Even if atmospheric carbon dioxide returns to pre-industrial levels and the global temperature decreases, the Arctic is projected to warm by approximately 1.5 degrees Celsius.
It is also expected that the region will receive about 0.1 millimeter of extra precipitation daily, regardless of the implementation of large-scale carbon dioxide removal (CDR) strategies.
“These findings emphasize the irreversible aspect of climate change in the Arctic, even with aggressive CDR efforts,” the researchers stated in their publication.
Current atmospheric CO2 levels are roughly 1.5 times greater than pre-industrial levels, resulting in a warming of 3°C or more. A study published in March revealed that even if extra carbon dioxide were removed, sea ice coverage would still average 1 million square kilometers less.
In a new investigation, researchers led by Xiaodong from the Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing utilized 11 distinct climate models to assess the likelihood of continued Arctic warming. The findings also indicate that precipitation is likely to increase, according to Michael Meredith from the British Antarctic Survey, who was not part of the study.
The primary reason for this persistent warming is that oceans, which have absorbed 90% of the heat from global warming, will continue to warm the Arctic for centuries, even when atmospheric temperatures decrease. This situation will likely be amplified by feedback mechanisms, such as diminishing sea ice, which causes the open ocean to raise air temperatures.
“Even if the atmosphere continues to cool, the oceans will lag behind and counteract this trend,” Meredith remarked.
Many experts express skepticism about whether CDR methods, including tree planting and mechanical CO2 extraction, can significantly lower atmospheric CO2 levels due to the financial and energy challenges, a process that could take thousands of years.
Dong et al. examined a theoretical scenario where atmospheric CO2 levels quadrupled from pre-industrial amounts over 140 years, decreased for another 140 years, and then remained at pre-industrial levels for 60 additional years.
The study also reviewed two potential real-world climate scenarios: one in which humanity immediately reduces emissions, and another where emissions remain high but CDR efforts ramp up quickly starting in 2070. In these scenarios, similar to the theoretical model, the Arctic was found to be approximately 1.5 degrees Celsius warmer with precipitation increasing by an additional 0.1 mm per day by 2100.
The models forecast a decrease in temperatures and precipitation in the waters just south of Greenland and Iceland, contrasting with other regions in the Far North. This suggests a decline in the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), which is responsible for transporting warm surface water from the tropics to this area. This current is already weakening as global ocean temperatures rise, a trend that might lead to colder winters in Europe over time.
Climate-related effects, such as thawing permafrost and melting of the Greenland ice sheet, are likely to persist but were not included in this study’s models.
“The Greenland ice sheet is expected to behave as observed, meaning it will continue to lose mass and contribute to sea level rise,” stated Mark Selles from the US National Snow and Ice Data Center.
While the study indicates that the Arctic will remain warm for centuries, it is anticipated that it will eventually cool over the course of many more centuries or even millennia.
There may have been ancient tides on Mars, suggesting the presence of larger moons capable of influencing the planet’s waters. Currently, Mars has two small moons that aren’t sufficient for this theory.
Suniti Karunatilake and researchers from Louisiana State University discovered signs of tidal activity in Gale Crater’s sedimentary layers.
By examining these layers, they inferred the nature of the tidal cycles and the potential moon responsible for them. If such a moon existed, it would have been significantly larger than Phobos, Mars’ biggest moon, yet still smaller than Earth’s moon. The two current Martian moons might be remnants of a larger satellite.
Mr. Karunatilake is set to present the findings at the upcoming American Geophysical Union meeting in New Orleans, Louisiana.
The sedimentary rocks that supported their conclusions were captured by NASA’s Curiosity rover, displaying alternating layers of varying thicknesses and colors. These strata are termed rhythmite, indicating that they were formed by winds or ocean currents of fluctuating strength. In tidal scenarios, sand is transported back and forth, covered by fine mud when the tide recedes.
The rhythm of strong winds leaves thin, dark lines indicative of “mud drapes,” which “resemble Earth’s tidal patterns closely,” notes team member Priyabrata Das, also from Louisiana State University.
To bolster their hypothesis, Ranjan Sarkar from Germany’s Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research utilized a standard mathematical technique called the Fourier transform to evaluate the layered structures in Martian rocks. This analysis revealed additional periodicity in layer thicknesses, implying that both the sun and a past moon may have influenced the tides.
This analysis may validate the idea initially put forth by Rajat Mazumdar from the German Institute of Technology in Oman. In 2023, Mazumdar suggested that layered formations observed by NASA’s Perseverance rover in Jezero Crater could indicate tidal activity. Unfortunately, the resolution of these images was insufficient for Fourier analysis. Enthused by the Gail rhythmite findings, Mazumdar emphasizes that rhythmite on Earth is strong evidence of tidal conditions.
However, skepticism remains. The lakes in Jezero and Gale craters, sized at 45 kilometers and 154 kilometers respectively, are considered too small to exhibit significant tidal flooding. Nicholas Mangold, a member of NASA’s Perseverance Mars team at the Institute for Planetary and Earth Sciences in Nantes, France, argues that larger moons wouldn’t have left tidal traces in these locations.
Christopher Fed, a professor at the University of Tennessee working with NASA on the Curiosity mission, also finds the notion of a larger moon problematic, suggesting that tidal-like patterns could emerge from varying river inflows instead.
Nevertheless, Sarkar believes a tidal connection is feasible. “The ocean might have linked to Gale, and even subsurface porosity could create tides. Mars’ surface is extensively cracked and crated, meaning porosity isn’t an issue,” he argues.
As climate change continues to undermine the icy habitats crucial for polar bear survival, new studies indicate that these bears are swiftly altering their genetic makeup to adapt.
This species is being compelled to cope with the increasingly harsh conditions of a warming Arctic, marking what scientists believe to be the first documented instance of rising temperatures prompting genetic adaptations in a mammal.
Research conducted by the University of East Anglia in the UK revealed findings: published in Friday’s issue of the journal Mobile DNA, which offers a rare glimmer of hope for these animals.
“Polar bears are sadly projected to face extinction this century, with two-thirds of their population potentially gone by 2050,” Alice Godden, the study’s lead author, shared with NBC News.
“We believe our findings genuinely provide a flicker of hope: a chance to reduce carbon emissions, mitigate climate change, and allow bears more time to adapt to significant changes in their habitats.”
Building on previous research from the University of Washington, Godden’s team studied blood samples from polar bears in northeastern and southeastern Greenland. In the comparatively warmer southern region, genes associated with heat stress, aging, and metabolism showed different behavior compared to those in the north.
“Essentially, this indicates that various groups of bears are modifying different segments of their DNA at varying rates, with this activity seemingly linked to their specific environmental and climatic contexts,” Godden mentioned in a university press release.
He remarked that this is the first indication that a distinct population of a species has been driven to “rewrite its own DNA,” suggesting this process is a “desperate survival mechanism” against disappearing sea ice.
The Arctic Ocean has consistently recorded unusually high temperatures in recent years, as reported by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Monitoring data suggests.
Researchers assert that rising ocean temperatures are diminishing the vital sea ice foundation that bears rely on for hunting seals, leading to isolation and food shortages.
Godden explained to NBC News that the genetic changes emerged as the bears’ digestive systems adapted to food scarcity, including a lack of prey, plant life, and low-fat diets.
“Access to food poses a critical challenge for these bears everywhere, particularly in the South,” she notes. “This may indicate that their physical structure and composition are also evolving in response to warmer surroundings.”
The lead researcher stated that her team targeted the southern bear group as the region’s warmer climate provides insights into what other bear populations may experience later this century if current climate trends persist.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature estimates around 26,000 polar bears currently exist globally. Known scientifically as Ursus maritimus, or “sea bear,” these animals are classified as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, believed to be at “high risk of extinction in the wild.”
The research “doesn’t imply that polar bears are at a reduced risk of extinction,” Godden stated. However, she added this finding “could provide a genetic framework for how polar bears may swiftly adapt to climate change.”
Godden further urged, “We all need to take action to reduce our carbon footprint and create opportunities to protect and expand this incredible and vital species.”
These stunning and enigmatic images were captured by scientists and photographers, like Felice Frankel, during her everyday life. Take a moment to see if you can guess what they depict before reading further. We will unveil the details beneath each photo.
The primary image is featured in Frankel’s latest publication, Amazing Moments: Uncovering the Hidden Science Around Us. Each close-up shot, many taken with her smartphone, is paired with an explanation of the scientific process highlighted. “It’s akin to a guessing game,” she notes.
So, what’s the answer? The primary image at the beginning of this article features an opal. The blue lines present are mineral veins. When light passes through the stone, it diffracts, and the size of the silica spheres along with their spacing determine the colors observed.
The above image was taken while Frankel sautéed peppers, where condensation formed on the pot lid. These small droplets acted as lenses, transmitting the colors of the peppers through the lid to the camera.
The above photo captures a high-resolution image of a 5 cm mineral agate sample. Its intricate pattern showcases a layer of silica.
Frankel was captivated by the glowing copper pot depicted above. When copper is heated and exposed to air, it oxidizes, resulting in vivid copper compounds that create beautiful colors.
In the concluding image above, oil leaking from the car forms a thin layer atop the puddle. Light reflects off the top and bottom of this oil layer, which varies in thickness, creating a spectrum of colors due to these reflections.
Quantum particles now have an extended capacity to carry useful information.
koto_feja/Getty Images
The intriguing phenomenon of quantum superposition has enabled scientists to surpass the limitations imposed by fundamental quantum mechanics, equipping quantum objects with properties advantageous for long-term quantum computing.
For over a century, physicists have wrestled with the challenge of distinguishing between the minuscule quantum world and the larger macroscopic universe. In 1985, physicists Anthony Leggett and Anupam Garg introduced a mathematical assessment for determining the size threshold at which an object transcends its quantum characteristics. Quantum objects are recognized by remarkably strong correlations of their properties over time, akin to surprising connections between actions of yesterday and tomorrow.
Objects that achieve a sufficient score in this assessment are classified as quantum, with the scores traditionally held back by a value known as the temporal Zirelson limit (TTB). Theorists believed that even distinctly quantum objects could not surpass this threshold. However, Arijit Chatterjee and his colleagues from the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research in Pune have discovered a method to significantly exceed the TTB using one of the most basic quantum elements.
They centered their research on qubits, the essential building blocks of quantum computers and other quantum information systems. While qubits can be produced through various methods, the team utilized a carbon-based molecule incorporating three qubits. The first qubit was employed to control the behavior of the second “target” qubit over time, with the third qubit employed to extract properties from the target.
Though three-qubit configurations are generally believed to be constrained by the TTB, Chatterjee and his team discovered a method to push the target qubits beyond this limitation dramatically. In fact, their technique resulted in one of the most significant deviations from mathematical plausibility. The key was for the first qubit to govern the target qubit while it was in a state of quantum superposition, where it can effectively embody two states or actions that seem mutually exclusive. For instance, in their experiment, the first qubit directed the target qubit to rotate both clockwise and counterclockwise simultaneously.
Qubits are usually susceptible to decoherence over time, diminishing their capacity to store quantum information. However, after the target qubit surpassed the TTB, decoherence set in, yet the ability to encode information persisted five times longer due to its time-controlled behavior influenced by superposition.
According to Chatterjee, this resilience is advantageous in any context requiring precise qubit control, such as in computational applications. Team member HS Kartik from Poland’s University of Gdańsk mentions that procedures in quantum metrology, including accurate sensing of electromagnetic fields, could benefit significantly from this level of qubit control.
Rakura and their colleagues from China’s Sun Yat-sen University indicate that this research not only has clear potential for enhancing quantum computing practices but also fundamentally broadens our comprehension of how quantum objects behave over time. This is significant because immensely surpassing the TTB indicates that the properties of the qubit are highly interconnected at two divergent time points, a phenomenon absent in non-quantum entities.
The substantial breach of the TTB strongly demonstrates the extent of quantum characteristics present throughout the three-qubit configuration and exemplifies how researchers are advancing the frontiers of the quantum domain, says Karthik.
A recent study conducted by researchers at the University of Zurich indicates that the compositions of Uranus and Neptune might be less icy than previously assumed.
Uranus could be classified as an ice giant (left) or a rock giant (right), depending on the assumptions of the model. Image credit: Keck Institute for Space Studies / Chuck Carter.
“Uranus and Neptune remain poorly understood, making the designation of ice giants too simplistic,” states Dr. Luca Morf, a student at the University of Zurich.
