Explore the stunning new image captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, showcasing a section of the N159 star-forming complex located in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a dwarf galaxy approximately 160,000 light-years away from Earth.
This breathtaking Hubble image portrays N159, a vibrant star-forming complex in the Large Magellanic Cloud. Image credit: NASA / ESA / Hubble / R. Indebetouw.
N159 stands as one of the most colossal molecular clouds within the Large Magellanic Cloud, making it a noteworthy member of our cosmic neighborhood – the Milky Way galaxy.
Positioned at the southwestern edge of the renowned Tarantula Nebula, N159 spans over 150 light-years across.
The newly released Hubble image captures only a fraction of the expansive N159 complex.
“A dense cloud of cold hydrogen gas predominates the scene, creating a complex array of ridges, cavities, and luminescent filaments,” stated Hubble astronomers.
“Within these thick clouds, newly formed stars begin to blaze, their intense radiation illuminating the surrounding hydrogen in a striking crimson hue.”
“The brightest zones signify the presence of hot, massive young stars whose vigorous stellar winds and energetic light reshape the surrounding space.”
“These powerful forces carve out bubble-like formations and hollow cavities within the gas, clearly illustrating the effects of stellar feedback.”
“Dark clouds in the foreground glow thanks to a new star shining from behind.”
“The illuminated clouds and intricate bubbles reveal the dynamic interplay between star formation and the primordial matter from which stars arise, capturing the perpetual cycles of creation and transformation within this neighboring galaxy.”
New Research Reveals Frogs Have Preserved Their Ecology for 45 Million Years
Frog melanosome geometry study shows similarities between ancient and modern frog eyes. Image credit: Falk et al., doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2025.114220.
This groundbreaking study led by University College Cork investigates 45 million-year-old frog fossils from Geiseltal, a notable paleontological site in central Germany.
These remarkable fossils preserve not only skin remnants but also microscopic fossilized cell structures known as melanosomes.
Melanosomes are essential for synthesizing, storing, and transporting melanin, the pigment responsible for the coloration of skin, hair, and eyes.
Like contemporary frogs, these ancient melanosomes are found in various body areas, including the eyes, skin, and internal organs.
While melanosome shapes differ between fossilized and modern soft tissues, the shapes in the eyes and internal organs remain consistent.
Dr. Valentina Rossi, a researcher at University College Cork, stated, “The shape of melanosomes may correspond to different functions across tissues, including photoprotection and homeostasis.”
Dr. Daniel Falk, also from University College Cork, noted, “The unchanged shape of eye melanosomes over millions of years suggests their function has remained constant, indicating that no evolutionary changes were necessary.”
Some frog species appear to maintain ancestral traits rather than evolving new characteristics.
This research confirms that frogs have preserved their ecological niche for at least 45 million years, adapting to activities such as hunting and mating during dawn and night.
This study is the first to analyze a large dataset of both extant and fossil melanosomes from frogs.
Utilizing advanced electron microscopy and synchrotron X-ray fluorescence analysis, researchers gained insights that were unavailable in the early 20th century when the fossils were first discovered.
Professor Maria McNamara emphasized, “Integrating fossil and living species data in paleontological research can illuminate our understanding of evolutionary processes.”
“We are just beginning to recognize that melanin may serve as a significant evolutionary signal.”
Read the full study published in this month’s iScience magazine here.
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Daniel Falk et al. “Evolutionary Constraints on Melanin over 45 Million Years.” iScience, published online December 17, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2025.114220
Archaeologists from the University of Tübingen and LMU Munich have unearthed the remnants of an ancient pottery workshop in an early Iron Age Dinka settlement on the Peshdar Plain, located in Iraq’s Kurdish Autonomous Region. This groundbreaking discovery enhances our understanding of craft specializations, technical traditions, and urban life, revealing a surprising level of socio-economic complexity in the region during that era.
A 3,000-year-old pottery workshop in Jirdi Bazaar, showcasing the walls and kiln. Image credit: Andrea Scutieri.
The Dinka settlement complex, encompassing Girdi Bazaar, Karati Dinka, and neighboring areas, was excavated as part of the Peshdar Plain project launched by LMU Munich archaeologists in 2015.
This initiative concentrated on the Iron Age of the Lower Zab headwaters, a historically underexplored region in the western Zagros.
Excavations have revealed previously unknown Iron Age ruins, featuring a diverse pottery assemblage and a pottery production workshop in the bustling Jirdi Bazaar.
The workshop included two updraft kilns and manufacturing tools dating back to approximately 1200 to 800 BC.
Dr. Silvia Amicone, an archaeologist at the University of Tübingen, remarked: “The workshop was so well-preserved that we could utilize various techniques to gain a comprehensive understanding of how potters operated in this region during the Iron Age.”
Archaeologists examined materials including raw clay, finished pottery, kiln lining, contents, and fuel remnants from the firing process.
Through mineralogical and microstructural analysis of clay and pottery samples, researchers identified the raw materials and manufacturing methods employed in pottery creation.
Findings indicate that while vessels from this settlement exhibited minor variations in shape and finish—possibly reflective of their specific functions—these differences were integrated into a modular and well-organized production framework, likely catering to both the Dinka settlement and the surrounding area, with the Gil-i-Bazaar workshop playing a pivotal role.
This conclusion is corroborated by extensive evidence of pottery production across the settlement complex, including potential kilns identified through geophysical analyses.
The results suggest that pottery production was fundamental to the city’s configuration, with Gird-i Bazar being part of a network of workshops adhering to standardized production procedures.
“Our findings suggest that pottery was mainly fired at relatively low temperatures (below 900 degrees Celsius) under oxidizing conditions, utilizing simple updraft kilns with gradual heating rates and brief firing times,” the researchers stated.
“The variations in microstructural and mineralogical characteristics can be explained by different firing events conducted within a shared technological framework.”
“All types of vessels appear to have been ignited similarly, showcasing a consistent tradition of pyrotechnics.”
“Investigating pottery production in Dinka settlements provides a unique insight into the organization and innovative capabilities of early urban societies,” explained Professor Karla Pohlmann (Doshisha), Rector of the University of Tübingen.
“These discoveries illuminate how technological knowledge and community structures laid the groundwork for cultural evolution over 2,500 years ago.”
“Such research serves as a reminder that progress has always been a collective endeavor.”
For further insights, refer to this study. The survey’s results will be published on December 23rd in an archeology journal.
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Silvia Amicone et al. “Assembling the pieces of the puzzle: Integrating pottery and kiln analysis to reconstruct firework technology in Dinka settlements (Iraqi Kurdistan).” archeology journal, published online on December 23, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2025.106425
A rare triple-merger galaxy, known as J121/1219+1035, hosts three actively feeding radio-bright supermassive black holes, as revealed by a team of American astronomers.
Artist’s impression of J121/1219+1035, a rare trio of merging galaxies, featuring three radioactively bright supermassive black holes actively feeding, with jets illuminating the surrounding gas. Image credit: NSF/AUI/NRAO/P. Vosteen.
The J1218/1219+1035 system is located approximately 1.2 billion light-years from Earth.
This unique galaxy system contains three interacting galaxies, each harboring supermassive black holes at their centers that are actively accreting material and shining brightly in radio frequencies.
Dr. Emma Schwartzman, a research scientist at the US Naval Research Laboratory, states: “Triple active galaxies like J1218/1219+1035 are incredibly rare, and observing them during a merger allows us a front-row seat to the growth of supermassive galaxies and their black holes.”
“Our observations confirmed that all three black holes in J1218/1219+1035 are emitting bright radiation and actively firing jets. This supports the theory of active galactic nuclei (AGN) and provides insight into the life cycle of supermassive black holes.”
Schwartzman and colleagues utilized NSF’s Very Large Array (VLA) and Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) to study J1218/1219+1035.
The findings confirmed that each galaxy hosts a compact synchrotron-emitting radio core, indicating that all three harbor AGNs powered by growing black holes.
This discovery makes J1218/1219+1035 the first confirmed triple radio AGN and only the third known triple AGN system in nearby space.
“The three galaxies within J1218/1219+1035, located about 22,000 to 97,000 light-years apart, are in the process of merging, resulting in a dynamically connected group with tidal signatures indicative of their interactions,” the astronomers noted.
“Such triple systems are crucial in the context of hierarchical galactic evolution, wherein large galaxies like the Milky Way grow through successive collisions and mergers with smaller galaxies, yet they are seldom observed.”
“By capturing three actively feeding black holes within the same merging group, our new observations create an excellent laboratory for testing how galactic encounters funnel gas into centers and stimulate black hole growth.”
J1218/1219+1035 was initially flagged as an anomalous system through mid-infrared data from NASA’s Wide-Field Infrared Surveyor (WISE), which suggested the presence of at least two obscured AGNs within the interacting galaxies.
Optical spectroscopy confirmed one AGN in a core while revealing complex signatures in another, although the nature of the third galaxy remained uncertain due to the possibility of emissions from star formation.
“Only through new ultra-sharp radio imaging with VLA at frequencies of 3, 10, and 15 GHz did we uncover compact radio cores aligned with all three optical galaxies, confirming that each hosts an AGN bright in radio emissions and likely fueling small-scale jets and outflows,” the researchers explained.
“The radio spectra of the three cores exhibited traits consistent with non-thermal synchrotron radiation from the AGNs, featuring two sources with typical steep spectra and a third with an even steeper spectrum potentially indicative of unresolved jet activity.”
In 1900, mathematician David Hilbert presented a list of mathematical problems that captured both the current state and future trajectory of mathematics. Now, 125 years later, Dr. Zahel Hani and his colleagues at the University of Michigan have successfully solved one of Hilbert’s enduring puzzles, significantly unifying various physical laws in the process.
Hilbert advocated for deriving all physical laws from mathematical axioms—assertions regarded as fundamental truths by mathematicians. His sixth problem sought to derive laws governing fluid behavior from such axioms.
Until 2025, physicists characterized fluids through three distinct paradigms based on scale: the microscopic scale of individual particles, the mesoscopic world of particle clusters, and the macroscopic scope of full-fledged fluids, such as water flowing in pipes. Despite advances in linking these scales, a seamless unification remained elusive until Hani and his team devised a solution.
The researchers’ breakthrough hinged on adapting diagram-based techniques pioneered by physicist Richard Feynman for the seemingly unrelated field of quantum field theory. This endeavor culminated in a published paper reflecting a five-year research initiative.
“We received validation of our results from numerous experts in the field,” Hani asserts. The study, currently available as a preprint, will soon appear in a highly regarded mathematics journal.
The findings represent not only a monumental achievement in mathematics but also offer the potential to enhance our understanding of complex fluid dynamics in natural systems, such as the Earth’s atmosphere and oceans. Hani notes they are also exploring a quantum variant of this issue, where microscale mathematics can reveal even more complex and intriguing particle behaviors.
The remarkable R1 humanoid robot, developed by Robbie Ant, a subsidiary of Ant Group, showcases the versatility of humanoid robots. With the ability to mimic human actions due to their similar appendages, R1 opens up possibilities across various job sectors.
Unlike traditional wheeled robots, the R1 achieves balance on two legs, thanks to its stable wheelbase and humanoid design from the waist up.
The R1 made a striking appearance at IFA 2025 in Berlin, demonstrating its cooking skills by preparing shrimp, albeit at a leisurely pace. Its creators envision potential applications for the R1 as a caregiver, nurse, or tour guide.
Tiangong Robot Takes a Tumble
Zhang Xiangyi/China News Service/VCG via Getty Images
The bipedal Tiangong robot, built by a government-backed AI robotics innovation center, aimed high but faced challenges—tripping and falling during a 100-meter race at the World Humanoid Robot Games in Beijing.
Various events, including soccer and dance, took place, with Tiangong not the only robot to sustain injuries; another competitor withdrew from the 1500m race. As one robot lamented, “My head came off.”
Robot Jockey Racing on a Camel
Karim Jafar/AFP via Getty Images
In response to a ban on child jockeys in camel races, the Qatari government shifted to using robot jockeys in 2005. Initially, these robots were rudimentary, functioning with simple tools, but they have since evolved into more sophisticated devices.
The image shows a robot jockey at a race organized by the Qatar Camel Racing Organizing Committee in Al Shahaniya, just outside of Doha.
Ready, Set, Go!
Kevin Frayer/Getty Images
In April, an impressive 12,000 humans and 21 robots participated in the Beijing E-Town Humanoid Robot Half Marathon, marking the first event allowing both humans and robots to race together.
Six robots finished the race, with the Tiangong Ultra completing it in a remarkable 2 hours and 40 minutes, boasting the advantage of multiple battery sets, an opportunity not available to human competitors.
Robots in the Ring
Lintao Zhang/Getty Images
At the World Humanoid Robot Games, the first-ever kickboxing match between robots featured Unitree G1 robots. Though their movements were slow, their attempts at punches were more akin to gentle nudges than knockout blows. Despite frequently losing balance, these robots displayed agility and determination by promptly getting back up post-fall.
Cyborg Tadpole
Hao Shen et al. 2025, Jia Liu Lab/Harvard University SEAS
These tadpoles are actually cyborgs, implanted with electronic devices to monitor their neural development as they mature into frogs.
Research conducted by Jia Liu at Harvard University utilized a flexible material known as perfluoropolymer to create a soft mesh around an ultrathin conductor, which was applied to the brain precursor of Xenopus frogs (African clawed frog). As they matured, this mesh integrated seamlessly into the developing brain, enabling researchers to capture brain activity data.
As we approach the end of 2025, it’s a time for reflection and planning for the new year. Many individuals consider New Year’s resolutions aimed at improving health, diet, and immunity. But how can you tell if these new habits are effective?
It’s crucial to understand that “boosting” your immune system can be misleading; more robust defenses might actually be harmful. Current research indicates that your ability to combat infections can be assessed through specific immune cell measurements. Monitor your “immunity grade” to determine if your body can fend off illness effectively.
However, tests are ineffective without comprehension of what they signify. A diverse gut microbiome is increasingly recognized as essential for health, leading to various DIY fecal tests available today. Unfortunately, there is still no consensus on the beneficial microorganisms that yield high scores. With insights from the Zoe health app, scoring your microbiome health will soon be more accessible, utilizing a scale from 0 to 1000.
That said, it’s vital to approach statistics critically. For instance, body mass index (BMI) is a commonly used health metric, yet it has significant limitations. While BMI is a straightforward calculation of weight relative to height, it fails to differentiate between unhealthy fat gain and healthy increases in muscle or bone mass. Researchers recently proposed a revised definition of obesity, highlighting the need for better indicators of health.
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Boosting your immune system is a misnomer, as excessive immune defense can be harmful. “
This emphasizes two important points: Firstly, if you aim to improve your life, ensure you have the appropriate metrics to measure your progress. There’s little value in resolving to wake up early and exercise if your success is gauged solely by your alarm time. Secondly, scientific understanding is continuously evolving, so it’s essential to stay informed with the latest credible evidence. Rest assured, if you’re reading this, you’re already taking a promising step towards better health.
In February, Microsoft unveiled the Majorana 1 quantum computer, igniting debates in the quantum computing community.
