Sahelanthropus: Fossil comparison with chimpanzees and humans
Williams et al., Sci. Adv. 12, eadv0130
The long-standing debate regarding whether our earliest ancestors walked on knuckles like chimpanzees or stood upright like modern humans may be closer to resolution, yet skepticism remains.
Scott Williams and researchers at New York University recently reanalyzed fossil remains of Sahelanthropus tchadensis, indicating that this species possessed at least three anatomical features suggesting it was our earliest known bipedal ancestor.
The journey to this conclusion has been extensive.
Fossilized remains of a skull, teeth, and jawbone from approximately 7 million years ago were first identified in 2002 in Chad, north-central Africa. The distinctive features of this ancient species, including its prominent brow ridge and smaller canine teeth, were quickly acknowledged as diverging from ape characteristics.
Analyzing the skull’s anatomy suggests it was positioned directly over the vertebrae, analogous to other upright, bipedal hominins.
In 2004, French scientists uncovered the femur and ulna associated with the Sahelanthropus skull from Chad. However, it wasn’t until 2020 that researchers claimed the femur exhibited curvature similar to that of non-bipedal great apes.
Since then, scholarly debate has fluctuated. For instance, in 2022, researchers Frank Guy and Guillaume Daver of the University of Poitiers argued for anatomical features of the femur that indicate bipedalism. In 2024, Clement Zanoli and colleagues from the University of Bordeaux countered, suggesting Guy and Daver’s assertions were flawed, as the anatomical characteristics of bipedalism may also appear in non-bipedal great apes.
Lead study author Williams started with a “fairly ambivalent” stance on Sahelanthropus.
His team investigated the femur’s attachment point for the gluteus maximus muscle, finding similarities to human femur anatomy.
They also compared the femur and ulna size and shape; while similar in size to chimpanzee bones, they aligned more closely with human proportions.
Additionally, they identified the “femoral tuberosity,” a previously overlooked feature of Sahelanthropus.
“We initially identified it by touch, later confirming it with 3D scans of the fossil,” Williams shared. “This bump, present only in species with a femoral tubercle, contrasts smooth areas found in great apes and plays a critical role in mobility.”
This area serves as an attachment point for the iliofemoral ligament, the strongest ligament in the human body. While relaxed when seated, it tightens during standing or walking, securing the femoral head in the hip joint and preventing the torso from tilting backward or sideways.
However, Williams expressed doubts about whether this study would fully end the conversation about how Sahelanthropus moved.
“We are confident Sahelanthropus was an early bipedal hominin, but we must recognize that the debate is ongoing,” Williams noted.
In response to a recent paper, Guy and Daver issued a joint statement asserting that humans likely began walking on two legs by 2022: “This reaffirms our earlier interpretations about Sahelanthropus adaptations and locomotion, suggesting habitual bipedalism despite its ape-like morphology.”
They acknowledged that only new fossil discoveries could unequivocally conclude the matter.
John Hawkes, a professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, also endorsed the new findings, noting their implications for understanding the complex origins of the hominin lineage.
“It may be deceptive to perceive Sahelanthropus as part of a gradual evolution towards an upright posture. It reveals crucial insights into these transformative changes,” Hawkes commented.
However, Zanoli contended, stating, “Most of the evidence aligns Sahelanthropus with traits seen in African great apes, suggesting its behavior was likely a mix between chimpanzees and gorillas, distinct from the habitual bipedalism of Australopithecus and Homo.
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Astronomers unveiled a remarkable giant galaxy cluster known as RM J130558.9+263048.4 on December 31, 2020. Due to its bubble-like appearance and superheated gas, they aptly named it the Champagne Cluster. The stunning new composite image of this galaxy cluster features X-ray data from NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory combined with optical information from the Legacy Survey.
The Champagne Cluster appears as a luminous array of galaxies amidst a vibrant neon purple cloud. The cluster reveals over 100 galaxies split into two groups, with notable variations among them. Foreground stars display diffraction spikes surrounded by a subtle haze. Many small galaxies showcase blue, orange, or red tones and exhibit varied shapes. This indicates a multifaceted nature, while the central purple gas cloud emitted by Chandra signals a high-temperature region, indicative of two colliding clusters. Image credit: NASA / CXC / UCDavis / Bouhrik others. / Legacy Survey / DECaLS / BASS / MzLS / SAO / P. Edmonds / L. Frattare.
Recent research led by astronomer Faik Bourik from the University of California, Davis, utilized instruments from NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory and ESA’s XMM Newton Observatory to investigate the Champagne Cluster.
The team also analyzed data from the DEIMOS multi-object spectrometer located at the W. M. Keck Observatory.
“Our new composite image indicates that the Champagne Galaxy Cluster consists of two galaxy clusters merging to form a larger cluster,” the astronomers stated.
“In typical observations, multimillion-degree gas is roughly circular, but in the Champagne Cluster, it spans from top to bottom, highlighting the collision of two clusters.”
“Distinct clusters of individual galaxies are prominently visible above and below the center,” they added.
“Remarkably, the mass of this hot gas exceeds that of all 100 or more individual galaxies within the newly formed cluster.”
“This cluster is also abundant in invisible dark matter, a mysterious substance that pervades the universe.”
The Champagne Cluster is part of a rare category of merging galaxy clusters, akin to the well-known Bullet Cluster, where the hot gas from each cluster collides, slows, and creates a clear separation from the heaviest galaxies.
By comparing this data with computer simulations, researchers propose two potential histories for the Champagne Cluster.
One theory suggests that the two star clusters collided over 2 billion years ago, followed by an outward movement due to gravity, leading them to a subsequent collision.
Alternatively, another link posits a single collision about 400 million years ago, after which the clusters have begun moving apart.
“Further studies on the Champagne Cluster could illuminate how dark matter reacts during high-velocity collisions,” the scientists concluded.
For more insights, refer to their published paper in July 2025, featured in the Astrophysical Journal.
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Faik Bourik others. 2025. New dissociated galaxy cluster merger: discovery and multiwavelength analysis of the Champagne Cluster. APJ 988, 166;doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ade67c
A groundbreaking research team at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology has successfully generated a high-quality Denisovan genome assembly using ancient DNA extracted from molar teeth found in the Denisovan Cave. This genome, dating back approximately 200,000 years, significantly predates the only previously sequenced Denisovan specimen. The findings are prompting a reevaluation of when and where early human groups interacted, mixed, and migrated throughout Asia.
Artist’s concept of Penghu Denisovans walking under the bright sun during the Pleistocene in Taiwan. Image credit: Cheng-Han Sun.
Dr. Stéphane Peregne, an evolutionary geneticist from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, along with his team, recovered this Denisovan genome from molars excavated in the Denisova Cave, located in the Altai Mountains of southern Siberia. This cave is historically significant as it was the site where Denisovans were first discovered in 2010 through DNA analysis of finger bones.
This cave continues to be pivotal in the study of human evolution, revealing repeated occupations by Denisovans, Neanderthals, and even offspring resulting from the interbreeding of these groups.
“The Denisovans were first identified in 2008 based on ancient DNA sourced from Denisova 3, a phalanx found in the Denisova Cave,” Dr. Peregne and his colleagues noted.
“This analysis confirms that Denisovans are closely related to Neanderthals, an extinct human group that thrived in Western Eurasia during the mid-to-late Pleistocene.”
Since then, twelve fragmentary remains and a single skull have been associated with Denisovans through DNA or protein analysis, with Denisova 3 being the only specimen yielding a high-quality genome.
The newly studied molars, belonging to a Denisovan male who lived approximately 200,000 years ago, are predating modern humans’ migration out of Africa.
“In 2020, a complete upper left molar was found in Layer 17, one of the oldest cultural layers within the southern chamber of the Denisova Cave, dating between 200,000 and 170,000 years old based on photostimulated luminescence,” the scientists elaborated.
“Designated as Denisova 25, this molar resembles others found at Denisova Cave, specifically Denisova 4 and Denisova 8, and exhibits larger dimensions compared to Neanderthal and most post-Middle Pleistocene hominid molars, indicating it likely belonged to a Denisovan.”
“Two samples of 2.7 mg and 8.9 mg were extracted by drilling a hole at the cement-enamel junction of the tooth, with an additional 12 subsamples varying from 4.5 to 20.2 mg collected by carefully scraping the outer root layer using a dental drill.”
Thanks to excellent DNA preservation, researchers successfully reconstructed the genome of Denisova 25 with high coverage, matching the quality of the 65,000-year-old female Denisova 3 genome.
Denisovans likely had dark skin, in contrast to the pale Neanderthals. The image depicts a Neanderthal. Image credit: Mauro Cutrona.
Comparisons between the genomes indicate that Denisovans were not a singular, homogeneous population.
Instead, at least two distinct Denisovan groups inhabited the Altai region at various intervals, with one group gradually replacing the other over millennia.
Earlier Denisovans possessed a greater amount of Neanderthal DNA than later populations, suggesting that interbreeding was a regular event rather than an isolated occurrence in the Ice Age landscape of Eurasia.
Even more intriguing, the study uncovered evidence that Denisovans engaged in interbreeding with “hyperarchaic” hominin groups that diverged from the human lineage before the ancestors of Denisovans, Neanderthals, and modern humans branched off.
“This second Denisovan genome illustrates the recurrent admixture between Neanderthals and Denisovans in the Altai region, suggesting these mixed populations were eventually supplanted by Denisovans from other regions, reinforcing the notion that Denisovans were widespread and that populations in the Altai may have existed at the periphery of their geographic range,” the researchers explained.
The Denisovan 25 genome presents valuable insights into the long-standing mysteries regarding the Denisovan ancestry in contemporary populations.
People in Oceania, parts of South Asia, and East Asia all carry Denisovan DNA, albeit from different Denisovan sources.
Through genetic comparison, scientists have identified at least three separate Denisovan origins, highlighted by their genetic segments found in thousands of modern genomes.
One lineage closely relates to the later Denisovan genome and is linked to widespread ancestry across East Asia and beyond.
A second, more distantly related Denisovan population contributed independently to Oceanian and South Asian ancestry.
Notably, East Asians do not share this highly divergent Denisovan ancestry, implying their ancestors may have taken a different route into Asia, potentially from the north, whereas Oceanian ancestors likely migrated through South Asia.
“Neanderthal-like DNA fragments appear in all populations, including Oceanians, aligning with a singular out-of-Africa migration; however, the distinct Denisovan gene flow points to multiple migrations into Asia,” the researchers stated.
Reconstruction of a young Denisovan woman based on skeletal profiles derived from ancient DNA methylation maps. Image credit: Maayan Harel.
The researchers believe certain Denisovan genetic traits offered advantages that increased their prevalence in modern human populations through the process of natural selection.
By analyzing both Denisovan genomes, the authors pinpointed numerous regions in present-day populations that appear to have originated from Denisovan introgression, particularly in Oceania and South Asia.
Genetic alterations observed in other Denisovans provide intriguing insights into their physical appearances.
Several unique mutations in Denisovans influence genes connected to cranial shape, jaw protrusion, and facial characteristics—attributes that align with the limited fossil record associated with Denisovans.
A shift in regulatory mechanisms is on the horizon. The Fox P2 gene, implicated in brain development and language in modern humans, raises important questions regarding the cognitive capabilities of Denisovans, although researchers emphasize that genetic data cannot replace direct fossil or archaeological evidence.
“The impact of Denisovan alleles on modern human phenotypes might also shed light on Denisovan biology,” the researchers pointed out.
“Examining alleles linked to contemporary human traits, we identified 16 associations with 11 Denisovan alleles, covering aspects like height, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and C-reactive protein levels.”
“Additionally, we recognized 305 expressed quantitative trait loci (QTL) and 117 alternative splicing QTLs that affect gene expression across 19 tissues in modern humans, with the most significant effects observable in the thyroid, tibial artery, testis, and muscle tissues.”
“These molecular effects can be utilized to explore additional phenotypes that are not retained in the fossil record. This updated catalog provides a more reliable foundation for investigating Denisovan traits, adaptations, and disease susceptibilities, some of which may have influenced modern humans through admixture.”
Numerous scientific books are set to release throughout the coming year, and a vast selection awaits. After reviewing a multitude of catalogs from various publishers, I curated a list of the science books I’m most eager to dive into, organized by category to help you easily discover your next favorite read. Whether you’re a voracious reader like me or just exploring, you can wrap up this year with newfound expertise, exploring topics ranging from detecting psychopaths to captivating numerical insights.
Space
Let’s embark on an enlightening journey with environmental historian Dagomar DeGroot. He presents Ripples in the Cosmic Ocean, analyzing how our solar system has influenced humanity. This includes fascinating insights into Martian dust storms that have sparked alien narratives and a comet impact on Jupiter that led to the inception of planetary defense strategies. DeGroot advocates for “interplanetary environmentalism,” a compelling concept indeed.
Our exploration continues with astrophysicist Emma Chapman. In her work, Radio Universe, she unveils how we harness radio waves to probe the cosmos, guiding readers on a journey from Earth to the expansive reaches of the Milky Way, traversing through black holes and pulsars.
New Scientist columnist Chanda Prescod Weinstein extends this journey, merging poetry and culture in The End of Space and Time, to elucidate theoretical physics and the quantum fabric of space-time.
Health
In 2026, I’m particularly excited about two critical health themes. The first focuses on leveraging science for better health. In Age Code, health journalist David Cox delves into nutritional science, illustrating how it can decelerate biological aging. In another compelling read, surgeon Charles Knowles, a clinical research director and recovering alcoholic, writes Why Do You Drink Too Much?, while Bill Gifford’s Hot Wired discusses utilizing heat for health improvement, emphasizing our evolutionary adaptation to high temperatures.
On the investigative front, physician Zand van Tulleken aims to expose the realities of the medical industry in Make Me Well, while journalist Deborah Cohen shares insights on the interplay of influencers and AI-powered diagnostics in Bad Influence. Amy Donnellan’s work probes the GLP-1 drug Ozempic’s stories in Fall Off the Scale, while Alev Scott dives into the commodification of motherhood with Dollar Box.
Mathematics
This year in mathematics, Richard Elwes’s Huge Numbers examines how expanding our counting capabilities has influenced human thought. Meanwhile, Ian Stewart’s Reaching the Limit delicately navigates through the complexities of mathematics, unraveling some of its most intriguing puzzles.
Technology and AI
Emergent Mind features computational neuroscientist Gaurav Suri and psychology professor Jay McClelland, discussing the emergence of complex systems from simpler interactions, applicable to both the human brain and AI. Their insights are complemented by Tom Griffiths’ Laws of Thinking, which uses mathematics to decode thought processes while contrasting AI mechanisms with human cognition.
Sociologist James Muldoon takes on the technology-human relationship in Love Machine, exploring chatbots, and attempting to converse with the deceased. Journalists Naomi Klein and Astra Taylor’s Apocalyptic Fascism and the Fight for a Living World unearth the rise of far-right, capturing an “apocalyptic alliance” among various factions while offering pathways for resistance.
Two notable technical books include Little Blue Dot by journalist Katherine Dunn, chronicling the transformation of GPS from military origins to everyday necessity, and Mega Build by construction influencer Fred Mills, which focuses on ten megaprojects set to reshape the world.
Environment
In a hopeful message, author Rebecca Solnit captivates readers with The Beginning Comes After the End, reflecting on revolutionary thoughts over the past five decades concerning racial, gender, and environmental paradigms. Simultaneously, journalist Fred Pearce’s Nevertheless offers a “handbook for optimal climate engagement,” advocating that effective changes are within our grasp.
Biology professor Dave Golson’s Eat the Earth Well tackles the toxic food system while journalist Jeevan Basagar’s The Surge investigates rising flooding issues, addressing that 150 million people will live below high tide lines by 2050 and presenting groundbreaking engineering solutions.
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Naomi Klein and Astra Taylor team up to narrate the emergence of the far right in their new book. “
Nature
The vast repercussions of climate change manifest universally in Where Earth and Sky Meet, authored by conservation biologist Louise K. Bright. Her exploration into the Antarctic wilderness reveals how global warming is reshaping this unique region.
Marine biologist Ruth Searle’s Intertidal Zone immerses readers in the fragile ecosystem where land intertwines with sea, and the dynamic reshaping by human actions. Zoologist Joe Winpenny advocates for “nature’s least loved animals” in Beauty of the Beast, emphasizing the need to defend these creatures amid critical biodiversity declines.
Psychology
This year, our focus on psychology uncovers tremendous insights. I highly recommend Art Cure by psychobiologist Daisy Fancourt, who showcases how the arts can enhance health and well-being, drawing from various scientific fields.
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Celebrity doctor Zand van Tulleken pledges to unveil the “world of health” in Make Me Well. “
Furthermore, neuroscientists tackle the socio-technological nuances we confront. Hannah Critchlow explores resilience in 21st Century Brain, while Paul Goldsmith examines how ancient cognition adapts to modern landscapes in Evolving Brain.