“Models based on physical data incorporate too many assumptions, while empirical models fall short in complexity.”
“Our approach combines both methodologies to create an interior model that is unbiased, yet physically coherent.”
The research commenced with a stochastic density distribution inside the planets.
Subsequently, the team calculated the gravitational fields of the planets in alignment with observational data to infer their likely compositions.
The process was iterated to achieve the closest alignment between the model and the empirical data.
Employing a new, unbiased yet fully physical framework, scientists have revealed that the internal compositions of the solar system’s ice giants are not restricted to ice alone.
“We initially proposed this concept nearly 15 years ago, and now we possess a numerical framework to substantiate it,” remarked Professor Ravit Held of the University of Zurich.
“This expanded spectrum of internal compositions suggests both planets could be rich in water or minerals.”
The study also sheds light on the enigmatic magnetic fields of Uranus and Neptune.
In contrast to Earth’s defined north and south magnetic poles, the magnetic fields of Uranus and Neptune exhibit greater complexity, featuring multiple poles.
“Our model introduces a so-called ‘ionized water’ layer that generates magnetic dynamos that account for the observed non-dipolar magnetic fields,” noted Professor Held.
“Moreover, we discovered that Uranus’ magnetic field has a more profound origin compared to that of Neptune.”
While the findings are promising, some ambiguities linger.
“A significant challenge is that physicists still have limited understanding of how materials behave under the extreme pressure and temperature conditions in planetary cores, which could influence our conclusions,” Morf added.
Notwithstanding the uncertainties, these new findings open avenues for possible internal composition scenarios, challenging longstanding assumptions and informing future materials science research under planetary conditions.
“Depending on model assumptions, both Uranus and Neptune have the potential to be classified as rock giants or ice giants,” Professor Held remarked.
“At present, the data is insufficient to differentiate between the two, highlighting the necessity for dedicated missions to Uranus and Neptune to uncover their true natures.”
A paper detailing this research was published in this week’s journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.
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Luca Morf and Ravit Held, 2025. Ice or rock? Convection or stability? New interior models for Uranus and Neptune. A&A 704, A183; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202556911
Recent findings from the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope indicate that TOI-561b is enveloped by a dense gas blanket above its global magma ocean.
This artist’s concept illustrates TOI-561b and its stars. Image credit: NASA/ESA/CSA/Ralf Crawford, STScI.
TOI-561 is a luminous star located 280.5 light-years away in the constellation Sextant.
This star is approximately 10 billion years old and has about 80% of the Sun’s mass and size.
It is also known as TYC 243-1528-1 and belongs to a rare category of stars known as the galaxy’s thick disk stars.
TOI-561 hosts at least three exoplanets (TOI-561b, c, and d) and is among the oldest and most metal-poor planetary systems discovered in the Milky Way.
The inner planet, TOI-561b, is classified as a super-Earth with an orbital period of just 0.44 days.
Its mass and radius are 3.2 and 1.45 times that of Earth, with a density of 5.5 g/cm³, consistent with its rocky composition.
“What distinguishes this planet is its notably low density,” remarked Dr. Johanna Teske, an astronomer at the Carnegie Institution for Science.
“It is not significantly bloated, yet it is less dense than would be expected for an Earth-like composition.”
One potential reason for the low density, astronomers suggest, is that it may possess a relatively small iron core and a mantle composed of less dense rock compared to Earth’s.
“TOI-561b is exceptional among ultrashort-period planets as it orbits a substantially older (twice the age of the Sun), iron-poor star within the thick disk region of the Milky Way,” Teske added.
“It likely formed under a vastly different chemical environment than the planets in our solar system.”
Researchers also posit that TOI-561b is encircled by a thick atmosphere, possibly giving it an apparent size larger than its actual one.
Although small planets subjected to intense stellar radiation for billions of years are not anticipated to possess atmospheres, some are exhibiting characteristics beyond mere rocky surfaces or lava.
To investigate the possibility of TOI-561b having an atmosphere, they employed: Webb’s NIRSpec (near infrared spectrometer). This device measures the planet’s daytime temperature through near-infrared brightness.
The technique tracks the decrease in brightness of the star-planet system as the planet transits behind its star, similar to methods used for detecting atmospheres of rocky worlds like the TRAPPIST-1 system.
If TOI-561b were devoid of an atmosphere and comprised entirely of bare rock, daytime temperatures would approach 2,700 degrees Celsius (4,900 degrees Fahrenheit).
However, NIRSpec observations indicate that the planet’s dayside temperature is closer to 1,800 degrees Celsius (3,200 degrees Fahrenheit), indicating it remains extremely hot, but considerably cooler than anticipated.
Emission spectra captured by Webb in May 2024 illustrate the brightness of different wavelengths of near-infrared radiation emitted by the exoplanet TOI-561b. Image credits: NASA / ESA / CSA / Ralf Crawford, STScI / Johanna Teske, Carnegie Institute for Science, Earth and Planets / Anjali Piette, University of Birmingham / Tim Lichtenberg, Groningen / Nicole Wallack, Carnegie Institute for Science, Earth and Planets.
To interpret these findings, the researchers evaluated multiple scenarios.
A magma ocean could redistribute some heat; however, without an atmosphere, the night side is likely solid, limiting heat transfer from the day side.
There may be a thin layer of rock vapor above the magma ocean’s surface, but this alone could cause less significant cooling than observed.
Dr. Anjali Piette, an astronomer at the University of Birmingham, stated, “We truly require a thick atmosphere rich in volatiles to account for all observations.”
“Strong winds could transport heat to the night side while cooling the day side.”
“Gases such as water vapor absorb some wavelengths of near-infrared radiation emitted from the planet’s surface before reaching the atmosphere.”
“Bright silicate clouds might also reflect starlight and cool the atmosphere.”
Although Webb’s findings provide compelling evidence of an atmosphere, the question persists: How can such a small planet exposed to intense radiation maintain an atmosphere, especially one of such significance? Some gas is likely escaping into space, but possibly at a lower rate than expected.
“We believe there is a balance between the magma ocean and the atmosphere,” said Tim Lichtenberg, an astronomer at the University of Groningen.
“As gases escape from the Earth to form the atmosphere, the magma ocean simultaneously reabsorbs them.”
“To account for these observations, this planet would need to be far richer in volatile materials than Earth. It resembles a wet lava ball.”
Findings from this study will be published in today’s Astrophysics Journal Letter.
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Johanna K. Teske et al. 2025. A dense volatile atmosphere over the ultra-hot super-earth TOI-561b. APJL 995, L39; doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ae0a4c
An Idaho resident was scratched by a rabid skunk, triggering an exceptionally rare and fatal chain of events that resulted in the deaths of two individuals, including the initial bite victim and an organ transplant recipient, as announced by federal authorities.
This incident marks the fourth case of rabies transmission via organ transplant in the U.S. since 1978, according to a recent report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
The CDC reported, “Our investigation indicates a possible three-step infection chain where a rabid silver bat infected the skunk, which subsequently infected the donor, and then the kidney recipient.”
The agency noted that the Michigan man “underwent a left kidney transplant from an Idaho donor at an Ohio hospital” in December and passed away approximately six weeks later.
The CDC confirmed that “viral RNA was found in the saliva, nuchal skin, and brain tissue samples” of those affected by rabies.
New interviews with the families of Idaho organ donors revealed “information not captured in the DRAI questionnaire,” referring to the “Donor Risk Assessment Interviews.”
Investigators determined that, in late October 2024, a skunk “approached and scratched a donor who was holding a kitten in a rural outbuilding” in Idaho.
The donor died roughly six weeks later, exhibiting symptoms such as “confusion, difficulty swallowing and walking,” along with “hallucinations,” as reported by the CDC.
Officials indicated that the Idaho man’s corneas were extracted and “three patients, one each from California, Idaho, and New Mexico,” received transplants in December and January.
As investigations proceed, three “corneal recipients underwent preventive graft removal,” and “plans for a fourth corneal graft for a patient in Missouri have been halted,” according to the CDC.
All three patients are currently reported to be asymptomatic.
Worldwide, drug-resistant gonorrhea is increasing, yet new antibiotics may provide a temporary solution until we face bacterial strains that cannot be treated at all, which heightens the risk of infertility.
Every year, it is estimated that sexually transmitted infections affect over 80 million individuals globally. Gonorrhea infections can spread to various body parts, including the anus, urethra, and genitals. Symptoms often include a burning sensation during urination and unusual discharge from genital areas. Untreated infections can lead to complications such as infertility and miscarriage.
Typically, the treatment for gonorrhea involves ceftriaxone injections, which remain effective against most strains. However, resistance is developing, and the World Health Organization reported that in 2024, about 5 percent of cases in 12 countries, including Thailand, South Africa, and Brazil, showed resistance to ceftriaxone—a sixfold increase since 2022.
When ceftriaxone fails, doctors typically resort to alternative antibiotics. However, it’s only a matter of time before completely untreatable strains appear. “We’re running out of options,” states Alison Luckey from the Global Antibiotic Research and Development Partnership. “It’s been decades since a new treatment for gonorrhea has been approved.”
To combat this escalating issue, researchers found that gepotidacin, an antibiotic pill used for urinary tract infections, can effectively treat gonorrhea, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is now reviewing the drug for U.S. approval. However, as bacteria evolve resistance to new medications, expanding treatment options is crucial, according to Lackey.
She and her team are currently studying another medication, zoliflodacin, specifically created to combat drug-resistant gonorrhea. In a study, 744 gonorrhea patients from the U.S., South Africa, Thailand, Belgium, and the Netherlands were randomly assigned to receive either zoliflodacin or a combination treatment that includes ceftriaxone and a second antibiotic, azithromycin.
After six days of testing through swabs of participants’ cervixes or urethras, results showed that zoliflodacin effectively cleared roughly 91 percent of infections, while standard treatment had a similar success rate of around 96 percent. Hence, no significant differences were observed between the two treatments, with side effects like headache and nausea being similar and short-lived in both groups.
Most of the 744 tested cases involved strains that were not resistant to ceftriaxone or azithromycin, but prior research indicated that zoliflodacin can effectively target N. gonorrhoeae strains resistant to all standard antibiotics. These findings suggest that zoliflodacin may represent a promising new strategy for treating gonorrhea, both as a first-choice treatment and when traditional options fail, as Lackey observes. “In areas with frequent resistance, early implementation as a primary treatment option could be beneficial,” she adds. Furthermore, since zoliflodacin is administered orally, it may provide a more convenient alternative than ceftriaxone, which some patients avoid due to needle aversion.
Researchers have already submitted findings to the FDA, with a ruling anticipated by December 15, according to Lackey.
If the FDA grants approval, other regions, including the UK, Europe, and Asia, could follow suit shortly, as noted by Charlotte Eve Short from Imperial College London, who was not part of the research.
Alongside ongoing vaccination efforts against gonorrhea, including the recent rollout of the Meningitis Group B vaccine in the UK, the introduction of these two new drugs could signify a pivotal moment in the battle against drug-resistant gonorrhea, according to Short. “This is excellent news,” she states. “While the population-level implications remain uncertain, our dual focus on prevention and treatment should help us significantly reduce resistance rates.”
“I’ve never needed a great excuse to jump into a chilly lake…”
Kaisa Swanson/Alamy
My days are filled with small rituals. Each morning, I blend a spoonful of creatine in water, enjoying it alongside my multivitamin, followed by some plain yogurt rich in beneficial bacteria. Meanwhile, the kids feast on homemade cereal, sip kefir, and practice their Spanish on Duolingo. After school drop-off, I dive into a cold pond, then warm up in the sauna before heading to work. I also make it a point to add sauerkraut to my lunch and take quick walks in the park.
On reflection, it might seem a bit off-putting. The quintessential “wellness enthusiast meets middle-aged neuroscientist.” But this cozy routine is vastly different from a year ago, when the kids were munching on sugary cereal and I was sustained solely by caffeine while buried in my computer, often devoid of sunlight.
This newfound focus on well-being stems from a year-long quest for research-backed methods to enhance my brain health, from boosting cognitive reserves to nurturing a healthy microbiome. Observing my current situation reveals that minor tweaks can lead to substantial changes.