The Majorana 1 is noteworthy for its use of topological qubits, which promise enhanced error resistance compared to traditional qubit designs. Microsoft has pursued the development of topological qubits grounded in the elusive Majorana zero mode (MZM), facing mixed results throughout its journey.
In 2021, a significant paper from Microsoft researchers was retracted by Nature due to identified analytical flaws in their research on topological qubits. Furthermore, evaluations of experiments leading up to Majorana 1 received heavy criticism in 2023.
Consequently, the 2025 paper from Nature announcing Majorana 1 faced heightened scrutiny. Notably, the editorial team claimed, “The results in this manuscript do not represent evidence of the presence of Majorana zero mode in the reported devices.” In contrast, Microsoft’s press release asserted the opposite.
Chetan Nayak from Microsoft addressed concerns during a packed presentation at the American Physical Society Global Summit in Anaheim, California, in March. Despite presenting new data, skepticism remained prevalent among critics.
“The data presented does not demonstrate a functional topological qubit, let alone the basic components of one,” stated Henry Legg, a professor at the University of St Andrews, expressing his reservations.
In response, Nayak contended that the community’s feedback has been enthusiastic and engaged. “We’re observing thoughtful discussions and intriguing responses regarding our recent findings and ongoing efforts,” he noted.
In July, additional data emerged, with researchers like Kim Eun-ha from Cornell University asserting that these results exhibit characteristics more indicative of a topological qubit than previously shown. “It’s encouraging to witness the progress,” she emphasized.
Nayak and his team remain optimistic about future advancements, aiming to escalate their quantum computing capabilities beyond Majorana 1. This initiative was selected for the final phase of the Quantum Benchmarking Initiative led by the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, focusing on practical approaches toward building viable quantum computers.
“This past year has been transformative for our quantum program, and the introduction of the Majorana 1 chip marks a crucial milestone for both Microsoft and the quantum computing sector,” stated Nayak.
Looking ahead to 2026, will Microsoft’s endeavors finally quell the critics? Legg remains doubtful: “Fundamental physics doesn’t adhere to schedules dictated by major tech corporations,” he remarked.
Electron Beam in Niobium Cavity: A Core Element of SLAC’s LCLS-II X-ray Laser
Credit: SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
The Klystron Gallery at SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory is a concrete corridor lined with robust metal columns that stretch well beyond my line of sight. Yet, beneath this unassuming structure lies a marvel of modern science.
Below the gallery, the Linac Coherent Light Source II (LCLS-II) extends over an impressive 3.2 kilometers. This cutting-edge machine produces X-ray pulses that are the strongest in the world. I am here to witness it because a significant record has just been surpassed. However, an upgrade is set to take its most powerful component offline soon. When it reopens—anticipated as early as 2027—it will more than double its X-ray energy output.
“It’s like the difference between a star’s twinkle and the brightness of a light bulb,” says James Cryan at SLAC.
Dismissing LCLS-II as merely a sparkle would be profoundly misleading. In 2024, it achieved the most potent X-ray pulse ever recorded. Although it lasted a mere 440 billionths of a second, it released nearly 1 terawatt of energy—far surpassing the annual output of a typical nuclear power plant. Moreover, in 2025, LCLS-II set a record of generating 93,000 X-ray pulses per second, a remarkable feat for an X-ray laser.
According to Cryan, this milestone enables researchers to undertake groundbreaking studies of how particles behave within molecules after absorbing energy. It’s akin to transforming a black-and-white film into a vibrant, colorful cinematic experience. With this breakthrough and forthcoming enhancements, LCLS-II has the capacity to revolutionize our understanding of the subatomic behavior of light-sensitive systems, from photosynthetic organisms to advanced solar cell technologies.
LCLS-II operates by accelerating electrons toward near-light speeds—the ultimate velocity threshold in physics. The cylindrical device known as the klystron, which gives the klystron gallery its name, generates the microwaves necessary for this acceleration. Once the electrons attain sufficient speed, they navigate through arrays of thousands of strategically placed magnets, enabling their oscillation and producing an X-ray pulse. These pulses can be utilized for imaging the internal structure of various materials, similar to medical X-rays.
During my visit, I had the opportunity to tour one of several experimental halls. Here, the X-ray pulses collide with molecules, enabling a closer look at their interactions. These experimental areas resemble futuristic submarines—with heavy metal exteriors and large glass windows—engineered to exclude stray air molecules that could disrupt their experiments.
Just before my visit, Cryan and his team conducted an experiment to examine proton movements within molecules. Traditional imaging techniques struggle to provide detailed insight into proton dynamics, yet these specifics are vital for advancing solar cell technology, Cryan emphasizes.
What awaits these investigations post-upgrade when LCLS-II evolves into LCLS-II-HE? Cryan states that the enhanced capability to examine particle behavior within molecules will be significantly augmented. However, the path to upgrades is challenging.
Explore CERN: The Hub of Particle Physics in Europe
Get ready to explore CERN, Europe’s premier center for particle physics, nestled near the beautiful city of Geneva, Switzerland, famous for housing the Large Hadron Collider.
John Schmage from SLAC notes that as the energy of the electron beam increases, the risk of particles straying becomes a significant concern. He recounts witnessing a misbehaving beam damage equipment at another facility, highlighting the necessity for precision. SLAC’s Ding Yuantao emphasizes that all new components installed during the upgrade are designed to endure higher power outputs, but they must increase energy levels gradually to ensure operational integrity. “We’ll activate the beam and closely monitor its performance,” he states.
In 2026, the team plans to engage in a significant engineering initiative to align the components, followed by one to two years of meticulous setup for a staged increase in power output. If all progresses according to plan, the upgraded LCLS-II-HE will be available for global researchers by 2030. Ongoing communication between X-ray users like Cryan, and operators like Schmage and Ding, will be essential. “This tool will evolve, and we will continually enhance its capabilities,” Schmage notes.
Exploring Complex Neurological Effects of Drinking Water
Book Review: Neural Mind: How the Brain Thinks
This is a comprehensive two-part review of an intriguing book. The first part delves into the concepts presented in Neural Mind: How the Brain Thinks, while the second part shares my impressions post-reading.
Understanding Neuroscience’s Fundamental Questions
This book confronts a major inquiry in neuroscience: how do neurons facilitate the vast range of human thoughts—from executing motor actions to articulating sentences and contemplating philosophy?
Distinct Perspectives from the Authors
The authors, George Lakoff and Srini Narayanan, offer unique viewpoints. Lakoff, a retired linguist and cognitive scientist from the University of California, Berkeley, has extensively studied metaphor’s role in human cognition. Narayanan, a senior research director at Google DeepMind in Zurich, focuses on how AI learns languages.
Central Thesis: Interconnectedness of Brain Functions
The central premise of Neural Mind is that the brain employs similar processes for motor functions, language acquisition, and abstract thinking. Lakoff and Narayanan suggest that evolution repurposed existing neural circuits for various types of thinking, revealing profound similarities beneath apparent differences.
Learning Concepts Without Language
This notion becomes clearer when examining how infants and non-verbal animals comprehend basic concepts. Despite individual experiences varying, they universally grasp ideas like up and down, motion and rest, force and resistance—essential for brain representation.
Metaphors Shape Our Understanding
In works like Metaphors We Live By, co-authored with Mark Johnson, Lakoff posits that these foundational concepts underpin the metaphors we use. For instance, emotions are often expressed in physical terms, equating happiness with “up” and sadness with “down.” This metaphorical framework explains why we describe communication as a “conveying” process.
Physical Metaphors and Abstract Thinking
A simplistic interpretation suggests that physical metaphors assist in comprehending complex ideas. However, Lakoff and Narayanan argue that these metaphors are the essence of our thought processes. Given the brain’s evolutionary timeline, early neural circuits initially designed for motor control have adapted for advanced language and thought processing.
The Complexity of Simple Actions
Consider the action of drinking a glass of water—a simple task involving multiple stages. From reaching for the glass to sipping water, each phase requires intricate neural coordination. This complexity is mirrored in our language structure, where simple actions and tenses are systematically categorized.
Metaphors and Creative Thinking
Physical metaphors also influence abstract thoughts. For instance, relationships can be described as “separated,” while state failure might be “collapsing.” While clinging to a single metaphor can constrict thinking, embracing new metaphors fosters creativity and innovation.
Future Research and Challenges
Testing these theories is challenging. Lakoff and Narayanan propose models of the brain’s circuit architecture, yet we lack a complete neuron-level map of the human brain. It may take years before their hypotheses can be rigorously validated.
Final Thoughts on Neural Mind
Despite its complexities, Lakoff and Narayanan present compelling arguments worth considering. However, the readability of Neural Mind is debatable, with its repetitive structure and disjointed thoughts making it a demanding read. Important ideas sometimes feel rushed, and the prolonged sentences can be overwhelming. Ultimately, while the book is insightful, it may be better to explore summaries rather than tackle the original text directly.
— Michael Marshall, Writer based in Devon, England
This decoration will soon celebrate Katie’s convocation
Andriy Oleksienko/Shutterstock
During this festive season, it’s hard to miss seasonal designs like trees, holly, and joyful Santa figures. Among the most recognizable motifs are snowflakes. Although famously intricate, they can also be quite bothersome.
The snowflake’s unique structure is influenced by ice’s chemical makeup. While each snowflake is touted as one-of-a-kind, they exhibit intriguing mathematical patterns. Symmetry is a term we often use for shapes, where reflection symmetry means that one side mirrors the other when a line divides it.
Shapes can also showcase rotational symmetry, enabling partial rotations to maintain identical appearances. The count of distinct positions where the shape looks the same is known as the symmetry order. For instance, a square has a degree of 4 rotational symmetry, while an equilateral triangle exhibits a degree of 3.
Some shapes possess only rotational symmetry (like the Isle of Man’s emblem), while others exhibit only reflection symmetry (similar to a stick figure split down the middle).
Regular polygons combine both rotational and reflection symmetries, referred to as dihedral symmetries, allowing us to achieve additional symmetries. For example, reflecting a square vertically followed by horizontally results in a 180-degree rotation. Much like numerical addition, we can “add” symmetries, a concept rooted in group theory.
Snowflakes beautifully embody this concept. With a hexagonal formation, they reflect across six distinct lines through the center and can be rotated six times every 60 degrees. This symmetry arises from the chemical structure of water and ice, where hydrogen bonds form a rigid hexagonal lattice as water freezes.
This unique chemistry leads to the hexagonal foundation of most ice formations, including snowflakes. Variations in temperature, humidity, and pressure impact the specific shape of each snowflake, ensuring that while no two are alike, their basic form remains consistent.
As a mathematician, I am delighted to see such elegant shapes gracing winter, though I find the decorations (excluding the ones shown!) displaying snowflakes with 5 (ugh) or 8 (boo) branches incredibly irritating. Reader beware of seasonal snow fakes!
Katie Steckles is a mathematician, lecturer, YouTuber, and author based in Manchester, UK. She is also an advisor for New Scientist‘s puzzle column “BrainTwister”. Follow her on Twitter @stex
Let me share some eye-opening news. Every child embodies genetic experimentation, with nature exhibiting indifference if things don’t go as planned. Our genomes present a complex tapestry shaped by conflicting evolutionary forces, and each of us carries roughly one hundred novel mutations.–Each birth introduces a unique mutation into the genetic pool.
Thus, I anticipate that in the future, gene editing of embryos will become commonplace once humanity confronts various daunting challenges, including climate change. There may come a time when natural conception is perceived as reckless.
Reaching that future is no trivial task. However, if you’ve been following the buzz from the tech community this year, it’s no surprise you feel optimistic. By 2025, we discovered at least three startups focused on creating gene-edited babies.
So, is the dawn of CRISPR on the horizon, or could these startups potentially face backlash?
Preventing Genetic Diseases
Among these startups, Manhattan Genomics and Preventive aim not for enhancement but to avert severe genetic disorders. This noble objective is commendable, but it’s important to note that many of these conditions can already be forestalled through existing screening techniques, such as genetic testing of IVF embryos prior to implantation, a process with a high rate of success.
So why pursue the development of gene-edited embryos, a complex and legally challenging endeavor, when IVF screening already provides a viable solution?
Preventive did not respond to inquiries, but a spokesperson from Manhattan Genomics noted that couples undergoing IVF often don’t have enough viable embryos to choose from. By editing disease-carrying embryos instead of discarding them, the likelihood of having a healthy child increases. The company believes that gene editing could enhance the chances for approximately ten embryos affected by Huntington’s disease and thirty-five embryos affected by sickle cell disease annually for couples using IVF.
However, this translates to a very limited number of births. Approximately one-third of IVF embryos lead to viable births, and this percentage may drop further post-editing. Furthermore, significant challenges accompany this approach. Although CRISPR technology has advanced, there’s still a risk of introducing harmful mutations as unintended consequences.
Moreover, the editing process often fails to initiate or can continue even after the embryo has begun dividing. This results in various genetic alterations within the same embryo, a phenomenon known as mosaicism. The illegal CRISPR children from China come to mind, announced in 2018.
Consequently, it becomes uncertain whether the mutation causing the disease was indeed corrected in the edited embryo and whether any harmful mutations emerged as a result.
Doing It Right
Solutions do exist. For instance, some gene-edited animals have been developed by modifying stem cells and then cloning them once the desired alterations have been confirmed. However, I previously explained that cloned animals often exhibit various health issues and unexpected traits, underscoring the necessity for foundational research and rigorous oversight should this approach be pursued for humans.
We have two strong examples of responsibly introducing embryonic gene editing through mitochondrial donation initiatives in the UK and Australia. Mitochondria are cellular energy producers that contain their own small genomes. Mutated mitochondria can lead to severe health issues if passed down to offspring, but this risk can be mitigated by substituting them with healthy donor mitochondria.
A version of mitochondrial technology emerged in private fertility clinics in the US during the 1990s, during which humanity witnessed the first genetically modified human. Initial attempts led to the banning of this technology in the US.
While mitochondrial donation was previously prohibited in the UK, changes in the law came about following advocacy from patient groups, extensive dialogue, and consultation. It now receives approvals on a trial basis as needed.Australia is pursuing a similar path.
What Is the Real Objective?
This is the ideal framework for introducing new reproductive technologies: transparently, legally, and under independent supervision. Yet, at least two startups are reportedly conducting experiments in countries with laxer gene editing laws.
This does not advance science, as trust in the claims made by private companies acting without regulatory oversight diminishes. Conversely, this approach could prompt a backlash, leading to more countries tightening regulations against gene editing.
For these billionaires – with Preventive’s investors including notable figures like OpenAI’s Sam Altman and Coinbase’s Brian Armstrong – if your genuine intention is to combat severe genetic diseases, investing in nonprofit research organizations could yield significantly greater results.
Or is the ultimate aim to engineer your own child instead of assisting other couples in achieving healthy pregnancies? This is clearly the mission of the third startup, Bootstrap Bio.
In next month’s column, we will explore whether gene editing can truly be utilized to enhance our children.