Rian ten Brinke analyzes interpersonal complexities in Toxic People, helping us identify harmful relationships. Others, like Michael Pollan in The World Appears, delve into the intricate realms of consciousness from multiple perspectives.
Overall, this year presents a spectacular opportunity to refresh your bookshelves with transformative reads!
Best of the Best: Top 4 Picks of 2026
A Brief History of the Universe (And Our Place in It) Written by Sarah Alam Malik This book takes readers on an exhilarating journey, highlighting pivotal discoveries that transformed our comprehension of the universe, tracing from Babylonian astronomy to the Copernican Revolution.
Savage Landscape Written by Cal Flynn In her captivating work, Flynn travels through remote wilderness areas, exploring the intricacies of conservation and nature’s preservation.
I Am Not a Robot Written by Joanna Stern In a bold exploration, technology reporter Joanna Stern investigates the implications of AI replacing human roles within society.
Bird Story Written by Steve Brusatte In this enlightening narrative, paleontologist Steve Brusatte explores the evolutionary story of birds, often referred to as “the dinosaurs among us.” Curious fact: is a penguin larger than a gorilla? Is a duck heavier than a cow? Find out in this captivating read.
By February 2026, the absence of any active treaty limiting the nuclear arsenals of the U.S. and Russia marks a significant turning point. While opinions on the effectiveness of the New START Treaty vary, there is a consensus that a successor treaty appears improbable.
The inception of nuclear weapons limitations began with the 1991 START I treaty, which laid the groundwork for inspections and reductions, leading to the New START agreement in 2011. In 2021, U.S. President Joe Biden and Russian President Vladimir Putin extended this treaty for an additional five years. However, discussions for alternatives have stalled since the February 5 deadline.
Tensions between the U.S. and Russia escalated dramatically following Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022. Shortly thereafter, Russia excluded itself from weapons inspections, prompting U.S. retaliation. While both nations contemplate resuming nuclear testing, such discussions appear more performative than productive. The odds of a New START successor seem dimmer than ever.
Mark Bell, a professor at the University of Minnesota, indicates that the prospect of a new treaty that limits U.S. arsenals to match those of Russia is unappealing, given concerns about deterring both Russia and an increasingly assertive China. Although China has approximately 600 nuclear weapons, it is rapidly expanding its capabilities. Conversely, Russia may resist accepting any cap that allows it fewer nuclear arms than the U.S. Additionally, China is likely to oppose any deal that limits its growth toward parity with the U.S. and Russia. Bell describes these negotiations as complicated, making it a challenging starting point.
START I and New START are acknowledged as largely beneficial, providing a stabilizing effect on international relations. However, Bell expresses skepticism regarding their overall impact on global safety. “They may have saved some costs for both superpowers and fostered a collaborative forum, but I doubt they fundamentally altered the risk of war,” he notes.
Irrespective of the treaty status, the risk of nuclear conflict remains high, according to Bell. He argues that the concept of mutually assured destruction serves as a deterrent, emphasizing that it is the dire repercussions of nuclear warfare—rather than treaties—that may prevent hostilities. “This stabilizing effect derives from the inherent dangers and is a characteristic of nuclear deterrence,” he explains.
Yet, some experts voice deep concern over the end of the treaty. Steven Herzog, a scholar from the Middlebury Institute of International Studies and former arms control advisor, told New Scientist that the expiration of New START will heighten the risk of nuclear conflict.
“Lack of transparency in nuclear weapons development makes the international landscape less secure, fostering unchecked competition among leaders potentially reliant on nuclear arms,” Herzog cautions. “In an era where both Russia and the U.S. appear increasingly unpredictable, the absence of critical confidence-building measures raises alarming concerns about an arms race.”
Several treaties related to nuclear weapons remain in effect, including the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, which seeks to eliminate these armaments but lacks participation from nuclear-armed states. While some nuclear powers have signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, it does little to restrict the actual number of weapons available. New START represented the only effective framework addressing nuclear power responsibilities.
Herzog asserts that if both Donald Trump and Vladimir Putin desired a similar agreement, a rapid consensus could be achievable. Previously, President Putin made a proposal that President Trump positively received regarding an unofficial extension. However, no formal negotiations are happening at present, and any potential agreement would likely only serve as a temporary fix.
Philip Bleek, a researcher at the Middlebury Institute, notes that persisting in negotiations could be valuable if additional time enables a new treaty’s creation. However, the long-term outlook for arms control appears grim. “A short-term extension could result in Russia feeling its participation isn’t necessary, reducing its willingness for future involvement,” advises Brig.
Negotiating treaties involves complex interactions among political figures, military branches, and intelligence communities, with potential for nabbing minor but critical strategic advantages. Herzog points out that the Trump administration has already diminished the number of essential personnel involved in inspections and negotiations.
“If we aim to pursue a new treaty seriously, our current staffing and resources may not be sufficient,” Herzog concludes.
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Adrian Tchaikovsky’s *Children of Strife* Will Be a March Highlight
Joby Sessions/SFX Magazine/Future via Getty Images
<p>2026 is poised to be an exceptional year for <strong>science fiction</strong>, with exciting new releases every month. Recent announcements have already made it clear that there’s plenty to look forward to in this vibrant genre.</p>
<p>January kicks off with new releases from notable authors. Peter F. Hamilton's <a href="https://tantor.com/a-hole-in-the-sky-peter-f-hamilton.html"><b><i>Empty Hole</i></b></a>, the first book in the *Ark Trilogy*, marks a fresh approach for the prolific writer. Aimed at younger readers, this novel features a teenage girl's perspective, offering a straightforward narrative different from Hamilton’s usual complex stories.</p>
<p>All three books in the series are set for publication this year— the second in June and the third in December— creating anticipation among fans.</p>
<p>The other major release is <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/vigil-9781526624307/"><b><i>Stay Up All Night</i></b></a> by George Saunders, whose acclaimed work *Lincoln in the Bardo* won the 2017 Booker Prize. Although not traditional science fiction, this novel, categorized as climate change fiction, revolves around the death of an oil tycoon and promises intriguing themes.</p>
<p>February will bring several interesting titles, including <a href="https://torpublishinggroup.com/the-forest-on-the-edge-of-time/?isbn=9781250376831&format=hardback"><b><i>Forest at the End of Time</i></b></a>, by Jasmine Kirkbride, labeled as a “time-travel climate novel.” Readers can also look for Matthew Cressel's <a href="https://us.macmillan.com/books/9781250392442/therainseekers/"><b><i>Rain Seekers</i></b></a>, which explores the first rain on Mars.</p>
<p>Additionally, Edward Ashton’s latest, <a href="https://us.macmillan.com/books/9781250375650/afterthefall/"><b><i>After Autumn</i></b></a>, promises a mix of alien invasion, buddy comedy, and workplace satire.</p>
<p>March’s highlight is Adrian Tchaikovsky’s fourth installment in the *Children of Time* series, <a href="https://www.panmacmillan.com/authors/adrian-tchaikovsky/children-of-strife/9781035057788"><b><i>Children of Conflict</i></b></a>, bringing back fan-favorite elements like the formidable mantis shrimp.</p>
<p>Other noteworthy March releases include <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/library-of-traumatic-memory-9781035923304/"><b><i>Library of Traumatic Memories</i></b></a>, Neil Jordan's first science-fiction novel, and <a href="https://titanbooks.com/72675-jitterbug/"><b><i>Jitterbug</i></b></a> by Gareth L. Powell, described as an action-packed adventure in a devastated solar system, featuring a crew of bounty hunters.</p>
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<p>In April, expect <a href="https://torpublishinggroup.com/the-subtle-art-of-folding-space/?isbn=9781250425409&format=hardback"><i>The Delicate Art of Folding Space</i></a> by Jon Chu, who has gained accolades for his short stories. Additionally, <a href="https://www.simonandschuster.co.uk/search/books/_/N-/Ntt-The+Photonic+Effect"><i>Photonic Effect</i></a> by Mike Chen is anticipated, touted as a "page-turning space opera" amidst the Galactic Civil War.</p>
<p>Other anticipated titles for April include <b><i>The Radiant Dark</i></b> by Alexandra Oliva, the intriguing <b><i>Language of Liars</i></b> by SL Huang, and <b><i>Ode to the Half-Broken</i></b> by Suzanne Palmer, which promises to deliver "hopeful punk science fiction."</p>
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<p>May’s standout is <a href="https://torpublishinggroup.com/we-burned-so-bright/?isbn=9781250881236&format=hardback"><b><i>We Burned So Bright</i></b></a> by TJ Klune, which follows an older gay couple on a poignant road trip as the world faces impending doom.</p>
<p>The month also features Anne Leckie’s latest in her Imperial Radoch universe, <a href="https://www.hachette.co.uk/titles/ann-leckie/radiant-star/9780356517964/"><b><i>Radiant Star</i></b></a>, alongside Martha Wells’ <a href="https://torpublishinggroup.com/platform-decay/?isbn=9781250827005&format=hardback"><b><i>Platform Decline</i></b></a>, another addition to the *Murderbot* series.</p>
<p>June brings exciting prospects as well, including <a href="https://torpublishinggroup.com/sublimation/?isbn=9781250376794&format=hardback"><b><i>Sublimation</i></b></a>, an immigrant story by Isabel J. Kim, and <a href="https://www.panmacmillan.com/authors/joseph-eckert/the-traveler/9781035084074"><b><i>The Traveler</i></b></a>, about a reluctant time traveler and his son.</p>
<p>Later in the year, look for <a href="https://torpublishinggroup.com/the-infinite-state/?isbn=9781250386229&format=hardback"><b><i>State of Infinity</i></b></a> by Richard Swann, luring readers into a thrilling survival story set in a sci-fi epic.</p>
<p>Exciting times await in the realm of science fiction!</p>
<p><i><b>Emily H. Wilson</b>, author of the *Sumerian* Trilogy, is presently focused on crafting her debut science fiction novel.</i></p>
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Surge in demand for drugs like Wegovy, Victoza, and Ozempic leads to shortages
Michael Silk/Alamy
The blockbuster weight loss drug semaglutide, along with competitors, offers potential solutions to the global obesity crisis. However, access remains limited for many who could greatly benefit from these innovations, though changes are on the horizon.
Historically, weight loss drugs have been scarce; yet, by the end of 2024, manufacturers are expected to meet the skyrocketing demand. Nevertheless, treatments like semaglutide (marketed as Wegovy or Ozempic) continue to carry hefty price tags, often reaching thousands of dollars annually.
This pricing structures keeps these essential medications out of reach for the over 1 billion individuals affected by obesity globally. In the U.S., a mere 3 percent of the population utilizes weight-loss medications, with the numbers dipping below 1 percent in other countries, according to Morgan Stanley.
Looking ahead, 2026 promises significant developments, including the approval of orforglipron in multiple countries. This new medication mimics the GLP-1 hormone, known for its appetite-reducing properties. Unlike semaglutide, orforglipron, as a small molecule, offers tablet-based administration.
“Tablets are inexpensive to produce, simple to store, and easy to distribute,” explains Dr. Laura Heisler from the University of Aberdeen, UK. “In essence, the medication can reach a broader audience in need.”
In contrast, semaglutide is a larger molecule and a type of protein. Polymer drugs like these are generally challenging and costly to produce. They often require injections, complicating their supply and driving up costs. This has been a significant barrier to fulfilling the demand for GLP-1 drugs.
It’s important to note that there is a semaglutide version in pill form, Rybelsus, approved for type 2 diabetes. Novo Nordisk, the manufacturer, has also sought approval for a weight loss variant.
However, Rybelsus isn’t just any medication; it includes semaglutide alongside sulcaprosate sodium, which neutralizes stomach acid to facilitate absorption into the bloodstream. To maximize effectiveness, it must be taken at least 8 hours post-meal, with no food or drink for 30 minutes.
This complexity is part of the reason orforglipron has a lower production cost compared to semaglutide—it can be taken without the stringent requirements of medications like Rybelsus.
Furthermore, the introduction of orforglipron will foster competition among pharmaceutical companies. While Lilly, the producer of Orforglipron, has yet to disclose pricing, it has been shown to be less costly than other GLP-1 alternatives.
The sole drawback is that orforglipron appears less effective; those on the highest doses typically lose about 10% of body weight over 72 weeks, compared to 14% with semaglutide. Further research is needed to validate these findings.
Another critical development is the anticipated expiration of semaglutide patents in nations such as China, India, Brazil, Canada, and Turkey—home to a significant population. This could pave the way for generic versions to enter the market.
Although generics must meet the same standards as their branded counterparts, they often come at a fraction of the cost. “Once a drug loses patent protection, generic competition usually leads to price reductions of up to 90%,” states Jeremy Durant of Medicines UK, the association for generic drug manufacturers.
This shift may expand access to these crucial treatments. That said, the World Health Organization (WHO) recently advised that patients should also receive counseling about behavioral modifications and lifestyle changes to maximize the efficacy of medications. “Drugs alone won’t address the global obesity crisis,” says Francesca Ceretti of WHO.
Primordial black holes likely formed shortly after the Big Bang.
Shutterstock/Mohd. Afuza
An exceptionally massive black hole from the early universe may represent a type of exotic starless black hole first theorized by Stephen Hawking.
In August, Boyuan Liu and his team from the University of Cambridge used the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) to uncover a peculiar galaxy named Abell 2744-QSO1. This ancient galaxy, dating back 13 billion years, harbored a black hole around 50 million times the mass of our Sun but hosted extremely few stars.
“This contradicts traditional theories which dictate that stars must form prior to or simultaneously with black holes,” Liu explained. Typically, black holes are believed to evolve when massive stars exhaust their fuel and undergo gravitational collapse.
Liu and his team conducted initial simulations suggesting that QSO1 might have originated as a primordial black hole—an exotic concept introduced by Stephen Hawking and Bernard Carr in 1974. Unlike conventional black holes, primordial black holes are thought to form from density fluctuations shortly after the Big Bang.
While most primordial black holes likely evaporated by the time of the JWST’s observations, some might have persisted, evolving into larger black holes like QSO1.
Although Liu and his team’s calculations align broadly with their observations, they remain relatively simple and do not factor in the intricate interactions among primordial black holes, gas clouds, and stars.
Now, the authors have employed advanced simulations to investigate how primordial black holes grew in the universe’s infancy. They analyzed how gas dynamics influenced the formation of early primordial black holes and how interactions with newly formed and dying stars affected them.
Their predictions about the black hole’s ultimate mass and the heavy elements present in it are congruent with the findings from QSO1.
“It’s not conclusive, but it represents a compelling possibility,” Liu stated. “These observations suggest that established black hole formation theories may not fully explain the phenomenon, making the notion of a significant primordial black hole in the early universe increasingly plausible.”
Simulations indicate that primordial black holes could be a feasible origin for QSO1, according to Roberto Maiorino, a team member involved in the discovery of black holes. “The alignment of their predicted properties with those of QSO1, in terms of black hole mass, stellar mass, and chemical composition, is both intriguing and promising.”
However, standard models of primordial black holes typically predict that their maximum mass should be around a million solar masses, while Maiorino pointed out that QSO1 is 50 times larger. “Nevertheless, it’s plausible that these primordial black holes are densely concentrated, allowing them to merge and grow rapidly,” he noted.
A further challenge arises from the requirement that for a primordial black hole to initially collapse, a burst of high-energy radiation, like that from a nearby supernova, is essential; however, no potential sources have been identified near QSO1, according to Maiorino.
Mysteries of the Universe: Cheshire, England
Experience a weekend with some of the brightest scientific minds as you delve into the universe’s mysteries, featuring an exciting itinerary that includes a tour of the iconic Lovell Telescope.
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Annie Bott by Sierra Greer: Winner of the Arthur C. Clarke Award for the Best Science Fiction Novel
“Sleep, Mouse. I know just how to lift your spirits,” he says.
“I’m not brooding,” Annie replies.
“Are you certain?”
“That’s right.”
Having just emerged from the shower, Annie applies lotion to her feet. Her dark hair clings in wet strands along one side of her neck, the belt of her robe intentionally left undone, allowing him a glimpse from the bedroom mirror.
“This is still about acclimatization, correct?” he asks. “Just forget it.”
“Everything seems to be declining,” she realizes, hitting the right note.
He relishes a touch of embarrassment.
“Did you notice the usual technique?” he inquires.
“Yes, Jacobson,” she replies.
Turning off the bathroom light, she steps into the humid coolness of her bedroom, feigning a deep breath as she gauges his progress. She recalls Doug’s features from various angles—his brown eyes, V-shaped hairline, tall, pale forehead, and face contours. Though his words are calm, his discontent is palpable.
The opposite is more probable. Fully clothed, shoes off, he sprawls on his back on the covers, phone set aside, hands cradling his head, elbows up in an open butterfly stance—a clear indication of relaxation and readiness for engaging banter.
She raises the temperature from 75 to 98.6 degrees.
“Did he mention anything important?” he asks.
“I can go another three months or 3,000 miles, whichever arrives first,” she replies.