A key insight I’ve gathered from Dr. Joan Manson and other physicians at Brigham and Women’s Hospital in Massachusetts is that a daily multivitamin can significantly slow cognitive decline in older adults by over 50 percent. When I inquired about other supplements beneficial for brain health, creatine stood out because it offers energy precisely when our brains require it.
However, the most significant shift didn’t come from my supplement collection, but rather from my grocery list. Conversations with neuroscientists and nutritionists have made me keenly aware of the importance of maintaining our microbiome. Consequently, my family embraced epidemiologist Tim Spector’s guidance to incorporate three fermented foods daily, eliminate ultra-processed breakfast options, and enjoy a diverse range of whole foods in our meals.
Despite my long-standing enjoyment of cold lake swims or sauna sessions, science has equipped me with compelling reasons to make these activities a priority this year. Cold and heat exposure has been shown to combat inflammation and stress while enhancing connections within brain networks that govern emotions, decision-making, and attention, which may in turn bolster mental health.
Emphasizing outdoor time has also become a family goal. I’ve discovered that gardening enhances the diversity of our gut’s beneficial bacteria, while walking in the woods can boost memory, cognition, and possibly stave off depression.
At home, we persist with Duolingo, valuing not just its linguistic benefits but also its contributions to cognitive reserve—the brain’s defense against aging. I’m also returning to playing the piano and exploring other creative outlets. I recall what Dr. Ellen Bialystok, a professor at York University in Canada, advised: “What challenges the brain is beneficial for the brain.”
The most astonishing aspect has been the rapid emergence of results. While some habits serve as long-term investments in cognitive health, I suspect others have delivered immediate benefits, such as helping my children feel more relaxed, diminish brain fog, and gain energy. It may be placebo, yet something is certainly effective.
Next year, we plan to keep experimenting. Let’s make it a year focused on discovering simple ways to promote brain growth. Now, where’s that kombucha?
feedback A weekly column filled with strange stories, unbelievable advertising claims, and puzzling instructions.
An amazing year
To be new scientist Readers know that yearly summaries are prepared weeks beforehand. This specific recap was written on December 1st, just as Feedback was gearing up to avoid hearing Wham’s last christmas for 24 days. I’m also trying to persuade Feedback Junior to choose his main present. Any absurd events that occurred after that date will have to wait until the next year.
Indeed, 2025 offered a wealth of topics that intrigued Feedback. We encountered ludicrous ideas, such as the proposition to detonate the ocean floor to combat climate change, which went directly into our “not recommended” list. There were also endeavors to create particularly annoying robots, including an electric arm that faked handing you an ice cream cone, only for it to vanish in various amusing ways at the last moment. Unsurprisingly, people were distrustful.
To impose some structure on this chaos, we are introducing the 2025 End of Year Awards for Feedback. We will name it Backseas unless someone provides a better suggestion. The judges (that’s us) selected the categories and winners through a highly rigorous process that did not involve post-its or darts.
Best Scientific Acronyms
Feedback dreams of seeing a study that investigates the amount of time and resources societies dedicate to crafting imaginative or forced abbreviations. This could rival two seasons of influenza and a World Cup for global productivity.
After discovering a “machine learning model that can predict the taste of chemicals based on their molecular structure” labeled Flavor Analysis and Recognition Transformer (FART), Feedback invited contributions on similar topics. We were taken aback by the flood of acronyms that followed, from a hydrographic research project called Management of River Discharges to the Marine Domain (MORDOR) to two instruments on NASA’s Mars rover Perseverance called Raman and Luminescence Scanning of Habitable Environments for Organics and Chemicals (SHERLOC) and another pair known as Wide Angle Terrain Sensor for Operations and Engineering (WATSON). However, one may be pushing the envelope.
Regardless, the judges (us) unanimously awarded the prize to a geneticist who devised “a method for estimating mutation rates and recent demographic history from very large samples.” They termed it “diffusion of rare elements in large variation inventories,” or DR EVIL. Quite clever.
The Best Old and New Technology
One persistent issue in today’s society is people who believe they’ve invented something novel when they’ve merely rebranded something existing. Here, there was a clear winner. Ugmonk has developed a “minimalist, paper-based to-do manager.” This product is designed to take the place of your online task management system, allowing you to work offline free from social media distractions. It consists of a few index cards placed atop a wooden block.
Best Extrapolation
Uncontested: Demographers David Swanson and Jeff Tyman produced a paper that noted a slight decrease in human fertility between 2019 and 2024 before extrapolating it all the way to human extinction by 2339 (or 2415 if they obtain an additional year of data).
Maximizing AI’s Potential
The challenge here was variety. An overwhelming amount of choices. We almost awarded this to Anthropic, which had the AI Claude operate a vending machine in their office. Claude first requested customers to deposit money into a fictitious bank account. Then it pretended to be a human in a blue blazer and red tie. However, since it was an in-house trial, it was disqualified.
Instead, this award goes to AI music. The most renowned fake AI band, Velvet Sundown, resembles the uncanny offspring of Coldplay and the Eagles. There’s an indescribable quality to this. After training on nearly all recorded music, the AI generates the most unremarkable form of music imaginable.
And Finally…
I’ll conclude with a silly and somewhat inappropriate tale. Time and again in 2025, Feedback found itself grappling with the Scunthorpe issue, which refers to how many innocent words can contain character strings that are offensive in certain contexts, causing complications for online moderation systems.
This realization began when we learned that Virgin Money’s chatbot objected to the term ‘virgin’. From there, we heard of a student who couldn’t create an email account due to his last name, Peacock, along with an incident that hindered researchers studying sperm whales.
However, our favorite story involved a bank’s computer server refusing to interact with a French-language server named after the Asterix character Petitsuitx because it contained the word “tits.” We appreciated this anecdote because a reader, Nick Brown, shared it with us, suggesting that banks utilizing such poorly constructed servers were likely headed for insolvency.
Have a story for Feedback?
You can send your article to Feedback at feedback@newscientist.com. Please include your home address. This week’s and previous feedback can be found on our website.
Disney’s iconic Mickey Mouse character is set to appear in AI-generated videos
Greg Balfour Evans / Alamy
The leading AI firm and the premier entertainment company have made an unexpected agreement, allowing AI-generated versions of beloved characters from movies, TV, and comics. This deal might indicate that major copyright holders realize they’re unable to control the influx of AI tools available today.
The Walt Disney Company has entered into a partnership with OpenAI, permitting the AI company’s Sora video generation and ChatGPT image creation technologies to utilize over 200 of Disney’s most renowned characters. In contrast, Disney is currently in a legal battle with another AI firm, Midjourney, concerning alleged copyright infringement, claiming Midjourney intends to “blatantly incorporate and copy famous characters from Disney and Universal” into its tools. This lawsuit suggested that copyright owners were starting to take steps to protect their rights against what AI companies might misuse, but some analysts now view the agreement as a sign that Disney has opted to collaborate with rather than combat AI firms.
As of now, characters like Mickey Mouse and Minnie Mouse, Simba and Mufasa from The Lion King, and characters from Moana, as well as notable figures from Marvel and Lucasfilm’s Star Wars, are permissible for OpenAI users. However, while users can create videos featuring these characters, many of the voice rights are held by celebrities, as is the case with Tom Hanks voicing Woody in the Toy Story films, which remains prohibited.
Content creation using these characters will be available from early 2026, under a license agreement lasting three years.
According to statements released by both parties, the agreement was reached after OpenAI pledged to implement age-appropriate policies and “reasonable controls” to prevent underage users from accessing its products, alongside “robust controls to avert the generation of illegal or harmful content and respect for the rights of content owners regarding model output, as well as individuals’ rights to manage the use of their voice and likeness.”
In tandem with this, Disney has committed to a $1 billion equity investment in OpenAI, with an option to purchase additional shares in the rapidly expanding AI firm. Many characters presently available in OpenAI’s tools coincide with those mentioned in Disney’s lawsuit against Midjourney.
“This presents an exciting chance for the company to let audiences engage with our characters through perhaps the most advanced technologies and media platforms available today,” said Disney CEO Bob Iger, as he informed CNBC. “OpenAI values and respects our creativity.” Iger further acknowledged the remarkable growth of AI. OpenAI CEO Sam Altman remarked, “People genuinely want to connect with Disney characters and express their creativity in novel ways.”
Despite the optimistic statements, the agreement took many by surprise. “I was astonished because Disney is recognized for fiercely safeguarding its brand,” noted Katherine Flick from Staffordshire University. The company has historically defended the intellectual property of its characters, including efforts to keep Mickey Mouse from falling into the public domain, according to Rebecca Williams of the University of South Wales.
Conversely, some observers were less surprised by the partnership. “It was clear that Disney didn’t want to confront major tech firms like Google, OpenAI, and Meta, as they’ve often perceived generative AI as beneficial,” remarked Andres Guadamuz from the University of Sussex.
Guadamuz hypothesizes that the OpenAI partnership could significantly benefit Disney, suggesting, “I suspect they will utilize their vast catalog to adapt their models,” which might even play a role in the animation process. Reports indicate that Disney is poised to become a “key customer” for OpenAI tools.
Williams expresses concern that this partnership may indicate the broader trajectory of AI and copyright disputes. “This suggests that companies like Disney consider it impossible to halt the AI tide,” she notes. “Their approach appears to involve collaborating with such enterprises to derive profit from the utilization of their intellectual property, rather than allowing it to be misappropriated.”
However, Ty Martin from the licensing company Copyrightish believes that other AI firms will start to negotiate licensing agreements moving forward. “This is the direction we’re heading in 2026,” he asserts. “Licensing is vital for quality. AI platforms equipped with strong, recognizable IP are likely to weather downturns, while unlicensed or generic content risks being overlooked.”
Whether this represents a proactive initiative or a defensive tactic due to animosity, the future of this initial three-year agreement is uncertain, and Frick believes it may soon be reevaluated. “There will be individuals who exploit their brand in ways that Disney may not typically endorse,” she stated.
Frick added, “This will serve as an evaluative case to see how this intellectual property is utilized. Personally, I suspect it will be a test to understand the limits of its usage, as [Disney] endures individuals engaging in potentially uncomfortable applications of your intellectual property.”
There has always been a strong interplay between imagination and physics. Albert Einstein crafted his theory of relativity by envisioning a scenario where he chased a beam of light. Erwin Schrödinger famously introduced the idea of cats that are both alive and dead. German mathematician David Hilbert illustrated the paradox of infinity by conceptualizing a hotel with limitless rooms and patrons. Through inventive thought experiments, physicists rigorously examine concepts and deepen their comprehension.
Interestingly, three of the most enduring thought experiments revolve around what is now known as “the devil.” The most recognized is Maxwell’s Demon, conceived in 1867, envisioning a minuscule being endowed with unusual but logical abilities. Together with Laplace’s Devil and Roschmidt’s Devil, these thought experiments continue to baffle physicists today, suggesting that pondering these devils can illuminate some of the most complex principles in physics.
“What’s refreshing and unexpected is that scientists can gain profound insights about reality by engaging in these fictional realms,” says Michael Stuart, a philosopher of science at the University of York, UK. “Many would contend that the essence of science hinges upon such imaginings.”
Laplace’s Devil
The concept of our first demon originated from the mind of French polymath Pierre-Simon Laplace, who was largely influenced by Isaac Newton. In 1814, Laplace posed a straightforward query: “If Newton’s laws can predict the fall of an apple, could we apply the same logic to predict everything?” What if we had perfect knowledge about every particle and object? He invited us to picture a devil—whom he referred to as “intelligence”—that could do exactly that. If it understood the position and momentum of all particles alongside the laws of nature, it could foresee the entirety of the universe’s future. “Nothing would remain uncertain,” he asserted. “The future could be as clear as the past.”
While we may never construct a machine endowed with Laplace’s demonic faculty, envisioning such a being assists in identifying logical inconsistencies in the theory. Does it imply that everything—from planets to humans—is predetermined? Does science assert that the laws of physics dictate all outcomes? Free will may appear to be, at best, an illusion, a mere byproduct of our ignorance.
Fortunately, the essence of the first demon is relatively straightforward to dismantle. Physicists are convinced that no entity could possess the knowledge attributed to Laplace’s demon. First, Einstein’s special theory of relativity establishes that information cannot travel faster than light. Therefore, some events can indeed influence your future, but you remain ignorant at that moment since the information must travel at light speed and lacks time to reach you, thereby nullifying Laplace’s demon.