Groundbreaking Discovery: Plant and Human DNA Interaction
Image Credit: S Saraus/Shutterstock
How crucial is our genome? While some researchers argue that most of our DNA is active and thus essential, others suggest that even random DNA could show high activity levels. Current studies focus on human cells that incorporate substantial segments of plant DNA, shedding light on this topic. According to New Scientist, the largely random plant DNA exhibits nearly equal activity to human DNA.
This research indicates that much genomic activity may lack purpose, further supporting the theory that a significant portion of the human genome is ‘junk DNA.’
“Most activity can be attributed to background noise,” says Brett Aidy, a researcher at the University of Auckland, New Zealand. “This aligns with the concept of junk DNA.”
The primary role of DNA is to encode instructions for protein synthesis, which are essential molecular machines responsible for cellular functions. This genetic blueprint is transcribed into messenger RNA, which transports the instructions to ribosomes, the cellular machinery for protein production.
Previously, it was assumed that nearly all DNA was involved in coding proteins, but now we understand that just 1.2% of the human genome directly encodes proteins. What, then, is the destiny of the remaining DNA?
Since the 1960s, biologists have claimed that much of it is unproductive. While it’s true that some non-coding DNA plays vital roles, ongoing discoveries of functional elements won’t redefine the overarching notion that non-coding DNA is largely inert.
In contrast, other scientists explore whether human DNA has functional roles, even if converted RNA lacks known applications. The ENCODE project’s 2012 findings suggest that over 80% of the human genome is active in some form. This raised questions about its classification as junk DNA. Some researchers have coined the term “dark DNA” for non-coding regions whose purpose remains unclear.
In reaction to ENCODE’s claims, in 2013, Sean Eddy from Harvard University proposed a controversial random genome project, hypothesizing that injecting synthetic random DNA into human cells would yield similar activity as noted in ENCODE’s findings.
“If this holds true, the results will call into question the interpretation of activity as indicative of functionality,” he posits. Austin Ganley, also from Auckland University, echoes this sentiment, emphasizing the need for baseline comparisons in the research of functional versus non-functional DNA.
However, synthesizing DNA is resource-intensive. So far, only limited attempts at random genome projects have focused on small DNA segments.
Yet, when Adey and Ganley discovered that Japanese researchers had successfully created human-plant hybrid cells with DNA segments from Thale cress (Arabidopsis), they recognized it as potentially the most extensive random genome experiment to date.
Eddy, though not directly involved, acknowledges the significance. Plants and animals diverged from a common ancestor over 1.6 billion years ago, allowing time for random mutations to accumulate within non-coding DNA segments of Arabidopsis.
Following initial validations that plant DNA behaves as random DNA in human cells, Adey and Ganley assessed DNA-to-RNA conversion rates per 1000 base pairs of non-coding DNA. If DNA to RNA conversion implies functionality, plant DNA should minimal undergo this transformation. Surprisingly, they observed slightly less activity—about 80% of the starting sites per kilobase when compared to human non-coding DNA from Arabidopsis.
This strongly indicates that the genomic activity detected by ENCODE is merely background noise.
“This illustrates the inherent noise in biological systems,” comments Chris Ponting from the University of Edinburgh, UK. “This sequence’s biochemical activity holds no function within human cells.”
“Sophisticated investigations like this were essential,” asserts Dan Graul from the University of Houston, Texas. “This adds experimental evidence confirming the long-held belief that a majority of the human genome is unnecessary. The term ‘dark DNA’ is simply a fantasy created by those envious of physics.”
Although imperfect biological systems produce noise, this noise can lead to beneficial variations that natural selection may target, notes Ganley.
The research team remains puzzled about a 25% increase in human DNA activity. “We still need to investigate the cause behind this finding,” Ganley states.
While some additional RNA generated might serve functional purposes, this does not diminish the overall perspective of junk DNA. Ongoing research is employing machine learning techniques to identify potentially meaningful activities amidst the noise.
The research team intends to publish their outcomes, though they have yet to complete their findings.
From colossal warships to enigmatic extraterrestrial beings, science fiction has long depicted various interpretations of alien life.
Surprisingly, it’s not just conspiracy theorists who speculate about extraterrestrial existence; many esteemed scientists share this belief.
In fact, a recent survey indicated that 86.6% of astrobiologists concur or strongly agree with the idea that extraterrestrial life likely exists elsewhere in the cosmos.
When probed about the existence of complex and intelligent life, the agreement percentage fell to 58.2%, showcasing a cautious skepticism.
So, what insights do scientists have that might lead them to believe we are not alone in this vast universe?
Why Do Aliens Likely Exist?
The belief that Earth and humanity are unique is fundamentally flawed. This notion is encapsulated in the Copernican principle, positing that Earth is just one of many planets—none inherently superior to another.
The implication for extraterrestrial life is profound. Researchers argue that Earth’s capacity to sustain diverse intelligent beings is indicative that similar worlds may exist elsewhere in the universe. Some assert that it’s not a matter of if aliens are out there, but where.
Our galaxy alone hosts between 100 billion and 400 billion stars—an astronomical number. To date, around 4,000 planets orbiting these stars have already been identified. Moreover, the Milky Way represents only a small fraction of the observable universe.
On a larger scale, there are an estimated 100 sextillion stars, each potentially harboring planets.
This staggering number suggests that there could be more planets than grains of sand on Earth—approximately 13.33 billion times that amount. Given these odds, the existence of intelligent extraterrestrial life seems almost inevitable.
“We understand that most stars host planetary systems, presenting countless opportunities for life to emerge. Furthermore, simple life appeared rapidly on Earth, which underscores the likelihood of similar events occurring elsewhere,” states Mike Garrett, Professor of Astrophysics at the University of Manchester.
From our perspective, the Milky Way appears vast, yet it’s just a tiny fragment of the universe – Credit: Shawn PNW
The potential for extraterrestrial life also hinges on planetary composition. The essential ingredients for life, such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, are prevalent in the universe.
These elements have been discovered on comets, asteroids, and distant exoplanets, and many celestial bodies have been found to contain water—another crucial element for life.
One such intriguing exoplanet is KOI-5715.01, located around 3,000 light-years from Earth. Although its name may be unexciting, it’s one of the most Earth-like worlds discovered to date.
This planet is similar in size to Earth, resides within a habitable temperature range, and exhibits signs of water, making it a key candidate in the pursuit of alien life.
Additionally, Earth serves as a testament to how life can thrive in extreme environments once considered inhospitable. From acidic hot springs to deep-sea vents and icy polar regions, researchers have discovered “extremophiles” that adapt to conditions far harsher than those on Earth-like planets.
Giant tubeworms, for example, flourish in the ocean’s abyss, thriving around hydrothermal vents that eject scorching, mineral-laden water at temperatures up to 350°C.
Despite facing extreme heat and immense pressure, these organisms form sprawling colonies, dependent on symbiotic bacteria to convert vent chemicals into energy.
Even more extraordinary is Deinococcus radiodurans, a microorganism known as the “berry that survived extreme radiation.”
This bacterium endures radiation levels thousands of times stronger than those lethal to humans and can survive conditions that would obliterate most known life forms.
It has been found living not only at radioactive waste sites but also in the vacuum of space during experiments aboard the International Space Station.
Tardigrades are tiny, eight-legged organisms capable of withstanding extreme temperatures, radiation, and even the vacuum of space – Photo credit: Getty
As Douglas Vakoch, an author and Founder of the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry notes, “When Earth formed 4.5 billion years ago, its surface was initially scorched by magma oceans, creating an unfriendly environment for life. Yet, as conditions improved, life emerged almost immediately.”
He further asserts, “Once life formed on Earth, it spread everywhere. The same evolutionary principles that allow life to adapt here should be functioning throughout the universe, potentially leading to exotic extraterrestrial life we can only begin to imagine.”
The quest to find extraterrestrial life poses its own challenges. If every human were tasked with exploring the cosmos, each person would need to investigate 13,000 planets.
While this has been a daunting endeavor, scientists believe we are now better equipped to uncover signs of life on other worlds.
“Our current technology enhances our ability to detect alien life far more than ever before,” Garrett explains. “Advancements in computing, digitization, and artificial intelligence are accelerating our progress in this regard.”
Vakoch concurs, predicting that “within the next 20 years, telescopes will be capable of analyzing the atmospheres of exoplanets, searching for signs of life,” he adds.
“The European Space Agency’s ARIEL mission, commencing in 2029, will significantly enhance our ability to detect life through its chemical signatures.”
Why Haven’t We Discovered Aliens Yet?
If the possibility of extraterrestrial life is high, why haven’t we encountered any extraterrestrial beings? This dilemma introduces the Fermi Paradox.
In 1950, physicist Enrico Fermi famously questioned his colleagues about this very topic, asking, “Where are they?” Fermi argued that if intelligent life was prolific in the galaxy, Earth should have already seen numerous visits.
This query remains central to contemporary considerations, with scientists still debating its implications. Various theories have emerged, but some suggest the answer may simply be that while the universe can foster life, it can also obscure it.
“The emergence of life on Earth, particularly complex life forms, was contingent on a series of improbable events related to Earth’s composition and its unique properties,” notes Jason Wright, a Professor of Astronomy and Astrophysics at Pennsylvania State University.
“Furthermore, Earth underwent an array of unlikely evolutionary developments. Considering this, our closest extraterrestrial beings could be light-years away.”
In essence, if life exists beyond Earth, we may never encounter it. Humanity has resided on Earth for eons, but in universal terms, this is a fleeting moment—only 0.000002% of the universe’s entire timeline.
Other intelligent civilizations might have already vanished or could still be in their developmental infancy. For humanity to unearth life beyond our planet, several crucial factors must align.
Earth seen from a distance – Credit: Roberto Machado Noa via Getty
“Science inherently demands skepticism. We require evidence, and so far, no direct proof of life beyond Earth has been found,” Vakoch states. “However, just decades ago, we lacked direct evidence of planets orbiting stars, yet we suspected they existed.”
This perspective changed dramatically in the ’90s, when astronomers identified the first exoplanets. Today, thousands of such planets have been confirmed, highlighting that other worlds are not only plausible but numerous. “To make this happen, astronomers first had to believe in their existence,” Vakoch explains. “Then, it was a matter of persistence and discovery.”
For many researchers, the search for extraterrestrial life mirrors the initial stages of detecting exoplanets—strongly suspected yet not yet confirmed. While tools for detection are improving, significant breakthroughs may take decades.
But perhaps somewhere on an unimaginably distant planet, intelligent beings are contemplating the profound question: “Are we alone in the universe?”
According to NASA’s ambitious timeline, 2026 marks the exciting return of astronauts to the moon.
In just a few months, four astronauts will embark on a groundbreaking 10-day lunar mission. This will be the closest humans have ventured toward the moon in over half a century.
The historic flight, dubbed Artemis II, is slated to launch as early as February, signaling a much-anticipated revival of America’s lunar exploration efforts. This mission will serve as a critical test for NASA’s state-of-the-art Space Launch System rocket and Orion spacecraft, both of which have faced numerous delays and budget challenges over the past decade.
Reestablishing a presence on the moon has been a key objective during President Trump’s first term, and the current administration is intensifying its focus on the escalating space race with China, which aims to land its astronauts on the moon by 2030.
Beyond its geopolitical significance, Artemis II represents a pivotal step in space exploration. The mission aims to lay the groundwork for a sustainable lunar base before advancing human exploration to Mars.
“In the next three years, we’ll land American astronauts on the moon again, but this time we’ll build the necessary infrastructure for their extended stay,” stated new NASA Administrator Jared Isaacman in a recent NBC News interview.
For many scientists, the excitement surrounding the moon’s return lies in the chance to uncover long-standing mysteries related to its formation and evolution—topics that were the focus of the Apollo missions in the 1960s and 1970s.
“Moon scientists have had a plethora of questions over the decades,” says Brett Denebi, a planetary scientist at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, Maryland.
Addressing these questions may provide crucial insights into the processes that shaped Earth, according to Dennevy.
“Earth is, in some ways, a poor record keeper,” she notes. “Plate tectonics and weather have erased much of its ancient history. In contrast, the moon has preserved landforms that date back approximately 4.5 billion years, waiting for us to explore.”
Although Artemis II will not involve a moon landing, it will assess essential technologies. Docking procedures and life support systems, initially tested in Earth orbit and later in lunar orbit, are crucial for future lunar missions.
In 2022, NASA launched the Space Launch System rocket and Orion capsule on a successful uncrewed test flight around the moon, known as the Artemis I mission.
The recently uncovered theropod and sauropod footprints from the Late Jurassic Mahara Formation are the oldest dinosaur tracks documented in Chile and along the western edge of the ancient supercontinent Gondwana.
Palaeoartistic reconstruction of Quebrada Huatacon from the Late Jurassic period. Image credit: Nahuel Vazquez.
“The Late Jurassic fossil record highlights significant disparities in the density and distribution of dinosaur footprints between Laurasia and Gondwana,” stated Dr. Marco Yurac from the School of Paleontology and his colleagues.
“In Europe alone, numerous footprint sites have been identified, including regions in Italy, Croatia, Poland, Spain, Switzerland, France, Germany, and Portugal.”
“Moreover, North America boasts extensive track sites rich in ichthyological evidence.”
“Conversely, dinosaur footprints in Gondwana are relatively scarce and fragmentary, with notable exceptions like footprint-bearing outcrops in the High Atlas Mountains of Morocco.”
“Beyond these, ichthyological evidence is limited, with only a few records from Australia.”
“In South America, the majority of dinosaur footprints are found along the eastern coast, particularly in Brazil, Guyana, and Uruguay, with additional reports from northern locales like Colombia.”
“In contrast, on the western coast of South America, corresponding to Gondwana’s western boundary, Late Jurassic dinosaur footprints have only been discovered in Chile.”
A track consisting of four consecutive imprints from a large three-fingered dinosaur in the Mahalla Formation of Chile. Image credit: Yurac et al., doi: 10.1186/s13358-025-00419-9.
Paleontologists have discovered five distinct formations containing footprints within the Majara Formation in the Quebrada Huatacondo area of Chile.
These footprints were created by theropod and sauropod dinosaurs approximately 160 million years ago.
“Around 160 million years ago, northern Chile experienced cycles of flooding and drought,” explained the researchers.
“While the climate was primarily arid, temporary wetlands formed from seasonal water accumulation, attracting a variety of animals, from small theropods to massive carnivorous dinosaurs.”
“As dinosaurs traversed wet mud near these water sources, their footprints were imprinted into the soft sediment.”
“Subsequent flooding gently covered these tracks, preserving them for millions of years.”
The Majara footprints reveal the existence of giant (51-52.8 cm), large (43.5-46.5 cm), and medium-sized (25-27 cm) theropod dinosaurs.
One surface showcases over 25 footprints (ranging from 8 to 13 cm), attributed to microscopic theropods.
“These footprints represent the smallest theropod prints ever recorded in Chile, and likely extend across the entire western margin of Gondwana,” said the scientists.
Another surface is the only stratigraphic level exhibiting solely sauropod footprints (potentially undertracks).
“Due to their poor state of preservation, exact quantitative measurements were not feasible,” commented the authors.
“Nonetheless, analyses of the digital model suggest at least nine footprints with configurations indicative of potential movements.”
