creatures with wingspans comparable to small airplanes.
The newly described species, named Laueropterus vitriolus, belongs to a group of early pterosaurs known as monophenestratans. With a wingspan measuring approximately 1 meter (3.3 feet), it ranks among the largest members of this migratory group ever found.
“Early monofenestratans represent a relatively recent discovery in pterosaur evolution, first identified in 2010,” stated study author Dr. David Horne, a zoology reader at Queen Mary University of London.
“Through various analyses, these taxa were classified as both a clade and grade existing between non-monophenestratans and pterodactyls.”
“Some of the most advanced taxa have been designated as pterodactyls, representing derived monofenestratan and pterodactyl clades.”
The fossilized skeleton of Laueropterus vitriolus was unearthed in the Schaudyberg quarry around 2007, from the Mornsheim Formation.
This fossil dates back 150 to 143 million years (late Jurassic period), and includes the skull, jaw, spinal column, and most of the wings.
“The specimen is preserved on a sizable limestone slab measuring approximately 60 cm x 45 cm (2 feet x 1.5 feet),” Dr. Horne explained.
“The slab is predominantly gray, featuring thick white bars arranged at right angles that intersect at various points.”
“Pterosaur fossils are often exceptionally well-preserved and undistorted, allowing for clear outlines of thin elements such as the sternal plate.”
Laueropterus vitriolus exhibits a combination of both primitive and advanced features, including a large skull with a single opening that integrates the nostril and antorbital fenestra, characteristic of monophenestratan pterosaurs, alongside relatively short wing bones typical of earlier forms.
“Laueropterus vitriolus marks the fourth non-pterodactyl monophenestratan pterosaur discovered in Mülheim, alongside Skifosora, macrodactylus, and Rhamphodactylus,” Dr. Horne noted.
“This discovery represents the only other record of this grade in the region, with Proterodactylus found in much older deposits, highlighting that non-pterodactyl monophenestratans are significantly more common here.”
“Hundreds of pterosaur fossils have been excavated from the renowned Solnhofen Formation, yet fewer than a dozen non-pterodactyl monophenestratans have been documented in Mülheim, making this find exceptionally notable.”
DWE Horne. 2026. A new, early monophenestratan pterosaur discovered from the Mornsheim Formation in southern Germany. PeerJ 14: e21204; doi: 10.7717/peerj.21204
Exciting new findings from NASA’s Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) spacecraft indicate that the Zwan-Wolf effect—where charged particles are expelled through magnetic structures known as flux tubes—is also influencing Mars’ upper atmosphere. This phenomenon was previously believed to be exclusive to Earth’s magnetosphere.
An artistic rendering of the Zwan-Wolf effect on Mars observed by NASA’s MAVEN mission. Image credit: LASP/CU Boulder.
“While analyzing MAVEN data, we discovered a remarkable change,” said Dr. Christopher Fowler, a researcher at West Virginia University.
“We never anticipated this effect because it had not been documented in any planet’s atmosphere before.”
The Zwan-Wolf effect was first identified in 1976 and had only been recorded within planetary magnetospheres until now.
In contrast to Earth, Mars lacks a global magnetic field, which significantly impacts how it interacts with solar wind and space weather.
The MAVEN spacecraft detected the Zwan-Wolf effect within Mars’ ionosphere—less than 200 km above the surface—where a notable number of charged particles reside.
Mars has an induced magnetosphere, produced by solar wind interacting with its ionosphere, but this field’s size and form can vary dramatically due to large solar wind and space weather events.
This variability is what Dr. Fowler and his team observed in MAVEN data during a massive solar storm on Mars.
The team suspects that the Zwan-Wolf effect could be constantly occurring in Mars’ ionosphere but at levels undetectable by MAVEN’s instruments.
Currently, space weather phenomena appear to have intensified, allowing researchers to observe it in their findings.
Initially, the authors noticed intriguing fluctuations in the magnetic field as the spacecraft traversed the Martian atmosphere.
To clarify these observations, they conducted a more detailed analysis using multiple MAVEN instruments, including charged particle measurement capabilities in the ionosphere.
Further analysis revealed additional fascinating features within the data.
After eliminating other possibilities, they identified the Zwan-Wolf effect as the reason for the observations.
“No one anticipated this effect in the atmosphere,” Dr. Fowler remarked.
“This discovery is thrilling; it introduces complexities in physics that remain unexplored and sheds light on new ways solar and space weather can influence Mars’ atmospheric dynamics.”
“Understanding the Zwan-Wolf effect on Mars enhances our knowledge of space weather’s impact and offers fresh insights into similar phenomena on non-magnetic celestial bodies like Venus and Saturn’s moon Titan.”
“These observations underscore the need to comprehend how large-scale space weather fluctuations can lead to environmental changes on Mars, potentially affecting assets both on the planet and in its vicinity.”
“Understanding space weather’s interactions with Mars is vital,” stated Dr. Shannon Currie, a researcher at the University of Colorado Boulder’s Institute for Atmospheric and Space Physics and MAVEN’s principal investigator.
“The MAVEN team continues to analyze our dataset for new discoveries and connections between our Sun and Mars.”
For a detailed look at this research, see the study published in this week’s edition of Nature Communications.
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C.M. Fowler et al. 2026. The Zwan-Wolf effect is detected in the ionosphere of Mars. Nat Commun, 17, 4224; doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-72251-9
From protein powders to protein-fortified snacks like popcorn and pancakes, supermarket aisles are brimming with options. But what fuels this booming trend in protein consumption? Donald Layman, a professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, has contributed significantly to this field, having conducted over 100 studies. His research predominantly focuses on leucine, a vital amino acid linked to muscle growth and repair. This makes protein an essential nutrient for both young individuals aiming for a defined physique and older adults looking to combat age-related muscle loss. According to New Scientist, here are the three crucial insights you need about protein.
1. The Protein Craze: Is It Overhyped?
If you’re taking the time to read about protein, you’re likely already mindful of your diet and aiming to avoid protein deficiency. The latest U.S. dietary guidelines recommend consuming between 1.2 to 1.6 grams of protein for every kilogram of body weight daily. Achieving this is simple with a well-rounded, omnivorous diet low in ultra-processed foods.
While there’s no strong evidence indicating that excessive protein intake is detrimental, the benefits don’t continually increase with higher consumption. In fact, protein intake beyond 1.6 grams per kilogram of body weight may not lead to significantly greater muscle gains.
If you find protein labels on unexpected foods like popcorn, it may indicate an unhealthy trend. The additional protein from fortified products does little to enhance overall dietary health. Simply slapping the word “protein” on packaging does not inherently make a food healthier.
2. Decoding Protein Intake
When calculating your protein needs, remember to distinguish between the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) of 0.8 grams per kilogram of body weight daily and the dietary guidelines aimed at optimal health. The RDA serves as the minimum requirement to avoid deficiency, while dietary guidelines recommend higher intakes for overall well-being.
Increased consumption of ultra-processed foods has resulted in a decline in dietary quality. According to recent findings, half of U.S. adults fall below the recommended protein intake outlined in dietary guidelines. The goal is to achieve 1.2 to 1.6 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight daily.
However, athletes and bodybuilders may choose to consume more than the standard recommendations. Your individual protein requirements will depend on factors such as age, activity level, body composition, and the type of protein consumed.
Understanding your optimal protein needs can be tricky. Start by examining the protein content of the foods you regularly consume. For instance, 100 grams of chicken breast provides about 32 grams of protein, while an egg contributes 6 grams. This can give you a rough estimate of whether you’re meeting your protein requirements. A healthy woman in her 30s who exercises moderately might aim for about 70 to 90 grams per day. Starting the day with a boiled egg and enjoying a chicken sandwich for lunch can help achieve this target.
3. Prioritizing Protein Sources
It’s entirely feasible for vegetarians and vegans to meet their protein needs, but it requires careful meal planning. Meat, fish, dairy, and eggs are generally more protein-rich than plant sources. For instance, to match the protein content of 100 grams of chicken breast, one would need to consume 3 cups of cooked beans or over 200 almonds.
Additionally, protein from plants is often less bioavailable. For example, nearly 100% of chicken protein is absorbed by the body, whereas absorption rates are about 75% for beans and less than 60% for almonds.
Protein deficiency may not manifest for 1 to 2 weeks, but many people adopt vegetarian or vegan diets in their 20s or 30s. While moderating protein can be manageable at that age, challenges may arise in the 40s, leading to fatigue and weaker hair and nails. Those following low-calorie diets while taking appetite-suppressing medications, like GLP-1 weight loss drugs including semaglutide, might face further risks.
I typically advise vegans and older adults to consider protein shakes. As we age, our appetite tends to decrease and protein utilization efficiency drops. Consequently, older adults losing muscle mass may have an increased risk of hip fractures from falls. Incorporating a protein shake into your daily routine can serve as a useful safeguard.
Humans inadvertently impact their environment with every muscle movement they make.
As climate change persists, our lifestyles—including diets, transportation, and comfort choices—are facing increasing scrutiny, particularly as the human population continues to grow. Recently, our online behaviors have also come under examination.
The rise of AI has highlighted the substantial energy and water demands of digital technologies.
A 2026 report predicts that global AI usage, especially the data centers that support it, will produce CO2 emissions comparable to that of New York City within a year.
Moreover, estimates suggest that every 5 to 50 queries to ChatGPT requires 0.5 liters of water (about 1/10th of a gallon) to cool its servers.
But how does AI usage contrast with other online activities, such as streaming movies or scrolling through social media?
Global AI usage is estimated to emit CO₂ equivalent to that of New York City within a year – Photo credit: Getty
Comparing one technology to another or one platform to another can be challenging, but some analysts have attempted to do so.
For instance, AI and tech writer Andy Masley calculated that the average ChatGPT query emits 0.28g of CO2. This is roughly equal to streaming video for 35 seconds, uploading nine photos to social media, or using a laptop for one minute.
It’s important to note that assessing the total environmental impact of AI is complicated due to the extensive resources needed for model training, making precise calculations challenging.
A simpler way to gauge the environmental costs of online activities is by examining the amount of data consumed at any given moment.
For example, reading a text post on LinkedIn utilizes less data than watching a video on TikTok. Similarly, a text query to an AI chatbot consumes much less data compared to generating an AI text-to-video request.
Cloud-based gaming is among the biggest online culprits, requiring gaming servers to operate continuously.
However, a 2025 report from the carbon accounting firm Greenly indicates that physical video games are 100 times more carbon-intensive than online streaming, due to the manufacturing of discs and packaging, product distribution, and their eventual disposal in landfills or incinerators.
Cloud-based gaming can be one of the most environmentally harmful activities online, requiring servers to run continuously – Photo credit: Getty
This illustrates a broader truth: our offline activities typically have a significantly greater environmental impact than our online endeavors.
Another analysis from Greenly indicates that an annual subscription to Netflix (based on average viewing time) results in approximately 17 kg of CO2 emissions, roughly equivalent to a 60-mile trip in a gasoline vehicle.
A single flight from London to Berlin generates ten times more emissions per economy passenger. Additionally, consuming just one sirloin steak produces more carbon (20-30 kg depending on size) than a year’s worth of binge-watching Bridgerton.
In summary, if reducing your carbon footprint is a priority, while managing screen time is important, factors such as your purchases, dietary choices, and travel habits have a more significant impact.
This article addresses the question posed by Adeline Cliffe of Lisburn: “What is the worst thing you can do for the planet online?”
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Picture a quantum computer. You might think of it as a traditional computer but enhanced. However, this assumption is misleading. Quantum computers operate on unique quantum phenomena occurring in qubits, setting them apart from classical computers. Their unusual nature gives rise to myths and misconceptions. Quantum computing expert Shayan Majidi, lead author at Harvard University, provides insights in Building a Quantum Computer. Here, we explore the latest developments in this field.
1. Quantum Computers Are Already Here
Recently, while flying, a fellow passenger asked, “When will we actually have quantum computers?” The reality is they already exist and are in use daily. Researchers across the globe are utilizing quantum computers, with some companies offering public access, enabling individuals to harness their power from home.
However, quantum computers don’t resemble the large-scale language models we routinely use on laptops. These machines are specialized tools, and their applications greatly differ. Scientists are continually enhancing quantum computers, using them to create foundational elements for future systems or to explore fundamental scientific inquiries.
We’re on the verge of showcasing how quantum computers can solve problems that classical systems cannot. In the next 5 to 10 years, I anticipate that students will routinely access quantum computers via the cloud for experimental purposes.
2. Quantum Computers Won’t Simplify All Calculations
A common misconception is that quantum computers will surpass classical systems in speed, rendering them obsolete. In reality, quantum computers excel in specific applications rather than offering a blanket increase in speed.
Notable examples include factoring large numbers faster than any classical algorithm, which is crucial for decryption, and rapidly searching unstructured data. Additionally, quantum systems excel in simulating quantum phenomena, conducting sampling tasks, solving specific optimization challenges, and addressing linear algebra problems under particular conditions.
The advantage of quantum systems lies not in speed but in the thoughtfully designed quantum algorithms they utilize. These algorithms take advantage of critical quantum effects, like superposition, interference, and entanglement, making them highly effective for a narrow range of applications.
For the vast majority of tasks—like web browsing, texting, or gaming—quantum computers provide no tangible benefits over conventional laptops. Problems that are deemed quantum-easy are complex for classical computers, and vice versa. Thus, utilizing quantum computers for simple tasks would be a massive inefficiency.
3. Quantum Computers Are Not Equivalent to Multiple Classical Computers Working Simultaneously
Many envision quantum computers operating by placing qubits in a superposition, enabling simultaneous calculations; however, this is a misconception. A superposition state indicates that a qubit can represent both 0 and 1 at once. For n qubits, the potential states are exponentially large, approximately 2n options. However, the idea of infinite parallelism is a myth since you cannot read this information directly. Once a qubit is measured, it collapses into a conventional classical value.
The true capabilities of quantum computers are more intricate. They can generate numerous answers and leverage algorithms to enhance correct responses while diminishing incorrect ones. A well-designed algorithm integrates these superimposed possibilities, ensuring that the accurate answer surfaces during the final measurement.
Scientists suggest that the lethal hantavirus, which infected 11 passengers on a Dutch cruise ship, may have existed alongside humans for millennia. However, insights into human infections largely stem from a limited number of outbreaks over the past century.
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The first recorded hantavirus outbreak occurred during the Korean War in the 1950s, impacting around 3,000 UN soldiers, who fell ill from a mysterious disease later identified as hantavirus.
It wasn’t until 1978 that scientists connected the virus to rodents in the Hantan River area of South Korea, leading to the naming of hantavirus.
In 1993, the first case was diagnosed in North America, followed by Argentina reporting the first known case of human-to-human transmission in 1996.
While hantaviruses are rare, they are significantly more lethal than respiratory viruses such as coronaviruses and influenza. Only one strain, not found in the continental U.S., can be transmitted between humans, linked to outbreaks on cruise ships that necessitated worldwide quarantines for passengers.
Previous limited cases of hantavirus infection provide insights into how cruise ship passengers fell ill, though medical experts assert that more research is needed.