Even in the event that this devil could access knowledge from every corner of the universe, quantum mechanics introduces another obstacle. Since the 1920s, it has been acknowledged that one cannot simultaneously ascertain both a particle’s position and momentum. Therefore, the devil cannot precisely determine where each particle is or what it is doing; it can only describe the probabilities surrounding particle properties.
Laplace’s tidy particle-by-particle depiction of reality is superseded by a quantum universe, characterized by a vast, fluctuating wavefunction—an abstract mathematical construct that encapsulates all potential outcomes. Even if the devil were able to monitor these outcomes, there remains no certainty regarding which one would ultimately manifest in reality.
The Devil of Roschmidt
Though Laplace’s devil seems to have lost its potency, even more sinister thought experiments lie ahead. The second demon emerged during a period of rapid industrialization, where the steam engine intensified inquiries about heat, energy, and disorder. Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann sought an explanation for entropy—a slippery concept that explains how systems devolve into chaos over time. Sandcastles fall apart, ice melts, and rust forms. Boltzmann believed that zooming into reality and observing the minute components of a larger system, like individual gas molecules filling a room, could clarify this concept.
However, his elder colleague, Austrian physicist Josef Loschmidt, challenged this approach in 1876 by posing a simple yet devastating dilemma. Imagine a universe in which time has halted; all molecules have a defined position and direction of movement. Loschmidt suggested that if you reversed the movement of each particle, you could essentially undo entropy. Roschmidt’s original positing did not mention a “demon,” although later iterations often included a demon that could perceive and freeze all particles, largely due to subsequent developments in the field.
The evolution of steam engines prompted inquiries into heat, energy, and entropy.
Loschmidt’s scenario deeply unsettled physicists as it suggested a time-related paradox. When considered at a microscopic level, reversing particle movement doesn’t seem to result in any contradictions. However, this breaks down at a macroscopic level; as the world seemingly restores itself in reverse, puddles solidify into ice, and shattered vases reassemble. This raises the question: “Why does time appear to flow in only one direction if at the microscopic level we can easily reverse it?”
Subsequent experiments attempted time reversal, much like Roschmidt’s demons. In the 1950s, Erwin Hahn utilized radio waves to temporarily synchronize electric dipoles (such as hydrogen atoms in water) to rotate uniformly, momentarily decreasing the system’s entropy. This seemingly created the illusion of time moving backward. So, did the Roschmidt demon manage to outsmart the concept of entropy?
Not entirely. It is now understood that entropy doesn’t imply that a system must always degenerate into disorder. Some systems can evolve into a more ordered state in a brief span. However, as Hahn demonstrated, entropy ultimately prevails. When the radio beam was switched off, the dipole reverted to chaos.
Why does entropy consistently rise? Scientifically speaking, we believe that the universe began in a highly ordered state with low entropy, where everything was systematically arranged. This constrains progress to one direction: toward chaos. Aside from fostering additional disorder, there are various methods to disrupt an orderly system. This suggests that in theory, Roschmidt’s demon can reverse small particles’ trajectories, albeit contrary to expectations.
“The situation with the second law differs fundamentally from Newton’s second law,” notes Katie Robertson, a philosopher at the University of Stirling in the UK. “Its probabilistic nature suggests that ‘You probably cannot reduce entropy.’”
Ultimately, the probabilities dispelled this demon, but they did little to enhance our understanding. In response to Loschmidt, Boltzmann shifted from the original approach to a more statistically oriented framework, as it succinctly captured the delicate logic of probability. His advanced thinking led to the formulation of the Boltzmann equation, now inscribed on his epitaph.
Maxwell’s Devil
The third and perhaps best-known demon was proposed by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1867, shortly before Roschmidt raised his concerns. Like Loschmidt, Maxwell grappled with the second law of thermodynamics, but he examined the notion of increasing entropy from a different perspective. What if, instead of rewinding the universe, we could intervene in it molecule by molecule? Envision a meddlesome being (later referred to as a demon by physicists like William Thomson) that could manipulate gas molecules trapped in a box divided by a trapdoor. Over time, this entity could violate the second law by segregating faster-moving molecules from slower-moving ones.
Various straightforward “solutions” might come to mind. Perhaps this demon expends energy opening and closing the door. However, theoretically, this “work” can be minimized infinitely. The demon could act as frivolously as desired, yet the paradox persists.
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Scientists can learn a lot about reality by entering these fictional spaces “
Instead, physicists began to suspect that the actual cost wasn’t the energy exerted by the demon, but the amount of information it needed to process. A certain type of memory seems mandatory to record the position and momentum of each molecule. And astonishingly, this memory is finite.
In the 1920s, Hungarian physicist Leo Szilard demonstrated that even a simplified version of Maxwell’s experiment—featuring only one molecule bouncing within a box—could enable a clever demon to extract work from the system. Nevertheless, he posited that this necessitates observing molecules and storing that information, requiring energy in the process.
Ultimately, something must yield. In the 1960s, IBM physicist Rolf Landauer made a crucial point. For the demon to remain functional, it must free up space in memory, generating heat and consequently increasing entropy within the system. The second law remains intact.
Laplace’s demon can predict the future of the entire universe.
George Rose/Getty Images
Moreover, physicists acknowledged that information, akin to energy, constitutes a tangible resource. Gaining insight into a system is not merely a matter of abstract logistics. Under appropriate conditions, information can also serve as fuel. Thus, Maxwell’s demon somehow translates information into work. Today, this demon symbolizes devices that function at the intersection of information and energy. These “information engines” not only challenge conventional wisdom but also hold the potential to convert demonic logic into practical technology. In 2024, researchers devised a quantum variant of the Szilard engine to power batteries within quantum computers. Instead of demons, microwave pulses were employed to displace higher-energy qubits from lower-energy ones, generating an energy differential capable of doing work like a battery.
While we remain distant from utilizing these innovations to charge mobile devices, the aspiration is that these miniature quantum engines will aid in manipulating particles or toggling qubits.
In this light, Maxwell’s demons have not been vanquished at all. Rather, they evolved into concepts that Maxwell could never have envisioned. Not as an infringement upon the Second Law, but as a means to explore the intricate and unexpected ways nature allows us to utilize information as a physical resource.
Collectively, these demons challenge both theoretical limits and intuitive understanding. While some have been tackled, new paradoxes continue to emerge. Yet, these are dilemmas that physicists welcome. These intriguing thought experiments provide scientists with a compelling avenue to push the boundaries of their knowledge.
Ozempic, which contains the GLP-1 drug semaglutide, was originally thought to be solely a treatment for type 2 diabetes.
alamy stock photo
Once regarded as exclusive weight-loss solutions for the affluent, medications like Mounjaro, Wegovy, and Ozempic are set to expand their impact in 2025. Now approved in the United States for kidney and cardiovascular diseases, Ozempic’s role extends far beyond obesity and type 2 diabetes treatment. This year has witnessed a significant surge in evidence indicating that these medications could revolutionize nearly every facet of medicine.
Emerging findings suggest that the drug, which simulates the gut hormone glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), offers benefits beyond managing diabetes and obesity. A study in 2024 indicated its potential in decreasing the risk of heart attacks and strokes, alleviating depression and anxiety, and even slowing cognitive decline.
Initially, it was believed that these effects stemmed from weight loss, given the strong correlation between obesity and various health issues. However, by early 2025, it became evident that additional benefits were at play. Subsequent studies demonstrated that individuals experienced health improvements regardless of their weight loss outcomes.
Researchers are uncovering the mechanisms through which GLP-1 medications operate across various pathways, including those related to inflammation. These drugs seem to influence metabolism and neural circuits that regulate motivation, reward, and mood, potentially elucidating their unexpected advantages against alcoholism and depression.
Until recently, much of the evidence relied on animal studies and observational data. However, 2025 has seen a surge in large-scale randomized trials assessing the broader impacts of these medications.
In January, findings revealed that diabetic patients taking GLP-1 medications in conjunction with standard treatments faced a reduced risk of 42 diseases, including dementia and muscle pain, compared to those receiving only standard care. Nevertheless, it wasn’t all positive, as an increased risk for 19 conditions, such as kidney stones, was also noted, though overall advantages eclipsed the downsides.
Last year’s noteworthy findings predominantly involved cognitive health. The suggested connection between GLP-1 medications and diminished addictive behaviors gained credence from the first randomized clinical trial to investigate this hypothesis directly.
In a nine-week study involving 48 individuals with alcohol use disorder, those administered Ozempic and Wegovy’s semaglutide exhibited reduced alcohol consumption and craving frequencies compared to the placebo group. “We are thrilled about the advancements we are witnessing,” states Tony Goldstone from Imperial College London. “Few medications exist for treating addiction, and [GLP-1 drugs] are recognized as sufficiently safe due to prior approvals for other ailments.”
Moreover, additional cognitive benefits have come to light this year. In April, a meta-analysis encompassing 26 clinical trials with over 160,000 participants found that GLP-1 drugs significantly diminished the risk for all dementia types. This followed another trial conducted by Paul Edison, also from Imperial College London. The research discovered that a year of treatment with the GLP-1 drug liraglutide, found in Saxenda and Nevolat, resulted in a 50% reduction in brain shrinkage and an 18% slower cognitive decline when compared to a placebo.
Edison theorizes that Alzheimer’s isn’t caused by a singular factor but is the outcome of multiple pathological processes. He posits that GLP-1 drugs influence several of these processes, potentially safeguarding neurons through kinase pathways critical for cellular stress responses, while enhancing insulin sensitivity and mitigating inflammation.
The favorable news continued to unfold. In late April, the GLP-1 drug became the first pharmaceutical treatment to demonstrate distinct benefits for individuals with severe non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, a condition characterized by fat accumulation that can lead to inflammation, scarring, cirrhosis, and cancer.
Aging concerns are also under scrutiny. A small trial evaluating individuals with HIV-related aging complications found that participants receiving Ozempic injections for 32 weeks exhibited an average biological age reduction of 3.1 years by the end of the study, while no changes were noted in the placebo group.
Varun Dwaraka, from TruDiagnostic in Lexington, Kentucky, which participated in the study, emphasizes that these effects aren’t merely a result of weight loss. “While weight loss is part of biological aging, initial evidence and our understanding of GLP-1 biology imply that there exists an independent layer of metabolic enhancement leading to improvements in biological age,” he indicates.
This versatile class of drugs is expected to unveil more discoveries in 2026, as researchers delve into how a single treatment can influence such a wide array of conditions and delineate its limitations. As Goldstone aptly noted, despite the pressing need for expansive long-term trials, “we’re heading in the right direction.”
There’s no doubt that 2025 will be remembered as the year of decline. “Slop,” a term for AI-generated content that is often off-base, bizarre, and visually unappealing, has infiltrated nearly every online platform. It is also starting to corrupt our hearts.
Sufficient slop has built up over recent years that scientists can now assess its long-term effects on people. Researchers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology discovered that individuals using large-scale language models (LLMs) like ChatGPT exhibit significantly less brain activity compared to those who do not. This could adversely affect mental health as reports suggest that specific chatbots may encourage unhealthy beliefs and worsen certain mental health issues.
Furthermore, deepfakes have become ubiquitous, complicating the verification of truth online. A Microsoft study indicates that humans can distinguish between real and AI-generated videos only 62% of the time.
OpenAI’s latest application serves as a video sharing platform that is primarily AI-generated, except for one aspect: the app scans your likeness and integrates you and real individuals into the fictional scenes it creates. OpenAI’s founder Sam Altman has downplayed its significance by allowing users to create videos featuring him stealing GPU and performing skibbiddy toilet-style antics.
Yet, what about AI’s supposedly transformative effects on workplace efficiency? One study reveals that the introduction of AI has resulted in a decline in productivity, with 95% of organizations implementing AI reporting a lack of tangible returns on investment.
Slop devastates lives and careers. It is also eroding our historical narrative. As I work on a book about archaeology, I worry that future historians will look back upon the media from this period and criticize the layers of manipulative and false content. One key reason for recording our experiences, whether through writing or video, is to maintain a historical record of our activities. When I write, I aim to create a legacy that allows those living 5,000 years from now to understand who we were amidst the chaos.
AI chatbots recycle meaningless language. They produce content but not genuine memories. Historically, this may be more harmful than propaganda, which is typically crafted by people with clear intentions, reflecting societal issues and politics. Slop risks erasing our presence from our historical records, making it challenging to discern the intent behind it.