Paleontologists assert that this discovery represents the earliest known dinosaur footprints from Chile and the western margin of Gondwana.
“These footprints offer crucial insights for reconstructing the paleoenvironment and behavioral patterns of dinosaurs in northern Chile during the Late Jurassic, reflecting the temporary inhabitation of semi-arid floodplain and ephemeral wetland ecosystems,” the researchers concluded.
This significant finding is detailed in a research paper published in the Swiss Journal of Paleontology.
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M. Yurac et al. 2025. Upper Jurassic dinosaur footprints from the Mahara Formation of the Huatacondo region (Tarapaca Basin, Chile): Reassessment of known localities and discovery of new footprints. Swiss Journal of Paleontology 144, 72; doi: 10.1186/s13358-025-00419-9
In 2025, the Busy Beaver Challenge Community offers an unprecedented glimpse into the cutting-edge realm of mathematics, where large numbers are poised to challenge the very foundations of logical reasoning.
This exploration centers on the next number in the “Busy Beaver” sequence, a collection of rapidly increasing values that arise from a fundamental query: How can we determine whether a computer program has the potential to run indefinitely?
To answer this, researchers draw upon the seminal work of mathematician Alan Turing, who demonstrated that any computer algorithm could be modeled using a simplified mechanism called a Turing machine. More intricate algorithms correspond to Turing machines with expanded instruction sets or a greater number of states.
Each Busy Beaver number, denoted as BB(n), denotes the longest execution time achievable for an n-state Turing machine. For instance, BB(1) equals 1 and BB(2) equals 6, indicating that doubling the complexity of the algorithm extends its runtime sixfold. This growth escalates rapidly; for example, BB(5) reaches an astounding 47,176,870.
In 2024, members of the Busy Beaver Challenge succeeded in determining the exact value of BB(5), culminating a 40-year study into every Turing machine comprising five states. Consequently, 2025 became a year dedicated to pursuing BB(6).
In July, a member known as mxdys identified the lower bound for BB(6), revealing that its value is not only significantly larger than BB(5) but also dwarfs the number of atoms in the universe.
Due to the impracticality of expressing all its digits, mathematicians utilize a notation system called tetration, which involves exponentiating numbers repetitively. For example, 2 raised to the power of 2 results in 4, which can similarly be expressed as 2 raised to the power of 4, yielding 16. BB(6) is at least as large as 2 raised to the power of 2 raised to the power of 9, forming a towering structure of repeated squares.
Discovering BB(6) transcends mere record-setting; it holds significant implications for the field of mathematics. Turing’s findings assert the existence of a Turing machine behavior that eludes prediction within a framework known as ZFC theory, which underpins contemporary mathematics.
Researchers have previously indicated that BB(643) defies ZFC theory, but the potential for this occurrence in a limited number of cases remains uncertain, positioning the Busy Beaver Challenge as a vital contributor to advancing our understanding.
As of July, there were 2,728 Turing machines with six states still awaiting analysis of their stopping behavior. By October, that number diminished to 1,618. “The community is currently very engaged,” comments computer scientist Tristan Stellin, who introduced the Busy Beaver Challenge in 2022.
Among the remaining machines lies the potential key to precisely determining BB(6). Any one of these could be a crucial unknown, possibly revealing substantial limitations of the ZFC framework and contemporary mathematics. In the coming year, math enthusiasts worldwide are poised to delve deeply into these complexities.
We’ve all experienced the discomfort of a tight waistband at a restaurant, desperately trying to adjust our belts, only to realize that clothes that fit just fine a few courses ago are now straining against our expanding bellies. This phenomenon is known as bloating, and it tends to make us feel deflated by morning.
However, not all abdominal swelling is immediately noticeable. After a feast, it can be challenging to determine if that extra roundness is due to gas or actual belly fat. Recognizing the signs can help.
Understanding Bloating vs. Weight Gain
One of the first indicators that your belly is changing is how it feels. Take note—does it feel soft or hard? Is it protruding or receding? Is there any discomfort? Dr. Karen Wright, a Senior Lecturer in Biomedical Sciences at Lancaster University, explains, “A bulging tummy can feel tight, hard, and painful, whereas belly fat does not present in the same way.”
According to Dr. Megan Rossi, a dietician and nutrition scientist, pressure on a bulging stomach often leads to what’s colloquially known as a “food baby.” In contrast, if your belly is soft and non-discomforting, it may indicate recent weight gain.
Bloating: Quick and Temporary
A clear distinction between bloating and weight gain is the speed at which your belly expands. Bloating typically resolves within hours, while weight gain is gradual and noticeable over time. Rossi mentions that if you find your stomach flat in the morning but firm and bulging in the evening, it’s likely bloating. In contrast, weight gain shows as a consistent increase on the scale.
With bloating, day-to-day fluctuations can occur, but changes in body fat and muscle happen much more slowly.
How Food Choices Trigger Bloating
If you remain uncertain whether your belly is bloated or gaining padding, assessing your food choices can be enlightening. Dr. Wright notes that one of the leading causes of gas is swallowing air while eating quickly or consuming carbonated beverages. “Some of that air can escape during burping, but the rest can travel into your intestines with your food, potentially causing bloating,” she explains.
Large meals and fiber-rich foods—such as lentils, beans, and cabbage—can also exacerbate the digestive process, making bloating more prevalent. Dr. Rossi remarks, “Feeling slightly bloated after a fiber-rich meal is typically a sign that your gut microbiome is working effectively.” This suggests that increased fiber or food consumption can lead to higher gas production in your intestines.
However, individual reactions can vary widely; what causes one person to bloat may not affect someone else. Furthermore, excessive food and drink intake can worsen symptoms, as our gut microbiome relies on balance to function optimally. Overindulgence in sugar, fat, fiber, salt, or alcohol can disrupt this balance and result in bloating.
Rossi indicates that bloating in the upper abdomen often relates to eating habits (such as eating too quickly or consuming large meals), while discomfort in the lower abdomen may signal a food intolerance.
High-fiber foods or large meals can lead to increased gas and subsequent bloating. – Credit: Marina Demeshko via Getty
Factors That Contribute to Easy Bloating
If your eating patterns don’t account for your bloating, other factors may be in play. Stress can disrupt your gut health through the gut-brain axis, where gut microbes influence brain function, and stress can imbalance your microbiome, leading to bloating. Hormonal fluctuations during the menstrual cycle or menopause can also lead to increased bloating susceptibility.
Bloating can result from various food and lifestyle factors—up to 22 different triggers including dehydration, food intolerances, and tight clothing, which can all contribute to your symptoms.
Effective Remedies for Bloating
So, what can you do when you suspect your bloating isn’t linked to weight gain but rather air retention?
Firstly, give it time. Bloating typically reduces on its own fairly quickly. If discomfort is mild, gentle movement can help ease the situation. “Moderate activities like walking or proper stretching exercises can be beneficial,” Wright suggests. She also recommends massaging your abdomen to promote digestive motion.
If you experience regular bloating, consulting a healthcare professional is advisable. Rossi notes, “If bloating occurs sporadically after a high-fiber meal, it’s generally harmless. However, if it’s persistent or affecting your quality of life, tracking your diet and symptoms could be helpful.”
Wright adds, “If bloating persists for a prolonged period or comes with symptoms like constipation, diarrhea, blood in the stool, or unintended weight loss, it’s important to seek medical advice.”
One of Mars’ most captivating features is its striking red color. Even to the naked eye, the vibrant hue of the Red Planet is clearly visible.
For centuries, humans have pondered the origins of this red coloration, possibly for thousands of years.
Initially, it was believed that the red shade stemmed from the presence of hematite (derived from the Greek word for “blood”), a dry iron oxide mineral also found on Earth.
Recent studies suggest that the continuous oxidation and weathering of Martian rocks during the water-poor conditions of the so-called “Amazon Age” (which began 3 billion years ago) could also contribute to Mars’ distinctive red appearance.
Much like hematite, the reddish color of rust arises from various oxides and hydroxides of iron.
However, a team of researchers has challenged the conventional understanding of hematite and proposed a new explanation.
These scientists utilized data from multiple space missions, including NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, the European Space Agency’s Mars Express, and ExoMars. They also integrated measurements collected from NASA’s Mars rover.
Ferrihydrite, a water-rich ferric oxyhydroxide, is widely distributed in Martian dust – Image courtesy of Getty Images
Recent research has identified another mineral known as ferrihydrite. This water-rich ferric oxyhydroxide is prevalent in Martian dust and likely exists in subsurface rock formations, potentially serving as the primary cause for Mars’ reddish color.
Laboratory tests of a synthetic Martian mineral mixture, composed of basalt and ferrihydrite, demonstrated a closer match to observational data than hematite.
For ferrihydrite to form on Mars, both oxygen and water must react with iron. While these components are scarce in Mars’ dry, cold conditions today, they may have been present in the planet’s ancient history.
On Earth, ferrihydrite quickly transforms into iron oxides, such as hematite. However, researchers have discovered that once formed on Mars, it can persist for an extended period.
This article responds to the question from Roy Bowman of Coventry: “Why is Mars red?”
If you have any questions, please contact us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or reach out via our social media:Facebook,Twitter, orInstagram(please remember to include your name and location).
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Watching the news can feel overwhelming, almost like the world is on the brink of collapse. Thankfully, science is bringing us the positive updates we’ve all been waiting for.
In 2025, researchers have dedicated themselves to safeguarding us from existential threats, enhancing both human and environmental health, and revealing the mysteries of our universe.
Here are our top feel-good science stories for 2025.
1. ‘City Killer’ Asteroid Likely Won’t Strike Earth
In February, concerns arose when the likelihood of asteroid 2024 YR4 colliding with Earth in 2032 escalated from 1.2% to 3.1%, labeling it one of the most hazardous asteroids tracked.
This asteroid, estimated at around 60 meters (197 feet) in diameter, could have unleashed energy exceeding 500 times that of the Hiroshima bomb, putting a major city at risk.
Fortunately, NASA has reassured us that the threat has diminished significantly and now states there is no significant threat from this asteroid, although it estimates a 3.8% chance of it hitting the moon.
Astronomers tracked asteroid 2024 YR4 using multiple observatories, including the James Webb Space Telescope. – Credit: Getty
2. Vitamin Supplements May Help Slow Aging
A large-scale clinical trial led by researchers at US General Brigham Massa has discovered that vitamin D supplements can help maintain telomere length (protective caps on chromosomes that shorten with age).
The double-blind study involving over 1,000 participants found that vitamin D could potentially delay aging by nearly three years compared to a placebo group.
3. The World’s Largest Camera Takes Its First Photo
The newly launched Vera C. Rubin Observatory has captured its first snapshot of the universe. Each image is so vast that it would take 400 ultra-high-definition TVs to view it in its entirety.
The observatory will collect an immense amount of data every night for the next decade, aiding scientists in exploring cosmic mysteries such as the expansion of the universe and dark matter.
Vera Rubin captured these two spiral galaxies in stunning detail, part of a broader cosmic image. – Credit: RubinObs/NOIRLab/SLAC/NSF/DOE/AURA
4. “Forever Chemicals” May Not Be So Permanent
Recent research has uncovered a method to effectively destroy PFAS (polyperfluoroalkyl substances), harmful chemicals linked to various cancers that infiltrate our homes through packaging and nonstick cookware.
The new technique utilizes phosphates to break the resilient carbon-fluorine bonds that make PFAS so persistent in the environment and detrimental to health.
5. Renewable Energy Surpasses Coal for the First Time
In the first half of 2025, global wind and solar energy production exceeded that of coal, marking a pivotal advancement towards sustainable energy. This achievement is mainly due to significant renewable energy projects in China and India, alongside a temporary downturn in coal usage.
Global renewable electricity is projected to double by 2030. – Credit: Getty
Credit: European Union, Copernicus Sentinel-2 imagery
Sicily’s Mount Etna, recognized as the world’s most active stratovolcano, is characterized by its tall cone resulting from continuous eruptions of viscous lava. In February, a significant volcanic event led to the eruption of volcanic ash and a lava flow extending three kilometers, prompting a partial airport closure. This dramatic moment was captured by one of the European Space Agency’s Copernicus Sentinel-2 satellites on February 12th.
Iceberg in Inarsuit, Greenland
Credit: Dennis Lehtonen / SWNS
In July, a massive iceberg drifted into the port of Innarsuit, Greenland, casting a shadow over the village of just 180 residents for over a week. Local authorities issued warnings for residents to exercise caution due to the risk of the iceberg collapsing and causing destructive waves, reminiscent of similar incidents in the area in the last decade. As climate change accelerates, the frequency of iceberg calving from glaciers is increasing.
Hurricane Melissa Wreaks Havoc in Jamaica
Credit: Ricardo Makyn/AFP via Getty Images
As one of the most severe storms to hit the Atlantic, Hurricane Melissa registered winds nearing 300 kilometers per hour and dropped an astonishing 76 centimeters of rain on Jamaica on October 28. The storm devastated buildings along the Black River, with initial analyses suggesting climate change intensified Melissa’s winds by approximately 16 kilometers per hour. The year recorded three Category 5 hurricanes, marking a historic frequency.
Extraordinary Tides of the Qiantang River
Credit: VCG/VCG via Getty Images
The Qiantang River in China boasts the world’s highest tidal waves, where incoming tides create waves that can reach heights of up to 9 meters and travel upstream at speeds nearly hitting 40 kilometers per hour. Locals refer to this phenomenon as the “Silver Dragon,” attracting surfers from far and wide to join in the excitement during high tides in Jiaxing City.
Bratten Post-Landslide
Credit: Alexandre Agrusti/AFP via Getty Images
On May 29, the Birch Glacier in the Swiss Alps experienced a severe collapse, resulting in a landslide that deposited approximately 9 million tons of debris. This massive event, equivalent to a magnitude 3.1 earthquake, buried a significant portion of the historic village of Bratten, also damming the nearby Lonza River. Thankfully, the village was evacuated with minimal loss of life. Experts attribute the landslide to thawing permafrost, critical for maintaining mountain stability. Without intervention, up to 90% of Alpine glaciers are projected to disappear by 2100, exacerbated by ongoing carbon dioxide emissions.
Destruction from the Palisades Fire in California
Credit: Mario Tama/Getty Images
In January, rampant wildfires swept through the forested areas north of Los Angeles, notably ravaging regions such as the Pacific Palisades. These devastating fires, considered the costliest in U.S. history, claimed over 30 lives and devastated around 16,000 structures, incurring damages in the hundreds of billions. Critics have pointed to California’s lenient home insurance policies as a factor promoting risky construction near forests, with climate change further extending the wildfire season and increasing the likelihood of intense, dry, and windy conditions.
NASA’s Perseverance Rover: Pioneering Exploration for Past Life on Mars
Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech
On the surface of Mars, minute details provide critical insights into the planet’s past. In 2025, new findings will shed light on possible microbial life that may have once thrived.
NASA’s Perseverance rover has gathered samples indicating the potential for ancient life. Specifically, it uncovered a rock featuring tiny specks, known as “leopard spots,” encircled by a distinctive dark ring. These geological features resemble those associated with microbial fossils on Earth.