“The study was exceptionally challenging due to the rarity of the disease,” stated Dr. Charles Chiu, a laboratory medicine and infectious diseases professor at the University of California, San Francisco.
Between 1993 and 2023, fewer than 900 hantavirus cases were reported in the U.S. Investigating each case can be complicated, as many patients succumb soon after symptoms develop, with fatality rates reaching up to 50% depending on the strain and transmission method.
“This recent outbreak will offer further insights, as we rarely encounter such a situation with more than a handful of cases,” noted Dr. Gregory Martz, professor emeritus of internal medicine at the University of New Mexico.
Below is an overview of significant hantavirus outbreaks in recent history.
Outbreaks in the Four Corners and Yosemite
In 1993, public health officials initiated an investigation into a mysterious outbreak in the Four Corners area of the United States, where Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah intersect.
The first incident that raised alarms involved a 19-year-old distance runner from New Mexico, whose fiancée had recently died from an unexplained respiratory illness. He sought medical attention twice due to symptoms including fever, muscle aches, and gastrointestinal issues but was misdiagnosed and ultimately passed away just before his fiancée’s funeral.
“Some doctors recognized a pattern in multiple cases and suspected they were dealing with an unfamiliar illness,” commented Mertz, who contributed to the outbreak investigation.
The CDC later confirmed hantavirus via antibody testing and autopsy findings. At the time, it was unknown whether the virus infected humans in North America. This specific strain, named “Sin Nombre,” was linked to deer mice, which proliferated in the Four Corners region following an unusually wet spring. By August 1993, about 30 confirmed cases of infection were reported in the southwestern United States, 20 of which resulted in fatalities.
A detailed review by paleontologists at the Field Museum of Natural History consolidates the latest fossil evidence of Archeopteryx, including the examination of five newly described specimens. The research highlights what the authors believe to be the most well-preserved specimen to date, offering an unparalleled insight into the ecology, behavior, and daily life of this iconic feathered dinosaur. Contrary to earlier assumptions, researchers assert that Archeopteryx was neither a solely terrestrial hunter nor a fully modern flier, but rather an ecological generalist capable of scrambling, perching, gliding, and flapping throughout coastal forests and tidal flats approximately 150 million years ago.
Reconstruction of Archeopteryx showcasing diverse locomotion modes in its habitat: (A) Flapping to a high perch; (B) Perched; (C) Gliding from heights; (D) Scansorial movements. Image credit: Field Museum / NICE PaleoVisLab Studio / Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology.
Around 150 million years ago, during the Jurassic period, a small creature navigated the scrublands of what is now southern Germany. This remarkable animal had teeth reminiscent of reptiles, the claws of a predator, and feathered wings indicative of a newfound ability to leave the ground.
Paleontologists have spent over a century debating the capabilities of Archeopteryx. According to paleontologists Jingmai O’Connor and Alexander Clark from the Field Museum, “Archeopteryx from the 150-million-year-old Solnhofen-Prattenkalk deposit is known as the oldest bird to exhibit feathered wings for voluntary locomotion, marking it as the oldest known dinosaur.”
The researchers highlight that while the slightly younger Baminornis (dated between 149 and 148 million years ago) has a more advanced pectoral girdle, Archeopteryx remains vitally important for understanding the evolutionary transition from terrestrial life.
In their comprehensive paper, the researchers synthesized existing knowledge and assembled fossils of Archeopteryx, including the five newly analyzed specimens, to reconstruct its life.
“The description of five new Archeopteryx specimens represents a significant advancement in our understanding of this taxon,” they state, noting that four of these specimens are either complete or nearly complete (including exceptional finds from Chicago and Thermopolis).
The Chicago specimen, in particular, has been meticulously prepared for scientific analysis, preserving novel soft tissues that provide crucial insights.
The new analysis posits that limited powered flight was plausible for Archeopteryx. Its primary plumage displays asymmetry similar to that found in today’s birds, a trait absent in their flightless relatives.
Unlike modern pigeons that take off vertically, Archeopteryx might have launched from high perches, navigating headwinds, or ascending slopes while flapping its wings.
“As the oldest known bird, critical questions persist about the feasibility of flight in Archeopteryx,” the researchers note. “The evidence suggests some capacity for powered flight alongside gliding when energetically beneficial, akin to many modern birds.”
An overview of Archeopteryx‘s possible food web illustrating an omnivorous diet throughout various life stages, including its significance as prey for other organisms. Image credit: Field Museum / NICE PaleoVisLab Studio / Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology / Samantha Clark.
One of the notable discoveries relates to Archeopteryx‘s first digit, or big toe. While the hallux of non-flying theropod dinosaurs typically faces forward and is designed for little grasping, in Archeopteryx, it is inverted, facing backward, suggesting an adaptation for gripping branches or rocks.
Although fossilized stomach contents remain undiscovered, the skull and mouth structure reveal intriguing clues about feeding adaptations that resemble those of modern birds. These adaptations include evidence of a primitive beak-like organ and a mobile tongue capable of manipulating food, suggesting that Archeopteryx targeted small, energy-dense foods such as insects and seeds to support its higher energy needs associated with flight.
The warm, seasonally dry climate of the Solnhofen Islands would have favored opportunistic omnivores by offering a varied year-round food supply.
“Evidence points to a primarily warm and dry climate with heterogeneous flora,” the researchers noted. “Fossil records indicate occasional wet seasons creating temporary water bodies, influencing food availability for Archeopteryx throughout the year.”
Regarding the bird’s coloration, chemical analysis of an isolated holotype feather hinted at white and black pigmentation. Such patterns may have provided camouflage against the open, weedy landscape, confusing potential predators.
Further analysis suggests that Archeopteryx was likely diurnal and active during bright daylight. “Given its diverse locomotion behaviors, Archeopteryx likely frequented the ground, medium- to large-sized plants, and the air, interacting with various substrates,” the researchers concluded.
Throughout its life, Archeopteryx would have utilized an array of food sources from the plant and animal kingdoms, supporting a wide range of organisms, from saprophytic parasites to apex predators.
The researchers emphasize that the differences examined in ecological terms reveal how flight adaptations may have influenced both the skeletal and soft tissue anatomy of Archeopteryx.
The team’s findings were published in a paper in the Journal of Ecology on April 21, 2026.
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JK O’Connor and AD Clarke. 2026. Archeopteryx. Journal of Ecology 2, 12; doi: 10.1007/s44396-026-00026-z
A clandestine society of mathematicians has been operating under pseudonyms for nearly a century
Shutterstock/Stephen Ray Chapman
One of the most influential figures in modern mathematics, Nicolas Bourbaki, has reportedly been researching for almost a century, producing numerous books and publications that guide the entire field. Interestingly, Bourbaki is a pseudonymous figure who does not exist as an actual individual.
Bourbaki represents a secretive collective of mathematicians, initially formed in France in 1934. Their primary objective was to modernize mathematics textbooks, transforming them to meet contemporary reader needs. However, this endeavor culminated in the creation of an innovative approach to mathematical writing, impacting the field for decades.
The group initially anticipated that their study would comprise about 1,000 pages and be completed in six months. By 1935, Bourbaki had expanded its vision to include six interconnected volumes, aiming to “provide a comprehensive foundation for modern mathematics,” as expressed in an explanatory preface. While they were correct about the length, they were notably mistaken regarding the timeline.
Though these volumes (which eventually comprised several physical books) were intended to be read sequentially, Bourbaki’s first published text in 1939 turned out to be the concluding chapter of the first book on set theory. The group later published different sections intermittently before returning to finish set theory in 1954, finally completing the entire project in 1970. Collectively labeled as elements of mathematics, this singular title underscores the cohesion of the mathematicians’ work. The completion of this monumental collection extended into the 1980s, reaching nearly 4,000 pages. Even after that, Bourbaki continued to release new works as the original scope broadened.
This unorthodox publishing approach stemmed from Bourbaki’s distinctive methodology. The original group comprised six young mathematics professors, including Andre Weil, a prominent figure in number theory and algebraic geometry. Most members were former students of the École Normale Supérieure in Paris, and the group’s name emerged from a prank revolving around the notoriously obscure Bourbaki theorem.
This playful spirit fostered a strong sense of camaraderie. Meetings were lively, often involving shouting matches and humorous banter. One member crafted the proposed text and presented it line by line for critique and discussion, leading to a revised draft before reaching consensus. Given that chapters took an average of ten years to produce, the protracted timeline is understandable. This mathematical endeavor spanned generations, as Bourbaki members were required to retire at 50, making way for new recruits.
Eternal Challenges in Mathematics
Founding members of the Bourbaki Group gathered in France in 1935
Charmet/Bridgeman Image Archive
So, what was Bourbaki’s actual contribution? Despite its unorthodox methods, the group’s work was notably serious and thoroughly detailed. The cornerstone of their research, set theory, aimed to tackle the perennial challenge in mathematics: the idea that mathematical objects are fundamentally independent of human language and symbols.
To illustrate this, consider the word “addition” or the symbol “+”. These terms have an arbitrary connection to the underlying mathematical concepts. As long as there’s an agreement on the meaning of “addition,” any string of symbols could be utilized to indicate it. Conversely, addition has a definitive relationship with subtraction; one operation is the inverse of the other, independent of their nomenclature.
In practical terms, labeling mathematical concepts does not present a significant challenge, as mathematicians adhere to standardized mappings between ideas and symbols. However, in principle, contradictions and inconsistencies may emerge.
Bourbaki was not the inaugural attempt at formalization (as mentioned in my previous writings), but his approach was perhaps the most meticulous. For instance, he took care to define the number 1 in a footnote on page 158 of set theory. Bourbaki clarified that “the symbol ‘1’ should not be confused with the common language interpretation ‘one'”; instead, it should be understood through a rigorous definition:
τZ ((∃u)(∃U)(u = (U, {∅}, Z) and U ⊂ {∅} × Z and (∀x)((x ∈ {∅}) ⇒ (∃y)((x, y) ∈ U)) and (∀x)(∀y)(∀y’)(((x, y) ∈ U and (x, y’) ∈ U) ⇒ (y = y’)) and (∀y)((y ∈ Z) ⇒ (∃x)((x, y) ∈ U))))
Don’t worry if this seems daunting; a simplified explanation is that ∅ represents a set devoid of elements, referred to as the “empty set.” Consequently, 1 is defined as {∅}, indicating a set containing only one item (which, in this case, is the empty set). More details on this concept can be found in a previous column.
Astonishingly, embedded within this sea of symbols is a broader and more complex formal definition. Each symbol is elaborately defined based on earlier texts using only designated symbols. Bourbaki never elaborated these entirely; the footnote mentions that completing this definition would require tens of thousands of symbols — an estimation soon revealed to be vastly understated. Later mathematicians calculated that articulating the full formula for the number 1 would necessitate over 4.5 billion symbols, or more precisely, 2,409,875,496,393,137,472,149,767,527,877,436,912,979,508,338,752,092,897 symbols, depending on your definition of precision.
Clearly, mathematicians would need to occasionally abandon such stringent formalism if they wished to accomplish their objectives. Bourbaki acknowledges this necessity, while maintaining that utilizing shorthand terms like “1” is an “abuse of language.” By establishing foundational rules, Bourbaki granted mathematicians the flexibility to deviate as needed.
Emerging Mathematical Challenges
So, what achievements stemmed from all this labor? One significant outcome was Bourbaki’s aspiration to unite mathematics as a cohesive discipline. In theory, if terms and concepts from various mathematical domains could be expressed using a common set of symbols, it would yield a rigorous framework for transitions between fields. Although few actually practice this, it positions mathematics on a more solid philosophical foundation.
In the decades that followed, Bourbaki’s influence has proven unexpectedly significant, particularly as mathematicians increasingly explore computer-assisted formalization to verify proofs generated by artificial intelligence. The collective also introduced numerous concepts and symbols, many of which remain integral to contemporary mathematics (for instance, ∅ representing the empty set). On a broader scale, the Bourbakian writing style continues to shape modern mathematical textbooks.
However, Bourbaki was not without critique. Following the publication of elements of mathematics, some mathematicians expressed discontent with the group’s claims of excessive rigor. Oddly enough, Bourbaki inadvertently incited a misguided initiative to reform mathematics education in schools. Emerging in France during the late 1950s, this movement, dubbed New Mathematics, sought to replace traditional educational methods with rigorous set-theoretic approaches based on Bourbaki’s teachings. The intention was to grasp the general principle of multiplication rather than memorizing specific multipliers, such as 3 × 4 = 12.
The “New Math” movement faced extensive criticism and was largely deemed a failure. Parents and teachers alike struggled to understand the curriculum. Bestselling critiques like Why Can’t Johnny Add? emerged, and by the late 1970s, the initiative had largely dissipated. Additionally, this decade brought challenges for Bourbaki, including legal disputes with publishers over copyright and royalties.
Despite these hurdles, Bourbaki remains relevant today. New chapters will be released this year alone. However, the identity of the author remains a well-guarded secret. This anonymity allows mathematicians to regard Bourbaki as a quirky, eccentric relative: appreciated for essential contributions, yet sparing themselves from the discomfort of personal association.
The African continent is geologically significant, divided into tectonic plates at the heart of Ethiopia. Recent advancements in geophysics have shed light on the mechanisms of tectonic plate separation. Research has revealed that the continents started to fragment due to cracks and misalignments in the crust and upper mantle, known as the lithosphere. As magma ascends through these fissures, it reaches the Earth’s surface, leading to volcanic formations. While scientists understand the association between volcanoes and continental rifts, the rate of their formation remains unclear, complicating volcanic hazard assessments in rift zones.
A research team, led by Kevin Wong, aimed to resolve this question by analyzing the minerals formed during magma cooling, specifically olivine. They examined 72 olivine crystals, each measuring between 1 and 4 millimeters (0.04 to 0.16 inches), sourced from the Bok and Jiwei volcanoes located within Africa’s Main Ethiopian Rift (MER). Their findings indicate that the lithosphere in this area maintains a thickness of approximately 35-40 kilometers (21-25 miles). This substantial lithosphere hints at the MER’s position as an intermediate stage in continental separation, offering a unique perspective on the transition from tectonic deformation to magmatic fractures.
Wong and his team chose to analyze olivine due to its role as one of the earliest minerals to crystallize from magma, continuing to grow as the magma cools and rises. As the magma ascends, its composition alters, creating distinct chemical “zones” within the growing crystals, akin to the rings of a tree. Fluctuations in temperature and magma composition cause various elements, like magnesium and iron, to diffuse at differing rates, allowing scientists to model these chemical zones and their boundaries to determine the speed of magma ascent from the upper mantle to the surface.
The researchers utilized high-magnification imaging and chemical analysis through an electronic microprobe to study olivine crystals from the MER volcanic field. They meticulously mapped 10 to 15 points within each crystal, spaced approximately 5 to 15 microns (about 10% the thickness of a human hair) across a cross-section that spanned the growth zone from the inner core to the outer edge.
Their analysis identified two distinct categories of olivine crystals. The first displayed a normal zone crystal characterized by a magnesium-rich inner core, while the second was identified as a reverse zone crystal with a magnesium-poor core. The research indicated that freshly formed magma deep within the Earth is richer in magnesium than iron. The boundary between the magnesium-rich and magnesium-poor zones can become indistinct due to diffusion. This gradual smoothing of crystal boundaries over time operates at a known rate, allowing researchers to extract valuable information regarding the rate of magma ascent and its interaction with adjacent rock.