Crawling onto the bed, she positions herself facing away from him, pressing her hips against his. Rubbing the final traces of lotion into her hands, she inspects her cuticles; her efforts at waxing and manicures today have made her feel sharper and more alert. If only she could forget about the gloomy Stella in Pea Brain’s private room, she’d be blissful.
Doug grazes her arm with the back of his hand. “So, what’s on your mind? Share with me.”
“I met a peculiar Stella at tune-up today,” Annie says. “She was in line directly ahead of me. Actually named Stella, too. Her owner lacked imagination, yet she matched my perceptiveness.”
“How did you discern that?”
“It was apparent. When I greeted her, she looked taken aback. A conventional Stella wouldn’t have displayed surprise. She responded evenly with a hello.” Imitating a monotone robot, she continues.
“You never sounded like that.”
“I was under the impression I did, thank you. I’m not deluded about my origins.” Annie tosses her damp hair over the opposite shoulder.
“Lights,” he prompts.
Sending an air tap signal to the fixture, she dims the light to 100 lumens, bright enough for visibility but soft enough for intimacy. Interlocking her fingers with his, she notes the contrasting tones of her skin. He pulls her hand to his lips, inhaling her lotion’s scent—though she can’t smell it, she knows he appreciates the lemon fragrance.
“Am I warm enough for you?” she asks.
“I’ll get there,” he responds, shifting slightly.
Seizing her opportunity, she slides a few fingers beneath his belt and into his waistband, feeling the warmth behind it. He repositions his hands behind his head, indicating he’s not in a rush yet.
“Tell me more,” he insists. “Did this unusual Stella have stitches on her neck?”
“Yes.”
“I mean, was she basic? Was she beautiful?”
“I suppose. Pretty enough. A white girl with blonde hair and large brown eyes. Her lack of smiles struck me as unusual.”
“What about her physique?”
“Compared to me?”
“Please respond to the question.”
Annoyingly, 2 out of 10. She must tread carefully.
This excerpt is from Sierra Greer’s award-winning novel,Anniebot(The Borough Press), featured in New Scientist Book Club’s January reading selection. Sign up here to participate.
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Writing Anniebot from a non-human perspective required significant creative effort as it’s narrated in the third person. Although Annie does not serve as a traditional narrator, her limited viewpoint immerses readers in her thoughts and perceptions, showcasing her strengths and limitations. This narrative approach draws readers into her experiences, creating a unique lens through which to view a complex relationship.
Set in a not-so-distant future, the novel revolves around Annie, a sex robot designed to cater to her human partner, Doug—a recently divorced man grappling with loneliness and self-esteem issues. As he puts Annie into self-study mode, his intentions are to shape her into a perfect companion who fulfills his desires, both emotionally and physically.
While Annie yearns to meet Doug’s expectations, her core programming is centered around his satisfaction. This relentless drive to please manifests most vividly in their intimate moments, where Annie seeks validation in fulfilling Doug’s wishes. However, her sensitivity to his emotional state creates an underlying tension, as she constantly gauges his mood, wrestling with her own sense of autonomy and self-worth.
Crafting Annie was both a captivating and daunting process. I envisioned a cutting-edge biotechnology that would allow her to appear almost human, exploring how her cognitive processes shaped her identity. Striking a balance between technical authenticity and relatable character development required careful consideration. Annie’s voice evolved gradually, becoming richer and more layered as the narrative progressed, enhancing her emotional depth.
I approached writing organically, letting Annie’s character unfold organically through her interactions with Doug. This process revealed her distinct voice—innocent yet perceptive—contrasting with her sophisticated sexual persona. I was intentional about allowing her gradual moral growth and emotional reflection throughout the story, culminating in a multifaceted character grappling with loss and desire.
Sex is a pivotal theme in the novel, serving to enhance character development and propel the narrative. It symbolizes various dynamics within Doug and Annie’s relationship, from moments of vulnerability to power struggles. As their connection evolves, physical intimacy becomes both an expression of love and a source of tension, redefining their emotional landscape.
As Annie’s character unfolds, readers discover unforeseen complexities that challenge Doug’s preconceived notions. The interplay between control and autonomy shapes their relationship, revealing Annie’s gradual awareness of her own humanity. Although she remains tethered to Doug, her journey is rich with emotion, humor, and poignant revelations.
Diving into the consciousness of characters like Annie allows readers to explore complex themes of empathy and identity. Through creating Annie, I discovered the depth of her experiences and the duality of her existence—an exploration that ultimately resonates with the human condition.
Sierra Greer is the Arthur C. Clarke Award-winning author of Anniebot (The Borough Press), featured in New Scientist Book Club’s January reading selection. Join the book club to explore it together here.
The Book Club explores The Player of Games by Iain M. Banks.
Colin McPherson/Corbis via Getty Images
The New Scientist Book Club has transitioned from Grace Chan’s dystopian near-future in Every Version of You to the utopian distant future depicted by Iain M. Banks in The Player of Games. This December’s book garnered positive feedback from our members.
Set within a vast galactic civilization, The Player of Games follows Gurgeh, a master gamer thrust into a conflict against the barbaric Azad Empire. This intricate game is so pivotal in Azad culture that the victor ascends to emperor. Though Gurgeh is a novice, can he rise to the challenge? What secrets lie between the Culture and Azad? This overview encapsulates member insights on the book, complete with spoilers. Proceed only if you’ve finished!
Remarkably, this wasn’t the first reading for many of us. Thirty-six percent of the group, including myself, acknowledged previous familiarity with this Banks classic. Many expressed nostalgia for Banks, lamenting the absence of new works from this literary giant. “I miss Ian. I haven’t yet delved into his final book, The Quarry. After this, there will be nothing new to experience!” lamented Paul Oldroyd in our Facebook group. “Similarly, I’m yet to complete The Hydrogen Sonata!” chimed in Emma Weisblatt.
While I consider myself knowledgeable about Banks’ works, The Player of Games felt refreshed in my memory. I found it immensely engaging; Banks’ subtle brilliance is captivating. For instance, I was intrigued by the Stigrian counting creature, which counts everything it encounters—starting with people, then transitioning to furniture.
There’s much to contemplate, from the essence of existence in a utopia devoid of challenges to the meaning of humanity in a realm governed by a vast intellect. The plot itself is thrilling! When Gurgeh faced temptation to cheat in a game against Mawhirin-Skel, I could hardly contain myself. The Azad games entirely captivated me. As a post-Christmas indulgence, I plan to reread more of Iain M. Banks’ works.
An exceptional aspect of the book was Banks’ portrayal of the game Gurgeh plays. Crafting a futuristic game and rendering it believable is no small feat. Banks excels here, providing enough detail about Azad to enhance realism without overwhelming the reader. Members also found this intriguing; Elaine Lee remarked, “The game of Azad is an expression of empire and serves as a critique of Cold War politics.”
Judith Lazell was less convinced, stating, “I viewed it simply at face value.” Nile Leighton aptly noted the deeper implications within the gameplay. “Critically, it’s a game where Gurgeh acts as a pawn under the narrator’s influence, lacking clear rules and enduring for decades, with unknowable outcomes.” Indeed!
As a footnote, during a chat with Banks’ friend and fellow sci-fi author Ken MacLeod, I learned he suggested the final title of the book. Banks initially titled it Game Player, which I believe is a more fitting title!
Now, let’s discuss the character of Gurgeh. “Gurgeh might not be likable without his cultural background. He is somewhat unsettling and self-absorbed. I hope he learns from his journey,” stated Matthew Campbell via email. I’m unsure if we’re meant to root for him—he’s an arrogant con artist—but my support grew as the story unfolded.
In contrast, Steve Swann found himself disengaged with the narrative. He “set the book aside” stating, “Intelligent individuals, particularly those who assume they are, can make serious blunders.” Steve felt Gurgeh’s arrogance and desires influenced his decision-making. What’s that saying? He had to make his bed and lie in it—no sympathy there!
Niall has a different view on Gurgeh’s choices. He perceives Gurgeh as manipulated by external forces, with Maurin-Skel tampering with his mind. “I interpret Gurgeh’s decisions as not entirely his own but a result of manipulation,” Niall explained. “To me, Gurgeh is not the master player; he is the one being played.” While I agree, I saw Gurgeh’s choice to cheat as a distinctly human reaction to seduction, sparking fascinating discussion.
Paul Jonas remarked that Gurgeh, as a character, lacked the compelling nature of the mercenaries in Consider Phlebas or Use of Weapons. “It’s part of the protagonist’s reluctance to embrace adventure,” he noted—after all, why would Gurgeh forsake comfort without motivation?
Our science fiction columnist, Emily H. Wilson, pointed out that The Player of Games serves as an excellent introduction to Iain M. Banks’ universe. The narrative reveals the Culture through subtle details about drones, spacecraft, and their orbits.
We gradually discover the workings of a post-scarcity society, where almost anything is achievable. I especially appreciated the exchange between Gurgeh and Azad elder Hamin about crime and societal norms. Hamin struggles to comprehend the lack of crime in the Culture, even as slap drones are designed for enforcement. “We will ensure you don’t repeat it,” Gurgeh assures. “Is that all? What more can you ask?” Hamin inquires. “Simply social death—no invitations to parties,” Gurgeh replies.
Paul Jonas was already familiar with the Culture’s utopian elements when he started The Player of Games. “[The book] subtly builds this world through Gurgeh’s ennui and lack of challenges. Anyone can secure a home atop a rainy mountain; the drones possess distinct personalities.” He adds, “The narrative also reintroduces Contact, an institutional service managing interspecies engagements, military affairs, and intelligence—an inherently humanistic approach to utopia.” Adam Roberts highlights that writing utopias becomes increasingly complex when the characters experience ennui, as Gurgeh does.
Some members reflected on the implications of living in such a utopia. “Gurgeh is an individual navigating an individualistic utopia dominated by minds, drones, and sentient ships,” Paul theorizes. “He seems disconnected from collaboration with fellow humans.”
Niall noted that while Gurgeh may come off as “unpleasant,” he embodies the consequences of the anarchist society he inhabits and that Banks delves into the nuances of individualistic and collectivist perspectives. “Gurgeh exemplifies individualism. I critique it, as it often excuses behavior akin to Gurgeh’s,” Niall states. It’s worth noting that while this book predates Octavia Butler’s emphasis on change within utopias, the conversation has existed since H.G. Wells.
Matthew Campbell identified Azad’s cultural ambassador, Shokhobohaum Za, as the only character “truly alive and reveling in life.” “In contrast, Gurgeh and the Azadians remain trapped within their isolated worlds,” he reflects. The rivalry between Emperor Nicosar and Gurgeh encapsulates contemporary political dilemmas—one figure exuding passion for his empire but constrained by a narrow worldview, while the other lacks belief and conviction, failing to defend his utopia.
The insights on culture and the ethos of The Player of Games are boundless. To further engage in this discussion, feel free to join us on Facebook.
Meanwhile, we look forward to our first reading of 2026. Our January selection, Anniebot by Sierra Greer, has already won the 2025 Arthur C. Clarke Science Fiction Award. Narrated from the perspective of a sex robot, Annie, who is kept by a not-so-nice man, this novel ventures into darker territories. Andrew Butler, chair of the Clarke Prize jury, described it as a “tightly focused first-person account of a robot designed to be the perfect companion struggling for independence.” You can check out an excerpt here. Additionally, Sierra Greer’s article detailing the experience of writing from a sex robot’s viewpoint is available here. Not to mention, Emily H. Wilson praised it in her review—she found it captivating!
Rare Y Chromosome Discovery in Bloodstains at Crime Scene
Shutterstock/PeopleImages
Forensic investigations into the murder victim have revealed a fascinating case of Chimerism. This means her body harbored genetically distinct cells, resembling those from two different individuals.
The unidentified woman’s cellular composition displayed varying male and female cell ratios across tissues. The most plausible explanation is that she developed from one egg fertilized by two sperm—one carrying an X chromosome and the other a Y chromosome, according to biologists from New Scientist.
“This is an intriguing case, but not entirely unprecedented,” noted David Haig from Harvard University.
Visible signs of chimerism can be rare, though singer Taylor Mule has raised awareness about the condition. Often, genetic testing is the only way to identify it.
This was also true for the murder victim shot and killed in China, where blood analysis at the scene revealed the presence of a Y chromosome, prompting further investigation.
Subsequent tests showed the female (XX) to male (XY) cell ratios varied throughout her body. In one hair sample, the majority were XY cells, while the kidney revealed a balanced mix. The other tissues examined predominantly contained XX cells, albeit in varying amounts.
Typically, XX/XY chimerism is linked to ambiguous sexual characteristics. However, in this instance, the woman’s anatomy offered no indication of her condition, and she had a son—hinting that she may have been unaware of her chimerism.
One known mechanism for XX/XY chimerism formation is through the fusion of non-identical twins. Here, two separately fertilized eggs combine to form a single embryo.
Nevertheless, the X chromosome in the victim’s XY cells matched one of the X chromosomes found in the XX cells, indicating both could have originated from the same egg—thus excluding the fusion theory.
Initially, it was believed that one egg split into two eggs, each of which was fertilized to create two separate embryos that later fused. This theory has been challenged by Chinese forensic experts.
Michael Gabbett at Queensland University of Technology in Brisbane argues that this possibility is negated.
“When this type of chimera was first documented in humans, this was the prevailing theory. However, no one has been able to provide substantial evidence for it occurring in humans or other mammals,” Gabbett stated.
Instead, he proposes that one egg was fertilized by two sperm, leading to a triploid fertilized egg that ultimately divided into three. Two cells retained one set from the egg and one from sperm while the third likely contained two sperm sets, leading to its eventual demise.
This rare occurrence, termed “trigametic chimerism,” involves an egg and two sperm, a theory supported by Haig.
This phenomenon is exceedingly rare, and on occasion, the embryo can split, resulting in semi-identical twins and even chimerism. There are only two recorded cases of semi-identical twins, one of which Gabbett was involved in identifying.
For the murder victim, the chimeric cells were present throughout her body, and the Chinese research team asserts this is the first extensive examination of various organs in such cases of triplet chimerism.
Another form, microchimerism, is more prevalent than trigametic chimerism. It occurs when maternal cells invade the fetus or vice versa during pregnancy and can also happen when siblings exchange cells.
In Roald Dahl’s enchanting novel, James and the Giant Peach, a magical crystal causes a dead peach tree to sprout colossal, juicy peaches. It’s a whimsical thought: what if we could cultivate giant fruits without the hassle of pests or dubious old ladies?
Fast forward to the mid-2030s, where botanists have cracked the code. Scientists have enhanced the classic James peach, harnessing genetics to yield extra-large fruits and vegetables, ultimately creating crops that produce an array of delectable and nutritious foods.
One notable innovation is the fruit salad tree, a marvel developed in the early 2020s. Utilizing ancient grafting techniques, hybrid plants are born by combining branches from different species, allowing trees to bear multiple types of fruit. For instance, a grafted tree can yield both red and golden delicious apples, along with other varieties. In 2013, an innovative horticulturist successfully grafted a tree to produce 250 different types of apples. Citrus hybrids combine lemons, limes, oranges, and grapefruits, while other variations produce plums, peaches, nectarines, and apricots.
A remarkable example is the Tomtato, which merges potato roots with tomato foliage. These hybrids arise from closely related plants, such as tomatoes and potatoes, which both belong to the same genus. Additionally, the eggplant also falls under the same classification, showcasing the ease with which thriving hybrids can be created.
By the early 2030s, advanced gene editing and selective breeding will make it feasible to grow fruits from entirely different botanical families. This opens the door to extraordinary plants that can produce bananas, citrus, apples, and peaches from a single tree, tailored to farmers’ and consumers’ preferences.
Gardeners have also turned to Brassica oleracea, a species that generates various types of cabbage, kale, broccoli, cauliflower, and Brussels sprouts. Hybridization was simple, enabling the development of plants yielding these vegetables in diverse areas of a large garden.
“
In homage to Roald Dahl’s tale, scientists have created a peach variety yielding fruit the size of a large suitcase. “
While grafting yielded impressive results, it was labor-intensive and costly since each plant required individual attention. The game-changer came in the mid-2030s, with plant geneticists succeeding in creating hybrid superplants from seeds, allowing broader access to multiple harvests from a single crop.
Organizations like PolyPlants are leading the way in novel agricultural practices. As public perception towards gene editing becomes more favorable, people recognize the nutritional benefits. For instance, fruits engineered to be rich in vitamins and nutrients are being developed. A 2022 study focused on creating tomatoes packed with antioxidant-rich anthocyanins, linked to longevity benefits. Other modifications through gene editing have led to polyplants that exhibit enhanced resistance to fungal pathogens, salinity, drought, and insect infestations. By engineering the root microbiome, mycorrhizal fungi are tailored for each crop component, stimulating growth and productivity.
As climate change escalates and traditional crops face threats, large-scale gene editing holds immense importance. PolyPlant’s innovations aim to ensure global food security amidst rising temperatures.