This year, Joel Hurowitz and his team at Stony Brook University conducted a detailed analysis of the leopard spots and identified forms of iron and sulfur commonly linked to microbial activity. “This evidence is more promising than anything I’ve encountered in the last two decades,” stated Hannah Sizemore from the Planetary Science Institute in Arizona.
Previous indications of potential life on Mars included unexpected changes in methane levels and fossil-like structures in Martian meteorites. “I am more excited about these discoveries compared to earlier findings,” Sizemore added, emphasizing that the previous data lacked the correct physical scale for microbial evidence. In contrast, the leopard spots on Mars could directly indicate microbial activity.
The Perseverance rover has also detected other potential biosignatures, such as a small greenish mineral blob typically associated with microbial life on Earth. “Life on Mars is subtle. It’s not like seeing herds of wildlife,” remarked Andrew Steele, who was instrumental in formulating the rover’s scientific objectives. “Identifying signs of life will require the best technology we have available.”
Perseverance Rover Reveals Mars Rocks with Unique ‘Leopard Spots’
Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
Equipped with advanced scientific tools, Perseverance is crucial for identifying whether these Martian rocks exhibit signs of ancient life. The mission involves caching samples for a future retrieval back to Earth for comprehensive testing.
“These samples could provide decisive evidence regarding the existence of life on Mars,” Steele remarked. “However, before we can confirm this, we need to return the samples to our laboratories.”
Unfortunately, the prospect of retrieving these samples is growing uncertain. The 2026 NASA budget proposal under the Trump administration raises concerns about the Mars Sample Return Project’s viability. If approved, it would eliminate plans to recover the meticulously gathered samples from Perseverance.
It’s possible that evidence of past life on Mars has already been discovered, yet we may never fully understand it. “While we are making strides, the understanding of Mars’ habitability remains fluid,” Sizemore said. “We’re on the edge of a potential breakthrough. However, we can neither ignore it nor prove it without further missions.”
Explore Chile: The Astronomical Capital of the World
Dive into Chile’s astronomical wonders. Experience state-of-the-art observatories and gaze at the clearest night skies on the planet.
The quantum computing industry is concluding the year with renewed hope, despite the absence of fully operational quantum systems. At December’s Q2B Silicon Valley Conference, industry leaders and scientists expressed optimism regarding the future of quantum computing.
“We believe that it’s highly likely that someone, or perhaps several entities, will develop a genuinely industrially viable quantum computer, but we didn’t anticipate this outcome until the end of 2025,” stated Joe Altepeter, program manager for the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency’s Quantum Benchmarking Initiative (QBI). The QBI aims to evaluate which of the competing quantum computing approaches can yield practical devices capable of self-correction or fault tolerance.
This initiative will extend over several years, involving hundreds of professional evaluators. Reflecting on the program’s initial six months, Altepeter noted that while “major roadblocks” were identified in each approach, none disqualified any team from the pursuit of practical quantum devices.
“By late 2025, I sense we will have all major hardware components in place with adequate fidelity; the remaining challenges will be primarily engineering-focused,” asserted Scott Aaronson, a key figure in the field, during his presentation at the University of Texas at Austin. He acknowledged the ongoing challenge of discovering algorithms for practical quantum applications, but highlighted significant progress in hardware developments.
Though quantum computing hardware advancements are encouraging, application development is lagging, according to Ryan Babush from Google. During the conference, Google Quantum AI alongside partners unveiled the finalists for the XPRIZE competition, aiming to accelerate application development.
The research by the seven finalists spans simulations of biomolecules crucial for human health, algorithms enhancing classical simulations for clean energy materials, and calculations that could impact the diagnosis and treatment of complex health issues.
“A few years back, I was skeptical about running applications on quantum computers, but now my interest has significantly increased,” remarked John Preskill, a pivotal voice in quantum computing at Caltech, advocating for the near-term application of quantum systems in scientific discovery.
Over the past year, numerous quantum computers have been employed for calculations, including the physics of materials and high-energy particles, potentially rivaling or surpassing traditional computational methods.
While certain applications are deemed particularly suitable for quantum systems, challenges remain. For instance, Pranav Gokhale at Inflection, a company manufacturing quantum devices from cryogenic atoms, is implementing Scholl’s algorithm—a classic method capable of breaking many encryption systems used by banks today. However, this initial implementation still lacks the computational power necessary to effectively decrypt real-world encrypted information, illustrating that significant enhancements in both hardware and software are essential.
Dutch startup Quantware has proposed a solution to the industry’s major hardware challenge, asserting that increasing quantum computer size can enhance computational capacity while maintaining reliability. Their quantum processor unit design aims to utilize 10,000 qubits, roughly 100 times the capacity of most current superconducting quantum computers. According to Matt Reilersdam, QuantWare anticipates having its first device operational within two and a half years. Other firms, such as IBM and Quantinuum, are working toward similar large-scale quantum systems, while QuEra aims to fabricate 10,000 qubits from ultra-cold atoms within a year, intensifying the competitive landscape.
Moreover, the quantum computing industry is projected to expand significantly, with global investments expected to rise from $1.07 billion in 2024 to approximately $2.2 billion by 2027, as noted in a Quantum Computing Industry Survey by Hyperion Research.
“More individuals than ever can now access quantum computers, and I believe they will accomplish things we can scarcely imagine,” said Jamie Garcia from IBM.
The Upper Paleolithic site of Mezilich in Cherkasy Oblast, central Ukraine, features four remarkable mammoth bone structures, each ranging from 12 to 24 m2. These extensive constructions were meticulously crafted using hundreds of mammoth bones and tusks. Recent analyses of small mammal remains excavated directly from these archaeological formations indicate that one of these structures was in use for nearly 429 years, underscoring its role as a potential dwelling.
MBS 4 being excavated at the Upper Paleolithic site of Mezilich, Cherkasy Oblast, Ukraine. Image credit: Chu et al., doi: 10.12688/openreseurope.20112.1.
“Open-air Upper Paleolithic sites in east-central Europe, such as Mezilich, offer invaluable insights into human activities and biogeography during the Late Holistic Age—a period marked by significant environmental shifts,” stated Wei Chu, an archaeologist from Leiden University, and collaborators.
“These sites often exhibit deep loess sediment layers rich in lithic tools, faunal remains, and bone assemblages, serving as crucial environmental proxies for illuminating contemporary ecological conditions.”
“Notably, some of these locations have been discovered in direct association with mammoth bone deposits, representing some of the earliest known constructions showcasing both spatial and seasonal organization.”
“While many of these structures were historically viewed as domestic remnants,” they elaborated, “ongoing excavations have reignited debates about their primary functions—whether as dwellings or perhaps as ritualistic tombs, food storage areas, burial sites, religious landmarks, or primitive monuments.”
“Mezilich, situated in the mid reaches of the Dnieper River, is pivotal to this discourse due to its extraordinary conservation state, featuring four mammoth bone structures (MBS 1-4) that span heights of 12 to 24 m2 in diameter.
“These structures are complemented by surrounding features like artifact-filled pits, hunting tools, ivory, bone ornaments, and segmented areas rich in slaughtered animal remains and workshops with dense cultural deposits, each aligned around mammoth bone structures, revealing economic settlement units.”
In their latest study, the researchers scrutinized the dating and composition of MBS 4—the only Mezilich structure containing artifacts that can be directly dated within the archaeological layer.
By analyzing small mammal remains rather than mammoth bones, they established a more accurate age for MBS 4, estimated to be between approximately 18,248 and 17,764 years old.
Crucially, the findings indicate that this structure was actively occupied for 429 years.
These results suggest that Mezilich was a stable, long-term settlement rather than a transient camp used intermittently.
The structure likely served as a residence for multiple generations, enduring and being reused throughout the centuries.
“MBS 4 corresponds with the harshest conditions of the last Ice Age,” the researchers noted.
“Interestingly, the period of occupation appears brief—potentially comprising only a few visits over many centuries.”
“This implies that these mammoth bone shelters were practical solutions for survival, rather than established permanent settlements.”
“Why is this significant? Beyond the remarkable ingenuity of utilizing mammoth bones for construction, these findings alter our perspective on human resilience and adaptability,” they remarked.
“They illustrate how communities thrived even in extreme environments, transforming large animal remains into protective architecture.”
“As dating techniques improve, sites like Mezilich continuously challenge our preconceived notions about prehistoric existence,” they concluded.
“These societies were dynamic, resource-abundant, and deeply interconnected with their environments, and their lessons are relevant even today.”
For further insights, refer to the team’s published paper in Open Research Europe.
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W. Chu et al. 2025. Revised radiocarbon chronology of bone structures and related features of mammoths from Mezilich, Ukraine. Open Res Europe 5:198; doi: 10.12688/openreseurope.20112.1
The emergence of antibiotic resistance genes presents a significant and escalating threat to global public health. A comprehensive review from scientists at Hohai University delves into the evolutionary origins, ecological factors contributing to the spread and proliferation of antibiotic resistance genes, and their broader environmental implications.
The evolution of antibiotic resistance genes is linked to unique physiological roles and ecological compartmentalization. Image credit: Xu et al., doi: 10.48130/biocontam-0025-0014.
Antibiotic resistance genes have become one of the most critical global challenges to public health, increasingly spreading across interconnected environments involving humans, animals, and the ecosystem.
These genes have been identified in some of the most pristine and extreme habitats on Earth, such as the depths of the Mariana Trench and ancient permafrost deposits, where they have remained unaffected by human-induced antibiotic exposure.
This pervasive distribution indicates that these bacteria evolved their antibiotic resistance capabilities millions of years before antibiotics were ever utilized in clinical or agricultural contexts.
“Antibiotic resistance is not a modern phenomenon,” states Guxiang You, Ph.D., corresponding author of the review.
“Many resistance genes initially evolved to enable bacterial survival under environmental stresses, long before the advent of antibiotics.”
“The pressing danger today is that human activities are disrupting natural barriers, facilitating the spread of these genes to harmful pathogens.”
“Many resistance genes stem from common bacterial genes that perform essential roles, such as the excretion of toxic substances or nutrient transport,” the researchers elucidated.
“Over time, these genes have acquired protective capabilities against antibiotics as a secondary feature.”
In natural ecosystems like soils and lakes, most resistance genes tend to remain confined within specific microbial communities, posing minimal risk to human health.
“The primary reason for this containment is genomic incompatibility,” they noted.
“Bacteria with significant genetic variations often cannot easily exchange and utilize resistance genes.”
“This natural genetic mismatch serves as a biological firewall, limiting the transmission of resistance across different species and habitats.”
“However, human actions are compromising this firewall.”
In their review, the authors emphasize how agriculture, wastewater discharge, urbanization, and global trade are increasing connectivity between once-isolated environments.
Antibiotics used in medicine and livestock create intense selection pressures, while fertilizer use, wastewater recycling, and pollution foster the interaction of bacteria from soil, animals, and humans.
These factors facilitate the infiltration of resistance genes into disease-causing microbes.
“Human-induced changes in habitat connectivity alter everything,” explained Dr. Yi Xu, the lead author.
“When bacteria from disparate environments come into repeated contact under antibiotic pressure, previously harmless resistance genes can transform into a significant public health menace.”
“Wastewater treatment plants have been identified as crucial hotspots where high bacterial populations and antibiotic residues promote genetic exchange.”
“Agricultural lands enriched with fertilizers also serve as conduits, enabling resistance genes to transfer from livestock to environmental bacteria and ultimately back to humans via food, water, or direct contact.”
Critically, scientists note that not all resistance genes pose equal threats.
High environmental abundance does not automatically equate to high risk.
Identifying which genes are mobile, compatible with human pathogens, and linked to diseases is vital for effective monitoring and control efforts.
Researchers advocate for ecosystem-centered approaches to combat antibiotic resistance.
Proposed strategies include minimizing unnecessary antibiotic use, enhancing wastewater treatment methods, meticulously managing fertilizers and sludge, and safeguarding relatively untouched ecosystems that offer a baseline for natural resistance levels.
“Antibiotic resistance extends beyond being solely a medical issue,” remarked Dr. Yu.
“It is deeply connected to ecological factors and our interactions with the environment.”
“To preserve antibiotics for future generations, we must maintain the integrity of our current ecosystems.”
“By incorporating evolutionary biology, microbial ecology, and environmental science, the One Health approach provides a pragmatic pathway to tackle one of the greatest health challenges we face today.”
Source: review published in the Online Journal on December 5, 2025, Biological Contaminants.
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Yi Shu et al. 2025. Evolutionary origins, environmental factors, and consequences of the proliferation and spread of antibiotic resistance genes: A “One Health” perspective. Biological Contaminants 1: e014; doi: 10.48130/biocontam-0025-0014
What are the most bizarre science experiments ever conducted?
While science typically progresses through systematic methods, some researchers employ innovative techniques to validate their hypotheses.
Here are five of the most unsettling science experiments ever carried out.
Floating Frog Experiment
Even frogs have a magnetic side – Photo credit: Robin Boyden
Every object, no matter how small, possesses its own magnetic field, meaning that any object can be pushed away by a sufficiently strong magnet.
In 1997, scientists showcased this phenomenon with an experiment involving a floating live frog.
While the frog was unharmed, the study of this effect, known as “diamagnetic levitation,” holds promise for various fields, including medical imaging and space technology.
Turning Water into Metal
Beware of the metallic storm – Photo credit: Robin Boyden
While metals conduct electricity due to “free electrons,” pure water does not due to tightly bonded electrons.
Under extreme pressure, water becomes conductive, but scientists managed to create metallic water without such conditions. By exposing sodium and potassium droplets to water vapor, they induced electron donation, forming shimmering golden spheres with metallic properties.
Slowing Down Light
Scientifically slowing light is a mind-bending feat – Photo credit: Robin Boyden
In 1999, researchers successfully slowed down light to just 17 meters (56 feet) per second, equivalent to around 61 km/h (38 miles per hour).
Typically, light slows down when passing through transparent materials, but a portion is absorbed, which limits the slowing effect. To counter this, researchers cooled sodium atoms close to absolute zero (-273.15°C or -459.67°F) and used a polarized laser beam to prevent absorption.
This led to light pulses traveling at 1/20,000,000 of their usual speed, enhancing our understanding of light’s interaction at the microscopic level.
Painting Cows
Striped cows may dodge flies better – Photo credit: Robin Boyden
The results showed that striped cows were bitten 50% less than solid black cows, providing a potential method for safeguarding livestock from insect bites without relying on harmful chemicals.
The Mystery of Wombat Poop
The unique cubic shape of wombat poop is truly intriguing – Photo credit: Robin Boyden
Wombats are uniquely known for their cube-shaped feces. To explore how this occurs, researchers in 2018 examined the gastrointestinal tract of two wombats.
The findings revealed that their intestines possess regions with alternating hard and soft tissues. Mathematical modeling showed that this pattern leads to the formation of the distinctive cubical shape in wombat feces.
This research could inspire innovative manufacturing techniques in the future.
This article addresses the popular question (by Bernie Reid of Litchfield): “What is the creepiest experiment we’ve ever done?”