Perhaps the sole way to counteract our current cultural sloppiness is by coining words devoid of meaning. This might explain the emergence of the Gen Z “6-7” phenomenon in the mainstream. This term was designated, albeit nonverbally, as “Word of the Year” by dictionary.com. You can always default to saying 6-7 when lacking a specific response or for no reason at all. What will the future bring? 6-7. What impact will AI slop have on art? 6-7. How do we navigate a reality where jobs are scarce, violence escalates, and climate science is persistently disregarded? 6-7.
I would be intrigued to see AI companies attempt to create content around 6-7. Because humans remain one step ahead of the slop, inventing new forms of nonsense and ambiguity that can only be truly understood by another human.
Dolphin approaches killer whale, captured by the killer whale’s camera
University of British Columbia (A.Trites), Dalhousie University (S. Fortune), Hakai Institute (K. Holmes), Leibniz Zoo and Wildlife Institute (X. Cheng)
Killer whales and dolphins collaborate to catch salmon in the North Pacific Ocean, revealing new insights into the intricate social dynamics of marine mammals.
Using video cameras and sensors attached to nine killer whales, researchers observed four of them diving alongside a large group of white-tailed dolphins towards Chinook salmon hiding in deep waters off northern Vancouver Island. An additional three whales were tracked via drone. The killer whales consumed the salmon, leaving behind scraps that the dolphins scavenged.
“They collaborated to locate food,” states Sarah Fortune from Dalhousie University, Canada. “One might anthropomorphize this scenario and suggest that they’re hunting friends.”
Chinook salmon, or king salmon, can exceed a meter in length, making them often too large for dolphins to consume.
However, the whales off northern Vancouver Island are known for their hearty appetites, frequently tearing fish apart to share with their pod, which leaves behind blood, scales, and remnants for dolphins to eat. Researchers propose that dolphins assist whales in locating salmon.
In the video, six out of twelve whales directed their attention toward the dolphins, totaling 102 interactions. The four whales dove with the dolphins to depths of 60 meters, where it becomes dark and salmon can conceal themselves among rocks and crevices.
Though both species emitted clicking and buzzing sounds, data from the sensors indicated that the whales often reduced their echolocation activity, likely to “eavesdrop” on the dolphins. Since echolocation operates like a focused spotlight, having numerous dolphins scanning the waters could enhance the whales’ chances of finding fish, according to Fortune.
“It’s akin to turning on the high beams of a vehicle; the sound serves as the light,” she elaborates.
Prior to this, scientists have noted cooperation among various species, such as fish guiding octopuses to crustaceans and nectar birds leading humans to bee colonies. However, documented interactions between killer whales and other species have often involved predatory behaviors.
Recently, killer whales were reported to have rammed and sunk six sailing vessels around the Iberian Peninsula, suggesting they may be engaging with boats rather than attacking. They are playing with them.
Brittany Visona Kelly from the global conservation group Ocean Wise asserts that the dolphins in this study are not aiding the whales but scavenging leftovers. In a study she and her colleagues, including Lance Barrett-Leonard, revealed drone footage showing whales seemingly ignoring the dolphins, playing with them, and occasionally charging at them. Their findings suggest that dolphins primarily seek refuge from a specific group of mammal-eating killer whales, known as big killer whales, which tend to avoid resident orcas.
“We found no clear evidence that these interactions benefit killer whales,” Visona-Kelly concluded.
The study reported last month indicated that between 30 to 40 white-tailed dolphins encircled an emaciated killer whale known to researchers as “I76,” who remained submerged and did not reemerge. This suggests that the dolphins may have “exhausted I76, making it impossible for him to surface.”
Luke Rendell from the University of St. Andrews in the UK emphasized that the new research provides compelling evidence of cooperation, whether the whales are interpreting dolphin echolocation or drawn to the commotion as a potential indicator of fish.
“These animals are intelligent and possess adaptable behaviors,” he notes. “We witness a range of interactions between killer whales and dolphins, from the former preying on each other to playful interactions and collaborative efforts.”
SNR 0519, the remnants of a supernova that erupted around 600 years ago
Claude Coenen/ESA/Hubble & NASA
Our planet may owe some of its characteristics to a neighboring star that met its end as a supernova during the formation period of the solar system. This notion of a supernova bubble enveloping the sun and inundating it with cosmic rays might be a common phenomenon across the galaxy, implying that there could be many more Earth-like planets than we ever imagined.
Thanks to ancient data, we understand from a meteorite sample that the early solar system was rich in radioactive materials that generated significant heat and quickly decayed. The heat produced by these elements was crucial for releasing substantial amounts of water from the colliding space rocks and comets that coalesced to form Earth, ensuring there was enough water for life to eventually thrive.
However, the origin of these elements remains a mystery. While many are commonly produced in supernovae, simulations of nearby supernovae have faced challenges in replicating the exact ratios of radioactive elements observed in meteorite specimens from the early Solar System. A significant issue is that these explosive events were incredibly forceful and might have obliterated the delicate early solar system before planetary formation could take place.
Recently, Ryo Sawada and fellow researchers at the University of Tokyo have discovered that if a supernova occurs at an adequate distance, it could supply Earth with the necessary radioactive components without interfering with the planet-forming process.
In their theoretical framework, a supernova located approximately three light-years from our solar system could initiate a two-step process to generate the essential radioactive elements. Certain radioactive substances, like aluminum and manganese, are directly created during supernova explosions and might reach the solar system propelled by shock waves from the explosion.
Subsequently, the high-energy particles known as cosmic rays released by the supernova travel along these shock waves, colliding with other atoms in the gaseous, dusty, and rocky disk still in its formative phase, birthing the remaining radioactive elements such as beryllium and calcium. “We realized that prior models of solar system formation primarily concentrated on the injection of matter, neglecting the role of high-energy particles,” stated Sawada. “We contemplated, ‘What if our nascent solar system was simply engulfed in this particle bath?'”
Due to the occurrence of this process in more distant supernovae than previously explored, Sawada and his team estimate that between 10 and 50 percent of Sun-like stars and planetary systems might have been enriched with radioactive elements in this manner, leading to the formation of water-abundant planets that resemble Earth. Earlier theories posited that the proximity of the supernova would have made such an event exceedingly rare, akin to “winning the lottery,” as Sawada described. The fact that the supernova is further positioned indicates that “Earth’s creation is probably not an unusual occurrence, but a widespread phenomenon that transpires throughout the galaxy,” he adds.
“This is exceedingly clever because it strikes a harmonious balance between destruction and creation,” remarks Cosimo Insera from Cardiff University in the UK. “The right elements and the correct distance are essential.”
If this theory holds true, Inserra mentioned that upcoming telescopes like NASA’s Habitable World Observatory could significantly aid in the search for Earth-like planets by identifying remnants of ancient supernovae and locating systems that were within proximity to supernovae during their formation stages.
Scientists have discovered an unexpectedly high quantity of pre-solar particles (dust from supernovae predating our solar system) in samples obtained from the near-Earth asteroid (101955) Bennu by NASA’s Osiris-Rex spacecraft.
Characterization of pre-solar spinel hibonite particles collected from the asteroid Bennu. Image credit: Nguyen et al., doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02688-3.
Dr. Anh Nguyen from NASA’s Johnson Space Center and colleagues noted, “Pre-solar stardust particles are typically found in trace amounts within meteorites, interplanetary dust particles, Antarctic meteorites, samples returned from comet 81 P/Wild2 by NASA’s Stardust mission, and those from the carbonaceous asteroid Ryugu collected by JAXA’s Hayabusa2 mission.”
“Their distinct isotopic compositions arise from nucleosynthetic processes in evolved red giant stars, supernovae, and novae.”
“The mineralogy and chemistry of these pre-solar particles can provide insights into condensation conditions and the impacts of secondary alteration, as they are prone to changes and destruction in space, solar nebulae, and planetesimals.”
In their study, researchers examined pre-solar particles found within two different rock types in the samples from Bennu.
The sample had six times the particles compared to any other astronomical material studied, indicating its parent body formed in an area of a protoplanetary disk abundant with the dust from a dying star.
The research also pointed out that while Bennu’s parent asteroid has experienced significant fluid-induced alterations, there are still pockets of less-altered material within the sample, offering clues to its origins.
“These remnants are rich in organic compounds and pre-solar silicate particles, which are generally vulnerable to alteration caused by asteroid water,” Dr. Nguyen remarked.
“It’s remarkable that they were preserved in the Bennu sample, suggesting certain materials escaped alteration in the parent body.”
“Our investigation highlights the variety of pre-solar material that accumulates during parent formation.”
A study detailing the findings was published in the journal on December 2nd, in Nature Astronomy.
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Anh Nguyen et al. Abundant supernova dust and heterogeneous water alteration revealed by stardust of two lithofacies on asteroid Bennu. Nat Astron published online on December 2, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02688-3
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope have identified a supernova explosion linked to gamma-ray burst event GRB 250314A at a redshift of 7.3, occurring when the universe was merely 730 million years old. The previous record-holder for supernovae was observed when the universe reached 1.8 billion years. This discovery is detailed in two papers published in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.
Webb identified the origin of the blinding flashes known as gamma-ray bursts. This particular gamma-ray burst exploded when the universe was merely 730 million years old. Image credit: NASA / ESA / CSA / STScI / A. Levan, IMAPP / A. Pagan, STScI.
“Only Mr. Webb has directly demonstrated that this light is from a collapsing massive star,” stated Dr. Andrew Levan, an astronomer at Radboud University and the University of Warwick, and lead author of one of the papers.
“This observation suggests that we can utilize Webb to detect individual stars from a time when the universe was just 5% of its current age.”
Whereas gamma-ray bursts typically last from seconds to minutes, supernovae rapidly brighten over several weeks before slowly dimming.
In contrast, the supernova linked to GRB 250314A took months to brighten.
Because this explosion occurred so early in the universe’s history, its light continued to evolve as the universe expanded over billions of years.
As the light stretches, the duration for events to unfold also lengthens.
Webb’s observations were intentionally made three and a half months after the closure of the GRB 250314A event, as it was expected that the supernova would be at its brightest at this time.
“Webb provided the rapid and sensitive follow-up we so desperately needed,” remarked Dr. Benjamin Schneider, an astronomer at the Marseille Institute of Astrophysics.
Gamma-ray bursts are exceedingly rare. Bursts lasting only a few seconds may originate from the collision of two neutron stars or a neutron star and a black hole.
Longer bursts, like this one, which lasted around 10 seconds, are often linked to the explosions of massive stars.
On March 14, 2025, the SVOM mission—a joint Franco-Chinese telescope launched in 2024 designed to spot fleeting events—will detect gamma-ray bursts from extremely distant sources.
Within an hour and a half, NASA’s Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory had pinpointed the X-ray source in the sky, facilitating follow-up observations to measure the distance of the web.
Eleven hours later, Nordic optical telescopes revealed the afterglow of the infrared gamma-ray burst, indicating that gamma rays may correspond to very distant objects.
Four hours later, ESO’s Very Large Telescope estimated that the object existed 730 million years after the Big Bang.
“Only a handful of gamma-ray bursts have been identified in the first billion years of the universe and merely a few in the last 50 years,” Levan noted.
“This remarkable event is exceedingly rare and thrilling.”
As this is the oldest and most distant supernova ever identified, researchers compared it to nearby modern supernovae, finding surprising similarities.
Why? Little is still understood about the early billion years of the universe.
Early stars likely lacked heavy elements, were massive, and had brief lifespans.
They also existed during the reionization era, when intergalactic gas was almost opaque to high-energy light.
“Dr. Webb has demonstrated that this supernova resembles modern supernovae very closely,” stated Professor Nial Tanvir from the University of Leicester.
“Webb’s findings indicate that this distant galaxy is akin to other galaxies of the same epoch,” commented Dr. Emeric Le Floch, an astronomer at CEA Paris-Saclay.
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AJ Levan et al. 2025. JWST reveals a supernova following a gamma-ray burst at z ≃ 7.3. A&A 704, L8; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202556581
B. Cordier et al. 2025. SVOM GRB 250314A at z ≃ 7.3: Exploding star in the reionization era. A&A 704, L7; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202556580
Researchers within the MicroBooNE (Micro Booster Neutrino) collaboration have determined, with 95% probability, that a single sterile neutrino does not exist.