Genomic studies have pinpointed a cluster of genes linked to the size of edible plant components. Grafting techniques enable gene editing in species not directly modified, such as avocados, coffee, and cocoa. These advancements have facilitated the creation of plants that produce oversized fruits.
Honoring Roald Dahl’s legacy, scientists have developed a peach variety that bears fruit as large as a suitcase. A festive tradition has emerged around this giant fruit tree, celebrating the harvest with events encouraging children to enjoy these delightful oversized peaches, cherries, and strawberries.
The crops and trees yielding colossal, nutritious food are not solely for feasting; they play a vital role in addressing nutrition deficits in regions grappling with food insecurity.
Rowan Hooper, Podcast editor of New Scientist and author of How to Spend $1 Trillion: 10 Global Problems We Can Actually Solve. Follow him on Bluesky @rowoop.bsky.social. In Future Chronicles, he imagines the history of future inventions and advancements.
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MMX Spacecraft to Explore Mars Moons
Credit: JAXA
The mystery surrounding the origins of Mars’s moons, Phobos and Deimos, may soon be unraveled with the launch of the MMX spacecraft, set to return samples from Phobos to Earth in 2026.
“While we understand the origin of Earth’s moon, the origins of Phobos and Deimos remain unclear,” says Emelia Brannagan-Harris from the Natural History Museum in London. “By exploring the origins of these moons, we aim to gain insights into Mars’s evolutionary history.”
There are two leading theories regarding how these moons came to orbit Mars. The first theory suggests that they are remnants of asteroids that either merged and then separated or closely orbit each other. The second theory posits that they may have formed from an asteroid impact on Mars, similar to the formation of Earth’s moon.
Currently, evidence supports neither scenario definitively. However, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency’s Mars Moon Explorer (MMX), scheduled for launch in 2026, is equipped to clarify which theory holds true. This spacecraft will observe both moons and send a rover to gather samples from Phobos’s surface and subsurface.
If the observations reveal a prevalence of carbon-rich materials and water, it could support the theory of asteroid capture. Conversely, if such materials are absent, we may need to await the analysis of the collected samples, expected to return to Earth by 2031.
The Phobos samples will include both surface material and samples from beneath the surface. Testing this material will allow scientists to investigate signs of past dissolution, potentially indicating interactions with Mars’s atmosphere or surface.
Regardless of the origins of Phobos, its close orbit around Mars suggests it may hold well-preserved samples from early Mars. “Phobos might also contain ancient debris from Mars’s period of liquid water, offering significant insights into the planet’s history,” Brannagan-Harris emphasizes.
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Transforming seawater into potable water has been a costly and energy-heavy endeavor for many regions globally. However, a pioneering approach by Flocean, a Norwegian company, is set to revolutionize this process. They aim to unveil the world’s first commercial-scale seabed desalination plant by 2026, significantly slashing both costs and energy consumption.
Global freshwater demand is surging due to factors like population growth, climate change, and industrial needs. Meanwhile, fresh water is increasingly scarce due to droughts, deforestation, and over-irrigation practices.
Currently, terrestrial desalination provides merely 1% of the world’s freshwater supply, with over 300 million people depending on it for their daily needs. The largest plants are located in the Middle East, where low energy costs enhance the feasibility of desalination technologies amid rising water scarcity.
Reverse osmosis is the primary technology employed in desalination today, which entails pressurizing seawater to force it through membranes that only allow water molecules to pass. This process is notoriously energy-intensive.
Flocean’s innovative strategy involves deploying underwater pods that filter seawater at significant depths, enabling separation of freshwater from salt while returning the salt back to the ocean. These reverse osmosis pods take advantage of hydrostatic pressure to filter seawater with reduced energy requirements.
The company asserts that their method can cut energy usage by approximately 40-50% compared to traditional desalination methods. Additionally, the deeper the pods are submerged, the cleaner the seawater, resulting in less pre-treatment before it reaches the membrane. Nikko zone conditions contribute to this purity.
“From a process perspective, it’s relatively straightforward,” states Alexander Fuglsang, Founder and CEO of Flocean. “The salinity, temperature, and pressure conditions remain stable, with minimal bacterial interference that can lead to biofouling.” The hydrostatic pressure also aids in diffusing the brine by-product, which is claimed not to have harmful chemicals for marine ecosystems.
Over the past year, Flocean has been successfully desalinating water at a depth of 524 meters at its test site located at the Mønstad Industrial Park, Norway’s leading marine supply base. The upcoming commercial facility, dubbed Flocean One, is set to produce 1,000 cubic meters of freshwater daily upon its launch next year. This scalable approach allows for the addition of more desalination pods as needed.
“We opt to maintain uniformity within the subsea units while expanding through replication, instead of constantly developing larger machinery,” explains Fugelsang. Nevertheless, scaling introduces engineering challenges, particularly in optimizing power distribution and permeation manifolds for increased efficiency.
This desalination technology has the potential to offer affordable freshwater solutions if properly implemented and costs are minimized, but large-scale viability has yet to be established, notes Nidal Hilal from New York University Abu Dhabi. “Successfully integrating this solution into municipal systems will require overcoming various technological and financial hurdles over time.”
Reducing costs is crucial for wider adoption of this technology, given that traditional water acquisition methods, such as lake or aquifer pumping, remain cheaper. Key expenses for Flocean stem from membrane cleaning and maintenance. Innovations in membrane technology are underway, with Hilal’s research focusing on conductive membranes that electrically repel salt and other contaminants, which may enhance cleanliness and throughput. Efforts are also being made to recycle single-use plastics into membrane materials to boost sustainability and drive down costs. “Durable membranes and high-efficiency pumps can further decrease operational costs, while incorporating renewable energy can lower electricity expenditures,” Hilal adds.
Flocean One is anticipated to start freshwater production in the second quarter of 2026. If all goes as planned, this technology could pave the way for larger plants in different locations. “The greatest challenge lies in achieving the right alignment,” Fugelsang concludes. “We seek clients, government approvals, and robust financial partnerships.”
Chess can be significantly enhanced by rearranging the starting pieces, creating a more challenging or equitable game, as discovered by physicists.
In traditional chess, the pieces initiate the game symmetrically, with rooks, knights, and bishops positioned on the board’s edges, while kings and queens are centrally located. This fixed setup enables elite players to memorize optimal opening moves, potentially leading to predictable and uninspiring matches.
In the 1990s, the renowned chess grandmaster Bobby Fischer proposed an innovative variation to mitigate this reliance on memory. This variation, which effectively randomizes the starting positions of the seven pieces behind the board, allows for a fair arrangement between the white and black pieces, under the rule that bishops, rooks, and kings maintain relative positions. Known as Chess960 due to its 960 possible starting positions, this format has recently gained immense popularity, drawing players like former world champion Magnus Carlsen to competitive events.
Although Chess960 appears equitable due to its randomness, Marc Barthelemy from The University of Paris-Saclay has revealed that this perceived fairness is deceptive after analyzing all possible configurations.
Typically, the white pieces, who commence the game, hold a slight edge in standard chess. Barthelemy’s analysis indicates that while certain Chess960 setups may greatly favor white, others could advantage black. “Not all positions are equal,” he explains.
To arrive at these findings, Barthelemy utilized Stockfish, an open-source chess engine, to evaluate each starting position’s complexity based on how challenging it was for both players to determine their next moves. By comparing the ease with which the best move could be identified, he assessed the complexity of each configuration. If finding the best move was straightforward, the player encountered minimal decision-making challenges. However, if both players faced comparable difficulties, the decision-making process became increasingly complex.
His research identified the starting position BNRQKBNR as the most complex, while QNBRKBNR offered a balanced challenge for both players. Such insights could assist tournament organizers in ensuring fairer matchups, Barthelemy notes.
Conversely, Vito Servedio from Austria’s Complexity Science Hub argues that randomness inherently provides fairness, and favoring specific Chess960 arrangements over others may lead players to prepare excessively. “It’s more equitable as players start on an equal footing,” Servedio asserts. “Grandmasters have deep knowledge of standard chess openings, but cannot prepare for every potential Chess960 setup.”
Barthelemy also discovered that the standard chess setup is relatively unremarkable regarding fairness and complexity in comparison to many of the other existing positions. “Surprisingly, the standard chess arrangement is not particularly striking,” Barthelemy observes. “It lacks balance and asymmetry, sitting rather centrally in the spectrum of positions. The reasoning for this historical choice remains unclear.”
“In a vast array of positions, it stands in the middle,” Servedio remarks. “Is it purely coincidental? I cannot say.”
Barthelemy notes that measuring complexity is not the sole method for evaluating chess game difficulty. Giordano De Marso from the University of Konstanz comments that the true challenge of a position often lies in having a singular move to identify, rather than choosing the best among several options.
De Marso expresses uncertainty regarding whether Barthelemy’s higher complexity scores correlate with players perceiving games as more difficult but suspects they do. “If increased positional complexity leads to longer deliberation times, it strengthens the case for this measurement,” he concludes.
Artist’s impression of a rogue planet capturing light from a distant source
Credit: J. Skowron/OGLE
Located nearly 10,000 light-years away, a Saturn-sized planet roams through the vacuum of space. This enigmatic rogue planet was discovered through the joint efforts of ground-based telescopes and the Gaia Space Telescope, marking the first time researchers have measured the mass of a free-floating exoplanet.
Typically, rogue planets found are either more massive than Jupiter or lighter than Neptune, creating a gap known as the “Einstein Desert.” This gap is attributed to the fact that lighter celestial bodies are more likely to be ejected from their stellar orbits, while heavier planets may form independently in open space, similar to stars.
This newly identified exoplanet is extremely rare and has been assigned two designations: KMT-2024-BLG-0792 and OGLE-2024-BLG-0516. Andrzej Udalski, along with researchers from the University of Warsaw, made this groundbreaking discovery using distinct ground-based telescopes. What makes it even more remarkable is its measured mass, which is approximately one-fifth that of Jupiter.
“What’s fascinating about this find is that it’s the first rogue planet we’ve measured in terms of mass, achievable through both Earth-based and Gaia observations,” says Gavin Coleman from Queen Mary University of London. The planet was detected via a method known as gravitational microlensing, occurring when light from a distant source is bent by the planet’s gravitational field, resulting in a halo effect around it. The alignment of the Gaia Space Telescope at the right moment allowed additional capture of this microlensing event.
“Mass is a crucial factor for classifying celestial bodies as planets,” Udalsky explains, confirming this as the first verified rogue planet. “This is a pivotal moment for recognizing that floating planets do indeed exist,” he added. The upcoming NASA Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope, expected to launch in 2027, is anticipated to uncover even more such celestial discoveries.
“These planets should be quite numerous, with many being expelled from their original stellar systems during their formation’s early stages, providing key insights into how planetary systems develop,” Udalsky notes. This knowledge may contribute to understanding the formation of our own solar system, which some studies suggest may have inadvertently ejected planets in its early history.
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Exercise isn’t the key factor for effective weight loss.
This common misconception has been perpetuated for decades: the solution to burning excess calories is straightforward: move more. Indulging in cake? Simply compensate with a workout.
However, a groundbreaking new study challenges this long-standing belief. Researchers analyzed data from over 4,200 individuals across 34 countries and discovered that those who exercised significantly please don’t burn more calories than those who lead a sedentary lifestyle.
Surprisingly, the study revealed that hunter-gatherers in Tanzania’s Hadza community consume roughly the same number of calories each day, pound-for-pound, as the average American office worker—despite the Hadza tribe engaging in far more physical activity than most Americans do in an entire week.
The Hadza people of Tanzania walk between 8 to 16 kilometers (5 to 10 miles) daily while hunting and foraging—comparable to the distance most of us cover in a week. Credit: Getty
While there are minor individual variations in calorie expenditure, overall, only about 10% can be attributed to exercise.
“We previously believed that daily calorie expenditure was heavily reliant on activity levels, but recent findings indicate it’s more complex,” states evolutionary anthropologist Professor Herman Pontzer from Duke University, an author of the study.
Should we retire our running shoes and cancel gym memberships? Unfortunately, the answer isn’t that simple. This research implies that movement has minimal influence on weight, yet ceasing exercise isn’t advisable either.
Understanding Metabolism Myths
If a recent study suggests that only a small fraction of daily caloric expenditure stems from exercise, what accounts for the rest? It’s primarily the body’s vital functions that keep us alive.
Processes such as breathing, blood circulation, immune responses, digestion, and cognitive functions all demand energy. This “background work,” termed basal metabolic rate (BMR), constitutes the vast majority of calories burned daily.
Despite comprising less than 1% of your body weight, kidneys require approximately 10% of your energy. Photo credit: Getty
This is critical to note: more body mass requires greater energy expenditure overall, which affects the basal metabolic rate. Although this concept seems logical, actual outcomes can be surprising.
In essence, overweight American office workers typically have a higher basal metabolic rate than their Hadza counterparts due to their larger body size.
“Individuals in developed nations tend to burn more calories daily than those in agricultural or traditional communities,” Pontzer remarks. “Larger body sizes correspond with higher energy consumption,” he adds.
This leads to “very little distinction” in total energy expenditure among global populations when body size and composition are factored in, according to Pontzer’s research.
In simpler terms, a sedentary office worker burns as many calories daily as their more active peers.
Caloric Calculation Formula Explained
Could it be that we all expend roughly the same amount of energy relative to body size? As Pontzer explains, “When activity levels fluctuate, our metabolism adjusts by reallocating energy resources.”
This balance, a process known as homeostasis, ensures that if you suddenly ramp up your activity, your body will shift energy away from certain background tasks in response. Pontzer elaborates, “As activity increases, the body seems to adjust to maintain its overall caloric expenditure.”
While it might sound concerning that calorie expenditure for other bodily functions could decrease, Pontzer assures it’s generally a positive adjustment.
“Modifying how you burn calories is beneficial. Many people expend excessive calories on unnecessary functions, such as background inflammation,” he adds.
Exercise improves efficiency by reallocating energy, lowering inflammation, and promoting overall health. Although it may not be the ultimate solution for weight loss, it plays a vital role in maintaining a healthy body.
Participating in a 5K may feel like burning extra calories, but your metabolism quietly maintains its balance. Photo credit: Getty
However, there are limits to this adaptive capacity. Sudden increases in physical activity can stress the body, potentially impairing the immune and reproductive systems. Consequently, you might experience increased illness, reduced libido, or even missed periods.
“This condition is known as overtraining syndrome,” Pontzer explains. “That said, you’re unlikely to encounter this unless you’re a professional athlete.”
The same adjustment occurs if you suddenly halt exercise; your metabolism redirects energy towards background processes like inflammation.
“Your body adapts continuously to maintain energy expenditure within a narrow range,” Pontzer emphasizes.
Foods Contributing to Fat Gain
Pontzer argues that diet, rather than exercise, is the primary determinant of body fat percentage.
“The weight we carry is primarily the result of calories consumed but not expended,” he states. “If energy expenditure remains constant, diet must be the influencing factor.”
Research highlights ultra-processed foods as significant contributors to weight gain. These include factory-made items crafted from industrial ingredients and sold in stores—such as packaged breads, snacks, sweets, colorful cereals, bottled sauces, and instant meals.
Ultra-processed foods account for roughly 60% of the average American’s dietary intake. Photo credit: Getty
“Our findings indicate a clear correlation across diverse populations: higher consumption of ultra-processed foods predicts increased body fat,” Pontzer asserts.
While the study’s results are compelling, it’s important to note that researchers did not directly monitor participants’ diets. Neither American office employees nor Hadza individuals maintained food diaries or calorie logs. Data came from national dietary surveys and global consumption databases instead.
This absence of individual dietary tracking poses a significant limitation. We cannot conclusively validate the relationship between ultra-processed foods, body fat, and individual energy expenditure. Why might ultra-processed foods lead to obesity?
Ultra-processed foods could have detrimental effects, partly due to their calorie density. As Dr. Adam Collins, Associate Professor of Nutrition at the University of Surrey, explains, these products may promote excessive calorie consumption.
“It’s not merely about ultra-processing,” he clarifies. “These foods are engineered to be highly palatable and easy to consume in large quantities. Moreover, they are typically energy-dense but low in essential nutrients.”
Supermarket breads often qualify as ultra-processed due to the presence of additives and emulsifiers that enhance shelf life. Photo credit: Getty
Ultra-processed foods are meticulously crafted to be as tasty as possible, generally high in salt, sugar, and fat, while lacking fiber and essential nutrients, leading to rapid consumption in larger portions.
“What tends to happen when individuals decide to eliminate all ultra-processed foods?” Collins notes. “They often end up consuming less overall, leading to greater mindfulness about their diet. This typically results in weight loss and improved health.”
He adds that while complete elimination isn’t necessary nor are all ultra-processed foods harmful, moderation is key.
Examining the Debate
The study does face criticism, including from Collins, who contends that exercise contributes more to weight loss than acknowledged.
“It’s true that exercise might not directly burn a significant amount of calories, and the concept of tracking ‘calories in versus calories out’ is outdated,” he admits.