For inquiries, please contact us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or reach out viaFacebook, orTwitter or Instagram(please include your name and location).
Explore our ultimatefun facts and more amazing science content!
This year, scientists made a fascinating discovery: an eerie glow emitted by mice that vanished after death, evoking paranormal notions about the body’s aura. This finding has ignited significant interest in the scientific exploration of biophotons.
Biophotons are extremely faint particles of light created by cellular structures, particularly mitochondria, which are responsible for energy production. Researchers have been attempting to detect these weak signals, but the field has encountered skepticism. Separating biophotons from other light sources, such as infrared light, presents considerable challenges in demonstrating their authenticity.
<p>Due to experimental limitations, biophoton research has mainly concentrated on smaller, specific body parts. However, in May, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=sUKbEwsAAAAJ&hl=en">Daniel Oblak</a> and his team at the University of Calgary, Canada, observed biophotons emitted from the entire bodies of four hairless mice. Interestingly, these biophotons dissipated shortly after the mice died.</p>
<p>The researchers also recorded biophotons emitted from the leaves of umbrella trees (<em>Heptapleurum arboricola</em>), reinforcing the evidence for their existence through comprehensive study.</p>
<p>Following the <em>New Scientist</em> report on the study, many media outlets contacted Oblak’s team for interviews. The phenomenon's similarity to a "spiritual aura," which some psychics claim reflects an individual's physical and mental health, may have contributed to the public's fascination. Oblak mentioned, "Someone from Argentina urged us to investigate the glow of hands during healing." </p><section>
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<p>However, Oblak emphasizes that the science surrounding biophotons is legitimate. Numerous scientists have approached his team to collaborate on further studies. One proposal involves investigating biophoton production mechanisms in plants. Experts in genetically modified seeds suggest analyzing changes in biophoton emissions by disabling specific genes.</p>
<p>Insights into how biophotons correlate with seed germination could significantly benefit agriculture, according to Oblak. “You could assess seed samples to determine if the germination process happened without direct contact with the seeds.”</p>
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Feedback is New Scientist A go-to source for individuals keen on the latest developments in science and technology. Share your insights with us via email at feedback@newscientist.com.
Headline Highlights
Crafting great headlines can be challenging. The initial words may seem unusual, only to get even more unexpected as you read on. By the end, you question if you’re consuming reliable news or an experimental novel akin to James Joyce’s works.
Starting with Grimes: an artist known for her sci-fi-inspired music, her climate-focused 2020 album is titled Miss Anthropocene, while her debut, Gady Prime, pays homage (albeit with a misspelling) to Frank Herbert’s Dune.
Conversely, Brian Johnson is a tech mogul determined to achieve longevity, engaging in a variety of life-extending efforts. His regimen includes exercise, dietary modifications, and even experimenting with rapamycin, a drug typically prescribed to transplant patients (which he has ceased taking), alongside his bold ambition to upload his consciousness into an AI.
The narrative unfolds as Johnson consumes hallucinogenic mushrooms during a livestream, while undergoing numerous health assessments. Grimes was invited to provide musical entertainment during this session. Although YouTuber Mr. Beast did not participate, other noteworthy figures like Marc Benioff, CEO of Salesforce, and technology journalist Ashlee Vance were involved. If we were to explore the effects of psilocybin, ideally, a trusted companion and qualified therapist would be present. But Johnson clearly had a plan.
Details about the event can be found in a video online, which spans a little over five and a half hours. While feedback should have closely monitored this session, we recognize that unlike Johnson, we acknowledge our mortality and don’t want to spend our time recklessly.
Unexpected Inquiry
This may lead to a recurring segment in your feedback: “Questions You Never Considered.” Our reader Keith Edkins stumbled upon such an inquiry. To those attempting to investigate it, good luck!
Keith referenced a 2014 paper in Folia Parasitologica, known for its focus on parasites. Among them, Toxoplasma gondii, a single-celled organism that infects cats and is prevalent in many humans, might be linked to psychiatric disorders such as intermittent explosive disorder. The paper poses an intriguing question: “Is there a correlation between the prevalence of subclinical toxoplasmosis and the frequency of rhesus-negative patients with national traffic accident rates?”
As Keith noted, “With proper statistical handling, the answer seems to be ‘no.’” But what a question! Can anyone challenge it?
Graphic Anomalies
Descriptive graphics can often perplex. Throughout our extensive journey in science journalism, we’ve often sought clarity in complex figures shared by researchers. From convoluted flowcharts to intricately shaded bar graphs, confusion has been a constant.
However, a recent publication in Scientific Reports caught attention: it depicts a woman receiving a tin of biscuits. As our reader Jim Santo aptly remarked, “This is wild,” and it’s true. Released on November 19th, the study aims to establish an AI-driven system to assist in diagnosing autism spectrum disorders. While feedback doesn’t express particular opinions about the study itself, it has gathered significant interest.
Quickly downloading a copy after spotting discussions about the paper on social media, the primary concern raised was Figure 1, touted as “the overall behavior of the framework depicted as an infographic.” It’s astonishing enough to demand attention.
Centered in this graphic is a woman cradling a small child; intriguingly, her feet seem to be encased in concrete. The child points towards a speech bubble saying “Missing Values and Executive Functions.” To the right, another speech bubble displays “Historic Medical Frimbral and Environmental Features.”
Additional elements include pink blobs resembling deformed kidney beans, symbolizing “7 TOL Llne storee.” Also featuring is a so-called “Factor Fexsectern” and a mysterious spiked bicycle.
As noted in the magazine’s retraction, all of this was produced by AI. As we continued to observe the graphic, growing intrigue stirred within. There’s a mention of “Totalbottl” at its base, but the actual meaning remains elusive. As for the bicycle, perhaps someone was riding it.
Curiously, this Scientific Reports article could claim the title of one of the fastest withdrawals we’ve encountered. Typically, journals may take years to retract flawed studies. On December 3rd, Retraction Watch reported that numerous works attributed to psychologist Hans Eysenck might require retraction due to “questionable data” and other anomalies, including an outlandish assertion suggesting some individuals possess a “cancer-prone personality.” Interestingly, Eysenck passed away in 1997, illustrating the slow pace of rectifying such issues.
Have a story for feedback?
Share your insights by emailing Feedback at feedback@newscientist.com. Don’t forget to include your home address. You can find this week’s and past feedback on our website.
The Infamous Saruman with His Palantir in ‘The Lord of the Rings’
Landmark Media/Alamy
As we embark on the Gregorian New Year, it’s an ideal moment to ponder the future ahead. Will we harness CRISPR to engineer wings? Are we on the verge of uploading human consciousness to the Amazon cloud? Will we encase the sun in a Dyson Sphere? For those passionate about science and engineering, science fiction serves as the canvas for exploring these questions. However, many are misinterpreting these futuristic visions.
As a science journalist and a sci-fi author, I offer a year-end guide to help you avoid misconceptions in reading science fiction. It’s crucial, as our civilization’s trajectory may depend on it.
There are two main ways in which science fiction is often misunderstood. We start with the first issue known as the “Torment Nexus problem,” a term that emerged from a humorous social media post by satirist Alex Breckman. In 2021, he tweeted:
“Science fiction writer: In my narrative, I created the Torment Nexus as a cautionary concept.
Tech Company: We’ve successfully built a Torment Nexus based on the classic sci-fi narrative, ‘Don’t Create a Torment Nexus.’
This encapsulates the Torment Nexus problem, which arises when individuals focus solely on futuristic tech depicted in science fiction, neglecting the core message of the narrative.
As a consequence, billionaires like Peter Thiel have contributed to ventures like Palantir, a surveillance and data analytics company, named after the “Seeing Stone” in The Lord of the Rings. Rather than being a tool of utility, it typically leads its users towards perilous and unethical paths. Its technology has been employed by various military operations, including IDF actions in Gaza. The implications of this are troubling.
Less severe yet still noteworthy examples include Mark Zuckerberg’s rebranding of Facebook to Meta, influenced by Neal Stephenson’s Snow Crash, which showcased a metaverse that is far from desirable. This virtual realm is portrayed as a corporate battleground that propagates mind-altering viruses.
“
Zuckerberg and Thiel are blind to the fact that both Palantir and the Metaverse pose significant threats to human cognition. “
It’s apparent that Thiel and Zuckerberg aimed to bring their fictional technologies to life but tragically misinterpreted their underlying messages.
The second pervasive misunderstanding in science fiction is often termed the “Blueprint problem.” This assumption presumes that science fiction serves as an accurate forecast for the future, and by mimicking these fictional outcomes, we can assure a prosperous tomorrow.
The Blueprint problem significantly influenced early space exploration initiatives, which prioritized human travel over robotic missions. Pop culture icons like Flash Gordon and the works of Edgar Rice Burroughs propagated images of humans colonizing distant planets. Today, robotic missions are yielding unprecedented discoveries on Mars while media outlets are fixated on celebrity space travels.
The immense expectations for AI technologies can also be traced back to the Blueprint problem. Countless narratives have portrayed AI as servants and experts, creating an inevitable perception of their arrival, which is far from reality.
Ultimately, science fiction is not a literal roadmap, recipe, or prescription. It embodies a worldview that encourages us to challenge the status quo. This perspective has inspired my latest anthology, We Will Rise Again, co-edited with Karen Lord and Malka Older, offering stories that aim to reshape our perceptions of societal progression. In our collection, the future is fluid, molded by human agency.
As we delve deeper into this understanding, the complexities of our contemporary world reveal themselves. Why do we engineer machines for menial tasks? Why adhere to arbitrary national borders? Why limit gender to two fixed categories? These questions capture the essence of science fiction, serving as gateways into new realms of possibility.
To forge a better future, it’s essential to transcend mere imitation of fictional narratives. Instead, we must cultivate our own visions of what could be.
Annalee Newitz, a science journalist and author, presents their latest work, *Automatic Noodle*. They co-host the Hugo Award-winning podcast *Our Opinions Are Correct* and can be followed on Twitter @annaleen. Their website is: techsploitation.com
What I Am Reading 404 Media offers compelling investigative technology journalism.
What I See A delightful Canadian LGBTQ+ ice hockey romance series.
What I Am Working On Organizing a European tour for the science fiction anthology *We Will Rise Again*.
Meet the fascinating Zavasephale Rinpoche, a dome-headed dinosaur from Mongolia, dating back 108 million years. This remarkable creature is the oldest of its kind, with paleontologists describing its fossilized skull resembling a “cabochon gem.” While related species can grow up to 4 meters and weigh 400 kilograms, this juvenile measured around 1 meter in length and weighed approximately 6 kilograms.
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<p>Scientists recently examined 165 million-year-old fossils from Morocco, leading to the identification of <em>Spicomerus afar</em>, a heavily armored dinosaur with a striking appearance. According to <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/people/susannah-maidment.html">Suzanna Maidment</a> from the Natural History Museum, the unique features of this dinosaur led her team to describe it as "baroque."</p>
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<p>The 90-million-year-old <em>Duonyx tsogtbatari</em>, found in the Gobi Desert, might remind you of Edward Scissorhands due to its bipedal stance and two elongated fingers. These fingers, each equipped with massive claws measuring up to 30 centimeters, were likely used to grasp branches for feeding.</p>
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<p>If you’re a fan of <em>Jurassic Park</em>, be wary of the <em>Sri Rapax</em>. This dinosaur, discovered in the Gobi Desert, features menacing claws and was likely one of the fiercest predators during its time, 75 to 71 million years ago, hunting in sprawling deserts and lakes.</p>
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<p>Discovered in China, the 150 million-year-old fossil <em>Baminornis zhenghensis</em> raises intriguing questions about the evolutionary link between birds and dinosaurs. Researchers suggest it could be the oldest bird discovered, showcasing shorter tail features than <em>Archaeopteryx</em>, hinting that modern bird characteristics evolved earlier than expected.</p>
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<p>The terrifying <em>Joaquinraptor casali</em>, discovered in Patagonia, showcases a unique predator adaptation—its jaw was found with a crocodile's foot lodged in it. With a thumb claw akin to a human forearm, this new <em>Megaraptor</em> species likely grew to over 7 meters long, weighing around 1 tonne, making it one of the fiercest contenders of the Cretaceous period.</p>
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<h3 class="SpecialArticleUnit__Heading">Dinosaur Hunting in Mongolia's Gobi Desert</h3>
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<p>Join an exhilarating expedition to unearth dinosaur remains in the Gobi Desert, one of the world's premier paleontology sites.</p>
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Rowan Hooper: Bill, when you announced your visit to the office, people reacted as if Ryan Gosling or David Beckham were arriving.
Bill Bryson: That’s just my appeal.
RH: Your book from 2003, A Short History of Almost Everything, has become one of the best-selling nonfiction titles of the 21st century, and you’ve now released a revised edition.
It’s over 20 years old, and science has evolved tremendously since then. Consider the Denisovans: back when I wrote the first edition, little was known about these ancient humans, just like Homo floresiensis – the Hobbit. Revisiting and updating this was gratifying because I reconnected with many experts I first interviewed two decades ago.
RH: One of the most rewarding aspects of being a science reporter is the privilege of speaking with leading experts and engaging them about their groundbreaking research.
For many scientists, their work often goes unnoticed, especially in fields that lack public interest. I’m here to say that their contributions are remarkable and worth discussing.
I always ask, what inspired you to enter your specific field? What was that defining moment that made you passionate about studying, say, lichens?
RH: Shifting gears, what was your own “Eureka” moment in science?
I struggled with science during my school years. Coming of age in America during the 1950s and 1960s, education focused heavily on producing future scientists, which didn’t resonate with everyone.
Yet, I believe everyone should connect with science at some level. Science is foundational—it explains our existence and guides us towards understanding our future. My aim was to engage people in this discovery, sparking curiosity without delving into complexities like equations and technical jargon.
When I first pitched this idea to publishers, they dismissed it as impractical, suggesting I leave popular science to titans like Stephen Hawking. But they eventually allowed me to proceed.
To my surprise, many people are eager to learn about science just as I am. The book’s essence revolves around the question: “How do we know what we know?” It explores the processes scientists use to uncover knowledge.
Remarkably, I found it fascinating how much we still don’t know. The unknown is as compelling as the known.
Understanding that we cannot yet quantify all the insect species on Earth highlights this point.
RH: Many species are disappearing before we’ve even identified them, directly linking to climate change, which isn’t covered in the book. What was the rationale behind that decision?
The book aims to clarify our historical understanding and the current state of knowledge. Thus, its focus leans towards the history of science.
Penny Sarche: One significant change from the initial edition to the new one is the human lifespan—previously 74.2 years, it has now extended to over 80 years. This reflects a major increase in longevity.
Originally, I emphasized that a human lifespan comprises roughly 650,000 hours. Reflecting on all the moments spent idly, like watching Coronation Street, makes me value the time we have.
PS: Did you encounter any unexpected insights while revising this book?
I was amazed to discover that we’ve identified twice as many moons in the solar system. I pondered, “How difficult can it be to keep track of moons?”
“
One thing I didn’t expect was that it’s actually quite interesting that there’s so much we don’t know. “
In the past 20 years, the number of moons orbiting Jupiter has tripled, with most being relatively small. The definition of a moon is simply a rock that orbits a planet.