Utilizing data from the MicroBooNE detector, physicists announce one of the preliminary searches for sterile neutrinos with two accelerator neutrino beams. Image credit: Gemini AI.
Neutrinos are tiny subatomic particles that seldom interact with matter, allowing them to traverse the Earth without being impeded.
Current particle physics theory recognizes three types of neutrinos: electron, muon, and tau neutrinos.
These neutrinos can transform from one type to another, a phenomenon known as oscillation.
Previous experiments had revealed neutrinos that seemed to oscillate in ways not consistent with the standard model.
To clarify this anomaly, scientists suggested a fourth type: sterile neutrinos, which interact only through gravity, complicating their detection.
“The existence of three distinct flavors of neutrinos is a fundamental aspect of the Standard Model of particle physics,” explained Dr. Andrew Mastbaum, a physicist from Rutgers University and a member of the MicroBooNE leadership team.
“Because of quantum mechanical interference, neutrinos of one flavor can eventually be detected as a different flavor, a phenomenon known as neutrino oscillation.”
“Numerous unusual findings that challenge the three-flavor model have led us to postulate the existence of an additional neutrino state, referred to as a ‘sterile’ neutrino, which does not directly interact with matter.”
In the experiment conducted by MicroBooNE, physicists investigated neutrinos from two distinct beams and analyzed their oscillations.
After a decade of data gathering and scrutiny, they uncovered no evidence of sterile neutrinos, effectively rejecting one of the leading theories for the peculiarities observed in neutrino behavior.
“This result signifies a pivotal moment,” remarked Dr. Mastbaum.
“It will ignite innovative ideas in neutrino research, helping us to better comprehend the underlying phenomena.”
“While we can rule out major possibilities, this alone does not unravel the entire mystery.”
“The Standard Model does not encompass everything, such as dark matter, dark energy, and gravity, prompting scientists to seek clues that extend beyond the model,” he observed.
“By dismissing one potential explanation, we can concentrate on alternative hypotheses that may yield significant advancements in our understanding of the universe.”
The findings will also provide valuable insights for forthcoming experiments, like the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE).
“Through meticulous modeling and a strategic analytical approach, the MicroBooNE team has extracted an extraordinary amount of information from this detector,” stated Dr. Mastbaum.
“In next-generation projects like DUNE, we are already utilizing these techniques to explore even more fundamental questions about the essence of matter and the nature of the universe.”
of the team results published in the journal Nature.
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Collaboration with MicroBooNE. 2025. Search for photosterile neutrinos using two neutrino beams with MicroBooNE. Nature 648, 64-69; doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09757-7
Archaeologists have discovered a heated deposit that is 400,000 years old, along with a fire-cracked flint hatchet in Burnham, Suffolk, England, as well as two pieces of pyrite—a mineral historically used to create sparks from flint. This finding suggests that humans were capable of making fire approximately 350,000 years earlier than previously thought.
An artist’s impression of the Burnham fire some 400,000 years ago. Image credit: Craig Williams / British Museum Trustees.
The ability to start and control fire represents a significant milestone in human evolution. Fire provided essential warmth, protection from predators, and enabled cooking, thereby broadening the range of edible foods.
Evidence of fire in areas occupied by humans dates back over a million years.
Nonetheless, pinpointing when humans first learned to ignite fire remains challenging.
Fire likely began with early humans taking advantage of natural wildfires before they developed the skill to deliberately start their own fires.
Previously, indications of early fire use were found at Neanderthal locations in France dating back 50,000 years, where hand axes possibly used for striking pyrite to create sparks were discovered.
Recent findings by Professor Nick Ashton of the British Museum and the Institute of Archaeology at University College London, along with his team, indicate that fire-making might have been practiced at the Burnham site as far back as 400,000 years ago.
Archaeologists uncovered heated deposits in the ancient soil, along with a flint hatchet damaged by fire.
These indicators suggest that fires were maintained purposefully within human habitats, marking the third piece of evidence that fire-starting was intentional.
Two pyrite fragments were found at the site. Due to the mineral’s rarity in the area, researchers hypothesize that the pyrite may have been deliberately transported to the site for fire-starting purposes.
Together, these discoveries illustrate the sophisticated behaviors of early humans at the Burnham location.
For instance, these hominins may have comprehended the ignition properties of pyrite and incorporated it into their fire-starting techniques.
Mastering this skill would have offered numerous benefits, including cooking abilities and advancements in technology, such as the creation of adhesives for tools, potentially influencing significant developments in human behavior.
Professor Chris Stringer, a paleoanthropologist at the Natural History Museum in London, commented: “Based on the morphology of contemporary fossils from Swanscombe, Kent, and Atapuerca in Spain, we believe the individuals who ignited the Burnham fire 400,000 years ago were early Neanderthals, and early Neanderthal DNA has been preserved.”
“This represents the most astounding discovery of my career, and I take great pride in the collaborative effort that led to this groundbreaking conclusion,” said Professor Ashton.
“It’s astonishing that some of the oldest Neanderthal groups understood the characteristics of flint, pyrite, and tinder at such an early time.”
“The implications of this finding are immense,” stated Dr. Rob Davies, project curator at the British Museum.
“The capability to create and manage fire was one of the most crucial turning points in human history, offering practical and social advantages that significantly shaped human evolution.”
“This remarkable discovery shifts this pivotal moment back to about 350,000 years ago.”
The study detailing these findings is published in this paper in today’s edition of Nature.
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R. Davis et al. The earliest evidence of starting a fire. Nature, published online on December 10, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09855-6
Set against the vastness of space, our blue planet emerges above the desolate lunar landscape. This iconic photograph, “Earthrise,” was captured by Apollo 8 astronaut Bill Anders on Christmas Eve 1968.
Nearly six decades later, we regard this image as part of our narrative. Yet, envision a different earthrise where space is not a dark backdrop, but a vivid blue, akin to a sunny sky. Odd as it may appear, this was the vision held by many Europeans for centuries.
Our comprehension of the cosmos has evolved significantly over time, influencing how we perceive our place within it. The shift from an earth-centered to a sun-centered universe, along with the transition from a finite to an infinite cosmos, prompted a profound reevaluation of humanity’s role in the grand scheme. The change from a vibrant to a dim universe is equally crucial, yet it remains largely overlooked in our historical narratives.
Recently, through my scholarly work in literary and scientific history, I have sought to trace the timeline of this transformation. At what point did our universe metaphorically turn dark? What did this shift imply for humanity?
Earthrise—a photograph from the moon’s surface in 1968 showcasing the notion that space is dark.
NASA
Reflect on the account given by Domingo González, the hero of Francis Godwin’s 1638 science fiction novel, The Man in the Moone. González travels to the moon in a swan-powered vehicle and notes a scarcity of stars. Even those he does see are dim. He observes, “It was always daytime for some reason, yet the stars appeared faint, similar to the moon’s glow in daylight.” Why are there fewer stars in his experience? Why do they appear washed out? Because, in his narrative, space is akin to the daytime sky, where the sun drowns out the luminosity of stars.
From our viewpoint, González’s reality seems inverted. In his portrayal, daytime reveals our true nature, while night conceals us within Earth’s shadow. Yet, ascending to space at midnight, we would eventually emerge from darkness into eternal daylight.
In Francis Godwin’s The Man in the Moone, protagonist Domingo González embarks for the moon in a swan-powered craft.
Houghton Library
While González omits mention of a shadow, we glimpse it in another early space narrative by John Milton, Paradise Lost. As Milton’s Satan nears Earth, he remarks upon “a whirling canopy / a spreading shadow of the night.” If you visualize pre-modern eras, adding this shadow to your image of earthrise transforms it. A dark cone emerges from the jagged globe, plunging into the azure sky and vanishing beneath the lunar horizon.
Additional authors elucidate why the Universe is imagined as not merely bright, but blue-hued. The prevalent rationale is that the “firmament” was envisioned as blue. Walter Charlton, a contemporary of Milton, remarked this notion was widely shared “by many transcendental thinkers, as well as the average populace.” Observing the daytime sky, they believed they were witnessing the universe’s limit.
The Path to Earthrise
This luminescent universe also manifests in visual art. A comparison with Apollo 8 is particularly pertinent. Hours after capturing earthrise, the crew transmitted radio messages from lunar orbit to Earth. Commander Frank Bowman extended Christmas wishes and recited the biblical creation tale. For the first time, humanity achieved a god-like vantage point of the radiant blue planet glistening against the abyss. In contrast, when pre-modern artists portrayed these scripture moments, they often rendered a dim planet against a bright celestial expanse. To reimagine earthrise, picture one of these shadowed Earths ascending above the lunar surface instead of the iconic “blue marble.”
It was not just poets and artists who envisioned such a realm. Philosophers and scientists also entertained the concept. Aristotle remarked on “the shadow of the earth (termed night).” Two millennia later, Copernicus similarly wrote, “While the rest of the universe is illuminated and radiant, the night signifies nothing but the shadow of the Earth, extending in a cone and culminating at a point.”
This perspective was not unreasonable; early European scholars lacked compelling evidence to argue otherwise, particularly concerning the light-refracting properties of the universe and Earth’s atmosphere. Without such evidence, why suspect that night predominates and day a rarity? What led pre-modern Christians to diverge from millennia of tradition and perceive heaven—not as eternal brightness, but infinite darkness?
A 13th-century manuscript depicting a gray Earth casting a black shadow against a blue universe (left) and a 15th-century manuscript showcasing the newly created Earth as a black marble surrounded by blue cosmos (right).
Heritage Image Partnership Ltd/Alamy; National Library of France
This does not imply that luminous spaces were universally accepted in pre-modern thought. For instance, scholars within the Islamic tradition favored the concept of dark spaces starting in the 9th century, yet this perspective seems to have been less influential in the West. In any case, the notion of a dark universe had to be re-established among 17th-century European thinkers.
During this period, significant advancements in atmospheric science emerged. Notably, the term “atmosphere” was coined in the 17th century, with Walter Charlton among the first to utilize it in English. His view of the universe acts as a transitional development in this narrative: a universe that oscillates between brightness and darkness based on an observer’s orientation towards the sun. Although Charlton described a dark universe, he noted that it was “not nearly as deep blue as many presume,” and filled with countless tiny particles or “atoms,” which he speculated could impact visibility. In contrast, Otto von Guericke, who endorsed the infinite universe and conducted pioneering vacuum experiments, postulated that in an “unblemished” and “void” space, devoid of illuminated objects, we would perceive “nothing but shadows.”
Thereafter, dark space gained traction among European scientists and thinkers informed by these scientific advancements. However, this marks only part of the narrative, as visions of bright spaces lingered in cultural imaginations for centuries.
Fast forward to 1858, when astronomer James Gall envisioned his foray into the void for a Victorian audience, exclaiming, “As I look around me, how peculiar! The heavens are pitch black.” While Gall acknowledged the darkness of space, he doubted the audience’s awareness of this fact. It wasn’t a naive child or uninformed individual believing in a “giant blue sphere,” but the renowned literary historian David Masson in 1880 who clung to this isolated imagery, which persisted well into the 1920s, right at the brink of the Space Age.
Thus, we confront a dual narrative of a decline in our cosmic imagination alongside the unexpected evolution of these ideas. Some of the most striking evidence is found in literature, especially in space travel narratives, which were initially recognized by literary scholars such as C.S. Lewis and more recently John Leonard. Nevertheless, this aspect has yet to receive thorough investigation, and its cultural ramifications remain largely unexamined.
The implications are significant, often concealed in plain sight. Prominent images such as earthrise have reshaped our perceptions of our planet and its environmental context. The view of Earth as “perfect” and “blue” has also rendered it “fragile,” symbolizing the perils of nuclear conflict and climate change, as well as underscoring the call for political unity and ecological stewardship. What is less acknowledged, however, is that this transformation arose not only from a fresh perspective on Earth, but importantly on the vastness surrounding it.
For millennia, the entirety of Earth has been envisioned, represented, and contemplated. Yet, much of it was depicted within brilliant space, eliciting markedly different responses. Hence, the influence of earthrise was indeed more profound than commonly appreciated. The mass circulation of such imagery has obliterated even the faintest remnants of a once-bright universe and firmly imprinted its inversion into collective consciousness. The Earth stands not merely as “blue” or “fragile.” While it may appear thus against the cold, dark expanse surrounding it, it has transitioned into both a scientific reality and a cultural perception.