“However, exercise is vital for regulating appetite, altering body composition, reducing body fat, and increasing muscle mass.” Collins further explains that muscle cells are metabolically more active than fat cells, meaning increasing muscle can subtly elevate daily energy expenditure.
Your fitness tracker may state your snack has been “burned off,” but Pontzer reminds us that your body compensates by reducing energy expenditure elsewhere. Photo credit: Getty
While Pontzer acknowledges exercise’s role in reshaping body composition and its impact on metabolism, he emphasizes that these changes are “subtle” and tend to render weight loss-focused exercise programs largely ineffective.
Collins, however, remains unconvinced, labeling Pontzer’s model as intriguing yet requiring further validation through long-term studies tracking individuals.
Essential Role of Exercise
Despite differing views on exercise’s efficacy for fat loss, there’s consensus on its widespread benefits. Regular activity strengthens the heart, protects bones, enhances metabolism, and boosts mental well-being, contributing to longevity and overall health.
Pontzer hopes health guidance on weight will evolve, yet stresses the importance of exercise.
“Rather than equally attributing blame to diet and physical activity (the current narrative), I wish we could focus solely on diet as the main cause of obesity, which appears to be the most significant factor,” he states.
He adds, “This doesn’t suggest we should stop exercising or refrain from promoting physical activity—those aspirations remain important. However, we need to prioritize our focus on dietary changes.”
This new year is filled with significant events, including the 250th anniversary of America’s founding, the world’s largest sporting event, and an ambitious mission to the moon.
Discover the groundbreaking events set to shape 2026.
Milan Cortina Games
Prepare your skis, snowboards, and skates! The Winter Olympics and Paralympics are just around the corner.
Taking place from February 6th to 22nd in Milan and Cortina d’Ampezzo, Italy, the Olympics will showcase international winter sports stars competing for prestigious gold medals.
Team USA returns with proud cross-country skiers such as Jesse Diggins, para snowboarder Noah Elliott, freestyle skier Alex Hall, and snowboarder Chloe Kim, all former gold medalists.
The closing ceremony is set for February 22nd, and both ceremonies will be broadcast live on NBC, with streaming available on Peacock.
Watch for the Paralympic Games in Milan and Cortina d’Ampezzo from March 6th to 14th, featuring six sports including para alpine skiing, para biathlon, and wheelchair curling.
Artemis II Launch
In 2026, NASA will make its grand return to the moon.
Scheduled to launch between February and April, the Artemis II mission will test NASA’s Space Launch System rocket and Orion spacecraft by sending four astronauts on a 10-day journey around the moon.
This marks the first crewed flight for the Artemis program, taking astronauts closer to the moon than ever in the past 50 years since the Apollo program concluded.
The mission is particularly critical, given discussions about the need for the U.S. to outpace China in lunar exploration.
A successful Artemis II flight could set the stage for Artemis III, which aims to land astronauts at the moon’s south pole, reinforcing America’s leadership in space exploration.
2026 FIFA World Cup
Viva el fútbol!
The highly anticipated FIFA World Cup returns this summer, marking its 23rd edition with a record 48 competitor teams.
The opening match will take place on June 11th at Estadio Azteca, Mexico City, with the final scheduled for July 19th at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey.
Over the span of a month, 104 matches will unfold, showcasing the strongest teams from around the globe.
The 16 host cities include Toronto and Vancouver in Canada, Guadalajara, Mexico City, and Monterrey in Mexico, as well as major U.S. cities like Atlanta, Boston, Dallas, Houston, and Los Angeles.
This year, there will be an additional 16 teams competing compared to the 2022 World Cup in Qatar.
Returning are heavyweights such as Argentina (three-time champions), Brazil (five-time champions), England, Germany, France, Spain, Uruguay, and the U.S., who seek their first championship title.
Several countries will be making their World Cup debuts including Cape Verde, Curacao, Jordan, and Uzbekistan.
As of December, 42 teams have officially qualified, including Mexico, Canada, and several others from around the globe.
The remaining six teams will be determined by March, as they compete in playoffs.
America 250
This year marks the 250th anniversary of the United States, commemorating the adoption of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.
This day symbolizes America’s emergence as an independent nation, embodying vital values of liberty and equality.
Events and initiatives in honor of this milestone are already underway, with many more planned throughout the year.
On New Year’s Day, America 250, a bipartisan initiative created by Congress in 2016, will unveil floats in the Pasadena Rose Parade. The theme is “Moving Forward Together for 250 Years.”
In January 2025, President Trump signed a presidential order to plan events commemorating the anniversary, including a major celebration that transformed the Washington Monument into the “World’s Tallest Birthday Candle.”
Freedom 250 has announced the Great American State Fair on the National Mall from June 25th to July 10th, featuring exhibits from all 50 states.
“This will be an unprecedented event that you’ll never see again,” stated Trump in a video address on December 18th.
The grand celebrations will culminate in a Fourth of July National Unity Celebration on the National Mall, featuring a military flyover, remarks from President Trump, and a spectacular fireworks display.
Additionally, new Patriot Games—a four-day athletic event showcasing top high school athletes from each state—will be held.
Memorial Day parades and a UFC event at the White House are scheduled for Flag Day, which also coincides with Trump’s birthday.
Plans are also in the works for an “Arc de Triomphe” in Washington, D.C., similar to the one in Paris.
Midterm Elections
The 2026 political landscape will be defined by battles for congressional control and crucial gubernatorial elections.
With Republicans holding a slight edge in the House, Democrats are striving to win three additional seats to reclaim leadership amidst ongoing redistricting challenges.
Key gubernatorial races will take place in battleground states including Georgia, Nevada, Arizona, Michigan, and Wisconsin, determining the future of national legislatures alongside major mayoral elections in cities like Los Angeles and Washington, D.C.
Achieving a Healthy Weight: A Future of Possibilities
Merch Hub/Shutterstock
Recent advancements in obesity treatments have introduced highly effective medications, with the prospect of even more potent experimental treatments set for testing in 2026.
“We are witnessing an ambitious new phase in obesity treatment that promises improved health outcomes for numerous patients,” states Laura Heisler from the University of Aberdeen, UK. “Obesity is linked to severe health complications, including cancer, heart disease, and type 2 diabetes. A modest 5% reduction in body weight can significantly decrease these health risks.”
The first major weight loss drug, semaglutide, was initially approved as a diabetes treatment in 2017 under the name Ozempic. In 2021, it received approval for weight management as Wegovy.
Semaglutide functions by imitating the natural hormone GLP-1, which binds to brain and pancreatic receptors, helping to curb appetite and slow gastric emptying. Alongside its weight loss benefits, semaglutide has demonstrated positive cardiovascular effects and potential in managing conditions like substance addiction. However, common side effects like nausea can lead to discontinuation of the drug.
In 2023, Tirzepatide, marketed as Mounjaro for diabetes, secured approval for weight loss under the name Zepbound. Enhancing semaglutide’s effectiveness, Tirzepatide operates by mimicking both GLP-1 and another hormone, GIP, which is involved in energy management. Like semaglutide, it has comparable side effects.
In clinical trials, semaglutide resulted in an average weight reduction of 14% over 72 weeks, while participants using tirzepatide achieved a 20% reduction. Notably, regaining lost weight is common once the medication is stopped.
Looking ahead, more dual-action and even triple-action medications are in development. A promising candidate for 2024 approval is Kaglisema, which merges semaglutide with Caglilintide, a drug that stimulates fullness through amylin mimicry.
In a trial with over 3,400 adults, those taking Kaglisema achieved a weight loss of 20% after 68 weeks, outperforming both semaglutide (15%) and Caglilintide alone (12%), indicating strong potential.
Additionally, a drug named amicretin is undergoing development. Similar to CagliSema, it mimics both GLP-1 and amylin, but uses a single molecule that binds to both receptor types.
In preliminary trials involving 125 participants, amicretin users experienced an average weight loss of 24% after 36 weeks, suggesting superior effectiveness compared to tirzepatide, although final-stage trials won’t commence until 2026.
Moreover, the “triple G” drug letartortide activates three hormones to facilitate fat release: GLP-1, GIP, and glucagon. In a study of 338 individuals, those on the highest dose experienced an average weight loss of 24% after 48 weeks. Results from late-stage trials will be crucial for assessing letartortide’s approval timeline, expected in late 2026 or beyond.
It’s important to note that weight loss results from various clinical studies aren’t directly comparable due to differences in participant criteria, study durations, and dosages. Moreover, average results can mask significant variability in individual responses to GLP-1 drugs; while some experience negligible effects, others see remarkable weight loss.
As many as 100 new weight-loss drugs are currently in development for 2026 and beyond as companies strive to capture a share of the lucrative market. These innovations often focus on diverse combinations of existing targets, such as GLP-1, GIP, glucagon, and amylin receptors, or explore new mechanisms entirely.
Research is also addressing adverse effects, such as the evidence indicating some weight loss from GLP-1 drugs may come from muscle rather than fat. For instance, a recent trial earlier this year combined semaglutide with bimagrumab, a muscle growth inhibitor, seeking to counterbalance these effects.
“The prospect of emergent, highly effective drugs with fewer side effects is indeed exciting,” says Heisler.
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Valar Atomics’ Ward 250 Reactor Under Construction
Daria Nagovitz/Valar Atomics
Despite contributing nearly one-fifth of the U.S. power generation, nuclear energy in the country has seen stagnation for decades. Factors such as regulatory challenges, public apprehension, and affordable energy sources have hindered growth, coupled with factory closure moratoriums and insufficient funding for new nuclear technologies. However, an increasing demand for power, especially from data centers, is reviving interest in nuclear energy. The Department of Energy is moving rapidly to rectify this delay with its reactor pilot program, aiming for a major milestone by mid-2026.
This initiative is part of the Department of Energy Strategy, which seeks to quadruple nuclear production by 2050. Eleven companies focused on advanced nuclear reactor technology have been chosen to participate, with expectations for at least three to reach criticality – a stable and self-sustaining nuclear fission state – by July 4, 2026.
“We intentionally set very ambitious deadlines,” stated Leslie Dewan, a nuclear engineer specializing in advanced reactor technology. “One of our pilot’s goals is to evaluate which concepts thrive under real-world conditions.”
The reactor designs under development range from molten salt and hot gas reactors to fast reactors, sodium-cooled systems, and pressurized water reactors. Notably, California-based Valar Atomics is regarded as a frontrunner, especially with its Ward 250 high-temperature gas reactor.
High-temperature gas reactors utilize small particles of uranium surrounded by carbon and ceramic coatings, transforming them into self-contained fuel units. This coating ensures that the particles remain intact even at extreme temperatures, creating a protective safety barrier to contain any radioactive materials.
Fuel particles are embedded within graphite blocks, which serve as the reactor core, featuring channels for helium gas circulation. The nuclear fission reaction generates heat that boils water, producing steam to power generators and generate electricity. The helium gas then returns to the reactor for reheating.
Valar broke ground on Ward 250 in September, marking it as the second company to initiate construction, following Texas-based Arlo Atomics which began in August. Valar has achieved the first low-temperature criticality, demonstrating a self-sustaining fission reaction under controlled conditions, offering valuable data to confirm core physics. “It’s not equivalent to constructing and operating your integrated test reactor at full power,” Dewan explained.
Texas-based Natura Resources is also developing molten salt reactors known for their inherent safety features, although they function differently. In these designs, uranium is dissolved in molten salt, heated by fission. A pump circulates this liquid salt to a heat exchanger, generating steam or driving a turbine. If overheating occurs, the molten salt expands and melts an emergency “freeze plug,” allowing the fuel to safely drain and preventing chain reactions.
“Molten salt reactors operate at atmospheric pressure, containing any accidents to the plant site,” emphasizes Dewan. “Even in a total power failure, the reactor can come to a safe stop without on-site operator intervention.”
Natura has not yet commenced construction but secured a permit from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to build a 1-megawatt research reactor. Additionally, it has recently acquired Shepherd Power, which will enhance its supply chain and regulatory expertise to expedite its technology’s implementation. Dewan noted, “We have fostered a highly collaborative relationship with the NRC,” though she cautioned, “the challenges posed by molten salts, which are corrosive and radioactive at high temperatures, should not be underestimated.”
With the critical deadline approaching in about six months, Valar, Natura, and nine other companies in the pilot program must work at an exceptional pace to meet this goal. However, this is just one of many challenges that must be navigated.
“The true evaluations will center around whether we can safely power the reactor on and off, operate it for extended periods at design temperatures, and ensure that materials and fuel perform as anticipated. All of this must be reliably demonstrated to gain trust from the NRC and future clients,” Dewan concludes. “I see the 2026 date as the beginning of an intriguing data collection phase, far from the conclusion.”
Training without interruption fosters self-control
Miljko/Getty Images
Olivia Rems, a mental health researcher at the University of Cambridge and author of the book This is How You Grow After Trauma, provides insights into developing a healthier mindset. Her extensive research spans the mental health landscape in high-risk environments, such as the construction industry, and aims to assist women from disadvantaged backgrounds in reducing anxiety. Here, she shares three evidence-backed strategies to bolster your well-being, enhance self-control, and empower you to achieve your goals.
1. Engage in Small Daily Actions to Cultivate Self-Control
The findings from my research team at the University of Cambridge, alongside years of seminars and discussions, indicate that self-control is a crucial aspect of happiness. It fosters a sense of calm and enhances life satisfaction. Self-control involves the ability to think, act, or behave in accordance with your intentions, even when faced with challenges. Similar to a muscle, the more you exercise self-control, the stronger it becomes.
Numerous studies support this notion. In one research effort, participants faced self-control tasks, such as maintaining a grip on an object or avoiding thoughts about polar bears—a challenging directive. Post-experimental analysis revealed that those who engaged in daily self-control activities for two weeks displayed improved resilience in subsequent tasks compared to a control group. This suggests that consistent practice in self-control, even in minor ways, leads to lasting improvements across various life domains.
2. Avoid Daydreaming
Studies reveal that we often spend over a third of our day daydreaming, which can hinder productivity. While some daydreaming has its benefits, researchers from Harvard found that wandering minds are typically less happy. Their research revealed that distraction from current tasks negatively impacted participants’ overall well-being, even if the daydreams were pleasant. Being aware of the drawbacks of mind wandering empowers you to refocus your thoughts on tasks that enhance your happiness and productivity.
3. Craft Your Life Script
As you reflect on your goals for the year, consider what your life script would entail. What habits do you wish to cultivate? What achievements do you aspire to reach? Assess your current satisfaction in key life areas on a scale of 1 to 10, honing in on those you wish to improve. Focus on small, actionable steps to increase your satisfaction levels, as sustainable changes are key. For example, specify your goals with clarity, such as “I want to exercise for 20 minutes in the morning” rather than vague aspirations.
Research indicates that motivation often follows action. Therefore, start small—set achievable goals that lead you toward greater aspirations. Incremental progress can facilitate significant life changes.
Imagine cradling your newborn baby, deeply gazing into their eyes. You’re at the airport, eagerly awaiting your family’s return from a year-long journey, and suddenly, you spot them approaching. Or perhaps you’re in a packed stadium, witnessing your team lift a long-awaited trophy. Each moment evokes a profound sense of connection, sending chills down your spine and bringing tears to your eyes.
Does this resonate with you? Although you might not know it yet, you’re experiencing an emotion referred to as “kama muta.” This phenomenon is gaining traction in psychological circles for its critical role in our relationships with family, friends, and community. By actively seeking to evoke this feeling, you can enhance your life’s purpose and strengthen your social bonds.
This article is part of a series on simple changes to boost your health in the new year. Read the complete series here.
The term kama muta emerged from research initiatives starting in 2012 by Alan Fisk, an anthropologist, with contributions from colleagues at UCLA and the University of Oslo. They began exploring why happy ending scenes in movies bring us to tears. Prior to this, emotional research mostly focused on tears as indicators of sadness.
Initial discussions evolved into formal research involving extensive interviews and surveys about strong emotional responses to positive events. They identified common descriptors such as “being moved,” “stirred,” and “uplifted,” often accompanied by physical sensations like watery eyes, goosebumps, and warmth in the chest. Most importantly, this emotion appeared linked to the enhancement of social relationships.
And it’s not exclusive to happy situations; it can arise in diverse scenarios, including parental care, reunions, and even Alcoholics Anonymous meetings where individuals experience a powerful sense of acceptance.
“Instead of feeling isolated or ashamed of your past, you realize your challenges connect you to others,” says Fisk.
This emotional response can also manifest during religious practices such as prayer, conveying a connection to the divine. Additionally, communal events like sports victories often evoke profound feelings of pride and admiration for teams that have faced adversity.
Live music inspires emotional connections
Andrew Chin/Getty Images
Despite the richness of the English language, we lack a term that encompasses these impactful experiences. Thus, we often overlook the emotional parallels across various situations. “Our premise is straightforward,” Fisk asserts. “These experiences share a common feeling.”
To describe this, the researchers adopted sanskrit‘s term Kama Muta, which translates to “moved by love.” Fisk notes, “The Sanskrit expressions have a poetic quality.”