RH: Another notable change is the complexity of human family trees, now resembling a hedge rather than a straightforward line. Was that surprising? It seems almost manageable, right?
It was indeed surprising. Experts initially believed they had a solid grasp on human ancestry, but discoveries concerning the Denisovans and other ancient human groups have complicated matters.
What fascinates me is how ancient humans interacted and coexisted. Contrary to popular belief, interbreeding was common among different groups, suggesting a rich and intertwined history.
Alec Luhn: Twenty years ago, the scientific community operated in a calmer atmosphere. Currently, discussions in the U.S. suggest a war on science. Did this create pressure while writing the 2.0 edition?
The main goal of this book is to sustain the dialogue around science for another 20 years, hoping for reflection on the current climate as a temporary phase.
It would be tragic if such policies and institutionalized dissent became a long-lasting aspect of the U.S.
This text is revised from an interview shared on the New Scientist podcast titled “The World, the Universe, and Us.”
The holiday season is often envisioned as a time of joy, filled with family gatherings, festive lights, and cherished traditions. However, experiences during this period can vastly differ, and stepping away from the hustle and bustle may offer its own unique advantages.
In a recent survey conducted by our Solitude Lab involving over 300 UK adults, a significant number reported spending Christmas with family, whether at large gatherings or in intimate settings with immediate loved ones. Despite the positives, many found that socializing—while enjoyable—can bring its own challenges. The stress of gift shopping, traveling, and altered routines can be overwhelming. When asked about their feelings during the holiday season, participants frequently mentioned emotions like love and togetherness, but a notable amount also identified calmness and relaxation. This indicates a desire for both connection and restoration, suggesting that short moments of solitude can help create balance.
Research from our lab highlights that spending around 15 minutes in solitude can effectively reduce heightened emotions. Multiple experiments indicate that feelings of excitement and irritability tend to decrease after just 15 to 30 minutes alone. Participants commonly engaged in activities such as browsing their phones, reading, or simply reflecting. Physiological studies also provide evidence that solitude aids in quicker stress recovery, helping to balance out periods of high stimulation.
These moments need not be extravagant; simple activities like enjoying a quiet cup of tea or running errands alone during early mornings can provide essential space for relaxation and mental reset before rejoining social interactions. Here, solitude isn’t a sign of avoidance, but a valuable means of recalibrating oneself.
Notably, not everyone experiences a crowded holiday season. About 9 percent of adults surveyed anticipated spending Christmas alone. Participants who embraced a solitary Christmas often reported feelings of calm and contentment, with positivity evident in their responses. Loneliness and boredom were less frequently mentioned, particularly among older adults who faced circumstances leading to solo celebrations.
Having a choice greatly influences experiences of loneliness, especially in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic. Social norms have shifted, leading many to view solitude not as something to fear, but as an opportunity for introspection. Our perspectives play a crucial role in shaping our emotions during these moments.
Moreover, choosing how to spend alone time can enhance the experience. Engaging in reflective activities—such as contemplating positive memories from the past year—or enjoying leisurely walks can be fulfilling. Stepping outside alone also opens the door for brief interactions with strangers, which can uplift your spirits and foster a sense of belonging. This beneficial aspect of human interaction is often underestimated. Despite being physically alone, one can still nurture connections by reaching out to others, sending a card, or reminiscing about loved ones, which can enhance feelings of richness in our lives. Learn more.
Whether you choose to celebrate the Christmas season with others or in solitude, embracing brief moments of quiet brings its own rewards. These pauses allow for reflection, emotional calming, and overall ease in navigating the holiday season—a time that often demands much from us. It’s not about isolating oneself from connection; it’s about recognizing the value of both interactions and solitude.
In early 2025, a groundbreaking paper revealed the world’s first fully 3D printed microscope, sparking significant enthusiasm among researchers. This innovative microscope can be constructed in just a few hours and costs significantly less than traditional models.
Dr. Liam Rooney, a professor at the University of Glasgow involved in this project, stated to New Scientist that coverage of the microscope has prompted outreach from biomedical researchers, community organizations, and filmmakers worldwide. “The community response has been amazing,” he noted. The research has been subsequently published in Microscope Journal.
His team utilized the OpenFlexure design, a publicly available resource for creating scientific instruments via 3D printing. Additionally, they incorporated a commercially available camera and light source, all controlled by a Raspberry Pi computer.
A major breakthrough was the 3D printing of microscope lenses using clear plastic, significantly reducing costs and making microscopy more accessible. While traditional microscopes can cost thousands, this new version is available for under £50.
Since January, the team has produced approximately 1,000 lenses in various shapes, according to Gail McConnell from the University of Strathclyde, UK.
Several companies manufacturing products requiring lenses have shown interest in the team’s research, as inexpensive, lightweight 3D-printed lenses are rare in large-scale production. They tested the microscope on blood samples and thin sections of mouse kidneys, confirming its potential utility in medical and biological research.
The team’s mission is to democratize access to microscopy. They are collaborating with the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in Ghana, aiming to enhance microscope accessibility for researchers and students in West Africa. They have also secured funding from the UK Institute for Technology Strategy and participate in initiatives that empower students facing educational barriers.
In addition, they have developed a new microscope course at the Strathclyde Light Microscopy Course, tailored for researchers of all experience levels. Mr. Rooney emphasized, “This is truly changing how we educate.”
Furthermore, researchers believe there’s ample opportunity for improvement. They are focused on enhancing resolution without adding costs, having already improved contrast by up to 67%.
McConnell remarked that because the microscope is designed for low-cost consumer electronics and accessible 3D printers, its future scalability is tied to advancements in 3D printing technology. “As these printers improve, so will we. The bottleneck isn’t imagination,” she explained. “We are continually receiving inquiries to develop new innovations.”
European scientists first discovered the platypus due to its unique fur and anatomy. A sketch sent from Australia in 1798 left them in disbelief.
This specimen was so extraordinary that British zoologist George Shaw initially deemed it impossible, stating there was no reason to doubt its authenticity.
Could a prankster have stitched a duck’s beak onto a beaver’s body? To verify, Shaw meticulously examined the specimen for seams, but none were found. Thus, he became the first person to officially describe the animal, naming it platypus anatinus, originally referred to as “duck-like flat feet.” Over time, the classification evolved to Ornithorhynchus anatinus, meaning “duck-billed platypus.”
The platypus resembles a whimsical creation from a children’s book, combining features from various animals. It has a duck’s beak, an otter’s body, and a beaver’s tail. Notably, it lays eggs like birds while nursing its young with milk, a trait shared with mammals.
After extensive research and debate, scientists classified the platypus as a primitive type of mammal known as monotremes.
The term “monotreme” comes from the Greek word for “single opening,” referring to a multifunctional orifice, or “cloaca,” utilized for excretion, reproduction, and laying eggs.
The platypus is among five living monotreme species, along with four echidna species, all of which lay eggs instead of giving live birth.
Image of a platypus swimming – Males possess hollow spurs on their hind legs to inject venom. Image courtesy of Getty Images
The female platypus lays two small, leathery eggs in a breeding burrow, typically surrounded by grass. After around ten days, the platypus hatchlings, known as “
About the size of a butterbean, these hatchlings are born blind and hairless, making them entirely dependent on their mother.
For the next four months, she nourishes them with rich, nutritious milk that she secretes through special pores on her hairless abdomen, which they lap up from her fur.
Furthermore, the platypus’ beak is equipped with special receptor cells that detect electric signals generated by prey movements, including crustaceans and insect larvae.
Untypically for mammals, the platypus is also venomous. Males utilize their hollow spurs to inject venom into rivals to attract female attention.
In terms of swimming style, platypuses differ from river otters, which use all four legs for propulsion or beavers that use their hind legs and tail. Instead, platypuses swim by paddling solely with their front feet, using their tails and webbed hind legs primarily for steering.
If that wasn’t strange enough, consider the platypus genome.
Unlike most mammals that have two sex chromosomes, the platypus has ten, along with genes typical of mammals, genes from reptiles, and some entirely unique genes.
If you have any questions, feel free to reach out to us at:questions@sciencefocus.com, or send us a message on Facebook, Twitter, orInstagram. (Remember to include your name and location.)
Explore our ultimatefun facts and discover more amazing science content!
Dark Photons: A New Explanation for the Double-Slit Experiment
Russell Kightley/Science Photo Library
This year, a fundamental aspect of quantum theory faced scrutiny when researchers introduced a groundbreaking interpretation of an experiment exploring the nature of light.
Central to this research was the historic double-slit experiment, first conducted by physicist Thomas Young in 1801, which confirmed the wave-like behavior of light. Conventionally, particles and waves are considered distinct; however, in the quantum realm, they coexist, showcasing wave-particle duality.
For years, light stood as the quintessential example of this duality. Experimentation demonstrated that light can exhibit particle-like behavior as photons and wave-like characteristics, culminating in interference patterns reminiscent of Young’s findings. However, earlier in 2023, Celso Villas Boas and his team at Brazil’s Federal University of São Carlos proposed a novel interpretation of the double-slit experiment, exclusively utilizing photons and negating the wave aspect of optical duality.
After New Scientist covered their study, the team received significant interest from peers, with citations soaring. Villas-Boas shared, “I’ve received numerous invitations to present, including events in Japan, Spain, and Brazil,” emphasizing the widespread intrigue.
In the traditional double-slit experiment, an opaque barrier containing two narrow slits is positioned between a screen and a light source. Light travels through the slits to create a pattern of alternating bright and dark vertical stripes, known as classical interference, usually attributed to colliding light waves.
The researchers shifted away from this conventional explanation, examining the so-called dark state of photons—a unique quantum state that prevents interaction with other particles, hence not illuminating the screen. This perspective eliminates the necessity for light waves to clarify the observed dark stripes.
This reevaluation challenges a deeply ingrained view of light within quantum physics. Many educators expressed concern, with some remarking, “Your findings challenge the foundational concepts I’ve taught for years.” However, while some colleagues embraced the new perspective, others remained skeptically intrigued, following New Scientist‘s initial report.
Villas-Boas has been actively exploring implications surrounding the dark state of photons. His investigations revealed that thermal radiation, such as sunlight, can reside in a dark state, concealing a substantial portion of its energy due to a lack of interaction with other objects. Experimental validation could involve placing atoms in cavities where their interactions with light are meticulously examined, according to Villas-Boas.
His team’s reinterpretation of interference phenomena facilitates comprehension of previously perplexing occurrences, such as non-overlapping wave interactions. Moving beyond the wave model to incorporate distinct bright and dark photon states opens avenues for innovative applications. Villas-Boas envisions potential developments such as light-controlled switches and devices that selectively permit specific light types to pass.
In his view, all these explorations connect back to the essential principles of quantum physics, highlighting that engaging with quantum objects necessitates understanding their interactions with measurement devices—encompassing darkness itself. “This concept is intrinsic to quantum mechanics,” Villas-Boas asserts.
The groundbreaking discovery in 2010 of a 40,000-year-old finger bone led to the identification of the Denisovans, an archaic human species, named after the Siberian cave where it was found. Recently, DNA analysis from a 146,000-year-old skull unearthed in China has shed light on their appearance. Findings indicate that Denisovans had facial structures akin to modern humans, yet featured unique traits such as pronounced eyebrow ridges.
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<img class="Image" alt="Anglo-Saxon Burial Site" width="1350" height="826" src="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134223/SEI_274338500.jpg" srcset="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134223/SEI_274338500.jpg?width=300 300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134223/SEI_274338500.jpg?width=400 400w" sizes="(min-width: 1288px) 837px, (min-width: 1024px) calc(57.5vw + 55px), (min-width: 415px) calc(100vw - 40px), calc(70vw + 74px)" loading="lazy" data-image-context="Article" data-image-id="2506940" data-caption="A woman and baby buried at an Anglo-Saxon cemetery in Scremby, UK" data-credit="Dr. Hugh Willmott, University of Sheffield"/>
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<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Title">Anglo-Saxon Burial in Scremby</p>
<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Credit">Dr. Hugh Willmott, University of Sheffield</p>
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<p>This poignant image reveals a tragic story: the woman buried in this Anglo-Saxon cemetery was likely in childbirth when she passed away. Dating back to the 5th or 6th century, she was interred in elaborate attire. Discovered by metal detectors in 2018, the excavation of the Screnby cemetery is now providing essential insights into ancient burial practices. Current research at the University of Sheffield aims to analyze the skeletal remains, seeking hormonal evidence of pregnancy at the time of death.</p>
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<img class="Image" alt="Ancient Hunter's Toolkit" width="1350" height="900" src="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134522/SEI_266340196.jpg" srcset="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134522/SEI_266340196.jpg?width=300 300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134522/SEI_266340196.jpg?width=400 400w" sizes="(min-width: 1288px) 837px, (min-width: 1024px) calc(57.5vw + 55px), (min-width: 415px) calc(100vw - 40px), calc(70vw + 74px)" loading="lazy" data-image-context="Article" data-image-id="2506941" data-caption="An ancient hunter's toolkit" data-credit="Martin Novák"/>
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<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Title">Ancient Hunter's Toolkit</p>
<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Credit">Martin Novák</p>
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<p>This intriguing pile of sand and stones represents an ancient toolkit once stored in a leather bag, left behind at a hunting campsite in the Pavlovske Vrchy Hills of the Czech Republic around 30,000 years ago. It comprises an array of tools, from spear and arrow tips to utensils for processing meat and wood. Some tools were refurbished from older artifacts, suggesting they were intended for extended expeditions in resource-scarce environments.</p>
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<img class="Image" alt="Ancient Human Remains" width="1350" height="900" src="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134545/SEI_265721265.jpg" srcset="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134545/SEI_265721265.jpg?width=300 300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134545/SEI_265721265.jpg?width=400 400w" sizes="(min-width: 1288px) 837px, (min-width: 1024px) calc(57.5vw + 55px), (min-width: 415px) calc(100vw - 40px), calc(70vw + 74px)" loading="lazy" data-image-context="Article" data-image-id="2506943" data-caption="The remains of a man excavated from Huiyaotian in Guangxi, China, dated to more than 9,000 years ago" data-credit="Yousuke Kaifu and Hirofumi Matsumura"/>
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<p class="ArticleImageCaption__Credit">Yousuke Kaifu, Hirofumi Matsumura</p>
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<p>Wouldn’t you want to support your family even after passing? This thought may inspire practices reminiscent of contemporary Indonesian customs, where mummified bodies are preserved in a crouched posture. Archaeological findings in southern China suggest that such practices might have been prevalent as far back as 9,000 years ago. Recent studies indicate that the slow smoking and mummification of bodies could have been common in Southeast Asia up until around 4,000 years ago.</p>
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<img class="Image" alt="Organic glass in skull" width="1350" height="900" src="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/05101506/SEI_241673209.jpg" srcset="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/05101506/SEI_241673209.jpg?width=300 300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/05101506/SEI_241673209.jpg?width=400 400w" sizes="(min-width: 1288px) 837px, (min-width: 1024px) calc(57.5vw + 55px), (min-width: 415px) calc(100vw - 40px), calc(70vw + 74px)" loading="lazy" data-image-context="Article" data-image-id="2507245" data-caption="A fragment of organic glass found inside the skull of a man in Herculaneum" data-credit="Pier Paolo Petrone"/>
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<p>This seemingly abstract artifact is actually the brain of a man from Herculaneum, who lived during the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius roughly 2,000 years ago. The brain was heated to 500 degrees Celsius and then rapidly cooled into a glass-like state. Despite the explosive incident, some parts remain remarkably preserved, revealing a network of brain cells.</p>
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<img class="Image" alt="Ancient mummified hand" width="1350" height="901" src="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134549/SEI_274338457.jpg" srcset="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134549/SEI_274338457.jpg?width=300 300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/03134549/SEI_274338457.jpg?width=400 400w" sizes="(min-width: 1288px) 837px, (min-width: 1024px) calc(57.5vw + 55px), (min-width: 415px) calc(100vw - 40px), calc(70vw + 74px)" loading="lazy" data-image-context="Article" data-image-id="2506944" data-caption="A 1200-year-old mummified hand featuring tattoos" data-credit="Michael Pittman and Thomas G Kaye"/>
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<p>The striking mummified hand belonged to the Chancay civilization of Peru, dating back approximately 1,200 years. Discovered in 1981 in Peru's Huaura Valley, the hand showcases intricate tattoo designs, which are characteristic of Chancay mummies. Recent studies using laser-stimulated fluorescence have brought new insights into these tattoo details, though some researchers have raised concerns about the accuracy of these findings.</p>
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<h3 class="SpecialArticleUnit__Heading">Discover Archaeology and Paleontology</h3>
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<p>New Scientist regularly reports on remarkable archaeological sites worldwide that have reshaped our understanding of species and the origins of civilization. Come and explore these treasures too!</p>
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Uranus’ New Moon S/2025 U1 Discovered by James Webb Space Telescope
Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA/STScI/M. El Moutamid (SwRI)/M. Hedman (University of Idaho)
This year, astronomers have discovered over 100 previously unknown moons in our solar system. With many more potentially awaiting discovery, cataloging these moons could enhance our understanding of planet formation.