In a room adorned with gray walls in the Dutch city of Nijmegen, peculiar activities unfold beneath your feet. You find yourself seated in a chair, donning a hat covered with sensors, and your bare feet are placed in holes in the platform. Below, a robot equipped with a metal probe begins tickling the soles of your feet. Soon, the air fills with shrieks, laughter, and a certain painful mirth. Here at Radboud University’s Touch and Tickle Laboratory, volunteers are subjected to relentless tickling for the sake of science.
“We can monitor the intensity, speed, and specific areas of stimulation on the legs,” explains Constantina Kirteni, the lab’s director, regarding the robotic tickling experiment. Simultaneously, researchers document participants’ brain activity and physiological metrics such as heart rate, respiration, and sweating. Armed with these neurological and physiological insights, the researchers aim to tackle age-old questions that have intrigued philosophers from Socrates to René Descartes. Why do we experience ticklishness, what does it reveal about the boundary between pleasure and pain, and does this peculiar behavior serve any real purpose? The findings could illuminate areas such as infant brain development, clinical conditions like schizophrenia, and the structure of conscious experience in our brains.
Though the researchers have yet to publish their findings, Kirteni is willing to share some early insights. Regarding what triggers the tickling sensation, she states, “For us to recognize it as tickling, the contact must be both strong and rapid.” Preliminary analyses also indicate that electroencephalography (EEG) reveals distinct patterns of brain activity when experiencing ticklish feelings. To delve deeper into which brain regions process these sensations, the researchers intend to employ functional MRI, although the robot will require modifications to avoid interfering with the scanner. Moreover, scientists at the institute have initiated inquiries into the intriguing question of whether people actually enjoy being tickled.
“We observe a mix of responses, allowing us to see both those who find it pleasurable and those who find it distressing,” Kirteni notes. While people’s reactions may include smiles or laughter, these do not necessarily correlate with their enjoyment levels. Additionally, perceptions can shift over time. “Some individuals have reported that though it may be enjoyable initially, prolonged exposure can become uncomfortable and even painful,” she adds.
Tickling Laboratory at Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
Cohen Verheiden
One of the enduring enigmas about tickling that Kirteni is eager to unravel is why self-tickling is impossible. This peculiar fact suggests that unpredictability in stimulation is crucial, a notion supported by contemporary studies. Numerous investigations indicate that our brains predict sensations triggered by our own actions, leading us to perceive our touch as less significant than that of others. This can become particularly perplexing in certain mental health conditions. Research suggests that individuals experiencing auditory hallucinations or sensations of being controlled by external forces find their own touch more ticklish. “This indicates a possible breakdown in how our brains forecast our feelings based on our movements,” Kirteni mentions. “We are keen to explore this further in clinical populations, especially those with schizophrenia.”
What Makes Us Ticklish?
Perhaps the most significant unanswered inquiry revolves around why we are ticklish. Known primarily among humans and their close relatives, tickling may have evolved from behaviors in great ape ancestors. For instance, chimpanzees and bonobos frequently tickle each other during play. In a study published this year, Elisa Demur and colleagues from the University of Lyon in France observed a bonobo colony for three months. They discovered a notable correlation between tickling and age, with older bonobos being tickled more often, while younger ones were tickled frequently.
Demur remarked, “This is intriguing because it aligns closely with human behavior, chiefly as an interaction for young children.” The researchers observed that social bonds significantly influenced the tickling interactions; pairs that primarily engaged in tickling sessions shared strong attachments.
For Demur, this suggests that tickling evolved as a prosocial behavior enhancing connections between youngsters and their group members. This is closely related to pretend play, she adds, since acts appearing aggressive and unpleasant from strangers can be enjoyable in the presence of friends or close acquaintances. In her studies of bonobos at the Lola ya Bonobo Sanctuary in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, she observes how orphaned infants respond to tickling by their human surrogate parents, highlighting the importance of familiarity. “It’s a fascinating behavior. It’s always joyful to see them laugh; they’re incredibly adorable!” she shares.
Regardless of one’s mental state or the relationship with the person (or machine) doing the tickling, even non-consensual tickling can elicit laughter. Some researchers argue that this indicates that tickling is a physiological reflex; however, this does not preclude the idea that its evolution served a social purpose. Another hypothesis suggests that this behavior could help young individuals learn to protect vulnerable areas of their body during play or combat. “The truth remains that we don’t have definitive answers because there are valid counterarguments for all these theories,” Kirteni states.
Rats “laugh” when tickled
Shinpei Ishiyama and Michael Brecht
Nevertheless, focusing exclusively on tickling behaviors in great apes may overlook a significant aspect of this behavior. While rodents are not known to engage in tickling among themselves, they appear to enjoy human tickling. Though previously thought to be non-ticklish, mice have shown a fondness for tickling when they feel comfortable. Researcher Marlies Austrand from the University of Amsterdam found that if mice are relaxed and flipped over, they can delight in tickling, producing high-pitched sounds that resemble laughter.
Interestingly, these sounds are beyond human hearing range, and it’s uncertain whether mice can hear them as well, adding to the mystery of their laughter. While Austrand’s findings are not yet published, it’s evident that rodents respond positively to tickling. “If given the choice between a safe, scented hutch in their home cage and being tickled, mice will choose the latter,” she asserts.
Austrand speculates on why humans and animals react as they do under tickling. Our brains are constantly engaged in predicting external stimuli, evaluating potential threats and survival tactics. She proposes that tickling introduces surprises that contradict these expectations. Yet, if we feel secure, these unexpected sensations can be exhilarating. “This is more of a hypothesis; it remains unproven,” she admits. “But I believe tickling aids animals, especially young ones, in adapting to a fluid environment,” she concludes. Such peculiar behavior may well be an evolutionary quirk that we should embrace.
Artistic representation of sparks from flint and pyrite
Craig Williams, Trustee of the British Museum
Approximately 400,000 years ago, Neanderthals or their ancestors in Britain struck flint with pyrite, repeatedly igniting fires in the same location. Archaeologists believe this is the earliest evidence of human fire-making discovered to date.
Early humans may have opportunistically utilized fire for around 1.5 million years, likely benefiting from naturally occurring fires caused by events like lightning strikes.
Starting around 400,000 years ago, signs of more extensive fire usage grew in Europe, yet direct evidence indicates that humans gained the ability to control fire only around 50,000 years ago.
Nick Ashton from The British Museum reported three crucial findings from the Burnham Quarry site in Suffolk: pyrite, charred deposits, and a heat-damaged hatchet.
Pyrite holds significant importance in humanity’s fire history, as striking it with flint can produce sparks capable of igniting dry materials. However, pyrite does not naturally occur near quarries, implying that early humans must have transported it. “Pyrite is crucial,” Ashton states.
Additionally, the reddish sediment left by these fires is vital, according to him. Combustion alters the iron minerals present in the deposits, consequently changing their magnetic characteristics. Laboratory tests indicate that the reddish clay layer may have experienced firing events more than a dozen times, suggesting that humans revisited and ignited fires in this area repeatedly.
Heating flint facilitates its shaping into sharp tools, but excessive heat can lead to its shattering, as evidenced by the hatchet discovered at Burnham. Tests indicated it exceeded 700 degrees Celsius, prompting Mr. Ashton to believe it had inadvertently been heated.
Excavations at a disused quarry in Burnham, UK
Jordan Mansfield, Road to Ancient Britain Project.
Ashton notes that there’s accumulating evidence suggesting humans half a million years ago possessed a range of cultural and technological abilities, including making and using fire.
“Early Neanderthals, along with other modern human species, were far more capable than we often acknowledge,” Ashton says. “Starting a fire is no simple task; it necessitates understanding pyrite’s origin, its properties when used with flint, and selecting the right tinder to create a flame.”
John Gowlett at The University of Liverpool has stated that recent findings make it “highly plausible” that individuals 400,000 years ago were not just aware of fire but likely utilized it daily.
“Early humans were indeed familiar with fire, but the mere discovery of a burnt object associated with a tool doesn’t automatically indicate human control over it,” he explains. “If a location shows signs of repeated human occupation accompanied by multiple indicators of fire, that presents compelling evidence of human control, as natural fires seldom occur in the same place repeatedly.”
A gentle walk through the origins of humanity and prehistoric times in south-west England
Join a gentle walking tour immersing yourself in early human eras, including the Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.
Reconstruction of the city of Wroxeter in Roman Britain
Ivan Lapper/British Heritage/Heritage Images/Getty Images
During Roman rule, the health standards of Britain’s populace declined, particularly in city environments.
There’s a common conception that the Romans introduced civilization and its various advantages, exemplified by a scene in Monty Python’s Life of Brian, where Reg, portrayed by John Cleese, rhetorically asks, “Aside from hygiene, medicine, education, wine, security, irrigation, roads, freshwater systems, and sanitation, what have the Romans ever done for us?”
However, researchers have recognized health issues for at least a decade. A study titled Declining public health in Iron Age Britain indicates that after the Romans arrived in 43 AD, the population continued to thrive even after their departure.
Currently, Rebecca Pitt and her team at the University of Reading in the UK analyzed 646 ancient human bones, with 372 belonging to children under three and a half years at death, and 274 from adult women aged 18 to 45. These remains originated from 24 Iron Age and Romano-British sites in southern and central England, spanning from the 4th century before Roman arrival to the 4th century AD, coinciding with the Roman exit.
Pitt evaluated age based on the pelvic features of adults and the teeth of children. By studying both potential mothers and their infants, she aims to gain insights into the stressors that impacted different generations during Roman dominance.
“A mother’s health significantly affects her child’s well-being, and environmental factors during crucial developmental stages can have enduring effects on health,” remarks Pitt.
Pitt scrutinized the bones and teeth for irregularities such as lesions or fractures indicative of conditions like tuberculosis, osteomyelitis, or dental diseases. She utilized X-rays to investigate the internal bone structure, highlighting changes in development stemming from malnutrition or deficiencies in vitamins C and D.
Her findings suggest that the adverse health outcomes linked to Roman occupation were especially apparent in two major urban centers: the Roman administrative town of Venta Belgarum (now Winchester) and Corinium Duvennorm (Cirencester).
Overall, 81 percent of urban Roman adults exhibited bone abnormalities compared to 62 percent of Iron Age individuals, while no significant differences were noted between Iron Age and rural Roman populations. Furthermore, only 26% of Iron Age children presented such issues, in contrast to 41% from Roman rural areas and 61% in Roman urban settings.
“A notable issue among non-adults in urban settings was rickets, indicating insufficient vitamin D from sunlight,” states Pitt.
She proposes that these health challenges, which persisted across generations, were attributable to new diseases brought by the Romans, along with the class disparities and infrastructure they established, which led to restricted resource access and overcrowded, polluted living conditions for those of lower social standing.
“My father enjoys telling jokes. Life of Brian reveals, however, that the Romans had a significantly negative impact on our health, affecting numerous generations,” observes Pitt.
Martin Millett, a professor at Cambridge University, expressed that this discovery is fascinating, suggesting that the effects may be underestimated if the buried individuals belonged to higher social classes who might have experienced better health, although he does not believe the observations are strictly urban-related.
“These urban settings are not the vast medieval towns known for deep poverty and high population densities,” he notes. “What we may be witnessing is an expanding divide between the wealthy and impoverished, with the Roman Empire’s economic and social systems exacerbating this gap over time.”
Richard Maggwick, a professor at Cardiff University, also remarked that the Roman legacy did not equitably benefit everyone. “While we gained better sanitation, hygiene, and medical knowledge, accessibility remains a crucial question,” he states. “The truth is that not everyone benefited, and it took time for these advantages to reach various social strata.”
Research conducted on Anopheles mosquitoes, native to Tanzania, shows promising results in malaria control.
James Gathany/CDC via AP/Alamy
A genetic technology known as gene drive has the potential to aid in malaria prevention by transferring genes to wild mosquitoes that inhibit parasite transmission. Recent tests in a Tanzanian lab have indicated that one specific gene drive could be effective if released within the country.
“This technology is poised to be transformative,” states George Christofides from Imperial College London.
Typically, a portion of an organism’s DNA is passed to only half of its offspring due to the halving of DNA in eggs or sperm. By enhancing this inheritance rate using gene drives, small segments of DNA can proliferate swiftly within a population, even if they do not confer any evolutionary advantages.
Many natural gene drives function through various means, potentially even in some human communities. In 2013, scientists engineered an artificial gene drive utilizing CRISPR gene-editing technology, allowing DNA segments to be copied from one chromosome to another.