Employing a numerical model, the team estimated the diffusion rates of magnesium and iron across these chemical boundaries, factoring in varying temperatures and magma compositions. By comparing thousands of simulated diffusion profiles with actual olivine diffusion profiles, the researchers estimated that the crystals ascended from deep within the Earth and mixed with the surrounding magma over an average of 40 days during the Bok eruption and 17 days during the Jiwei eruption. They further cross-validated these estimates using a growth-diffusion model, which better mirrors the natural behavior of crystals, yielding an approximate rise time of 27 days while accurately replicating the observed crystal band pattern.
Based on their findings, the researchers concluded that intermediate-stage rifting events occur at surprisingly short time scales. On average, magma can ascend up to 40 kilometers (25 miles) from deep within the Earth to the surface in about one month. This timeline aligns more closely with human time frames than geological ones. They suggested that such rapid ascent is likely due to a sophisticated magmatic plumbing system embedded within the lithosphere, which develops before substantial thinning occurs. However, the researchers cautioned that these findings imply that the ascension timescale could vary significantly, impacting disaster mitigation and prediction efforts.
A recent study conducted by Texas A&M University researchers sheds light on why coffee drinkers tend to live longer and experience fewer chronic diseases. The findings indicate that brewed coffee is rich in compounds that interact with little-understood proteins in the body, potentially affecting inflammation, aging, and cancer processes.
Hailemariam et al. revealed that brewed coffee and its principal polyphenolic and polyhydroxy components act as NR4A1 ligands, suggesting NR4A1’s vital role in the health benefits associated with coffee. Image credit: Sci.News.
“Coffee is the most widely consumed beverage globally,” stated Texas A&M University professor Steven Safe and his team.
“Coffee drinkers comprise a vast demographic that enjoys an aqueous extract from roasted and ground coffee berries.”
“The health benefits of coffee mirror those seen in vegetarian groups and various ‘blue zone’ populations known for lower mortality rates and age-related diseases.”
“Despite variations in coffee bean types and brewing techniques, consensus indicates that coffee drinkers enjoy longer lifespans.”
“They also face a decreased risk of age-related conditions, including metabolic disorders, certain cancers, Parkinson’s disease, dementia, and cardiovascular issues.”
In their investigation, researchers concentrated on NR4A1, a receptor that responds to dietary compounds and is essential for maintaining health in aging individuals.
This receptor activates during inflammation and cellular damage, and it has been shown to protect tissues.
“When tissue is damaged, NR4A1 activates to help mitigate that damage,” Professor Safe explained.
“Removing this receptor results in even greater tissue damage.”
Through biochemical experiments, the team discovered that freshly brewed coffee and several of its key components bind to NR4A1.
Identified compounds included common coffee polyphenols like caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, and ferulic acid, along with diterpenes such as kahweol and cafestrol.
“Our findings suggest that at least some of coffee’s health benefits stem from their ability to bind to and activate this receptor,” Professor Safe noted.
Experiments on cancer cell lines indicated that coffee extract and its constituents slowed cell proliferation.
When NR4A1 levels were reduced, the effects waned, implying that this receptor mediates the biological activities of coffee.
Many of these compounds served as inverse agonists, reducing NR4A1 activity in a way that may counteract tumor-promoting signals.
“Coffee consists of a highly complex array of compounds, creating a powerful blend,” Professor Safe remarked.
Notably, not all components yield the same effects. While caffeine is often seen as the primary component of coffee, it has been shown to exert more diverse and relatively weaker effects on receptors compared to polyphenols.
The research supports the notion that coffee’s benefits are likely due not just to caffeine, but to a complex mixture of bioactive compounds.
Brewed coffee contains over 1,000 chemicals, many of which have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
“Caffeine binds to the receptor but doesn’t significantly aid in our model,” Safe emphasized.
“Polyhydroxy and polyphenolic compounds demonstrate much more activity.”
“This could explain why both regular and decaffeinated coffee link to similar health benefits in extensive population studies.”
For more details, refer to the study results published in the journal nutrients.
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Amanuel Hailemariam et al. 2026. Brewed coffee and its components act through orphan nuclear receptor 4A1 (NR4A1). nutrients 18 (6): 877; doi: 10.3390/nu18060877
The cruise ship MV Hondius is anchored off the coast of Cape Verde.
AFP/Getty Images
An outbreak of hantavirus has been reported on the Dutch-flagged cruise ship MV Hondius, anchored off the coast of Cape Verde in the Atlantic Ocean. This virus can result in severe illness in humans, with a mortality rate of up to 50%.
So far, seven individuals have been infected, with three fatalities confirmed.
Understanding Hantavirus
Hantaviruses are a category of viruses carried by rodents known to cause severe illnesses in humans. Infection typically occurs through exposure to infected rodents or their urine, feces, or saliva.
Different hantaviruses cause various clinical syndromes across the globe. In the Americas, they can lead to a severe illness known as hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS), which has a fatality rate of about 50%. In Europe and Asia, they primarily cause hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS), affecting kidneys and blood vessels.
It is estimated that there are 10,000 to over 100,000 hantavirus infections annually worldwide, with the highest rates in Asia and Europe.
The specific strain of hantavirus affecting those on board the ship remains unidentified. “There are multiple species, at least 24, that can be harmful to humans,” says Adam Taylor, a researcher at Lancaster University, UK. “Until we determine which strains are involved, we cannot fully understand the situation.”
Where Was the Ship Located?
The World Health Organization (WHO) has been notified of this outbreak. On May 2, a statement announced an outbreak of severe acute respiratory illness onboard the MV Hondius, including two fatalities and one critically ill passenger.
The cruise departed from Ushuaia, Argentina, on April 1, 2026, and traveled across the South Atlantic, with stops including Antarctica, South Georgia, Nightingale Island, Tristan da Cunha, St. Helena, and Ascension Island. WHO identified the Argentine port as a focal point for investigations into the outbreak due to the presence of the Andes virus, known for limited person-to-person transmission in South America.
A total of 147 individuals from 23 nationalities were onboard, consisting of 88 passengers and 59 crew members. The extent of contact with local wildlife during the voyage remains unclear, as per WHO’s statement.
What Are the Symptoms of Hantavirus?
Initial symptoms may include fever, muscle aches, headaches, and gastrointestinal issues. Some patients may develop respiratory complications. Diagnosis typically involves specialized blood tests.
How Does Hantavirus Spread?
The primary route of infection is contact with infected rodents, particularly through inhalation of virus particles from contaminated rodent droppings, urine, or saliva.
“For this reason, investigations often focus on potential exposure to rodent-contaminated areas,” stated Roger Hewson from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. “Hantaviruses are not generally believed to be easily transmissible between humans.”
While rarer, infection may also occur through rodent bites. High-risk activities include cleaning poorly ventilated spaces, farming, and sleeping in rodent-infested environments. According to WHO, human-to-human transmission has only been recorded for the Andes virus in the Americas, occurring with close and prolonged contact, mainly among family and intimate partners, particularly during the early stages of the disease.
Current Outlook on the Infection Spread
According to Taylor, there is no need for panic. “Transmission of hantaviruses usually requires contact with animal products, not person-to-person contact,” he emphasized. “While precautions are in place on board, they are just that—precautions.”
Hewson added that it’s crucial not to make assumptions based on the cruise ship context. “Infection confirmation among passengers does not clarify whether the exposure occurred on the ship, prior to embarkation, during shore excursions, or through common environmental contact,” he remarked. “Therefore, public health surveillance, lab confirmations, and possible virus sequencing are vital.”
A newly discovered genus and species of Masopodan sauropodomorph, named Kounryu Hōmei, has been identified from a partial skeleton found in southwestern China, dating back to the early Jurassic period. This remarkable dinosaur represents a crucial link between early herbivores and the massive four-legged sauropods that would later dominate the Mesozoic Era.
Artist’s impression of Kounryu Hōmei. Image credit: Connor Ashbridge / CC BY 4.0.
Kounryu Hōmei inhabited what is now China approximately 190 million years ago during the early Jurassic period.
Fossil evidence suggests that this dinosaur measured about 9 to 10 meters (30 to 33 feet) in length, making it one of the largest known early-branching sauropods unearthed in China.
This species belongs to the Masopodan group, which existed from the Late Triassic to the Late Cretaceous.
“The Early Jurassic was a key era in dinosaur evolution, marking the diversification and emergence of sauropod dominance in terrestrial ecosystems,” stated Dr. Ya-Ming Wang from the China Museum of Geology and colleagues.
“Within this group, non-sauropod Masopoda sauropods played a significant role in the evolutionary trajectory leading to the distinctive large body shapes associated with sauropods.”
“Therefore, understanding the anatomy, diversity, and paleobiogeography of these early-diverging sauropods is essential for unraveling the origins of one of the most successful dinosaur clades, the sauropods.”
The partial skeleton of Kounryu Hōmei was discovered in the Fengjiahe Formation located in Luming Town, Yunnan Province, China.
The specimen consists of the neck, back, tail vertebrae, and part of the hip joint.
Analysis of these fossils revealed an unusual combination of traits, indicating an alternative evolutionary path. Notably, it had a strong, elongated tail rather than the long neck typically associated with large dinosaurs.
Despite its relatively short neck for its body size, the tail may have played a balancing role, enabling this dinosaur to stand on its hind legs and feed.
Through phylogenetic analysis, researchers found that Kounryu Hōmei occupies a pivotal evolutionary position between early sauropods and more advanced forms closer to true sauropods.
“The discovery of this new specimen greatly enriches the known Early Jurassic dinosaur fauna of southwestern China,” the authors remarked.
“This provides essential new anatomical features that enhance our understanding of morphological differences and evolutionary patterns among early-diverging sauropods.”
Hu Shaobin et al. 2026. A neosauropod dinosaur discovered from the Lower Jurassic Fengjiahe Formation in Dali, Yunnan Province, China. R Soc Open Science 13 (3): 252219; doi: 10.1098/rsos.252219
Recent research utilizing data from NASA’s Juno spacecraft has resulted in the most precise measurements of Jupiter’s size in 50 years, revealing that the largest planet in our solar system is thinner and flatter than previously thought.
Hubble’s observations of Jupiter highlight an ever-changing landscape resulting from its turbulent atmosphere. Image credits: NASA / ESA / Hubble / Amy Simon, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center / Michael H. Wong, University of California, Berkeley / Joseph DePasquale, STScI.
“The previous understanding of Jupiter’s shape was based on just six measurements made by NASA’s Voyager and Pioneer missions nearly 50 years ago, utilizing radio waves sent to Earth,” explained Dr. Eli Galanti from the Weizmann Institute of Science.
“While those missions laid the groundwork, we now have the unique chance to analyze 26 new measurements obtained from NASA’s Juno spacecraft.”
“By determining Jupiter’s distance and observing its rotation, we can accurately derive its size and shape,” stated Professor Yohai Kaspi of the Weizmann Institute of Science.
“However, to achieve highly precise measurements, we require more advanced techniques.”
“Juno’s passage behind Jupiter opens up new scientific opportunities,” commented Dr. Scott Bolton, Juno’s principal investigator and a researcher at the Southwest Research Institute.
“As the spacecraft navigates behind the planet, its radio communication signals become obstructed and bent by Jupiter’s atmosphere, enabling precise size measurements.”
“By tracking the curvature of these radio signals as they pass through Jupiter’s atmosphere, we were able to generate a detailed map of the planet’s temperature and density, providing the clearest insight yet into Jupiter’s dimensions,” explained Dr. Maria Smirnova, a student at the Weizmann Institute of Science.
The study revealed that Jupiter has a polar radius of 66,842 km, an equatorial radius of 71,488 km, and an average radius of 69,886 km—12, 4, and 8 km lower than prior estimates respectively.
“It’s time to update textbooks. While Jupiter’s size remains unchanged, our measurement techniques have significantly evolved,” noted Professor Kaspi.
“Those few kilometers matter. A slight shift in radius greatly improves how well our internal model aligns with both gravity data and atmospheric metrics,” commented Dr. Galanti.
“Our advanced models of Jupiter’s internal density structure illustrate how sophisticated geometries can help reconcile models with measurements,” said Dr. Marjan Ziv, also a student at the Weizmann Institute of Science.
Previous estimates overlooked Jupiter’s powerful winds. By considering these winds in their calculations, scientists resolved a long-standing contradiction.
“It’s challenging to decipher details beneath Jupiter’s clouds, but radio data provides insights into the depths of Jupiter’s zonal winds and intense hurricanes,” stated Professor Kaspi.
The findings are documented in a study published in Nature Astronomy.
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E. Galanti et al. 2026. Jupiter’s Size and Shape. Nat Astron 10, 493-501; doi: 10.1038/s41550-026-02777-x
Credit: Erich Karkoschka, NASA and the University of Arizona
While the rings of Uranus may appear similar visually, their compositions reveal surprising differences. Understanding these rings is critical for uncovering the mysteries of Uranus’s unique and dynamic system.
The outer rings of Uranus, known as the Mu and New rings, are notably dark and challenging to observe given their vast distance. Researchers, including Imke de Pater from the University of California, Berkeley, utilized nearly 20 years of data from the Keck Telescope, Hubble Space Telescope, and James Webb Space Telescope to conduct a thorough analysis.
The team discovered that the outermost ring, Mulling, appears blue, suggesting it consists of minute ice grains. Conversely, the New ring takes on a reddish hue, rich in dust and complex organic molecules known as thorin.
The ice particles within Mulling likely originate from Uranus’s small moon, Mab, implying that Mab is composed of ice rather than rock, unlike other neighboring moons. However, the mechanism by which these tiny ice fragments escaped Mab to form the ring remains uncertain.
This scenario shares similarities with Saturn’s E ring, which is sustained by the icy moon Enceladus, known for its substantial water plumes. In contrast, Mab, which measures approximately 12 kilometers in diameter, is not expected to produce similar plumes.
“We don’t anticipate plumes on small moons like Mab, though the comparisons are intriguing,” says Tracy Becker, a researcher at the Southwest Research Institute in Texas who was not involved in the study. Instead, it is probable that micrometeorites have collided with Mab’s surface, propelling ice grains into space.
It is not surprising that the New ring is laden with dust, yet the rocky bodies responsible for this dust have yet to be identified, suggesting they are relatively small. The researchers also noted that the brightness of the New ring fluctuated over time—its brightness was halved between 2003 and 2006. This may indicate a significant collision event prior to 2003, causing a temporary increase in brightness.
The key question is not just why the two rings differ so significantly but why the objects that contribute to them exhibit such variance, despite orbiting similar regions around Uranus. “All rocky bodies might originate from a moon that fragmented, but Mab stands apart,” De Pater remarked. “This points back to the origins of the entire system and historical events.” Mab might be debris from a larger moon of Uranus, yet the factors that led to this process remain unclear.