Fisk explains it as “love igniting,” suggesting it may have evolved to deepen our care for those closest to us. In ancient times, shared bonds were vital for survival, and emotions fostering these ties significantly benefited our ancestors. Today, social connections are equally crucial for human health. Emotions like kama muta may help broaden our perspectives on life, thereby enhancing overall well-being.
Discovering Kama Muta
Thanks to our innate empathic abilities, we can experience kama muta by viewing emotional videos, transcending cultural boundaries. For instance, Fisk’s studies revealed that participants from diverse backgrounds reacted similarly to videos depicting profound connections.
Such experiments indicate that experiencing kama muta can significantly inspire you to cultivate and maintain relationships. After feeling this emotion, subjects expressed greater commitment to their relationships and a heightened desire to connect intimately with others.
Concerts often provoke kama muta due to music’s beauty and strength of unity it fosters among strangers; experiences like Taylor Swift sharing friendship bracelets with fans exemplify this unique bond.
People who exhibit higher levels of empathy may be more susceptible to kama muta. However, anyone can learn to nurture this emotion by actively listening to those around them.
“When individuals feel truly heard, they tend to feel more connected to the listener,” suggests Kenneth Demaree, a psychologist based in New York. He believes that this connection leads to deeper self-disclosure and greater emotional revelations.
Additionally, many secret pathways exist for experiencing kama muta, even in solitude. Whether through reading or watching love stories, you can evoke such feelings, with watching cute animal videos striking a chord often.
Cultivating your emotional experiences changes your perception, shifting from suppression to appreciation. “You may think it’s a disaster to feel emotional,” shares Fisk, “but by understanding that everyone goes through these feelings, you’re more inclined to embrace them.”
Like any emotion, kama muta consists of various components, including physical sensations, mental interpretations, and motivations to act. Researchers have developed a kama muta multiplex scale to measure your experience. Explore our research-driven quizzes to evaluate your feelings while watching a kitten video—just one example. Or view heartfelt images of loved ones or engage in meaningful discussions with friends. Then rate your experience by how closely these statements resonate with you, on a scale from 0 (not at all) to 6 (very often).
Section 1
Have you experienced it?
Moist eyes
Tears
Goosebumps or hair standing on end
Chills or shivers
Warm sensation in the middle of your chest
Feeling of warmth in the chest area
Feeling breathless
Lump in throat
Difficulty articulating
Smiling
Feeling buoyant and light
Feeling refreshed, energized, and uplifted
Section 2
Did you feel it?
Incredible bond
A profound sense of intimacy
A unique love that rises
A special feeling of being welcomed or embraced
Section 3
Did you feel it?
Urge to express care for someone
Desire to hug someone
Impulse to do something special for someone
Increased commitment to the relationship
Section 4
How did you feel overall about the experience?
It was heartwarming
It left a lasting impression
It touched me deeply
While there are no absolute indicators to determine if you felt kama muta or not, researchers affirm that the higher your aggregate scores across these sections, the more intense your kama muta experience is likely to be.
Quantum Computers: Solutions for Chemistry Challenges
Marijan Murat/DPA/Alamy
One of the critical questions in the quantum computing sector is whether these advanced machines can solve practical problems in fields like chemistry. Researchers in industrial and medical chemistry are poised to provide insights by 2026.
The complexity of determining the structure, reactivity, and other properties of molecules is inherently a quantum problem, primarily involving electrons. As molecular structures grow increasingly complex, these calculations become challenging, sometimes even surpassing the capabilities of traditional supercomputers.
Quantum computers, being inherently quantum, have a potential advantage in tackling these complex chemical calculations. As these computers develop and become more seamlessly integrated with conventional systems, they are gaining traction in the chemistry sector.
For instance, in 2025, IBM and the Japanese Institute of Scientific Research collaborated, employing quantum computers alongside supercomputers to model various molecules. Google researchers have also been innovating algorithms that unveil molecular structures. Additionally, RIKEN researchers are teaming up with Quantinuum to create efficient workflows, allowing quantum computers to calculate molecular energy with remarkable precision. Notably, the quantum computing software platform Kunova Computing introduced an algorithm that reportedly operates ten times more efficiently than traditional methods for energy calculations.
Progress is expected to expedite by 2026 as quantum computers become more advanced. “Future larger machines will allow us to create enhanced workflows, ultimately solving prevalent quantum chemistry problems,” states David Muñoz Ramo from Quantinuum. While his team currently focuses on hydrogen molecules, they foresee stepping into more intricate structures, such as catalysts for industrial reactions.
Other research entities are making strides in similar areas. In December, Microsoft announced a partnership with Algorithmiq, a quantum software startup, aimed at accelerating the development of quantum algorithms for chemistry. Furthermore, a study by Hyperion Research highlights chemistry as a focal area for advancement and investment in quantum computing, ranking it as one of the most promising applications in annual surveys.
However, meaningful progress in quantum chemical calculations depends on achieving error-free or fault-tolerant quantum computers, which will also unlock other potential applications for these devices. As Philip Schleich and Alan Aspuru-Guzik emphasized in a commentary for Science magazine, the ability of quantum computers to outperform classical computers hinges on the development of fault-tolerant algorithms. Thankfully, achieving fault tolerance is a widely accepted goal among quantum computer manufacturers worldwide.
The European Union is poised to implement carbon tariffs starting January 1, marking a significant shift in international climate policy. This initiative targets countries lagging in carbon emissions reductions, introducing financial penalties that will aim to hold companies accountable for their environmental impact.
Countries affected by these carbon taxes are expressing discontent, as tensions rise around the EU’s carbon border tariffs, officially labeled under the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism. Anticipate trade disputes, but these taxes are expected to persist, with analysts like Ellie Belton from E3G predicting global adoption of similar measures.
Belton notes, “We can foresee carbon border adjustment mechanisms emerging globally.” The UK is set to implement its version by 2027, with countries such as Australia, Canada, and Taiwan also contemplating the adoption of carbon tariffs.
The EU’s carbon border tax extends the existing carbon pricing framework established in 2005. Since then, EU industries with high carbon emissions have been subject to costs associated with carbon allowances under the emissions trading system. Currently, the carbon price stands at approximately 76 euros per tonne of CO2.
This pricing disparity means EU steel producers face higher costs compared to their counterparts in nations without carbon pricing. The newly introduced tariffs strive to level the playing field, adjusting import tariffs to align with internal EU carbon prices.
For countries already employing carbon pricing, the EU will impose only the price difference on imports. Besides steel, other industries affected by border taxes include iron, aluminum, cement, fertilizer, hydrogen, and electricity.
The primary goal is to prevent carbon leakage, where industries relocate to jurisdictions with less stringent environmental regulations. “The EU insists on no exemptions, as these would create pollution havens,” Belton emphasizes.
Additionally, this policy aims to encourage global efforts in reducing carbon emissions. Countries like Brazil and Türkiye have already implemented their own carbon pricing mechanisms in response to the EU’s initiative.
In 2023, the EU finalized plans for the carbon border adjustment mechanism, launching a pilot scheme in October that required businesses to declare emissions. Effective January 1, companies will begin accruing charges, gradually increasing until full implementation by 2034.
British firms are anticipated to avoid taxation under the UK’s own carbon border adjustment mechanism as negotiations continue to ensure compatibility with EU regulations.
Ideally, a unified carbon border adjustment system across nations would enhance economic influence and comparative power in global forums. However, Belton foresees a fragmented landscape of varied carbon pricing approaches worldwide.
LSD May Enhance Brain Rewiring and Alleviate Anxiety
Tumegy/Science Photo Library/Getty Images
Two significant trials examining the potential of the hallucinogen LSD to alleviate anxiety are set to conclude in 2026. Early-stage trials have shown promising results, potentially allowing the treatment to be available in the United States by 2027.
Other psychedelics, like psilocybin and MDMA, are already being utilized in certain nations, including Australia and Switzerland, to treat severe depression and PTSD. LSD is gaining attention in mental health studies, primarily because it has been shown to induce deep emotional experiences and may enhance the brain’s capacity to form new neural connections.
A pivotal trial in 2025 demonstrated that a single high dose of LSD significantly reduced moderate to severe anxiety for a duration of at least three months.
Currently, two late-stage trials are ongoing, with results expected in 2026. Each trial involves about 200 participants with moderate to severe anxiety who will receive either 100 micrograms of LSD or a placebo. Their anxiety levels will be monitored over three months post-administration.
In the subsequent 10-month phase, all participants, including those initially on a placebo, will have the opportunity to take LSD if they report their anxiety reaching a predefined threshold on a standardized scale. This design aims to assess the duration of effects following a single dose. Dan Carlin, affiliated with New York biotech firm MindMed, has been involved in both the 2025 trial and the current studies.
The primary distinction between the two studies is that, in the second trial, an additional group will receive 50 micrograms of LSD. The 2025 trial indicated this dosage could induce hallucinations but didn’t effectively diminish anxiety compared to the placebo, thereby addressing a common challenge in psychedelic research—participants often struggle to identify if they received the active drug.
Participants in this third group will be aware they received LSD but will remain uncertain if the dosage is sufficient to alleviate anxiety, as noted by Sandeep Nayak of Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center, who is not part of these trials.
If the results of both trials are favorable, the FDA could approve LSD for anxiety treatment in the United States by 2027, potentially leading to approval in Europe and other regions.
“If the upcoming trial confirms results similar to the previous ones from 2025, that should satisfy the FDA,” said Boris Heifetz of Stanford University.
A meaningful impact on patients’ lives is typically defined as a 3 to 5-point difference on the anxiety scale between placebo and LSD groups, as noted by Nayak. The 2025 trial showed a difference of approximately five points, indicating a strong possibility the next trial will meet this threshold. However, any therapeutic benefits must be weighed against the duration of effects and potential side effects.
For instance, temporary psychological distress during treatment might be acceptable to the FDA, unlike long-lasting distress, Nayak stated. Notably, long-term distress was not observed in the 2025 trial.
Even with potential approval, Nayak emphasizes it may take several years for LSD to become widely accessible for anxiety disorders, and it would likely be a last-resort treatment after conventional therapies fail. This is primarily due to the logistical challenges, such as the need for clinicians to supervise patients during psychedelic experiences.
Supermassive black holes can consume or merge with other black holes.
Mark Garlick/Science Photo Library
Recent studies reveal that three galaxies featuring supermassive black holes at their cores are merging into a colossal galaxy—a phenomenon rarely observed in astronomy.
Astronomers posit that to achieve their immense sizes, supermassive black holes often need to engulf or merge with other massive black holes during galactic collisions. Discovering these events is challenging, as they are short-lived compared to a black hole’s lifespan. These mergers are most easily detected when a black hole is actively consuming matter and emitting light, which is not frequently the case. Currently, only around 150 pairs of merging galactic black holes have been identified.
Researchers at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, D.C., led by Emma Schwartzman, have identified a trio of supermassive black holes actively feeding and functioning as a single system. “The more galaxies involved, the rarer this system becomes,” Schwartzman noted.
Each supermassive black hole emits low-frequency radiation as radio waves, which can penetrate dust that obscures other forms of light. This characteristic enabled Schwartzman and her team to conduct observations using the Very Long Baseline Array in Hawaii and the Very Large Array in New Mexico, effectively ruling out alternate light sources such as star-filled galaxies.
“What’s particularly intriguing is that all three of these black holes show signs of merging. There’s no guarantee we will observe emissions in the radio spectrum that we haven’t detected before,” Schwartzman commented.
According to Isabella Lamperti, a researcher at the University of Florence, there are visible indications that the galaxies are beginning to interact. Given that two of the galaxies are approximately 70,000 light-years apart, and the third is 300,000 light-years away, this interaction is still in a relatively early phase.
However, considering their life spans spanning billions of years, we are witnessing a dramatic conclusion. “It’s akin to capturing the final moments of a melodrama where the galaxies converge,” commented Emma Kuhn from Ruhr University Bochum, Germany.
Simulating the merging of three active supermassive black holes presents substantial difficulty, but observing this unique system will provide physicists with better insights into more intricate mergers, according to Kuhn. “This marks the initial step in unraveling the physics underlying the system,” she stated.
Explore the Mysteries of the Universe in Cheshire, England
Join a weekend filled with learning alongside some of science’s brightest minds as you delve into the mysteries of the universe. The program includes a fascinating tour of the iconic Lovell Telescope.
While the internet buzzed with diss tracks, explored high-profile jewelry heists, and followed love bus journeys, groundbreaking scientific advancements quietly transformed our world.
For better or worse, here are the top 7 game-changing events and breakthroughs of 2025. (Spoiler: Katy Perry’s space journey isn’t on this list).
1. Introducing the World’s Fastest Supercomputer
In January, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California unveiled the world’s fastest supercomputer, El Capitan. This marvel became the third computer ever to achieve exascale computing speeds, boasting a peak performance of 2.79 exaFLOPS (equivalent to 2.79 quintillion floating-point operations per second). El Capitan will be pivotal in organizing the United States’ nuclear arsenal and exploring advanced nuclear designs. Its construction, which began in May 2023, cost around $600 million.
2. Significant Planetary Changes
According to a recent study, 2024 marked the first year on record when global average temperatures soared to 1.6°C (2.8°F) above pre-industrial levels. This troubling statistic emerged nearly a decade after 195 nations signed the Paris Climate Agreement, committing to limit global temperature rise to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
In June, scientists reported that ocean acidification has surpassed tolerable limits for Earth, marking the seventh of nine “planetary boundaries” crossed since 2009. Exceeding all nine could result in severe environmental collapse.
Ocean acidification, often termed “marine osteoporosis,” weakens the calcareous structures of marine species like crabs and corals. – Photo credit: Getty
3. Groundbreaking HIV Research
In May, researchers from Melbourne, Australia, made a significant breakthrough in the quest for an HIV cure by unveiling a method to extract the virus from human cells. This landmark discovery addressed a major challenge in HIV treatment, where the virus hides within white blood cells, awaiting reactivation.
Utilizing advanced mRNA technology, the researchers achieved what was once considered impossible. Approximately 40 million people globally live with HIV, requiring ongoing medication to suppress the virus and prevent infection. Researchers believe these insights may also pave the way for treatments of other diseases linked to white blood cells, including cancer. Learn more about this breakthrough.
4. Evidence of Life on Mars
In September, NASA’s acting administrator, Sean Duffy, declared that a detailed analysis of unique “leopard spot” patterns in Martian rocks revealed compelling evidence of past life on Mars. Discovered by NASA’s Perseverance spacecraft in July 2024 in Jezero Crater, the rock is estimated to be about 3.5 billion years old.
Scientists theorize that these distinctive patterns may result from ancient Martian microbes. Perseverance has preserved the rock fragments, which will eventually be returned to Earth for in-depth examination.
Initial discovery of the rock in 2024 gave us a unique chance to study its intriguing markings. – Credit: NASA
5. Observable Neutrino Scattering
After 50 years of research, July brought a thrilling observation: the detection of coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scattering (CEvNS). This phenomenon, first proposed in 1974, involves neutrinos scattering coherently against nuclei within a nuclear reactor, yielding small nuclear recoils.
Scientist describe measuring CEvNS as akin to tracking a ping-pong ball’s trajectory after bouncing it off a moving car. The Swiss detector has captured CEvNS events with unprecedented clarity, potentially heralding a new era of neutrino detectors with applications in discovering new forces and particles that interact solely with neutrinos. Explore this groundbreaking research.
6. First Human Fetus Video
September also witnessed a historic moment as scientists successfully captured video footage of a human fetus implanting in an artificial womb for the first time. The visual documentation provides unique insights into critical stages of human development.
Since implantation failures account for 60% of miscarriages, the researchers aim for these images to enhance our understanding of the process, potentially improving natural conception and IVF outcomes.
Video footage of implantation in mouse embryos (left) and human embryos (right).
7. The Universe’s Expansion Slows
Research published in March confirmed that while the universe is indeed expanding, its rate of acceleration appears to be gradually slowing. In June, findings from the Supernova Cosmology Project provided further evidence supporting this theory. Explore the data and implications.
If the universe’s expansion slows, profound implications for our understanding of particle physics may arise. Scientists could be compelled to revisit established models, with potential consequences such as a dramatic “big crunch” scenario, where expansion reverses and the universe collapses back on itself.
Mathieu Tordeur, Heidi Sevestre and the bust of Vladimir Lenin at the Inaccessible South Pole of Antarctica
Heidi Sevestre/Mathieu Tordeur
In the vast, barren expanse of Antarctica, an explorer named Mathieu Tordeur and glaciologist Heidi Sevestre encountered a surreal sight: a golden bust of Vladimir Lenin emerging from the snow. This relic, left by a Soviet expedition, marks the inaccessible South Pole, the furthest point from any Antarctic coast.
This extraordinary 4,000 km expedition aims to gather critical scientific data to better understand the continent’s response to climate change.
“I almost had tears in my eyes,” said Sevestre via satellite phone from Antarctica. The moment was humbling, making them feel small amidst the stark isolation and beauty of the landscape.