In March, Edward Ashton and his team at Taiwan’s Academia Sinica discovered 128 new moons around Saturn, raising the planet’s total to 274. The researchers utilized hours of images taken by the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope, stacking them to reveal dark objects previously undetectable.
Ashton’s team now holds the rights to name the newly discovered moons; however, due to the sheer number, many of Saturn’s moons lack unofficial names.
In August, a small, faint moon was identified in orbit around Uranus, increasing its total to 29. Mariam El Moutamid and researchers from the Southwest Research Institute in Colorado made this discovery using 10 long-exposure infrared images captured by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope.
The team has not disclosed potential names for the new moon, which is currently known by its tentative designation, S/2025 U1. Eventually, it will be named after characters from Shakespeare’s plays, following the tradition established in 1787 when Earth’s first two moons, Titania and Oberon, were discovered.
Nigel Mason from the University of Kent indicates that more moons are likely to be discovered in the solar system, particularly around Neptune and Uranus, but he believes that the largest have already been mapped.
“Everyone enjoys finding a new moon and contemplating what to name it,” says Mason. “It’s an exhilarating moment—it’s a legacy.”
The ongoing cataloging and measurement of nearby satellites will help scientists learn more about their formation, allowing us to update existing models of planet formation.
“Why are there so many? What caused it? How do you create 40, 50, or 60 moons of varying shapes and sizes?” Mason notes. “That’s what makes them fascinating. It’s truly astounding, revealing that our understanding of the entire planet formation process is not as solid as we once believed.”
Raymond gazed out his window and admired the snow-covered garden, where a perfect layer of 5 centimeters blanketed everything except the path. The snow was already beginning to melt.
The rectangular garden measures 16 meters on its longest side and 10.5 meters on the shorter side. The path is a narrow rectangle, 0.5 meters wide, leading from the street to the entrance.
Raymond started some rough calculations. We built a snowman made of three spheres, where the volume ratio of base, thorax, and head is 3:2:1.
His calculations use a simplified method which takes 4 times the cube of the radius for the sphere’s volume and overlooks snow compaction.
Based on this method, can you determine the radius of the snowman’s base sphere?
Scroll down for the answer!
2. Insulation Calculation
Sven Svendsen is almost ready for his North Pole expedition. An essential part of his preparation involves gaining weight for warmth.
Beginning today, he will start with his normal daily intake of 2,540 calories and will increase his calorie consumption by 100 calories each day over the next 20 days.
Sven plans to gain weight solely by consuming Wazoo multi-nutrient bars, each containing 140 calories.
How many days can he stick to this plan, only eating Wazoo bars?
Scroll down for the answer!
I dance without legs, ripple without wind, light up the polar night – what am I? Answer: Northern Lights – Photo Credit: Getty
3. Advent Attempt
In December, a daily contest challenges players to guess a number between 1 and 10,000. A single lucky number will win a prize, remaining unchanged throughout the month. Incorrect guesses allow players to try again the next day.
In one household, Steve guesses daily, while his daughter Lottie has an advent calendar with 24 doors but doesn’t understand numbers yet. She can only open one door each day.
After Steve guesses three numbers and Lottie opens her three doors on December 3rd, who is more likely to have chosen correctly: Lottie with her doors or Steve with his numbers?
Scroll down for the answer!
4. PIN Puzzle
Janice, in a rush for Christmas shopping, was asked for her four-digit credit card PIN but struggles with memory.
Fortunately, she excels at solving mathematical problems and remembers the correct method to determine her PIN. She decisively calculates all unique three-digit numbers that sum to eight and contain no zeros.
These three digits together equal her four-digit PIN. Can you figure it out too?
Scroll down for the answer!
5. Word Play
Rearrange the letters to form three scientific instruments: TER TEL ABE OMEAST OPE BAR ESC ROL
Decode the names of three scientists: Zulksus, Chumnyeol, Ichimunichi
Rearrange the letters to create three geometric shapes: GLE TRA REC IUM OID PEZ TAN IPS ELL
Scroll down for the answer!
Until the moment I’m torn apart, I’ll be guessed and never seen – what am I? Answer: Present – Photo Credit: Getty
6. Mysterious Gift
Zack forgot to label his Christmas presents. He recalls that silver gifts are not for his mother, and his father’s gifts are either gold or red.
The blue present is for his sister or brother. If his mother’s gift is red, then his sister receives the gold, and if his mother’s gift is gold, then his sister receives the blue gift. Who gets which present?
Scroll down for the answer!
7. Test the Metal
A chemist, physicist, and biologist were asked to complete a survey on their favorite metals. It turns out neither Ben nor the chemist likes tin, and biologists aren’t Kim, nor do they prefer iron. Gold is the favorite metal for both Mary and Kim. Can you uncover each scientist’s favorite metal?
Scroll down for the answer!
Answers
Snow Problem
Solved: 1 meter
Explanation: The garden’s area measures 168m² (10.5m x 16m). The path, being 0.5m wide and 16m long, occupies 8m². Thus, the snow-covered garden area is 160m². At a depth of 5 cm, the snow volume equals 160 x 0.05 = 8m³.
To find the snowman’s base volume, half of the snow (4m³) is used. The formula for a sphere’s volume leads to the equation 4r³ = 4m³, resulting in a base radius of 1 meter with a diameter of 2 meters.
Insulation Calculation
Solved: 3 days
Explanation: Begin by determining a target calorie value that divides evenly by 140. 2,940 is one such number (140 x 21). You can increase this by adding or decreasing 100 calories weekly. Thus, 2,240, 2,940, 3,640, and 4,340 are attainable calorie goals. By starting at 2,540 calories and incrementing daily over 20 days, you can reach 4,540 calories. The viable calorie values therefore yield three days of consuming only Wazoo bars.
Advent Attempt
Solved: It is more likely that Lottie opened the correct three doors in any order.
Explanation: Lottie opened three out of 24 doors on day one, two out of 23 on day two, and one out of 22 on day three. The probability of her correctly opening the doors multiplies, giving 6/12,144. Conversely, the chances of Steve guessing the lucky number are only 3/10,000. Therefore, Lottie has better odds of success.
PIN Puzzle
Solved: Janice’s PIN is 3552.
Explanation: To find a three-digit number, valid combinations must not include digits greater than 5. Acceptable pairs like (5,2,1) and (4,3,1) yield 6 permutations each. The sum of all configurations is calculated to determine her PIN as 3552.
Word Play
Telescope, Barometer, Astrolabe
Faraday, Pasteur, Einstein (using letter shifting techniques)
Ellipsoid, Rectangle, Trapezoid
Mysterious Gift
Solved: His mother receives the gold gift, his father gets the red, his sister has the blue, and his brother receives the silver.
Health professionals are sounding the alarm over potential rises in tetanus, commonly known as bone-lock. Symptoms may take anywhere from 3 to 21 days to manifest and can include severe muscle spasms leading to breathing difficulties. Once the infection establishes itself, sufferers often experience jaw clenching, resembling a fixed grin, coupled with painful back muscle contractions.
“The effects are alarming,” stated Dr. Mobeen Rathore, Chief of Pediatric Infectious Diseases at the University of Florida Jacksonville School of Medicine.
The bacterium Clostridium tetani is commonly found in soil and fertilizers. Infections can arise from puncture wounds, and the illness can persist for several weeks, complicating treatment.
Treatment is not only challenging but also expensive. A case reported by the CDC highlighted an unvaccinated 6-year-old in Oregon who incurred nearly $1 million in medical expenses due to tetanus in 2019.
Dr. Rasool emphasized the stark difference in costs, likening vaccination expenses to intensive care costs.
“It’s a fraction of a cent compared to hundreds of thousands of dollars,” Rasool remarked. “It’s a hefty price to pay.”
This year, he diagnosed an unvaccinated 9-year-old in Laseau, Florida, who exhibited signs of muscle spasms reminiscent of warnings from his medical school tetanus wards—dark, quiet spaces meant to minimize sensory overload.
“Even minimal noise can provoke seizures in many cases,” Rasool explained.
Light sensitivity, or photophobia, can also lead to painful spasms and airway muscle contractions.
In the bustling ICU, bright lights and alarms limited Rasool’s ability to reduce patient stimulation. The 9-year-old was sedated, intubated, and treated with tetanus immune globulin antibodies alongside vaccination to mitigate future risks.
The child spent a challenging 37 days in the hospital.
“Before widespread immunization, we witnessed increased tetanus cases and a higher mortality rate,” noted Dr. Matthew Davis, Chief Scientific Officer at Nemours Children’s Health.
John Johnson, a vaccination and epidemic prevention expert with Médecins Sans Frontières, operates in regions like the Democratic Republic of Congo, where tetanus remains a pressing concern. In 2022 alone, 540 cases were reported in the DRC according to the World Health Organization.
“This disease is trivially preventable,” Johnson lamented. “One case of tetanus in the U.S. would be a regrettable anomaly; there’s no reason for this illness to reappear.”
“My jaw has completely locked.”
Post childhood vaccination, booster doses are advised every decade for adults, yet many remain unaware of this necessity.
Nikki Arellano, aged 42, hadn’t received a tetanus shot since 2010. After a minor injury while assisting a friend, she began experiencing jaw pain during lunch. Soon, she found herself unable to open her mouth.
“My jaw completely locked shut,” said Arellano from Reno, Nevada. “Despite heavy sedation and pain relief in the emergency room, nothing worked.”
Arellano was diagnosed with tetanus and admitted for IV antibiotics.
“With each episode, I heard a loud beeping response. The muscle contractions felt explosive,” she recounted.
Initially, spasms began in one arm, spreading rapidly. “My back curved painfully,” she shared.
Arellano then struggled to swallow and feared her airway was at risk.
“It was terrifying,” she added.
After nearly a week in the hospital, Arellano continues her recovery process.
Climate Change Heightens Tetanus Risks
Natural disasters like hurricanes, tornadoes, and floods heighten the risks of tetanus outbreaks. Injuries from debris can facilitate bacterial infection.
“As global temperatures rise, the frequency and severity of extreme weather events are increasing,” stated Christy Ebi, an epidemiologist at the University of Washington. “More flooding translates to fewer vaccinations for diseases like tetanus, heightening public vulnerability.”
States severely affected by natural disasters, such as Florida, Texas, and Kansas, have reported significant drops in tetanus vaccination rates, according to NBC News data.
Wondering who actually uses gift guides these days? You know your loved ones better than anyone else. Are you aiming to give a meaningful gift? Take a moment to reflect.
Instead of stressing over pointless suggestions, I decided to create a curated list just for you.
This season, let’s explore innovative tech that fulfills real wants and perhaps some whimsical desires, making you feel like a kid on Christmas morning.
Nike Alphafly 3 Eliud Kipchoge Edition
A fresh year brings fresh resolutions to stay fit. If I’m asking Santa for the ultimate running shoes, I want them to feel like a secret edge.
These “super trainers” are so advanced that they might even be disqualified at official races. When their namesake ran a sub-two-hour marathon wearing them, they didn’t qualify for record status!
They work like Go Go Gadget’s spring shoes, absorbing impact from your foot and adding a delightful rebound to your stride.
“How much should I spend on a kettle?” is not a question I thought I’d ponder in middle age. I’d rather be deciding between a Lambo or a Ferrari!
Sadly, that’s not the case. I find myself defending a nearly £120 investment on a kettle to my partner.
Bermuda focuses on everyday gadgets that strive for perfection. They describe their kettle as quiet, precise, and delivering a “refined experience from the first boil to the last pour.” That might sound like marketing jargon, but it seems essential for a pleasant morning routine.
Each time I leave the doctor’s office without diabetes or high cholesterol, I feel like I’ve won a prize. But eating ice cream at home, whenever I want? That’s a risky treat!
Yet, if my jolly benefactor were to deliver it, I’d be eager to whip up some delicious bread-and-butter pudding-flavored ice cream.
The CREAMi transforms any liquid you pour into it into ice cream within 24 hours. It also makes milkshakes, sorbets, and Slurpees. How about a daiquiri?
The Super73 bike is visually striking; my only worry is looking silly riding it—like a gorilla on a tricycle!
This electric bike boasts suspension, durable tires, a top speed of 45 km/h (28 mph), and a range of 64 to 120 km (approximately 40 to 75 miles). Plus, it even has a cup holder!
After adopting a fluffy dog, my home is a constant battle against her shedding!
Now, a $200 down payment and $500 monthly subscription don’t seem so unreasonable to keep it furry-free. This eerie humanoid robot will vacuum your home, making life easier.
However, having read my Asimov, I do worry about what happens next.
“Why do we need a hair dryer?” my partner asks. While my hair may be thinning, beauty remains essential.
Recently, I learned that drying hair improperly can cause damage. My hair needs all the help it can get!
Experts recommend drying hair on low heat from a distance, ideally with a diffuser attachment.
While many dryers can accomplish this, the Dyson stands out with its airflow sensors, temperature monitors, and RFID chip for attachment performance adjustment. Perfect for achieving various styles!
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