“We are able to add two or three critical pieces to the puzzle that enrich our understanding of the Uranus system,” Becker emphasized. “This suggests that the puzzle is far more complex than we previously believed and that additional pieces are necessary for a complete understanding of the system.”
Do you envy those early risers who bounce out of bed at dawn? Or perhaps you’re one of the fortunate ones! It’s widely believed that the early bird catches the worm, with pop culture echoing the sentiment that early risers achieve more, get more done, and generally exude positivity.
Numerous articles suggest that waking up just an hour earlier can unlock hyper-productivity akin to the world’s most successful entrepreneurs.
If you identify as a night owl, relishing late nights and cozy mornings, you might be hoping that this notion isn’t entirely accurate. However, research into “chronotypes” largely supports the stereotype of energetic morning people versus laid-back night owls. Yet, the reality is often more complex.
Your chronotype not only dictates when you hit the hay but also affects your peak performance times. Larks generally excel in the morning, while owls thrive later in the day, providing an edge in professions with evening shifts.
Interestingly, studies show that women are more likely to be larks while men often identify as owls.
Night owls are often more extroverted – Photo credit: Getty
Age also plays a crucial role; during adolescence, many shift towards an owl chronotype, but as we age, we tend to become more lark-like.
When it comes to happiness, research reveals a correlation between being a morning person and increased life satisfaction.
Around 60% of people fall between larks and owls – Photo credit: Getty
This disparity may be partly due to the challenges that night owls face, such as less sleep or more sleep disturbances, rather than an inherent advantage to being a lark.
Potential factors enhancing the lark’s advantage include superior emotional regulation and a more positive perception of time compared to owls.
These insights prompt us to consider the origins of our lark and owl tendencies, and crucially, whether they can be altered.
Research from the University of Warwick indicates that chronotype is linked to personality traits. Morning people often score higher in conscientiousness—one of the Big Five personality traits associated with discipline and ambition. Conversely, night owls typically exhibit extraversion and openness.
The promising news is that neither personality traits nor chronotype are fixed. Both are influenced by factors beyond genetics, including home environment and daily responsibilities.
As the Warwick study suggests, this plasticity implies that “…it may be possible to intentionally adjust one’s chronotype.”
To transition into a lark, consider basic strategies such as avoiding screens in the evening, gradually shifting your bedtime earlier, and rewarding yourself with enjoyable morning activities like a warm cup of coffee or a relaxing walk.
This suggests that merely changing your sleep schedule might not be a quick path to happiness. You may need to adopt a comprehensive approach rather than just setting a morning alarm.
The relationship between chronotype and happiness may also flow in reverse—if you lead a fulfilling life, finding it easier to retire early at night can make it simpler to awaken as a lark each morning.
The coral reefs of the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, located off the coast of Western Australia, have shown remarkable resilience against the severe heatwave that impacted coral ecosystems globally in early 2025. Researchers are eager to unveil the secrets behind the extraordinary heat tolerance of these corals, hoping to aid in the preservation of coral reefs worldwide, which face extinction due to climate change.
Under the guidance of Dr. Kate Quigley, a team from the University of Western Australia ventured to 11 dive sites in the Houtman Abrolhos Islands during July 2025.
In contrast, up to 60% of the corals on Ningaloo Reef succumbed to the same heatwave. This trend reflects a pattern observed in coral reefs globally, as the marine heatwave of 2025 resulted in disastrous coral mortality rates.
However, at Houtman Abrolhos, aside from a few minor areas, the corals exhibited no signs of distress, unlike the typical fluorescent coloring associated with stress. “We anticipated a massive bleaching event following the prolonged marine heatwave. Surprisingly, the corals thrived,” stated Quigley.
Coral bleaching typically occurs due to prolonged thermal stress, where corals expel the symbiotic algae living within them, which are crucial for their sustenance.
Researchers are currently evaluating the heat stress levels experienced by corals using the Degree Heating Week (DHW) metric, which measures the duration and intensity of heat waves.
Significant bleaching is generally observed after 4 °C weeks, with catastrophic conditions arising after 8 °C weeks. “Around 8°C per week is deemed disastrous and is often linked to widespread bleaching and coral mortality,” explained Quigley.
The waters around the Houtman Abrolhos Islands experienced 4°C per week in early February 2025, reaching 8°C per week by early March. By mid-April, the corals were subjected to heat stress equivalent to 22°C per week.
Quigley and her team were particularly astonished to observe that corals of various species at the reef remained unharmed despite the devastating conditions affecting other regions.
To further investigate the heat resistance of Houtman Abrolhos corals, scientists collected several coral colonies and subjected them to elevated temperatures in laboratory settings.
At 8°C weeks, survival rates in Houtman Abrolhos were double, and bleaching resistance was nearly quadruple when compared to established thresholds. Nearly 100% survival was noted even at approximately 16 °C weeks.
The maximum tolerance level of these corals remains to be fully determined, but Quigley asserts it is “remarkably substantial and exceeds the thresholds recorded at other coral reef locations studied globally.”
The next phase for researchers is to discern how these corals manage to thrive in such extreme conditions.
Quigley posits that the presence of symbiotic algae could be key to the heat resilience seen in Houtman Abrolhos corals. “There are likely unique environmental conditions in this area that promote heat tolerance evolution among local species,” she stated. For this reason, protecting these reefs should be a top priority, along with identifying other resilient reefs.
Petra Lundgren from the Great Barrier Reef Foundation mentions that such reefs serve as “natural laboratories for understanding heat tolerance.”
“They also promise insights into enhancing selective breeding and interventions aimed at bolstering thermal resilience in coral restoration and conservation aquaculture,” Lundgren noted.
While curbing global carbon emissions is crucial for safeguarding these vital ecosystems, “providing adaptive support, such as seeding reefs with heat-tolerant corals, will significantly improve their chances of surviving future heat stress events,” she concluded.
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Stars primarily consist of two elements: hydrogen and helium. These elements, along with lithium, were the only ones present during the Big Bang approximately 14 billion years ago. When the first stars exploded, they released their primordial elements along with heavier elements produced through nuclear fusion.
In astronomy, all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium are referred to as metals.
Chemists, however, use different terminology. Subsequent generations of stars, including our Sun, formed in clouds of gas and dust enriched with metals like carbon, oxygen, magnesium, and silicon. Scientists estimate that modern stars contain between 1% and 5% metals by mass.
While astronomers have found no solid evidence suggesting that stars significantly differ in metal content, some stars display unique chemical signatures. The light emitted by stars can be analyzed through their spectrum,
revealing the presence of various elements. Each element emits a distinct light pattern, allowing astronomers to ascertain the abundance of each element, especially in a star’s outer layers. The prevailing theory suggests that chemically unique stars might not contain more metals than the average star; instead, the metals in their interiors are thought to be more distributed throughout their outer layers.
A research team from the American Association of Variable Star Observers
at Masaryk University in the Czech Republic recently studied 85 chemically unique stars to better understand their behaviors and classifications. Their research relied on the CP Star General Catalog published in 2009, focusing on categorizing these stars into four classes: CP1, CP2, CP3, and CP4.
CP1 stars exhibit strong spectral patterns of iron and other heavy elements, while CP2 stars show strong patterns of silicon, chromium, strontium, and europium. CP3 stars reveal patterns of mercury and manganese, and CP4 stars have either unusually weak or strong helium patterns.
The team compiled a list of 85 stars for observation, utilizing the BRIght Target Explorer ( BRITE
), a constellation that monitors brightness variations. The BRITE constellation consists of five satellites equipped with telescopes and cameras sensitive to red or blue light. Over several days, the team monitored each star.
Out of the observed stars, 74 exhibited variations in brightness, potentially due to fluctuating surface metal content creating dark spots that appeared and disappeared from our viewpoint as the stars rotated. Interestingly, six of these stars demonstrated brightness changes across multiple time periods—an unexpected result since rotation alone would typically not cause such variability. Comparisons with data from the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite TESS revealed that all six stars had been misclassified as chemically unusual.
The remaining 11 chemically unique stars displayed no apparent periodic brightness changes, suggesting they may be stationary. While the research team noted that some CP1 and CP3 stars do not rotate, they also found instances where CP2 and CP4 stars, which are expected to rotate, appeared stationary. They proposed two possible explanations for this phenomenon:
one is the potential misclassification of these stars, requiring a deeper analysis of their spectra, and the other is a slower rotation speed, exceeding 50 days, making them hard to differentiate from stationary stars.
The research team emphasized the need for astronomers to reconsider historical star classifications, particularly as technology advances and more space telescopes become available. This approach will enable future researchers to extract improved data from existing research archives and catalogs. Furthermore, they advocated combining long-term monitoring by small satellites with TESS data to refine classifications, unveil misclassified objects, and delve deeper into the structural and behavioral mechanisms of chemically unusual stars.
Understanding the Heart-Brain Connection for Health Insights
Addison Kiamchittle/Alamy
The past year has been enlightening as I wore a Whoop health tracker, revealing profound insights into my body, including sleep patterns, blood oxygen levels, step counts, and particularly, heart rate variability (HRV). This metric, new to me, quickly became essential for gauging my stress levels; my low numbers indicate that I’m struggling with stress management. Despite the high price tag, the insights gained feel invaluable.
It seems I’m not alone in valuing HRV. A burgeoning field of research explores the correlation between HRV and mental health, shedding light on its potential to predict cognitive disorders and aid in diagnosing mental health conditions.
So, what exactly is HRV? Heart rate variability measures the variations in time between heartbeats. Although it may seem counterintuitive, a greater variation signifies better health.
A consistent heart rate can indicate a “fight-or-flight” response, with heightened activity in the sympathetic nervous system causing faster, more regular heartbeats. Conversely, when the parasympathetic (“rest and digest”) system is activated, heart rate becomes less regular.
Individuals with high stress tolerance tend to have greater HRV, showcasing their ability to recover from stressors effectively. Chronic stress is known to correlate with inflammation, leading to a range of physical and cognitive disorders.
My heart rate variability typically hovers around 25 milliseconds, while my husband’s can peak over 90 milliseconds. Though I aspire to achieve such a tranquil state, I remind myself that variations in HRV among individuals are common.
According to research from Masaryk University in the Czech Republic, there can be considerable variations in what is deemed “normal” HRV, ranging from 18 ms to 70 ms. More striking is the individual fluctuation over days or weeks; for instance, during hectic periods, my HRV drastically drops, while a carefree day can see it soaring above 50 milliseconds.
Thus, like many, I use HRV to gauge daily stress and recovery. Recently, I’ve pondered whether it reflects something more profound.
The Heart-Brain Link
The established connection between the heart and brain is reinforced by numerous studies. Those with cardiovascular issues often face heightened mental health risks, and individuals with depression are more prone to heart diseases. HRV may serve as a vital signal linking these health domains.
“HRV as a measure of brain health is an area of keen interest for us,” states Lori Cook, Director of Clinical Research at the Center for Brain Health, University of Texas at Dallas.
This interest stems from the association of HRV with various cognitive and mental health disorders. A recent review by German researchers analyzed existing research on HRV and depression, affirming the consistent finding that lower HRV correlates with a greater likelihood of depression.
The central idea is clear: higher HRV indicates a healthier response to stress, reflecting adaptability to environmental demands. Reduced HRV suggests challenges in managing stressors, which is known to heighten depression risk due to compromised emotional regulation.
However, existing evidence remains complex and at times contradictory. Many studies are limited in size or fail to account for confounding variables like age and gender, or the natural decline of HRV over years. Further complicating matters, recent research highlighted that HRV stress metrics may struggle to distinguish between positive and negative stress responses, the former often linked to motivation.
Nonetheless, intriguing correlations with broader brain health emerge. A 2025 review identified links between reduced HRV and conditions like dementia, PTSD, and schizophrenia. It’s also been associated with somatic symptom disorders, characterized by disproportionate concern over physical symptoms and related functional syndromes. Notably, the differing HRV patterns across conditions suggest its potential as a biomarker for disease differentiation.
Ultimately, researchers caution that HRV alone cannot diagnose mental conditions, nor does low HRV automatically indicate poor mental health.
Cook’s team continues to explore HRV alongside other metrics to gain insight into brain health, viewing HRV as a valuable tool in assessing effective lifestyle changes and habits.
For me, a declining HRV serves as a vital reminder to nourish my nervous system with calm and rest. It’s clear that managing stress is key, alongside good sleep and regular exercise, especially aerobic activities, which boast the most robust evidence in enhancing HRV.
While I can’t pinpoint changes, I feel a positive shift in my mental well-being. For now, that’s enough motivation to continue heeding the messages from my fluctuating HRV.
The term déjà vu was introduced by French philosopher and parapsychologist Émile Boirac in 1876, meaning “already seen.” This phenomenon evokes an uncanny feeling that a new experience is actually a familiar one.
For instance, visiting a specific location, such as a cafe or street, could trigger a sense of nostalgia, even if you’ve never been there before. Many might link these déjà vu moments to a “past life” or a “glitch in the matrix.”
However, there are more grounded explanations for these occurrences. The good news is that about two-thirds of the population experience déjà vu, and in most cases, it indicates healthy brain function.
Recent neuropsychological research suggests that déjà vu occurs when specific aspects of a situation trigger a sense of familiarity registered in the perirhinal cortex, part of the temporal lobe. This may happen due to similarities with previously encountered situations.
Next, the hippocampus, another vital memory structure in the temporal lobe, fails to retrieve relevant memories to account for this feeling of familiarity.
Finally, this discrepancy is processed by brain regions in the frontal lobes, such as the anterior cingulate cortex and the medial prefrontal cortex, leading to that eerie sensation of having been there before.
Psychologists refer to this last stage as metacognitive awareness, demonstrating that the brain is effectively signaling issues.
Déjà vu is common among young individuals and tends to decrease with age, indicating less efficient error-monitoring processes in the brain. – Image courtesy of Ann-Sophie De Steur
Research using memory games in brain imaging labs revealed that these frontal brain regions associated with metacognitive awareness exhibited greater activation, supporting the link between subjective déjà vu and monitoring processes.
In rare cases, an excessive form of déjà vu can occur due to pathology. For instance, individuals with temporal lobe epilepsy may experience prolonged déjà vu sensations before a seizure, described as a feeling of déjà vu that lasts for an extended period.
Moreover, some dementia patients report experiencing a syndrome known as déjà vécu (meaning “already lived”)—a more intense form of déjà vu where the person genuinely believes they have already lived through a new experience and reacts accordingly, such as turning off the TV because they think they’ve seen the news before.
If you find yourself in a typical déjà vu moment, there’s no cause for concern. Healthy déjà vu tends to be more prevalent in younger individuals and usually diminishes with age.
Psychologists suggest this decline occurs because frontal lobe error-monitoring processes become less efficient as we grow older.
So the next time you feel that strange sensation of familiarity, don’t fret. There’s nothing wrong with reality; your brain is simply operating as it should.
This article addresses the question posed by Bournemouth’s Dom Anderson: “Is experiencing déjà vu detrimental to your health?”
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Exploring the Deeper Layers of Reality Beyond Quantum Theory
Kappan/iStockphoto/Getty Images
Physicists are delving deeper into the realm of post-quantum theory, unveiling a reality that exists at a level even more perplexing than the already bewildering quantum theory.