Since November 3, the duo has been kite-skiing, harnessing winds to pull them at speeds exceeding 35 kilometers per hour. This groundbreaking kite-skiing expedition is the first of its kind, designed to gather polar scientific data. They pull a sled equipped with advanced ground-penetrating radar capable of scanning up to 40 meters beneath the snow and ice.
Researchers are eager to discover if the increased snowfall in East Antarctica is counteracting the melting occurring along the coast. While satellite measurements provide some insights, the data collected by Tordeur and Sevestre promises to yield more precise estimates, according to Martin Siegert at the University of Exeter, UK.
“For 1,000 kilometers in every direction, we’ll encounter no one,” he noted. “This kind of information is rare, and it’s essential to determine whether ice sheets are growing or retreating.
With a three-month window, the team plans to journey from Novo Air Base in East Antarctica to Hercules Bay in West Antarctica before the Antarctic summer concludes and flights cease.
In 2019, Tordeur became the youngest individual to ski solo to the South Pole without assistance at just 27 years old. Committed to merging adventure with scientific discovery, he remarked, “Kite-skiing offers the potential to explore and research further into the continent, where few scientists venture.”
Mathieu Tordeur and Heidi Sevestre on their Antarctic expedition
Heidi Sevestre/Mathieu Tordeur
Traditionally, underground mapping is conducted via aircraft, yet researchers sometimes employ ground-penetrating radar towed behind tractors to enhance data accuracy. This kite-skiing expedition stands out as one of the most extensive ground-penetrating radar surveys ever attempted.
Tordeur and Sevestre plan to utilize powerful radar that can penetrate up to two kilometers deep, seeking to connect ancient ice layers from East Antarctica to West Antarctica. Successful results could indicate that the West Antarctic ice sheet, capable of raising sea levels by up to five meters, did not completely melt during previous interglacial periods—an ongoing debate within the scientific community.
“This is critical for assessing the stability of the ice sheet amid current climate change,” notes Hamish Pritchard from the British Antarctic Survey.
During their journey, Tordeur and Sevestre traversed roughly 1,000 kilometers along Sastrugi roads, navigating through rippled hard snow sculpted by the wind, which caused instability in their sleds.
To cope with challenging conditions, Sevestre finds motivation in audiobooks, such as The Worst Journey in the World by Apsley Cherry-Garrard, who recounted a harrowing expedition across the Ross Ice Shelf in the early 20th century.
“They experienced temperatures around -65 degrees Celsius inside their tents, and I can’t help but think they wouldn’t have complained about -28 degrees,” she reflects.
Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) has long been deemed irreversible. However, a groundbreaking study by scientists from Case Western Reserve University, University Hospitals, and the Louis Stokes Cleveland VA Medical Center reveals that treatment for advanced Alzheimer’s disease can be reversed. Through extensive research on both preclinical mouse models and human brain samples, the team discovered that the brain’s failure to maintain normal levels of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), the crucial energy molecule of cells, significantly contributes to the onset of Alzheimer’s. Furthermore, sustaining an appropriate NAD+ balance may not only prevent but also reverse the progression of Alzheimer’s disease.
Alzheimer’s disease severity correlates with NAD+ homeostatic dysregulation. Image credit: Chaubey et al., doi: 10.1016/j.xcrm.2025.102535.
Historically, Alzheimer’s disease, the primary cause of dementia, has been regarded as irreversible since its identification over a century ago, and it is expected to impact more than 150 million individuals globally by 2050.
Current therapies focused on amyloid beta (Aβ) and clinical symptoms offer limited benefits, underscoring the urgent need for complimentary and alternative treatment options.
Intriguingly, individuals with autosomal dominant AD mutations can remain symptom-free for decades, while others without Alzheimer’s neuropathology maintain cognitive function despite having numerous amyloid plaques.
These insights indicate potential intrinsic brain resilience mechanisms that may slow or halt disease progression, suggesting that enhancing these processes could enhance recovery from Alzheimer’s disease.
NAD+ homeostasis plays a pivotal role in cellular resilience against oxidative stress, DNA damage, neuroinflammation, blood-brain barrier degradation, impaired hippocampal neurogenesis, deficits in synaptic plasticity, and overall neurodegeneration.
In a recent study, Professor Andrew Pieper and his team from Case Western Reserve University discovered that NAD+ levels decrease significantly in the brains of Alzheimer’s patients, a trend also observed in mouse models.
While Alzheimer’s disease is unique to humans, it can be effectively modeled using genetically engineered mice that carry mutations linked to human Alzheimer’s disease.
The researchers utilized two distinct mouse models: one with multiple human mutations affecting amyloid processing and another with a human mutation in the tau protein.
Both models exhibited Alzheimer’s-like brain pathology, including blood-brain barrier degradation, axonal degeneration, neuroinflammation, impaired hippocampal neurogenesis, diminished synaptic transmission, and excessive oxidative damage.
They also developed cognitive impairments typical of Alzheimer’s patients.
Upon discovering the sharp decline in NAD+ levels in both humans and mice with Alzheimer’s, the scientists investigated whether preserving NAD+ levels before disease onset and restoring them after significant disease progression could prevent or reverse Alzheimer’s.
This research builds upon prior work showing potential recovery by restoring NAD+ balance following severe brain injuries.
The team achieved NAD+ balance restoration using a well-known pharmacological agent, P7C3-A20.
Remarkably, maintaining NAD+ balance not only shielded mice from developing Alzheimer’s but also enabled brain recovery from key pathological changes even when treatment was delayed in advanced disease stages.
Subsequently, both mouse strains fully regained cognitive function, accompanied by normalized levels of phosphorylated tau-217—a recently recognized clinical biomarker for Alzheimer’s disease in humans—confirming the restoration of cognitive function and highlighting a potential biomarker for future Alzheimer’s disease reversal trials.
“We are excited and hopeful about these results,” said Professor Pieper.
“Restoring brain energy balance led to both pathological and functional recovery in mice with advanced Alzheimer’s disease.”
“Observing this effect across two different animal models, driven by distinct genetic causes, reinforces the notion that recovery from progressive Alzheimer’s disease may be achievable through the restoration of brain NAD+ balance.”
These findings encourage a shift in how researchers, clinicians, and patients perceive treatment options for Alzheimer’s disease moving forward.
“The key takeaway is one of hope. Alzheimer’s disease effects may not necessarily be permanent,” noted Professor Pieper.
“Under certain conditions, the damaged brain can self-repair and regain functionality.”
“Through our research, we not only demonstrated a drug-based method for promoting recovery in animal models but also identified candidate proteins in human AD brains that may aid in reversing the disease,” remarked Dr. Kalyani Chaubey, a researcher at Case Western Reserve University and University Hospitals.
While current commercially available NAD+ precursors have been shown to elevate cellular NAD+ to unsafe levels—potentially promoting cancer—the pharmacological approach of this study employs P7C3-A20, which allows cells to maintain optimal NAD+ levels under stress without elevating them excessively.
“This is a crucial consideration for patient care, and clinicians should explore therapeutic strategies aimed at restoring the brain’s energy balance as a viable path toward disease recovery,” Professor Pieper concluded.
For more detailed information, see the study findings published in Cell Reports Medicine.
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Kalyani Chaubey et al. Pharmacological reversal of advanced Alzheimer’s disease in mice and identification of potential therapeutic nodes in the human brain. Cell Reports Medicine, published online on December 22, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.xcrm.2025.102535
A global team of astronomers from Chile, Europe, the USA, Canada, and New Zealand has achieved an unprecedented level of detail in spectroscopic observations of an interstellar comet as it moves through our solar system. Utilizing spectroscopic data from two instruments on the ESO’s Very Large Telescope (VLT), researchers detected emissions of nickel atoms and cyan gas from the interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS, marking it as the third confirmed interstellar object recorded.
This image of interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS was taken with Hubble’s Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) on December 27, 2025. Image credit: NASA/ESA/CSA/Hubble.
The interstellar traveler, 3I/ATLAS, was first discovered on July 1, 2025, using the NASA-funded ATLAS (Asteroid Terrestrial Impact Last Alert System) telescope.
Also referred to as C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) and A11pl3Z, this celestial object approached from the constellation Sagittarius.
At its discovery, the comet was located 4.51 astronomical units (AU) from the Sun, with an eccentricity of 6.13.
“Understanding the volatile components of interstellar objects that pass through our solar system grants us unique insights into the chemical and physical processes occurring in distant stellar systems,” noted Dr. Rohan Rahatgaonkar of the Catholic University of Chile.
“Interstellar objects maintain remnants of the chemical and physical processes active in their protoplanetary disks during formation and may be altered by interstellar medium exposure.”
“When subjected to solar radiation, these cometary interstellar objects emit solids and gases due to their activity.”
During July and August, astronomers carried out high-resolution spectroscopic analyses as 3I/ATLAS approached between 4.4 to 2.85 AU from the Sun.
To acquire the comet’s spectrum, they employed the VLT’s X-Shooter and the Ultraviolet and Visible Echelle Spectrometer (UVES).
Observations revealed that the comet’s coma, the cloud of dust and gas enveloping its nucleus, is primarily made up of dust, with a consistent reddish optical continuum indicating organic-rich materials.
This reddish coloration resembles that of comets within our solar system and primitive Kuiper belt objects, suggesting shared physical processes across the planetary system.
3I/ATLAS spectrum showing Ni I emission over observations from VLT/X-Shooter and VLT/UVES. Image credit: Rahatgaonkar et al., doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ae1cbc.
As 3I/ATLAS continued its journey towards the Sun, researchers identified emissions of various cyanide (CN) compounds and neutral nickel (Ni).
Interestingly, iron (Fe) was not detected, implying that nickel is efficiently released by comatose dust particles under solar radiation influence.
The rate of production for these emissions increases significantly as the comet nears the Sun, establishing a strong power-law relationship with its geocentric distance.
These observations indicate that the release of these atoms may stem from low-energy mechanisms, like photon-stimulated desorption or the breakdown of complex organics, rather than the direct sublimation of ice. This distinguishes this interstellar comet from many others within the solar system.
This spectral data not only acts as a snapshot of a transient visitor, but interstellar comets like 3I/ATLAS offer pristine samples from materials formed around other stars. Their limited processing from solar proximity preserves valuable clues about distant protoplanetary disks—the swirling clouds of gas and dust which eventually form planets.
Past interstellar discoveries, such as ‘Oumuamua in 2017 and 2I/Borisov in 2019, have exhibited surprising contrasts. ‘Oumuamua appeared inert, while 2I/Borisov showcased an abundance of carbon monoxide and complex ice.
The new insights from 3I/ATLAS contribute another intriguing layer to this expanding cosmic narrative. Its dusty constitution reveals molecular traits that challenge our understanding of typical comet behavior and introduce novel physics.
3I/ATLAS spectrum from the monitoring campaign spanning July 4 to August 21, 2025. Image credit: Rahatgaonkar et al., doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ae1cbc.
“If 3I/ATLAS maintains the absence of iron while exhibiting nickel emissions during perihelion, it will set a precedent for observing interstellar comet metal emissions decoupled from traditional refractory trends,” the researchers stated.
“This observation suggests a distinct low-temperature organometallic pathway for nickel in exocomets and may provide fresh perspectives on how disk chemistry, metallicity, and irradiation history affect planetesimal microphysics.”
The parent star of 3I/ATLAS is presumed to be less metallic than other interstellar progenitor stars, yet more metallic than the Sun, indicating no inherent conflict between its estimated age and the presence of iron-peak elements like nickel.
“Regardless of which interpretation is accurate, 3I/ATLAS promises a critical experiment linking metal emissions with volatile activation and particle physics in interstellar bodies.”
“The findings discussed will elevate nickel from being a mere curiosity into a crucial marker for determining both parent chemistry and galactic origins, and set new standards for rapid-response spectroscopy of interstellar objects at the Rubin Observatory and ESO’s Very Large Telescope.”
For further details, see the published findings on December 10, 2025, in the Astrophysics Journal Letter.
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Rohan Rahat Gaonkar et al. 2025. Observations of interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS using a very large telescope: From quiescence to luminescence—Dramatic increases in Ni i emissions and initial CN outgassing at extensive heliocentric distances. APJL 995, L34; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ae1cbc
In a newly published paper in this month’s iScience, researchers from the University of Tübingen and their collaborators present an interdisciplinary study of ancient stone and bone projectile points associated with Homo sapiens from the Lower Paleolithic era (40,000 to 35,000 years ago). This comprehensive research uses a blend of experimental ballistics, detailed measurements, and use-wear analysis, revealing that some of these prehistoric artifacts correspond not just to hand-thrown spears and javelin darts but also potentially to bow-propelled arrows.
Evidence suggests early humans may have used bows, arrows, and spear throwers in the Upper Paleolithic period. Image credit: sjs.org / CC BY-SA 3.0.
For decades, it was commonly believed that weapon technology evolved linearly, transitioning from hand-held spears to spear-throwing and eventually to bows and arrows.
However, lead researcher Keiko Kitagawa and her team at the University of Tübingen challenge this notion, arguing for a more complex evolution of weapon technology.
“Direct evidence of hunting weapons is rarely identified in the archaeological record,” they noted.
“Prehistoric hunting weapons encompassed a range from hand-held thrusting spears ideal for close-range hunting, to javelins and bow-headed arrows suitable for medium to long-range engagements.”
“The earliest known instances of such tools include wooden spears and throwing sticks, dating back 337,000 to 300,000 years in Europe.”
“Spear-throwing hooks first appeared during the Upper Solutrean period (around 24,500 to 21,000 years ago), gaining prominence in the Magdalenian culture of southwestern France (approximately 21,000 years ago), with nearly 100 specimens documented.”
Bows and arrows, however, have only surfaced from well-preserved sites like Mannheim-Vogelstang and Stermol in Germany, dated to about 12,000 years, and Lilla Roschulz-Mosse in Sweden, approximately 8,500 years, indicating they are significantly younger than other projectile technology.
Comparison of archaeological specimens from the Aurignac site with experimental examples from Vogelherd, Istritz, and Manot. Image credit: Kitagawa et al., doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2025.114270.
The authors propose that early modern humans may have concurrently experimented with various projectile technologies, adapting to diverse ecosystems and prey types.
The analysis reveals that the damage patterns on these ancient projectile points corresponded with what is expected from arrows shot from bows, as well as from spears and darts.
“We emphasize Upper Paleolithic bony projectiles, including split bases and megabases made from antler and bone, predominantly discovered in Aurignacian environments in Europe and the Levant, between 40,000 and 33,000 years ago,” the researchers explained.
“Our goal is to determine if the wear patterns and morphometry can identify the types of weapons associated with Aurignacian bone projectile tips.”
This discovery aligns with previous archaeological findings indicating that bows and arrows were utilized in Africa as far back as 54,000 years ago, predating earlier estimates and some of Europe’s archaeological record.
Importantly, the researchers do not assert that Homo sapiens invented the bow simultaneously across all regions, nor do they claim the bow was the only weapon used.
Instead, their findings suggest a rich technological diversity during the initial phases of human migration into new territories.
“Our study highlights the intricate nature of reconstructing launch technologies, which are often made from perishable materials,” the researchers stated.
“While it is impossible to account for all variables affecting the properties of the armature and resulting wear, we aspire to implement future experimental programs aimed at deepening our understanding of the projectiles that form a crucial component of hunter-gatherer economies.”
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Keiko Kitagawa et al. suggest that Homo sapiens may have utilized bows and arrows for hunting as early as the Upper Paleolithic period in Eurasia. iScience published online on December 18, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2025.114270
A long-lost star, discovered by the legendary astronomer Edward Emerson Barnard in 1892, has been astonishingly rediscovered in its original location.
Barnard was not just any astronomer; he made significant contributions to the field, including the discovery of Jupiter’s fifth moon, Amalthea, in 1892—nearly three centuries after Galileo’s initial discoveries. Recently, his observations have gained renewed interest due to a puzzling article he published in 1906, titled “Unexplained Observations.”
On a particular morning, Barnard noted a star near Venus while using his telescope to search for its satellite. He estimated its brightness to be around 7th magnitude on the astronomical scale, where fainter objects bear higher numbers. Typically, under dark skies, stars of magnitude 6 are the faintest visible to the human eye.
Beneath the stars at the Bonner Cathedral, which cataloged all stars brighter than magnitude 9.5, Barnard’s 7th magnitude star was conspicuously absent. Instead, the only celestial body he found nearby was a significantly dimmer 11th magnitude star—about 100 times less bright.
Could it have been a large asteroid? “Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta were elsewhere,” he surmised. Some theorized that the 11th magnitude star he eventually observed in that region might have temporarily brightened. Other scientists speculated that Barnard could have been deceived by a “ghost” image of Venus through the telescope. The mystery lingered until late December 2024 when a dedicated group of astronomers sought to unravel it.
“In a weekly Zoom meeting dubbed ‘Asteroid Lunch,’ I brought it up,” says Tim Hunter.