In the 1920s, physicists developed vital theories that explained fundamental workings of the universe, yet they continuously encountered phenomena where these theories fell short. This spurred them to glimpse into a more profound layer of reality: the quantum realm. Today, physicists find themselves revisiting this experience. While quantum theory accurately describes many phenomena, it leaves significant gaps when it comes to large cosmic structures influenced by gravity. What kind of post-quantum reality will manifest through these gaps?
James Hefford from the National Research and Development Agency, along with Matt Wilson from the University of Paris-Saclay, has created a mathematical framework outlining a potential post-quantum world—perhaps the deepest layer of reality.
“Quantum theory does not encompass the entirety of the universe,” Hefford remarks. “A significant challenge in physics is developing a quantum gravity theory that reconciles quantum mechanics and gravity. This theory must surpass traditional quantum descriptions.”
Multiple propositions exist for developing a quantum gravity theory, but Wilson and Hefford found their inspiration in the interplay between quantum and classical physics. Everyday experiences shield us from peculiar quantum effects, attributed to a phenomenon known as decoherence, which eliminates the quantum characteristics of most objects. Decoherence brings forth our tangible, rational world from the quantum domain, where the paradoxical states of cats exist and particles can seemingly disappear through barriers. They propose that quantum theory could arise from post-quantum theory through a similar mechanism called “hyperdecoherence.”
This concept isn’t entirely new; a specific theorem established in 2018 suggests that creating a coherent hyperdecoherence process that accurately reproduces quantum theory is mathematically infeasible. However, Hefford and Wilson scrutinized the underlying assumptions of this theorem and devised an innovative approach. The outcome? They entered a remarkably unconventional post-quantum landscape defined by a theory called QBox.
A fascinating aspect of QBox is its redefined conception of causality. Traditionally, causality operates on a clear sequence (event A causes event B or vice versa), but QBox permits a blend of both where causation is ambiguous.
“This introduces causal uncertainty, a critical aspect when pursuing a quantum gravity theory,” notes Carlo Maria Scandoro from the University of Calgary, who was not a part of this project. This uncertainty arises because Einstein’s theory of general relativity enforces varying causal orders across different spacetime points.
This is evident in thought experiments where observers traveling in different spaceships witness the same events but disagree on the chronological order of occurrences.
The researchers also ensured that hyperdecoherence adequately transitions QBox back into quantum theory, stipulating that objects described roughly within the QBox don’t gain precise clarity after hyperdecoherence. Wilson describes this hyperdecoherence as a dimension accessible to entities within the QBox realm—those capable of interacting within its confines—yet obscured from us in the classical or quantum realms.
Currently, the researchers are still clarifying how to conceptualize these dimensions and the experiences of agents operating within them. Preliminary indications suggest that the inaccessible dimensions are temporal rather than spatial—hyperdecoherence selectively concealing past processes while leaving future interactions untouched.
“Previously, there had been speculative models supporting concepts like indeterminate causal order, but formulating comprehensive quantum mechanics proved challenging, with no successful conclusions,” states Ciaran Gilligan Lee, involved in Spotify’s Causal Inference Lab and a co-author of the 2018 theorem opposing hyperdecoherence. He points out that the true merit of this new research lies in its concrete theoretical foundation and its mathematical simplicity. Notably, QBox does not necessitate hypothesizing entirely new constructs like cosmic strings for quantum gravity.
Beyond demonstrating the feasibility of hyperdecoherence as a mathematical function, the subsequent step involves elucidating its physical implications, contends John Selby from the University of Gdańsk, another co-author of the 2018 theorem. “A narrative is essential to clarify why these phenomena arise in our empirical universe.” In his opinion, the mathematical exploration by Hefford and Wilson is a promising foundation, regardless of whether QBox accurately represents the post-quantum layer of reality.
Gilligan-Lee and Selby have also formulated a new theorem, not yet explored by contemporaneous physicists, which may impose stricter criteria on a theory like QBox for it to meaningfully differentiate from quantum theory.
This challenge is welcomed by Wilson, even if it means QBox evolves into a precursor for a more refined vision of post-quantum theory. Notably, this theory may have tangible implications for specific experiments involving overlapping quantum waves, potentially facilitating experimental validation of the QBox concept.
If QBox successfully navigates forthcoming mathematical and experimental hurdles, even more intriguing inquiries will arise. “Can entire frameworks of theory be similarly disentangled?” Hefford speculates. Ultimately, unearthing the deepest realities might necessitate further mathematical exploration.
In a groundbreaking announcement, Isaacman revealed that NASA has decided to abandon its plans for a lunar orbit space station. Instead, the agency will invest $20 billion in constructing a base on the moon’s surface, utilizing components from the now-canceled space station.
This revelation follows a major update to NASA’s Artemis moon return program made in February, aiming to expedite the timeline for launches as the agency targets a lunar landing in 2028.
The revised strategy includes introducing the Artemis III mission in mid-2027. This mission will test critical rendezvous and docking technologies with lunar landers being developed by SpaceX and Blue Origin within low Earth orbit. If successful, the Artemis IV mission is set to follow, marking the return of astronauts to the moon. The mission will involve a commercially-developed vehicle docking with the Orion spacecraft to facilitate the lunar landing.
“If any issues arise, our goal is to return to sea within hours rather than days,” said Isaacman regarding the Artemis III test flight. “The insights we gain will be invaluable for Artemis IV in 2028, where we aim to land astronauts on the moon while concurrently constructing a lunar base.”
Williams, who is set to retire from NASA in December 2025, emphasized the importance of the International Space Station (ISS) as a vital testing ground for future long-duration lunar missions.
“Since humans have been aboard the ISS since 2000, we’ve gained extensive knowledge,” Williams stated. She noted that long-term stays in these orbiting laboratories have taught NASA how to combat the adverse effects of microgravity on the human body through exercise and nutrition.
“Our research aboard the space station spans stem cell studies, DNA sequencing, and innovations in engineering, manufacturing, and biomedical engineering,” she added. “The ISS has equipped us with numerous technologies that will be crucial for our extended presence on the moon.”
With a wealth of experience in long-term space missions, Williams has completed three trips to the ISS, totaling 608 days in space. Her most recent journey occurred last year when she and NASA astronaut Butch Wilmore unexpectedly spent over nine months at the ISS due to complications during a test flight of Boeing’s Starliner capsule.
When asked about their willingness to participate in a lunar trip if the opportunity arose, both Williams and Isaacman expressed enthusiasm.
“I believe our response would be unanimous,” Isaacman said with excitement. “Yes!”
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A specialized group of soil bacteria known as Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria (PGPB) plays a crucial role in enhancing plant growth and overall health. PGPB typically resides in the soil zones around plant roots, commonly referred to as the rhizosphere or within the plant roots, known as the inner sphere. These beneficial bacteria stabilize nutrients, prevent diseases, and significantly improve plant vitality.
PGPB serves as a primary ingredient in live microbial mixtures applied by farmers in crop fields, often termed biofertilizers. The development of PGPB mixtures is pivotal for sustainable crop management, as biofertilizers are regarded as a more eco-friendly alternative to conventional chemical fertilizers.
A team of Italian researchers investigated how three different PGPB mixtures impacted natural microbial populations in the rhizosphere and endosphere of two sunflower varieties. Their objective was to evaluate whether the PGPB inoculant would exert a lasting influence on the microbial community of sunflowers, while also examining any significant differences between the microbial communities of natural and genetically modified sunflower strains.
Initially, researchers identified bacterial strains that promote plant growth by producing beneficial acids such as indole lactic acid, which enhances resistance to heavy metals, aids in mineral dissolution, and facilitates nutrient release. They cultured 40 distinct bacterial types sourced from bee guts, pollen, wheat rhizospheres, and fruit trees, assessing their acid production. From these trials, they formulated three PGPB mixtures containing six types of bacteria, including Bacillus stocks, 3-in-1 Lactobacillus family stocks, and 2-in-1 Paenibacillus sp. strain.
To evaluate the PGPB mixtures’ effectiveness on crops, the team conducted a two-year field experiment in northern Italy during 2023 and 2024. This study involved 24 fields, including 12 with genetically modified hybrid varieties and 12 plots of naturally grown, open-pollinated sunflowers. The researchers applied the three PGPB mixtures to three plots each, resulting in nine microbe-treated plots per sunflower variety and three control plots devoid of microbes. The PGPB mixture was administered at four different points during the growing season through the irrigation water, while the control plots received microorganism-free irrigation water.
Upon flowering, the researchers harvested the sunflowers and sterilized the roots using saline, effectively isolating the soil microbes in the rhizosphere from those in the endosphere. They then extracted DNA from the samples for analysis of specific genetic regions to identify the microorganisms present using 16S rRNA gene sequencing.
After reviewing the data, the researchers found notable differences in microbial communities between the 2023 and 2024 field experiments, likely attributable to variations in temperature and rainfall. Therefore, they conducted separate analyses for each growing season to accurately gauge the PGPB treatment’s effectiveness. Their findings indicated that the microbial community of the inoculated sunflowers differed significantly from that of the control group, with hybrid sunflowers demonstrating more pronounced alterations in both rhizosphere and endosphere microbial communities compared to open-pollinated varieties, suggesting a stronger response to inoculation.
The research team identified several microbial taxa as “therapeutic indicators,” indicating their abundance varied significantly between treated hybrid sunflowers and controls. The endosphere of treated hybrids showed decreased levels of Pseudonocardiaceae and Nocardiaceae, while levels of Blastocatellaceae and Flavobacteriaceae increased compared to controls. Similarly, the rhizosphere of treated hybrids contained fewer Pseudomonadaceae and Bacillusidae, while exhibiting higher levels of Gemmataceae and Vicinamibacteriaceae. The researchers noted that these microorganisms were part of the sunflowers’ native microbiome, existing in the soil prior to PGPB application.
Furthermore, the research team compared control plots to check for inherent microbial differences between the two sunflower varieties, finding no significant discrepancies in microbial phylum richness. In fact, both varieties’ rhizosphere microbial communities closely mirrored one another, with Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and Actinobacteria comprising approximately 31%, 23%, and 16% of the hybrid sunflowers’ rhizosphere, while accounting for 29%, 25%, and 16% of the open-pollinated variety’s rhizosphere, respectively.
Finally, the researchers assessed whether rhizosphere and endosphere microorganisms were similar across sunflower varieties, discovering that populations of specific microbial families, such as Streptomycetes and Burkholderiaceae, experienced parallel increases and decreases in both the endosphere and rhizosphere. This suggests a possible direct transfer of microorganisms between these layers or that sunflowers may actively select for distinct microbial types.
In conclusion, the research team determined that the PGPB mixture significantly altered the rhizosphere and endosphere of sunflowers by enriching specific beneficial microorganisms. They proposed that scientists could eventually design custom microbial biofertilizers to enhance crop resilience against drought and disease or to improve yield. They emphasized the need for continued exploration into biofertilizers and microorganisms’ roles in soil ecosystems.
Recent studies of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from eight fossils unearthed in Poland’s Stazynia Cave unveil a tightly-knit community of Neanderthals who inhabited the region approximately 100,000 years ago. This discovery offers one of the most definitive genetic insights into a singular prehistoric group in Europe.
Approximately 100,000 years ago, at least seven Neanderthals inhabited Stazynia Cave in modern Poland. Image credit: Tyler B. Tretsven.
Located at 359 meters altitude, Stazynia Cave lies between the villages of Milow and Boborice on the Krakow-Częstochowa Plateau in southern Poland.
This limestone cave is defined by its narrow entrance and is a site of significant archaeological interest.
From 2007 to 2010, excavations were meticulously conducted over an area of approximately 16 square meters in the cave’s rear.
Among the critical discoveries were nine human teeth, five of which have been confirmed as Neanderthal remains.
In this groundbreaking study, Professor Andrea Pisin from the University of Bologna and colleagues successfully extracted and analyzed mtDNA from the nine fossils.
The findings suggest these fossils belonged to at least seven, and potentially eight, Neanderthals.
Interestingly, three of the specimens shared identical mtDNA, indicating a close relation or possibly sharing maternal lineage.
Through detailed analysis of their genetic patterns, researchers estimate that this group thrived during a warm interglacial period between approximately 120,000 and 92,500 years ago.
This research makes them the oldest known Neanderthal group identified genetically in central Europe.
“This is a groundbreaking result; we can now observe a small community of at least seven Neanderthals in central and eastern Europe who lived around 100,000 years ago,” stated Professor Pisin.
“Typically, Neanderthal genetic data is derived from isolated fossils or various sites scattered over time; here at Stazynia, we can reconstruct a miniature population, presenting the first cohesive genetic perspective of Neanderthals in this European region.”
Dr. Violeta Nowaczewska from the University of Wrocław and Dr. Adam Nadaczewski from the Institute of Animal Systematics and Evolution at the Polish Academy of Sciences noted, “Stazynia Cave has long been recognized for its exceptional preservation, but these findings have surpassed our expectations.”
The identification of this small, ancient Neanderthal population at such a complex site marks a significant milestone in Polish research and Neanderthal studies in Europe.
Researchers discovered that Neanderthals sharing similar genetic traits also resided in regions as distant as southeastern France, the Iberian Peninsula, and northern Caucasus, suggesting a once-wide-ranging maternal lineage that was later supplanted by other genetic groups.
“Particularly intriguing is the shared mtDNA found in two juvenile teeth and one adult tooth, indicating they may be closely related,” remarked Dr. Mateja Hadjdinjak from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
Furthermore, comparisons with a Neanderthal known as Thorin, excavated from France’s Mandolin Cave, show strikingly similar mtDNA, although Thorin is estimated to be around 50,000 years old.
“This study serves as a reminder to approach ancient timelines with caution,” advised Professor Sala Talamo from the University of Bologna. “As radiocarbon dating approaches calibration limits, it becomes crucial to not assign undue precision to the data.”
“Therefore, integrating archaeology, radiocarbon dating, and genetic data is essential.”
These results were published in this week’s edition of Current Biology.
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Andrea Pisin et al. For the first time, multiple Neanderthal mitogenomes have been discovered in the northern Carpathians. Current Biology published online on April 20, 2026. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2026.03.069
According to climate models, global temperatures are anticipated to increase by 2-4 degrees Celsius by the end of this century (approximately 4-7°F). Cold-blooded animals, or ectothermic species , are particularly sensitive to environmental fluctuations, as they depend on ambient temperatures for thermoregulation. In tropical ecosystems, where temperatures remain stable year-round, these cold-blooded organisms might experience limited thermal variability. Consequently, they could exhibit lower resilience to temperature shifts, heightening their susceptibility to heat stress.
Social insects, including ants and bees, exemplify cold-blooded species that adapt their behavior in response to temperature changes at both individual and colony levels, complicating predictions about their responses to climate change. For instance, arboreal ants frequently engage in “service exchanges” with host plants through mutualistic relationships . These intricate ant-plant interactions extend their impact, influencing other species. A notable example is certain bird species that prefer nesting in acacia trees defended by ants. Disruptions to this mutualism due to rising temperatures could trigger significant ecological ramifications.
To investigate how increasing temperatures influence symbiotic relationships, researchers analyzed the impacts of direct sunlight and experimentally elevated temperatures on tropical ants residing in trees. This study, conducted in Panama’s Metropolitano Natural Park from February to April 2024, focused on a specific ant species that engages in a mutually beneficial relationship with giant acacia plants. These ants provide protection against herbivores and eliminate competing vegetation in exchange for nourishment and shelter.
The researchers set up open-topped plastic enclosures around 33 acacia trees, ensuring that each ant colony was evenly distributed between shaded and sunlit areas. Sixteen control enclosures were well-ventilated through plastic holes, while seventeen heated enclosures were sealed at the base and contained black paper to enhance heat absorption. The temperature within the heated enclosures was approximately 1.3°C (2.3°F) higher than the control enclosures.
After a week, the researchers assessed ant activity on the branches twice daily—once in the morning (from 7 a.m. to 9:30 a.m.) and again in the afternoon (from 12 p.m. to 3:30 p.m.). Each branch was marked, and researchers counted the number of ants crossing it within a three-minute span, simultaneously recording branch and spine temperatures and noting their sun or shade exposure. They found that ant colonies in heated environments exhibited reduced activity compared to control colonies, particularly on sun-exposed leaves in the afternoon. The ants tended to navigate through the spines, avoiding direct surfaces. Although the spines were approximately 2°C (3.6°F) warmer than the branches, they provided shelter from direct sunlight, indicating that the ants adjusted their behavior to manage heat.
To determine the effect of elevated temperatures on ant defense mechanisms, the researchers pinned a pincer leaf to the acacia trunk’s base and monitored interactions. Findings revealed that ant colonies in heated enclosures demonstrated diminished defensive behavior toward foreign foliage compared to control colonies.
Researchers then measured the maximum temperature threshold, labeled Tmax, which indicates the temperature above which ants can no longer function. They collected three worker ants from each colony prior to, and three weeks following, enclosure setup. Each ant was placed in a tube at 36°C (97°F), with the temperature increased by 2°C (3.6°F) every 10 minutes. Researchers tapped the tubes gently to assess ant recovery capabilities, recording the temperature threshold for maximum function. The average Tmax for the 33 ant colonies was 46.5°C (115.7°F), showing no significant difference between control and heated groups. Similar Tmax values (around 48°C or 118°F) were noted for the same ant species from hotter, drier environments, suggesting these ants possess a naturally limited tolerance for high temperatures. The branch temperatures in their experiments reached 48°C (118°F), indicating that ants are already operating close to their thermal threshold.
The research team concluded that ants reduced their activity levels in response to heat, consequently weakening their protective role for the acacia plants. The researchers speculated that such behavioral changes may render the plants more vulnerable to herbivores and disrupt interactions with other species, including pathogens and birds. They emphasized the need for future studies examining how climate stressors affect these complex interdependencies and their broader ecological implications.
Understanding Self-Sabotage: Self-sabotage, often referred to by psychologists as “self-handicapping,” involves consciously engaging in behaviors that undermine your path to success. This can manifest in various domains, such as academic performance, sports, or personal relationships.
For instance, you might skip rehearsing for an important work presentation, or neglect training for an upcoming race. In a romantic setting, even if things are going well, you may start ignoring your partner’s messages.
While such behaviors may seem puzzling and counterproductive, research indicates that self-sabotage serves a purpose. It’s often a subconscious strategy to safeguard self-esteem and mitigate the fears of failure or rejection.
Consider a scenario where you deliberately underprepare for a work presentation, resulting in a poor performance. The failure can be justified by your lack of preparation, rather than reflecting negatively on your abilities.
Similarly, if you finish last in a race due to insufficient training, you can attribute your loss to that lack of effort rather than a lack of talent.
In relationships, if you choose to ignore your partner’s texts and they decide to break up with you, you can attribute the rejection to your behavior instead of feeling that you weren’t good enough for them.
Essentially, self-sabotage provides a convenient excuse to protect your ego in the face of setbacks.
Individuals with a fear of failure or low self-esteem are particularly prone to this pattern. In the short term, it may offer temporary relief, but ultimately, it can increase the risk of long-term failure or rejection.
Waiting for negative outcomes can result in self-sabotage. – Photo credit: Getty
How to Overcome Self-Sabotage
If you genuinely want to excel in your endeavors, such as delivering a great presentation, training for a race, or nurturing a healthy relationship, proactive steps are essential. Avoiding self-sabotage involves addressing these habits one step at a time.
A helpful strategy is adopting a “Master Mindset”. This involves viewing challenges as opportunities for growth, rather than as definitive assessments of your self-worth. If your presentation or race doesn’t go as planned, focus on what you can improve for next time.
Another effective technique is practicing self-compassion. Treat yourself with the same kindness as you would a close friend and recognize that your value isn’t dependent on any single event or relationship outcome.
As you grow closer to a romantic partner, embrace any feelings of vulnerability. Remember that even if the relationship ends, it does not diminish your worth or lovability.
This article addresses the inquiry posed by Samantha Osborne via email: “Why do I keep self-sabotaging, and how can I stop it?”
Have more questions? Reach out to us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or connect with us on Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram(be sure to include your name and location).
Explore our ultimate collection of fun facts and more intriguing science articles.
In the intriguing realm of the paranormal, one captivating phenomenon continuously captures interest: the near-death experience (NDE). Many describe encounters with a bright light at the end of a tunnel, vivid life memories flashing by, and even glimpses of the afterlife.
These classic themes are prevalent in movies and TV shows for good reason: studies indicate that individuals genuinely experience such profound visions.
While it’s natural to feel intense fear when facing death, it appears that near-death experiences can lead to unexpected positive outcomes.
Rather than merely terrifying, many individuals report that NDEs catalyze a happier, more fulfilled existence, diminishing their fear of mortality.
So, what influences a near-death experience? What transpires in the brain during these moments? And can one replicate such an experience without actual death?
What is a Near-Death Experience Like?
Although not every near-death experience leads to profound visions, they are generally perceived either positively or negatively.
“Initially, studies on near-death experiences concentrated on the more uplifting instances, but awareness of the negative ones has grown.” said Professor Chris French, a psychologist intrigued by the paranormal, during a BBC Science FocusInstant Genius podcast.
“It’s a rich hallucinatory experience that feels incredibly real—perhaps the most genuine experience I’ve ever had.”
While those who undergo positive experiences typically find it enlightening, individuals facing negative visions often wrestle with lasting trauma, including increased death anxiety. Alarmingly, approximately 1 in 5 NDEs falls into the negative category.
Chris categorizes these adverse experiences into three main types:
The primary category is the positive experience, which can be awe-inspiring and often involves seeing cherished memories, albeit not always in a positive light.
The second category is depicted as Hieronymus Bosch’s hellscape, portraying life and death in a nightmarish vision of torture and suffering in the afterlife.
Finally, the most haunting experience involves nothingness, where individuals face an endless void, drifting without purpose.
During a near-death experience, individuals may visualize the afterlife or perceive themselves moving toward a light – Credit: Getty
While the negative aspects sound alarming, many report uplifting experiences that reaffirm the joys of life.
Common occurrences include feelings of floating outside the body, witnessing their life flash by, and encountering a light at the tunnel’s end.
Those with positive experiences often report sensations like lightness, liberation, and tranquility. Interestingly, even frightening visions can be alleviated by the joy felt during the experience.
Such encounters are linked to an enhanced appreciation for life, fostering positive feelings despite the near-death context.
The Science Behind Near-Death Experiences
But what exactly triggers these near-death experiences? Are they divine visions, or merely windows into the afterlife? Science can’t provide definitive answers, but researchers like French propose some compelling theories.
“Most neuropsychologists argue that these visions stem from the dying brain, which engages in peculiar activities under such circumstances,” French explains.
“It feels incredibly authentic, and while no conclusive explanation exists, this perspective provides the most logical understanding.”
Near-death experiences can be profoundly impactful, with lasting effects, yet scientists propose these visions may simply be hallucinations from a failing brain – Credit: Getty
This phenomenon is characterized by the idea that the body’s multisensory integration becomes compromised. Essentially, the experience is amplified due to the simultaneous activation of various sensory inputs during extreme physiological stress.
Predominantly, this occurs in the right temporoparietal cortex, responsible for integrating sensory data from the visual, auditory, and somatosensory systems.
Notably, individuals don’t require genuine near-death situations to experience this; a strong belief that they’re near death suffices. Although many mysteries still linger regarding NDEs, neuropsychological interpretations remain our best understanding.
Read more:
A More Fulfilling Life Post-Near-Death
After experiencing a close brush with death and returning to normalcy, how do individuals navigate their lives?
For many, the experience is transformational. A significant percentage of those who endure a near-death experience express a newfound desire to change their lives.
This transformation, however, isn’t without consequences; post-experience, some individuals may face increased divorce rates, particularly when one partner has undergone an NDE. Others might experience PTSD symptoms, feeling disconnected from life.
Nonetheless, as previously mentioned, many individuals find that near-death experiences elevate their overall well-being, enhancing morality, happiness, and life satisfaction. Some also report increased spiritual confidence.
Many who have encountered such experiences believe they glimpsed the afterlife, leading them to become more spiritual, contemplating themes like reincarnation and other dimensions.
A notable connection among those who undergo these visions is an increase in altruism and reduced materialism, reflecting less interest in wealth accumulation.
In studies of cardiac arrest survivors, those who experienced NDEs displayed decreased fear of death, increased belief in an afterlife, and a heightened sense of life’s purpose, along with greater love and acceptance of others.
While some individuals notice these changes immediately, for others, the transformation may unfold over years.
Some Buddhist monks have reported visions akin to near-death experiences – Credit: Getty
How to Induce a Near-Death Experience Without Dying
While pursuing joy through death is a daunting path, is there a simpler method for experiencing a near-death sensation? Technically, yes. Reports suggest individuals have reached NDE-like states without the fatal aspect.
Some have managed to meditate on near-death experiences. In a study of advanced Buddhist meditators, participants experienced similar sensations without triggering fear of death.
However, these were seasoned monks with over 20 years of meditation expertise, dedicating hours to the practice. Many Buddhist monks have had near-death encounters, suggesting they can comprehend the associated emotions.
Outside of meditation, creating this experience is challenging. For most, the stark fear of dying prompts such an experience. If meditation isn’t part of one’s life, one would have to confront either actual death or the perception of imminent death… Perhaps meditation is indeed the most viable path.
Lyudmila Dyblenko – Chernobyl’s Guardian During the 2022 Occupation
Mykhailo Palinchak
On February 24, 2022, as Russian forces advanced into Ukraine, Lyudmila Dyblenko, head of the Chernobyl meteorological observatory, ordered her staff to evacuate. Unfortunately, she was unable to escape, as the exclusion zone around the Chernobyl nuclear plant fell under Russian occupation.
“We started gathering equipment and monitors, but it was too late,” Dyblenko recounted in the modest hut that hosts the weather station. Despite the dire circumstances, she heroically resolved to continue essential measurements—radiation, temperature, wind, and rainfall—that are crucial for scientists monitoring the situation in Chernobyl. “I chose to keep working,” she stated. “I truly love my job and my country.”
While monitoring is typically automated, power outages by March 9 left her equipment inoperable, making heating and cooking virtually impossible. The hut became the warmest refuge during her winter stay in Chernobyl, with a fire continuously lit and a comfortable desk to work at. Under occupation, conditions were increasingly challenging.
Dyblenko meticulously tracked Russian patrols, timing her exits to collect manual measurements, eventually using an older cell phone to transmit data due to its superior reception capabilities. Situated in the highlands of Chernobyl, she discovered nearby spots—a church and a truck park—where weak signals permitted data extraction.
“There is software that automatically compiles and sends data, but that was impossible during the power outage,” Dyblenko explained. “We had to do it manually.”
Unfortunately, as time passed, Russian soldiers grew bolder. At one point, someone forced their way into her house demanding cognac. She cleverly defused the situation by treating him as a mischievous child, saying, “Is this a restaurant?” Fortunately, he retreated, showing the power of her quick thinking.
Eventually, she spotted a small red light in the bushes near her scientific equipment, realizing a surveillance device had been placed there. Ignoring the threat, she persisted in her crucial work.
Thanks to her relentless efforts, there were no gaps in the data collected, allowing for uninterrupted scientific analysis of the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone during the occupation. In recognition of her bravery, Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskiy awarded her one of the few medals given to a meteorologist during the ongoing conflict, a testament to her remarkable courage.
Recent research indicates that individuals with high vitamin D levels in their late 30s experienced a notable decrease in a critical Alzheimer’s disease protein in their brains 16 years later, as highlighted in the study.
Results from this neurology open access survey suggest that continuing vitamin D supplementation during midlife may serve as an effective strategy to lower dementia risk.
This correlation is attributed to elevated blood levels of vitamin D being linked to reduced levels of tau protein in the brain, a recognized biomarker for Alzheimer’s disease.
According to the first author, Dr. Martin Mulligan, professor at Galway University, “Previous studies indicate that vitamin D may help by reducing inflammation and enhancing antioxidant defenses and cell signaling, potentially preventing tau protein accumulation.” This insight was shared with BBC Science Focus.
Importantly, no association was observed with amyloid plaques, another hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease. Researchers suggest that this may reflect the earlier accumulation of tau compared to amyloid, making it more detectable in younger individuals.
Vitamin D synthesis occurs in the body upon sun exposure and can also be sourced from foods like oily fish and eggs.
In the study, nearly 800 participants without dementia, averaging 39 years of age, had their vitamin D levels tested initially, followed by PET brain scans conducted an average of 16 years later.
The robust association between higher vitamin D levels and lower tau levels persisted after accounting for variables such as age, gender, cardiovascular risk factors, and depression.
Vitamin D is produced during summer; in winter, dietary sources and supplements are essential – Photo credit: Getty.
Dr. Mulligan noted that approximately one-third of participants had low vitamin D levels, consistent with global trends.
This study is observational and does not establish a cause-and-effect relationship. Vitamin D was measured only once within a predominantly white cohort, limiting the findings’ generalizability.
Dr. Mulligan emphasized the necessity for further validation in diverse cohorts before revising clinical guidelines.
“This hypothesis requires additional testing through clinical trials, and based on these results alone, we cannot formally recommend discontinuing supplements as a preventive measure for dementia,” he stated.
Vacuum chamber used to measure electronic transitions in atomic hydrogen, aiding in estimating proton size.
Axel Beyer/MPQ
Newly acquired data reveals the true size of the proton, marking a significant milestone in particle physics. Over 15 years ago, a surprising experiment reshaped our understanding of this subatomic particle’s fundamental properties.
Protons are essential constituents of matter, and until 2010, our comprehension of their structure seemed complete. We recognized that protons consist of three quarks, but uncertainties about their size lingered.
Recent investigations involving exotic hydrogen atoms suggest that protons may actually be 4% smaller than previously thought. Research teams are now tirelessly exploring sources of error and theories that might illuminate the proton radius puzzle. In 2019, an additional experiment reinforced indications that the proton’s size had been overestimated.