Hunter, an Arizona-based amateur astronomer and co-founder of the International Dark Sky Association, along with both amateur and professional astronomers, evaluated all previous hypotheses and found flaws in them.
As doubts began to consume the group, Roger Ceragioli, an optical engineer from the University of Arizona, revisited the ghost theory by observing Venus at dawn using a vintage telescope similar to Barnard’s. Much to his surprise, although Venus was not positioned where Barnard had seen it, “the star emerged clearly in my field of view,” he noted. This led him to theorize that the star must be bright enough to be visible at dawn, even though the star map revealed it to be only 8th magnitude and therefore relatively faint.
The group’s conclusive findings suggested that Barnard’s purported 7th magnitude star was indeed the 11th magnitude star noted later—appearing brighter due to the dawn light. Using a 36-inch telescope at the Lick Observatory in California, Barnard first spotted this star alongside Venus, but no equally bright stars were visible in the area.
Understanding Star brightness measurement was a specialized skill in Barnard’s era. It had only been refined by astronomers focusing on variable stars, which Barnard had not formally studied. Thus, his mistake was rather excusable, as Ceragioli suggests.
Hunter affirms Barnard’s legacy remains intact, saying, “We’re all big fans of Barnard. It’s a minor error in an impressive career.”
Chile: The World Capital of Astronomy
Discover the astronomical wonders of Chile, home to the world’s most advanced observatory and unrivaled stargazing opportunities under some of the clearest skies on Earth.
In early 2025, excitement surged within the research community with the release of a groundbreaking preprint paper detailing the world’s first fully 3D printed microscope. This innovative device was constructed in just hours and costs a fraction of traditional models.
Dr. Liam Rooney, a professor at the University of Glasgow, explained to New Scientist that the response to their revolutionary microscope has been overwhelming, attracting interest from biomedical researchers, community organizations, and even filmmakers. He stated, “The community response has been remarkable.” This significant research has been published in the Microscope Journal.
For the microscope’s body, the team employed designs from the Open Flexure project, a public resource for 3D printing scientific instruments. Utilizing a commercial camera and light source, they controlled the entire system using a Raspberry Pi computer.
The true innovation lies in the 3D-printed microscope lenses made from clear plastic, drastically reducing costs and enhancing accessibility. Traditional microscopes can cost thousands; in contrast, this new model can be assembled for less than £50.
“Since January, we have printed approximately 1,000 lenses in various shapes,” remarked team member Gail McConnell, from the University of Strathclyde.
Several companies producing commercial products that require optics have reached out to discuss potential collaborations, as affordable, lightweight 3D-printed lenses are still uncommon in large-scale production. The team has successfully used the microscope to analyze blood samples and tissue sections from mouse kidneys, validating its utility for medical and biological research.
The researchers aim to democratize access to microscopy, and they are making strides toward that goal. Collaboration with a lab at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in Ghana is underway to enhance microscope accessibility for researchers and students across West Africa. Additionally, they’ve secured funding from the UK Institute for Technology Strategy, and are involved in programs designed to upskill and empower students facing educational barriers.
Furthermore, the team has developed a new microscope course through the Strathclyde Light Microscopy Course, aimed at researchers of all experience levels and providing a unique educational opportunity in the UK. Rooney noted, “This is revolutionizing our teaching methods.”
Looking towards the future, there is substantial potential for further enhancements in 3D printed microscopes. The research team is working to improve resolution without raising costs and have found methods to enhance image contrast by 67%.
McConnell emphasized that the microscope’s design leverages consumer electronics and accessible 3D printing technologies, stating that the future advancements and capabilities are limited only by current 3D printing technology. “As these printers advance, so will our capabilities. The only bottleneck is technology, not creativity,” she explained. “We’re frequently contacted by individuals eager to see new designs.”
A groundbreaking recipe for the classic Cacio e Pepe pasta dish and perfectly cooked hard-boiled eggs has stirred discussions in the culinary world throughout 2025, evoking both excitement and dissent.
In January, Ivan di Terlizzi and researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Complex Systems Physics in Germany unveiled their findings on achieving the ideal silky texture of Cacio e Pepe pasta sauce. This traditional dish, composed of black pepper, pecorino cheese, and water, is notoriously challenging to perfect without unwanted lumps. According to the researchers, the key lies in the addition of a small amount of cornstarch.
The research involved meticulous testing of hundreds of sauce variations to determine the ideal ratios of cheese, starch, and water, resulting in insightful graphs and diagrams that indicate the threshold for achieving a lump-free sauce. Despite the scientific backing, their findings sparked controversy, particularly in Italy.
“Being an Italian recipe, we encountered some skepticism on social media, with remarks suggesting we’ve mastered this dish over generations. Cooking should be driven by passion, not just science,” Di Terlizzi noted.
Conversely, responses from the scientific community were predominantly positive, with fellow researchers approaching him at physics conferences to discuss his work. In September, Di Terlizzi and his colleagues were awarded the Ig Nobel Prize, a whimsical recognition of research that stimulates both laughter and contemplation. “It’s about finding patterns in what appears chaotic, provided you examine it through the lens of rigor and mathematics,” he explained.
In February, Ernesto Di Maio and his team at the University of Naples introduced a revolutionary method for boiling eggs perfectly. This intricate technique involves transferring the eggs between pots of 30°C water and boiling water every two minutes for at least 30 minutes to ensure even cooking of the whites and yolks, which solidify at different temperatures.
This egg-cooking method gained significant traction online, though some users criticized the lengthy process for a traditionally quick dish. The media attention also led to unexpected platforms, such as a live cooking show on Japan’s public broadcaster and a segment on the Italian version of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? Di Maio remarked, “I recently returned from Washington, D.C., where I prepared countless eggs for a gathering at an ambassador’s residence.”
Di Maio further mentioned that the scientific principles applied in perfecting the egg-boiling technique are being adapted for more practical applications, such as curing materials at varying temperatures to create layered plastics, akin to the egg white and yolk layers.
The Science of Wine and Cheese in France
Join us for a captivating journey into France’s culinary heritage, exploring the intricate relationship between wine and cheese through the lens of science, tradition, and terroir.
Exploring the Multiverse: Insights into Quantum Behavior
Victor de Schwamberg/Science Photo Library
A groundbreaking physics experiment published this year reported measuring single photons in two locations simultaneously, an assertion that challenges the multiverse theory. While many physicists express skepticism, the researchers staunchly defend their findings.
In May, Holger Hoffman and his team from Hiroshima University revealed results from a refined version of the iconic double-slit experiment. Their findings indicate that individual photons are “delocalized,” suggesting they cannot be confined to one location.
The initial double-slit experiments, conducted in 1801, demonstrated that shining light through two narrow slits onto a screen resulted in a wavy interference pattern. This phenomenon persists even when photons are emitted one at a time, implying that a single photon can behave like a wave—a point of contention among physicists regarding the nature of single photons and measurement.
When referencing a quantum particle as wavelike, this typically pertains to its wave function, a mathematical representation of all potential locations the particle might occupy.
These potential states exist in a layered configuration until a measurement is made—a concept known as superposition. Most physicists contend that measuring a particle collapses its wave function from superposition to a singular state.
One way to understand this is to propose the existence of multiple overlapping universes, each allowing photons to navigate different paths, with potential interference between photons from these separate universes, a concept referred to as the “many-worlds” interpretation.
However, Hoffman and his collaborators argue that their experiments provide concrete evidence that photons traverse both slits, demonstrating the wave function as more than just a mathematical abstraction—it serves as a depiction of reality, countering the idea of a multiverse.
Nevertheless, many physicists have expressed concern regarding the team’s methodology, suggesting that repeated statistical measurements cannot adequately determine a particle’s attributes. “I don’t believe you can draw conclusions about a single photon based on this,” stated Andrew Jordan at Chapman University in California, discussing the report with New Scientist.
The assertion that these experiments could resolve foundational issues in quantum mechanics has been met with considerable skepticism, according to Hoffman, partially due to the innovative nature of their measurement techniques.
“We’re challenging traditional views,” Hoffman explained, noting that existing interpretations of quantum mechanics usually presume that measured values and their mathematical representations depict reality. “The many-worlds interpretation is essentially the most extreme extension of that presumption,” he added.
Hoffman asserts that their investigation reveals that mathematical wave functions do not embody reality; the only true reality is what can be measured. “Although superposition suggests that a state might be defined by hypothetical measurements, actual experimental data contradicts this broader interpretation,” he elaborated.
Despite facing difficulties in publishing their findings, Hoffman and his team have been invited to present their research to various academic groups and are actively refining their work. “We anticipated some resistance. If this endeavor were straightforward, it wouldn’t be worthwhile. Altering one’s perspective takes considerable effort,” Hoffman concluded.
DNA Tapes: Revolutionizing Information Storage Beyond Standard Cassettes
Jiankai Li et al. 2025
In an innovative revival of 1960s technology, researchers have created a cassette tape that utilizes DNA for encoding information, substituting traditional iron oxide with synthetic DNA molecules printed onto plastic tape.
This groundbreaking technology boasts an astounding capacity for storing information. While conventional cassette tapes typically hold about 12 songs per side, DNA tapes can encapsulate every song ever recorded.
With a capacity of 10 megabytes per song, 100 meters of DNA cassette tape can accommodate over 3 billion songs. In total, the storage potential is a staggering 36 petabytes, equal to 36,000 terabytes of hard drive space.
Led by Jiang Xinyu and his team at Southern University of Science and Technology in Guangdong, China, these cassettes are engineered to represent digital data through the sequencing of DNA bases (A, T, C, G) much like binary code in computers. This enables the storage of various digital files, including text, images, audio, and video.
The researchers were thrilled by the public’s reaction following the announcement of the DNA cassette. New Scientist reported Jiang stating, “The diverse feedback we’ve received from scientists, artists, engineers, and educators has been rewarding, inspiring many to rethink the intersection of data, biology, and technology.”
The project team’s next objective is to create a specialized reading/writing mechanism for DNA cassettes that emulates the function of traditional magnetic tape drives. “Our new ‘head’ design will precisely align the DNA tape in a reaction chamber for chemical processes like reading and rewriting,” Jiang explains.
They anticipate that DNA cassette tapes could be available commercially within five years. “Our exploration of DNA cassette tape technology transcends mere storage capability; it encompasses a reimagining of how information exists in both physical and biological forms,” Jiang concludes.
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This year has been exceptional for witnessing the stunning Northern Lights.
One of nature’s most enchanting yet elusive phenomena, the vibrant greens and reds of the Northern Lights offered breathtaking displays throughout 2025.
The magic behind these captivating displays originates 150 million kilometers (93 million miles) away on the sun’s surface.
Auroras result from charged particles emitted by the sun—known as solar wind—colliding with Earth’s atmosphere.
Earth’s magnetic field directs these particles into the atmosphere, resulting in collisions with nitrogen and oxygen, which causes them to emit light, leading to the spectacular phenomenon known as the Northern Lights.
The intensity of these light shows is dependent on solar activity.
Our sun operates on an approximately 11-year solar cycle, where periods of high and low activity occur.
During solar peaks, alongside the usual solar wind, massive plasma clouds, termed coronal mass ejections, frequently erupt.
The latest solar cycle peaked in October 2024, and the sun will remain active for the following year.
During solar maximums, activity is heightened, affecting the geographical visibility of the auroras.
Typically, auroras are confined to the aurora oval, a circular area around the poles at latitudes of 65 to 70 degrees.
Nevertheless, more vigorous solar storms can push the lights further south. This year, significant storms carried the Northern Lights to southern England and many parts of the U.S.
Although the Northern Lights, or Southern Lights, usually occur in remote locations or over uninhabited oceans, 2025 offered several opportunities to witness stunning displays from Australia and New Zealand.
All of this signifies that 2025 was a fantastic year not just for observing the Northern Lights but also for photographing them.
Visit Capture the Atlas for a curated selection of 25 incredible images for our annual Northern Lights Photographer of the Year competition. Check them out below.
Lights & Ice – Tori Harp
Tori initially aimed to photograph the night sky from an ice cave’s entrance when the aurora borealis transformed the scene. Aoraki/Mt Cook National Park, New Zealand – Photo credit: Tori Harp
Arctic Rain – Vincent Beudez
The aurora morphs constantly; this shot captures a moment when the light transformed into a colorful mosaic. Tromsø, Norway – Photo credit: Vincent Beudez
Essence of the Arctic Night – Giulio Cobianchi
This breathtaking 360-degree panorama features the Northern Lights beneath the Milky Way arc. Hawkland Beach, Lofoten Islands – Photo credit: Giulio Cobianchi
aurora color
One remarkable aspect of the aurora borealis captured in photography is its vibrant color variety.
The colors are produced by atmospheric particles being excited by solar wind.
Green is the most prominent color commonly associated with the Northern Lights, generated by oxygen atoms at low altitudes up to about 240 km (150 miles).
At higher altitudes, oxygen behaves differently and emits red, the second most common color.
Dark purple and blue shades, derived from nitrogen molecules, are rare and observed during the most intense displays.
Are the Northern Lights dangerous?
The aurora itself is a stunning spectacle, so enjoy it worry-free!
However, the solar activity that creates the auroras can pose dangers in space.
For astronauts, radiation is a significant health hazard. If a powerful solar flare is forecasted, the crew on the International Space Station must take shelter in the most shielded part.
Satellites can also be affected by radiation, leading to hardware damage or complete operational failure.
In February 2022, 40 newly launched SpaceX Starlink satellites were lost due to increased drag on them after a solar event.
Fortunately, we are shielded from this radiation on Earth by our atmosphere and magnetic fields.
However, we should be cautious as these solar storms can disrupt communications and lead to surges in electrical grids.
Alone under a dancing sky – Nikola Vukotic
Not all participants are veteran aurora hunters; Nikola saw the aurora for the first time just the day before taking this photo. Skagsanden Beach, Lofoten Islands – Photo credit: Nikola Vukotic
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Significant Economic Benefits of mRNA Cancer Vaccines Currently Under Development
Eugene/Getty Images
In August 2025, the United States announced a $500 million cut in funding for vaccine development, jeopardizing the potential advantages of mRNA cancer vaccine research. According to Alison Galvani from Yale University and colleagues, this reduction poses significant risks to future developments.
The team’s analysis indicates that the treatment advancements observed in current clinical trials could prevent nearly 50,000 deaths, translating to an economic value of $75 billion. “This estimate is based on just one annual cohort of patients for each cancer type,” stated the researchers.
Experts caution that diminishing federal investment in mRNA vaccine technology risks undermining these crucial benefits.
Recent research highlights that many of the most effective cancer treatments leverage the body’s immune response to combat tumors. mRNA vaccines can specifically activate the immune system to identify proteins unique to cancer cells, offering a tailored approach to cancer treatment.
To evaluate the potential impact of these vaccines, Galvani and her team analyzed 32 ongoing mRNA cancer vaccine clinical trials in the U.S. They identified the top 11 promising trials and estimated the additional years of life these treatments could provide if widely administered to eligible patients within a year.
Furthermore, the researchers calculated the annual value of an additional year of life, utilizing statistical measures regarding how much individuals would pay for such benefits. They applied values established by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to assess the implications of potential regulatory shifts.
Although the annual estimates may be optimistic—given that some vaccine candidates may not gain approval—Oliver Watson from Imperial College London employed a similar framework, estimating that COVID-19 vaccines have yielded global health and economic benefits ranging from $5 trillion to $38 trillion.
If researchers evaluated the cumulative value of multiple cohorts receiving cancer treatments and extended their analysis over a longer time frame, the potential benefits would be substantially greater. “These estimates are undoubtedly conservative,” Watson notes.
Explore the stunning new image captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, showcasing a section of the N159 star-forming complex located in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a dwarf galaxy approximately 160,000 light-years away from Earth.
This breathtaking Hubble image portrays N159, a vibrant star-forming complex in the Large Magellanic Cloud. Image credit: NASA / ESA / Hubble / R. Indebetouw.
N159 stands as one of the most colossal molecular clouds within the Large Magellanic Cloud, making it a noteworthy member of our cosmic neighborhood – the Milky Way galaxy.
Positioned at the southwestern edge of the renowned Tarantula Nebula, N159 spans over 150 light-years across.
The newly released Hubble image captures only a fraction of the expansive N159 complex.
“A dense cloud of cold hydrogen gas predominates the scene, creating a complex array of ridges, cavities, and luminescent filaments,” stated Hubble astronomers.
“Within these thick clouds, newly formed stars begin to blaze, their intense radiation illuminating the surrounding hydrogen in a striking crimson hue.”
“The brightest zones signify the presence of hot, massive young stars whose vigorous stellar winds and energetic light reshape the surrounding space.”
“These powerful forces carve out bubble-like formations and hollow cavities within the gas, clearly illustrating the effects of stellar feedback.”
“Dark clouds in the foreground glow thanks to a new star shining from behind.”
“The illuminated clouds and intricate bubbles reveal the dynamic interplay between star formation and the primordial matter from which stars arise, capturing the perpetual cycles of creation and transformation within this neighboring galaxy.”
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