Excitingly, the confusion surrounding proton size appears to be resolved through two complementary experiments, which convincingly support the idea of smaller protons. Their findings indicate that the proton’s radius is approximately 0.84 femtometers—an astonishing measurement, less than one millionth of a meter.
As physicist Dylan Yost from Colorado State University explains, “Reviewing the data makes you reconsider the betting odds on the proton’s radius. These measurements significantly bolster our understanding.”
To ascertain this new radius, both research teams focused their efforts on hydrogen atoms, which consist of one proton and one electron. The electromagnetic interaction between these oppositely charged particles is influenced by the proton’s size, allowing researchers to deduce its dimensions by observing electron energy transitions.
Using lasers, the teams manipulated electrons in hydrogen atoms, measuring three previously unrecorded energy transitions.
The calculated proton radius not only aligned with each other but also confirmed the crucial 2010 measurements. As physicist Lothar Meisenbacher from the University of California, Berkeley noted, “It’s extremely unlikely that this proton radius puzzle persists.”
Conducting these experiments was no small feat. The teams placed hydrogen atoms in complete vacuum environments, utilized expensive lasers, and meticulously calibrated their equipment. While data collection might take weeks, it often requires years to eliminate potential disturbances and errors, according to Meisenbacher.
Yet, if multiple experiments produce comparable results, diversity in methodologies can serve as an advantage, ensuring that equipment-specific errors do not skew findings. Juan Rojo from Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam emphasizes that “the proton’s radius is a universal property, and consistent results across different approaches enhance credibility.”
Understanding proton size is vital for refining theories about potential new particles, as noted by Yost. The recent MPQ experiment has accurately tested existing theories, such as quantum electrodynamics, with a precision of 0.5 parts per million. Although no discrepancies with predicted outcomes emerged, the research lays the groundwork for future explorations in particle physics.
While high-energy colliders seek heavier particles, these precise hydrogen atom studies interrogate for lighter, hidden particles. “With a clearer understanding of proton size, we can now ask, what constraints can we establish for new physics?” concludes Yost.
Visualization of the Western Boundary Current in the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation
Credit: NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio
The latest buoy measurements indicate that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), crucial for regulating Europe’s climate, is weakening across four distinct latitudes. This represents the strongest evidence yet that this pivotal ocean current system is slowing and may be nearing collapse.
The AMOC is part of a global oceanic conveyor belt that transports warm, salty water from the Gulf of Mexico to the North Atlantic, helping maintain milder temperatures in Western Europe compared to those in Canada or Russia. As this water cools and sinks, it continues south along the ocean floor on the western side of the Atlantic.
Analysis of historical ocean temperature data suggests a 15% decline in the AMOC since 1950, with computer models predicting a potential closure within decades. However, direct measurements have only been reliable for roughly 20 years, making definitive conclusions difficult.
Recent research in the Western Atlantic has provided compelling evidence of an AMOC slowdown.
“Our findings indicate that Atlantic circulation is indeed weakening at the western boundary, and data from multiple latitudes supports this consistent signal across the broader North Atlantic,” said Qianjiang Xing from the University of Miami, Florida, who led the study.
In 2004, a collaborative effort led by the University of Miami established a series of moorings named RAPID-MOCHA from the Bahamas to the Canary Islands. These measurements, encompassing temperature, salinity, and velocity, allow scientists to estimate pressure changes across the Atlantic, providing insight into how much water is being effectively stored, according to team member Shane Elipot, also from the University of Miami.
Water moves from areas of high pressure to those of low pressure, but the Earth’s counterclockwise rotation causes deflection to the right, leading to reverse circulation. Thus, pressure changes can be indicative of AMOC strength variations.
The latest analysis of RAPID-MOCHA data reveals that AMOC flow is decreasing at a rate of approximately 90,000 cubic meters per second each year—a faster decline than previously observed. This indicates that the AMOC weakened by about 10% from 2004 to 2023.
However, the variation in certainty surrounding this reported change is quite significant. To address this, the study also examined pressure dynamics from three mooring arrays installed along the western Atlantic coast—near the West Indies, the U.S. East Coast, and Nova Scotia, Canada. Results show considerably lower uncertainty and a more pronounced weakening of the AMOC.
“This represents the strongest direct observational evidence to date of AMOC weakening, aligning with long-held model predictions,” commented Stefan Rahmstorf from the University of Potsdam in Germany, who was not involved in the study.
Scientists speculate that freshwater from the melting Greenland ice sheet is diluting the AMOC’s intensely salted waters, impeding their sinking action and thus weakening the southward flow along the ocean floor of the western Atlantic. The observed declining trends across four latitudes in the Western Atlantic point to this phenomenon.
“We anticipate these changes to be evident deep within the western boundary,” team members assert, including David Smeed from the UK National Marine Centre. “This strengthens our confidence in that interpretation.”
“They provide the first robust evidence of a consistent weakening of overturning across various latitudes in the Deep West,” claims René van Westen, a professor at Utrecht University in the Netherlands, who did not participate in the study.
Elipot emphasized the need for ongoing observations to clarify whether the AMOC is on the brink of collapse, a scenario that could lead to significantly colder winters in Europe and disrupt monsoon patterns in Asia and Africa.
“This trend suggests we might be approaching a tipping point,” he notes.
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From innocent fibs to deep-seated secrets, lies are intricately woven into our society’s tapestry.
But how can you discern when someone is lying beyond blatant deceptions with obvious flaws? The key lies in psychology.
We recently spoke with Professor Richard Wiseman, an expert in Social Understanding in Psychology at the University of Hertfordshire, on the Instant Genius podcast. He shared essential insights on improving our ability to identify deception.
He provides strategies for recognizing liars, the body language to be mindful of, and discusses scenarios where lying may be justifiable.
How can we identify if someone is lying?
I collaborated with the BBC on an experiment interviewing politicians on the radio. The audience aimed to identify who was lying, but few wanted to participate actively.
We reached out to a prominent political interviewer who agreed to help us.
I conversed with him twice—once he lied and once he told the truth—broadcasting both instances live. After approximately 30,000 audience calls, we discovered that people were nearly 50/50 in identifying the truth or a lie.
The interview recordings were published in the newspaper and aired on the radio. Interestingly, when visual cues were absent, people’s ability to detect lies significantly improved.
Visual cues can be manipulated—how we gesture or smile. However, spoken words often remain unexamined, providing valuable insights.
By focusing on auditory cues, you can enhance your lie detection skills.
Is there truth to the idea that lying involves looking up and to the right?
This notion is a prevalent myth, with many making decisions based on it—a concerning trend.
Faces require considerable mental processing, prompting us to avert our gaze when trying to recall something. This is often misinterpreted as a deception indicator.
In controlled lab tests, no correlation between eye movement and lying was found. Even when analyzing eye movements during overt lies, the results were inconclusive.
As it stands, there’s no evidence linking eye movements to lying behavior, though many believe otherwise.
Can individuals conceal their body language when lying?
Men discussing business in a modern boardroom
While some can conceal their body language, most struggle with it. In lie detection, I focus on deviations from typical behavior.
A gesture like scratching one’s nose could either indicate lying or just be normal behavior. Analyzing a single action may be misleading; it’s vital to consider an overall pattern.
Effective lie detection requires establishing a baseline, allowing you to pinpoint abnormalities in verbal communication.
What you should observe are hesitations, a longer interval from question to answer, and omissions as the individual crafts their lie.
Pay attention to repetitive phrases like “me” or “I.” Lying demands cognitive effort.
When fabricating a story, I must carefully consider what the listener knows, what aligns with my narrative, and previously stated facts, adding to mental stress.
Is it possible to become a skilled liar?
From a psychological perspective, arousal theory comes into play.
Typically, feeling guilty while lying triggers physiological responses like sweating and fidgeting.
However, if one lies frequently or lacks empathy regarding a falsehood, these signs diminish.
Many lies exist in a gray area; they can either unite or hurt us. For example, telling someone it’s wonderful to meet them might not reflect genuine sentiment but serves an emotional purpose.
Lies can forge connections as readily as they disrupt them. If one feels relaxed while lying, they’re less likely to exhibit signs of deception.
From a cognitive angle, lying is challenging. If someone has rehearsed their story multiple times, they may present their deception convincingly without obvious signals.
How accurate are lie detectors in detecting deception?
Lie detectors measure physiological responses such as sweat rate, heart rate, and breathing patterns.
The burning question remains: are these indicators consistently linked to lying? There’s significant debate on this topic. It varies by individual.
Businessman undergoing interrogation with a lie detector
It’s understandable that the presence of elaborate machines can induce nervousness, even in honest individuals.
Conversely, some who lie may remain calm, repeating their narratives or feeling indifferent about the deception. I believe lie detectors are far from reliable.
While they can provide insights, they are not foolproof and should be approached cautiously.
Most findings are inadmissible as evidence in court, which is a significant consideration.
Is it acceptable to lie to children?
We often expect our children to stretch the truth in certain scenarios. For instance, if someone gifts them a less-than-ideal present, we’d rather they feign appreciation.
In some cases, we value honesty and wish our children to discern when lying may be acceptable.
Lying isn’t a singular behavior; it encompasses various situations. We must teach children that lying can sometimes be justified, depending on context.
Are you lying to spare someone’s feelings? If so, that may be justifiable. Are you doing so for personal gain? If discovered, the fallout may be severe.
Lying has been part of human existence, aiding our survival. Understanding what constitutes a lie is key.
About Our Expert: Professor Richard Wiseman
Richard is a psychology professor at the University of Hertfordshire and hosts the On Your Mind podcast.
While we often associate body odor with being unpleasant, these natural scents can provide insightful information about our overall health.
What Causes Body Odor?
Body odor originates from sweat, but not all sweat has the same effect. Most unpleasant odors arise when bacteria interact with secretions from the apocrine glands, mainly located in the armpits and groin.
These glands emit a thicker, protein-rich fluid that initially has little odor. However, when bacteria on your skin break it down, the result is that familiar pungent scent.
In contrast, eccrine glands, found throughout the body, secrete a more diluted mixture of water and salt, which typically carries little inherent odor, although bacteria can produce a smell.
Read more:
What Can Body Odor Indicate About Your Health?
Minor changes in your odor may be your body’s way of signaling a potential health issue. For instance, poorly managed diabetes can cause a sweet or fruity aroma on the skin and breath, often likened to pear drops or nail polish remover.
This scent may indicate diabetic ketoacidosis, a medical emergency due to the buildup of ketone bodies from insufficient insulin.
Moreover, liver disease can produce a musty or “fecal” scent, while kidney failure may lead to an ammonia-like smell due to the body’s struggle to expel waste products.
Changes in odor can also be influenced by infections, pregnancy, menstrual cycles, and hormonal fluctuations, including menopause.
Interestingly, researchers are investigating whether body scent can assist in the early and accurate diagnosis of various diseases.
Your skin’s natural microbiome significantly influences your body odor, which is why some individuals naturally emit stronger scents than others – Image courtesy of Getty Images.
Recent research suggests that certain volatile organic compounds (VOCs), released by the skin, can indicate conditions like Parkinson’s disease even before noticeable neurological symptoms occur.
This investigatory field was partly inspired by individuals with heightened olfactory sensitivity, including a woman who recognized a unique musky scent from her husband long before he was diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease.
Impact of Lifestyle, Diet, and Genetics
Not every odor is concerning. Foods like garlic, onions, and curry contain volatile compounds that can affect sweat’s scent. Alcohol, caffeine, and various medications can also alter your body odor.
Even stress can shift your scent due to changes in sweat composition.
Your skin’s microbiome (the diverse bacteria community on your skin) plays a crucial role in determining body odor, explaining why some individuals naturally have stronger smells than others.
What To Do If You’re Concerned About Body Odor?
Maintaining good hygiene is crucial. Regularly washing with soap, especially in areas with high concentrations of apocrine glands, can reduce bacteria responsible for strong odors.
Antiperspirants help decrease sweat production, while deodorants mask unpleasant scents.
Wearing breathable fabrics, such as cotton or moisture-wicking materials, can help minimize bacterial growth, particularly during physical activity. Keeping well-hydrated and maintaining a balanced diet can also alleviate odor concerns.
If you notice a persistent or unexplained change in body odor, especially alongside symptoms related to diabetes, liver, or kidney issues, consider consulting a healthcare professional.
This article addresses the question (by Spalding’s Scott Edwards): “Can my scent provide insights into my health?”
If you have questions or feedback, feel free to email us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or connect with us onFacebook, Twitter, or Instagram (don’t forget to include your name and location).
Explore our ultimatefun facts and more intriguing science content.
The rich history of North America’s Indigenous peoples is often misrepresented through a European perspective. In her book, Indigenous People, historian Kathleen Duvall from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill provides a comprehensive overview, exploring centuries of development and the ways Indigenous communities navigated a constantly changing world.
Duvall illustrates how climate change from the Medieval Warm Period to the last Ice Age influenced Indigenous agricultural and water management practices. The book also highlights monumental engineering achievements, such as the impressive Cahokia Mounds in present-day Illinois and the innovative Hoogum canal system in Arizona.
Focusing on Indigenous experiences, the book covers essential topics such as the astronomical calendar and the impacts of the post-colonial smallpox epidemic, while dismantling prevalent misconceptions.
If you are passionate about historical nonfiction or seeking fresh insights into topics like ecology, botany, and archaeology, Indigenous People promises to be an engaging read.
The Galapagos lava heron, a unique small heron found on the lava-strewn shores of Ecuador’s Galapagos Islands, has recently gained recognition for its distinct status.
Endemic to the Galapagos Islands, this slate-gray to black heron has intrigued ornithologists for years.
While some classify it under the widely distributed Great Heron (Butorides striatum) as a subspecies Butorides striata sundevari, others advocate for its recognition as a separate species, Butorides sundevalli.
Recent DNA analyses led by researchers from San Francisco State University and the California Academy of Sciences lend weight to the latter perspective.
“This bird, noted for its significant plumage variation, has long posed the question of whether it stands as a separate species or simply as a subspecies of mainland birds,” said Dr. Jamie Chavez, lead author of the study.
Through the examination of thousands of genetic markers and numerous museum specimens, researchers found that the Galapagos lava heron forms its own distinct evolutionary lineage, diverging from its supposed relatives.
Surprisingly, the lava heron shows closer genetic ties to the Gray Heron (Butorides virescens) from North and Central America than to the Great Heron.
The ancestors of the Galapagos lava heron may have arrived on the islands via unusual migration routes, evolving in isolation over time.
“For biologists, visiting the Galapagos is a dream come true,” remarked Ezra Menderes, a graduate from San Francisco State University and co-author of the study. “There’s still so much to uncover within these well-studied ecosystems.”
This research not only clarifies the status of this magnificent bird but also contributes to a broader understanding of the evolutionary relationships within heron species.
Scientists suggest that what was once perceived as a single, globally distributed species should now be considered as several distinct species, including separate lineages across the Americas, Africa, and Australasia.
“Our ultra-conserved element (UCE) phylogenetic results indicate substantial internal divergence within the genus Butorides, bridging populations from the Old and New Worlds,” the authors noted.
“The UCE-based phylogeny strongly confirms the monophyly of New World herons, including the South American Great Heron, Gray Heron, and Galapagos lava heron.”
The findings, published in this month’s edition of Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, significantly enhance our comprehension of avian evolution.
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Ezra Z. Menderes et al. 2026. Global phylogenetic relationships of Butorides herons (suborder: Ardeidae) reveal the evolutionary history and taxonomic status of the Galapagos lava heron. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 220: 108600; doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2026.108600
In a groundbreaking analysis of spontaneous performances by a male chimpanzee named Ayumu, researchers discovered that the chimp’s rhythmic prowess and expressive “playful face” provide insights into how early humans might have transformed vocal emotions into musical instrument sounds.
Chimpanzee Ayumu exhibited long, multi-element musical displays by drumming and manipulating objects. The analysis of his rhythmic transitions revealed structured sequences, primarily isochronous timing, and a more stable tempo with tools compared to body drumming. His playful expressions suggest heightened arousal and positive emotions, reinforcing the concept that emotional vocal expressions can manifest through instrumental sounds. Image provided by: Hattori et al., doi: 10.1111/nyas.70239.
In February 2023, Ayumu, a 26-year-old male chimpanzee at the Center for Research on the Origins of Human Behavior and Evolution at Kyoto University, showcased a spontaneous musical performance that intrigued researchers.
He creatively removed floorboards to use as drums, generating complex sounds reminiscent of vocal expressions.
Dr. Yuko Hattori of Kyoto University noted, “Ayumu’s drumming is not unprecedented.” Chimpanzees are indeed recognized for their musical talents, especially in drumming.
However, Dr. Hattori emphasized that Ayumu’s unique combination of drumming and vocalizations introduced multiple rhythmic elements, marking a novel instance.
Between February 2023 and March 2025, researchers documented a total of 89 spontaneous performances by Ayumu.
The recordings reveal him ripping floorboards apart to create music through innovative tool use.
“Observing chimpanzees utilize tools to produce diverse sounds and express vocal emotions was fascinating,” remarked Dr. Hattori.
The researchers aimed to determine if vocal expressions could transition to instrumental sounds based on Ayumu’s performances.
They meticulously categorized his actions into elements such as hitting, dragging, and throwing.
Transition analysis was utilized to differentiate between random occurrences and intentional actions.
Finally, they assessed the rhythmic stability of tool use versus hand and foot drumming by analyzing intervals between strikes.
Notably, they found that the order of sounds produced was structured, with isochronous intervals that maintained a constant tempo, akin to a metronome.
Indeed, using tools yielded a more consistent rhythm compared to solely relying on hands and feet.
The researchers also documented Ayumu’s facial expressions, including the “play face,” commonly associated with playfulness and positive emotions.
This type of emotional signaling, typically absent in audio displays, suggests that vocal emotions may have previously been externalized into sounds produced with tools.
“Ayumu’s performance illustrates that non-human primates have the capacity to externalize voice-like expressions through musical instruments,” the authors concluded.
Moving forward, they expressed interest in studying the reactions of other chimpanzees and the influence of Ayumu’s performance within his social group.
For detailed insights, refer to the study published in Annual Report of the New York Academy of Sciences.
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Yuko Hattori et al., 2026. Combination of Instrument Sound Production in Captive Chimpanzees: Evolution of Vocal Externalization. Annual Report of the New York Academy of Sciences 1557 (1): e70239; doi: 10.1111/nyas.70239
Exciting findings from the Neretva Canyon—a prehistoric river channel that once flowed to Mars’ Jezero Crater—uncover significant concentrations of nickel in 3 billion-year-old sediments. These patterns mirror mineral formations found on Earth, often linked to microbial activity.
Nickel detected in bright magnesium sulfate veins in Jezero Crater on Mars, supporting its genuine origin. Image credit: Manelski et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-70081-3.
“The Perseverance rover landed in Mars’ Jezero Crater in February 2021 aimed at exploring ancient habitable environments and collecting core samples for future return to Earth during a planned Mars sample return mission,” stated Dr. Henry Manerski from Purdue University and his research team.
“Jezero is a Noachian impact crater, approximately 45 km in diameter, dating back 3.8 to 4 billion years, that once housed a lake, as supported by its two inlet valleys, delta fan formations, and an outlet valley on the eastern side.”
“Since its landing, Perseverance has traversed the igneous crater floor, ascended western alluvial fan deposits, crossed olivine- and carbonate-rich margins, and entered the western inlet valley known as the Neretva Valley.”
In their comprehensive study, Dr. Manerski and colleagues employed lasers, infrared spectrometers, and X-ray spectrometers onboard Perseverance to analyze 126 sedimentary rock samples and eight rock surfaces in the Neretva Valley.
They discovered nickel in 32 rocks at concentrations reaching up to 1.1% by weight, marking the highest level ever recorded in Martian rock.
The team noted that nickel tends to occur alongside iron sulfide compounds and sulfate minerals resulting from the breakdown of rocks such as jarosite and acanite.
Researchers drew parallels between the nickel-rich iron sulfide arrangements found in the Neretva Valley and the composition and structure of pyrite, an iron sulfide mineral observed in sedimentary rocks worldwide.
Iron sulfide found in Earth’s sedimentary rocks is predominantly produced by the anaerobic respiration of microorganisms that utilize sulfate in the presence of iron-rich minerals.
Previous investigations identified iron sulfide in the Neretva Valley, coinciding with organic carbon compounds and suggested these may have originated from biological sources.
“Although, such formations can also arise from non-biological processes,” the scientists noted.
“Our current research hasn’t provided evidence of any organisms being present.”
“Nickel is a vital element in the enzymes of many ancient archaeal and bacterial species, playing crucial roles in energy production, carbon fixation, and organic matter decomposition.”
“The identification of nickel-rich rocks implies that if life existed on early Mars, nickel was potentially available in forms usable by these organisms.”
“The nickel may stem from the breakdown of igneous rocks or from nickel-rich meteorites.”
“More research is essential to pinpoint the source of nickel in the Neretva Gorge and to examine its relationship with organic matter at this location.”
Results from this study were published in this week’s issue of Nature Communications.
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HT Manerski et al. 2026. Strong nickel enrichment coexists with redox and organic interactions in Neretva Canyon on Mars. Nat Commun 17, 2705; doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-70081-3
Recent archival data from ESA’s Cassini mission reveals that Saturn’s magnetic bubble is asymmetrically shaped, influenced not only by the solar wind but also by Saturn’s rapid rotation and the material emitted by its moons.
A diagram illustrating Saturn’s magnetosphere configuration affected by solar wind and rapid rotation. Image credit: Xu et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-69666-9.
Saturn’s magnetosphere serves as a shield, protecting the planet from highly charged particles in the solar wind.
Its magnetic footprint is vast, spanning over 10 times the width of Saturn.
A study led by Professor Andrew Coates from University College London analyzed six years of Cassini data to precisely locate Saturn’s cusp, the point where magnetic fields bend towards the planet’s poles and charged particles descend into its atmosphere.
The researchers discovered that this cusp is displaced to the right from the sun’s perspective, typically found between 1 PM and 3 PM (akin to a clock face), compared to the 12 PM position seen on Earth.
This asymmetry is attributed to Saturn’s rapid rotation, which completes a cycle in just 10.7 hours, along with the dense plasma environment resulting from its moons, especially Enceladus.
These factors contribute to pulling the magnetic field lines to the right, though further simulations are needed for validation.
Enceladus, known for its icy plumes erupting from subsurface oceans, holds potential for extraterrestrial life. Saturn’s diverse environment is particularly intriguing as it is slated to be the focus of a significant ESA mission launching in the 2040s.
“The cusp allows the solar wind direct access into the magnetosphere,” states Professor Coates.
“Understanding the location of Saturn’s cusp is crucial for mapping its entire magnetic bubble.”
“Gaining deeper insights into Saturn’s environment is increasingly important as we prepare for missions returning to Saturn and its moon Enceladus.”
“These findings invigorate our enthusiasm for future explorations.”
“This time, we will search for signs of habitability and potential life.”
“The study supports the long-held theory that the rapid rotation of gas giants like Saturn, coupled with their active moons, displaces the solar wind, shaping their magnetospheres differently than Earth’s.”
“This suggests that gas giants like Saturn have unique magnetospheric behaviors compared to Earth.”
“Enceladus is a significant contributor to this dynamic, emitting substantial water vapor that ionizes and infuses the magnetosphere with heavy plasma, further influenced by Saturn’s rotation.”
“The contrasts between Saturn’s and Earth’s magnetic structures imply a fundamental process governing solar wind interactions among different planets,” explains Professor Zhonghua Yao from the University of Hong Kong.
“Comprehensive observations of Earth elucidate its mechanisms, while comparative studies across planets unveil fundamental laws applicable to understanding other celestial environments, including exoplanets.”
“By integrating Cassini’s observations with simulations, we illustrate how Saturn’s rapid rotation and Enceladus’s plasma emissions contribute to the asymmetric global distribution of cusps,” says researcher Dr. Yang Xu from Southern University of Science and Technology.
“We aim for this research to serve as a crucial reference for future explorations of Jupiter and Saturn’s environments.”
Recent analysis of NASA’s Parker Solar Probe data reveals that protons and heavy ions react differently during solar magnetic reconnection events, highlighting the complexity of space weather mechanisms.
NASA’s Parker Solar Probe approaches the Sun. Image credit: NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio.
Magnetic reconnection transforms magnetic energy into explosive kinetic energy, fueling various solar phenomena that significantly impact space weather affecting Earth.
This process energizes protons and heavy ions, propelling them from the Sun at extraordinary speeds.
While current models assume uniform particle behavior, new insights from the Parker Solar Probe indicate significant differences in particle acceleration.
Heavy ions are projected straight, resembling a laser beam, whereas protons generate waves that scatter trailing particles in a dispersive pattern—much like the effect of a flashlight.
“These new findings redefine our understanding of magnetic reconnection,” stated Dr. Mihir Desai, a researcher at the Southwest Research Institute and the University of Texas at San Antonio.
“Protons and heavy ions show distinct spectral behaviors that challenge existing models.”
“Protons create scattered waves more efficiently, while heavy ions maintain a focused beam and preserve their accelerated spectral shape.”
“Magnetic reconnection is a common phenomenon throughout the universe, where magnetic field lines converge, separate, and rejoin.”
“Within the Sun, explosive processes energize particles, generating high-velocity streams that lead to space weather phenomena like solar flares and coronal mass ejections.”
“Such space weather can disrupt Earth’s space environment, resulting in breathtaking auroras but also affecting power grids, satellite communications, and navigation systems.”
“Understanding the mechanics of magnetic reconnection is crucial for predicting hazardous events and safeguarding both life and technological assets on Earth and in space.”
“Our findings reveal that the Sun’s ‘magnetic engine’ is far more intricate than previously thought,” Dr. Desai added.
“This is thrilling as it shows that our own star acts as an accessible laboratory for high-energy physics, similar to the processes that drive some of the universe’s most intense phenomena, like black holes and supernovae.”
For more details, refer to the study results, published on March 31st in the Astrophysics Journal Letter.
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MI Desai et al. 2026. Acceleration of protons and heavy ions by magnetic reconnection in the near-solar heliospheric current sheet. APJ 1000, 300; doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae48f2
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President Trump Congratulates Astronauts on NASA Artemis II Mission
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Dr. Harrison Schmidt, Apollo 17 astronaut and the last person to walk on the moon, discusses his experiences, moon rock samples, and the significance of the Artemis II mission for future generations. April 1, 2026
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President Trump Congratulates Astronauts on NASA Artemis II Mission
When it comes to advice for the four NASA astronauts poised to embark on their lunar voyage this Wednesday, Harrison Schmidt is undoubtedly the expert you want to hear from.
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At 90 years old, Schmidt made history when he walked on the moon during Apollo 17 in 1972, the last human mission to our lunar neighbor.
NASA’s Artemis II mission is set to launch on Wednesday at 6:24 PM, marking a new chapter in lunar exploration. The mission aims to orbit the moon, paving the way for a future landing in 2028, mirroring Apollo 8’s pivotal role for Apollo 11.
According to Schmidt, the Artemis II astronauts will encounter many of the surreal vistas he experienced over fifty years ago.
“Every day, every hour, every minute is a new experience,” Schmidt remarked in an interview with NBC News.
Mr. Schmidt today. NBC News
To the Artemis II team, Schmidt advises: “Train well. Be prepared for the unexpected. But most importantly, have fun.”
Since the days of Apollo 17, much has changed. At that time, Schmidt and the crew were entrenched in a space race against the Soviet Union, whereas NASA is now in competition with China, which has its sights set on landing astronauts on the moon by 2030.
The Apollo 17 crew spent nearly 13 days in space, including three on the moon, traveling 30 kilometers on the lunar rover, the furthest any crew has gone, while collecting a record-breaking 243 pounds of geological samples.
Astronaut Harrison H. Schmidt, Lunar Module Pilot, aboard the Lunar Module LM before it lifts off from the moon in 1972. Eugene A. Cernan/NASA
Schmidt recounts the unforgettable experience of entering lunar orbit in darkness on the moon’s far side, shielded from Earth’s view.
“As we were landing on the east side of the moon with the sun barely peeking over the horizon, stepping into that incredible darkness was surreal. The moon was visibly illuminated by Earth’s light, casting a beautiful bluish hue,” Schmidt reminisced.
Schmidt stands near the U.S. flag on the moon during a spacewalk on December 13, 1972. JSC/NASA
The Artemis II astronauts will have an unprecedented view of the moon’s far side.
“We’ve discovered that roughly 60% of the far side has never been seen by human eyes due to its lighting conditions,” remarked Reed Wiseman, the Artemis II mission commander. “Apollo focused on lighting for landings on the near side, but this moonwalk offers a different perspective. It’s truly remarkable.”
Following Apollo 17’s conclusion, the U.S. shifted its focus away from sustaining a human presence on the moon. The 1970s budget cuts led to the cancellation of further Apollo missions, prompting a priority shift toward the space station.
The crew of Apollo 17 captured this view of Earth on December 7, 1972, while heading toward the moon. JSC/NASA
Unlike the Apollo missions, NASA’s Artemis program intends to establish a sustainable lunar presence, laying the groundwork for future missions to Mars.
“It wouldn’t surprise me if we see people live on the moon for months or even years within our lifetime,” Schmidt expressed. “Mars is within our reach, and we will continue pushing forward.”
What fuels his optimism? “As humans, exploration is ingrained in our nature,” Schmidt asserted.
“From our origins in Africa to the present, the drive to explore and expand is deeply embedded within us,” he concludes.
Schmidt trained in the Lunar Module Simulator at Kennedy Space Center before the Apollo 17 mission in 1972. NASA
As Apollo 17 ventured away from the moon, Commander Gene Cernan remarked: “We depart just as we came; with God’s will, we will return carrying peace and hope for all mankind.”
If everything goes according to plan, Artemis II will be a significant stride in that journey. By the mission’s sixth day, the crew expects to come within just 6,000 miles of the moon’s surface, potentially reaching farther from Earth than any human has traveled before.
“This mission is essential for our nation,” Schmidt asserts. “China is clearly vying for space control, just as it is on Earth. Thus, this national initiative must be executed effectively.”
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