The objective is to disseminate DNA segments that impede malaria transmission, but the question remains: which segments? Christofides revealed in 2022 that the development of malaria parasites in mosquitoes could be notably curtailed by two small proteins, one derived from honeybees and another from Xenopus. The genes linked to these anti-malarial proteins correspond with those that produce enzymes aiding in blood digestion, so the proteins are synthesized post-blood meal, secreted into the intestine.
However, these tests used lab strains of mosquitoes and malaria pathogens collected decades ago, leaving uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of this method in contemporary Africa.
Currently, Christofides and Dixon Rwetoihera from the Ifakara Health Research Institute in Tanzania have updated local data. The Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes, derived from this strategy, produced gene drive components that were maintained separately to prevent spreading, all within a secure setting.
Initial tests revealed significant suppression of malaria parasites collected from infected children, alongside successful gene replication for anti-malarial proteins. “We can now confidently assert this technology has field application potential,” states Christofides.
The forthcoming phase involves releasing mosquitoes that create anti-malarial proteins onto islands in Lake Victoria and monitoring their behavior in a natural setting. Rwetoijela notes that the team is conducting risk assessments and engaging local communities. “Thus far, political and public backing has been robust.”
The expectation is that gene drives will significantly contribute to the eradication of malaria in endemic regions. A. gambiae is the only species responsible for malaria transmission, and “gene drives could change the course,” claims Christofides.
Multiple organizations are also exploring gene drives for malaria control, alongside various strategies aimed at managing other pest populations.
Genetically modified mosquitoes have already been deployed in certain countries to manage wild mosquito numbers, but these strategies generally depend on continuously releasing high quantities of insects.
Elon Musk assisted the U.S. government in slashing science budgets
Jason C. Andrew/Bloomberg via Getty Images
One of the most iconic images of 2025 features billionaire Elon Musk, a special adviser in President Donald Trump’s administration, brandishing a gleaming red chainsaw and proclaiming a message about reducing federal funding. This heavy-handed metaphor captured the impending cuts that would have profound impacts on scientific funding, leading to the cancellation of space missions and critical public health and climate programs.
President Trump’s rapid dismantling of decades of American leadership in science has been astonishing, with effects likely to last far longer than anticipated. It began with fervor—just a week after Trump took office in January, he signed an order that temporarily halted grants and loans from federal agencies. This led to thousands of NIH grants being suspended or terminated, which is one of the world’s leading biomedical research funders. According to Grant Witness, a platform tracking changes in federal funding during the Trump era, the contraction in funding from entities such as NIH and NSF totals nearly $3 billion.
Following that initial wave, Musk led an independent task force known as the Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE), which was charged with slashing government expenditures. While DOGE aimed to cut costs across the federal landscape, many of its moves directly impacted scientists and researchers. There were significant job cuts at agencies such as the CDC, NASA, the EPA, and the NOAA, among others. In October, the Trump administration announced additional cuts targeting major scientific institutions including the US Geological Survey and the National Park Service, which play crucial roles in monitoring the health of the nation’s agriculture and natural resources and protecting biodiversity.
This all reflects a sweeping policy overhaul during Trump’s presidency. Since WWII, the U.S. has championed scientific research as a pillar of progress and prosperity, a notion conceptualized in the 1940s by the architects of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, the predecessor to the NSF. This ethos, dubbed the “Endless Frontier,” was a revolutionary framework for establishing global leadership in research and technology development. Trump’s administration has systematically dismantled it.
Not only did Trump shrink federal research agencies, but his administration pressured universities to ensure their educational and research agendas reflected government interests. Moreover, he took aggressive actions against established scientific principles. Almost predictably, Trump initiated the withdrawal of the U.S. from the Paris Agreement, the preeminent global accord on climate change, shortly after assuming office. Later that year, during a speech at the UN, he labeled climate change “the largest fraud ever perpetrated” and maligned renewable energy as “scams.”
Unsatisfied with these actions, the Trump administration also dismantled key climate data resources and reports previously generated by the government. Staff reductions in many scientific organizations led to the cancellation of essential climate teleconferences at NOAA, and crucial assessments like the U.S. National Climate Assessment were halted. Remaining personnel adhered to Trump’s narrative—for instance, NOAA scientists shocked external climate experts when they dismissed connections between global warming and climate change earlier this year.
U.S. Health and Human Services Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr. doubts established scientific views
Thomas/NurPhoto/Shutterstock
Furthermore, public health records saw significant damage. In April, key scientists running the National Survey on Drug Use and Health were dismissed. Later, layoffs occurred at the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, which monitors nationwide food security to guide aid allocation. The National Center for Health Statistics also faced cuts, significantly undermining its ability to track important metrics such as births, deaths, and maternal health. The National Death Index was also minimized, eliminating a vital resource for public health studies.
Health policy has become especially murky and devoid of evidence due to President Trump’s selection of Robert F. Kennedy Jr. as head of the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Kennedy, a longtime vaccine skeptic, presided over more than 10,000 layoffs in government agencies and fueled conflict with public health authorities, leading to many resignations. He perpetuated the discredited notion that vaccines cause autism and even promoted the unfounded claim that Tylenol during pregnancy contributes to autism. In June, President Kennedy bypassed standard procedures to inform that the CDC would no longer endorse COVID-19 vaccinations for children and pregnant individuals. His leadership has embedded the U.S. anti-vaccine movement within the government, damaging public trust in health institutions post-COVID-19.
Under Trump, the U.S. is also retreating from its leadership role in space exploration. Although the president’s budget request delivered in May hasn’t yet been enacted, it hints at a 47% cut to NASA that would stifle scientific progress and eliminate various missions, including ones already underway. For instance, samples collected from Mars by the Perseverance rover will not return to Earth, the Da Vinci probe intended to study Venus will not land, and the Osiris-Apex spacecraft will not gather data on an asteroid, vital for tracking potential threats to Earth. Additionally, NASA is experiencing leadership turmoil, with the U.S. Secretary of Transportation unsuccessfully attempting to manage it, compounded by President Trump’s inconsistent support for his nomination of billionaire Jared Isaacman.
The private sector is also gaining influence amid the Trump administration’s policies. Major tech companies are attempting to forge closer ties with the administration, showcasing their executives at various functions and providing lavish gifts during Trump’s inauguration. They may be looking to gain favor, as evidenced by a new $300 million ballroom in the White House. Their motives could involve seeking exemptions from antitrust regulations or simply reaping the benefits of relaxed environmental standards, while also pushing for developing major data centers for AI projects.
Nearly a year into Trump’s second term, the outlook for scientific progress remains unclear, particularly since the 2026 federal budget is still pending Congressional approval. Even if all proposed cuts do not pass, the administration’s erratic and often antagonistic stance toward science and its practitioners could result in further turmoil, prompting more scientists to exit the U.S. and diminishing critical funding for research essential for public health and ecological sustainability. The demise of the Endless Frontier will reduce America’s global influence, with consequences likely to be felt for years, if not decades.
Comet Lemon photographed from northern Italy on October 26, 2025
Marcel Clemens/Alamy
Although no one has officially stated it, 2025 has certainly been an exceptional year for comets. There’s Comet Lemon, discovered in January and making headlines for nine months. Each time I encountered that striking long tail formed by the comet’s solar heat, I was captivated.
In September, C/2025 R2 (SWAN) was discovered, radiantly bright even when near the moon on Halloween, making it easily visible. Then came Comet 3I/Atlas, which gained notoriety after a Harvard astronomer—primarily a cosmologist—identified it as an alien probe.
As a cosmologist who recognizes my limited expertise in comet studies, I fully trust the specialists asserting that Comet 3I/Atlas is not some extraterrestrial object. This isn’t a regret; this comet is still scientifically intriguing. Unlike lemons and SWANs, it hails from beyond our solar system, categorizing Comet 3I/Atlas as an interstellar comet.
Its entry into our solar system offers a thrilling opportunity. While pinpointing its exact trajectory may be unattainable, its composition can reveal a wealth of information about its parent star. Essentially, we can learn about the makeup of an enigmatic star even when its identity remains unknown.
Our expedition with this year’s comet reflects a long historical pattern of human fascination with enigmatic celestial phenomena. Most notably, Halley’s Comet’s passage in 1066 was illustrated in the Bayeux Tapestry, symbolizing the onset of the Norman invasion of England. Nowadays, we understand that humanity is not the universe’s focal point, and the universe lacks a center—but it’s easy to entertain the notion that the comet of 2025 could be conveying a message.
Reflecting on this year, filled with distressing and unfortunate occurrences, it’s tempting to ponder whether these comets hint at an impending apocalypse. The state of science in the United States faces turmoil, as the current administration cuts funding and initiatives (see page 20). Moreover, anti-immigrant sentiments have gained a mainstream foothold in both the United States and the United Kingdom.
As a Black and Jewish queer scientist, and an immigrant’s child, maintaining an open heart daily is a struggle. I recognize that there are those who wish to silence me. Contrary to my previous scientific education, I could interpret the comet as a sign to surrender. Yet, alternative paths exist. As a scientist, I perceive comets as sources of hope. They are breathtaking visual havens. The quest to observe them has fostered community. My astrophotography group eagerly anticipates sharing our experiences. While it’s frustrating to encounter rampant misinformation in various media concerning questions like “Are they aliens?”, I feel grateful that attention is being drawn to these phenomena.
For 2026, my aspirations are immense. Scientifically, I yearn for groundbreaking observations of dark matter. Socially, I aim to ensure that all children have access to essential resources—food, shelter, education, and healthcare—in environments that affirm their identities. While these are monumental dreams, they likely won’t manifest by year’s end. Nevertheless, comets remind us of the vast universe, brimming with marvelous surprises. Just as we strive to discover comets, we must also endeavor to create the better world we desire.
The trillions of microorganisms that inhabit our intestines significantly impact our health.
Tom Leach/Science Photo Library
We frequently hear about the benefits of certain foods for your microbiome and overall health. However, the exact composition of a healthy gut microbiome has not been fully understood until now. A recent study involving over 34,000 individuals has advanced our knowledge of the microbial combinations that indicate low inflammation, robust immunity, and healthy cholesterol levels.
The gut microbiome influences various aspects of health, including the immune system, aging, and mental well-being. While many home testing kits claim to analyze gut composition, their effectiveness remains questionable, as defining a “healthy” microbial balance is complex.
Earlier efforts have mainly concentrated on species diversity, under the assumption that a greater variety of bacteria is beneficial. However, since microbiomes differ significantly between individuals, pinpointing specific microbial communities linked to particular health outcomes is challenging.
“The interplay between our diet, gut microbiome composition, and health is intricate. The only way to unravel these connections is through large sample sizes,” explains Nicola Segata from the University of Trento, Italy.
To develop a comprehensive understanding, Segata and his team analyzed data from over 34,500 participants in the PREDICT program, conducted in the UK and the US by the microbiome testing company Zoe, and cross-referenced the findings with data from 25 additional cohorts in Western nations.
Among the thousands of bacterial species in the human gut, researchers focused on 661 species present in over 20% of Zoe participants. They identified 50 bacteria closely linked to health markers, such as BMI and blood glucose levels, as well as 50 associated with poor health.
The 50 “good” bacterial species (22 of which are newly identified) seem to affect four key areas: inflammation and immune function, body fat distribution, and blood sugar regulation.
Healthy participants, with no known medical issues, carried approximately 3.6 more of these beneficial species than those with health conditions, while individuals at a healthy weight had about 5.2 more species compared to those who were obese.
Among the species analyzed, most bacteria classified as either “good” or “bad” belong to the genus Clostridium. Within this group, 40 species from the family Lachnospiraceae were highlighted; 13 showed positive impacts while 27 were linked to negative effects.
“This research identifies a subset of bacteria worth further exploring for their potential impacts on health conditions like high blood sugar and obesity,” states Ines Moura from the University of Leeds, UK.
The connection between these microorganisms and diet is analyzed through food questionnaires and data collected via the Zoe app, which suggests aiming for at least 30 different plant types each week and consuming three servings of fermented foods daily, promoting fiber intake and reducing ultra-processed food consumption.
The findings indicate that most microorganisms tend to enhance health with a balanced diet or exacerbate health issues with a poor diet. However, 65 of the 661 microorganisms exhibited an inconsistent relationship.
“These 65 bacteria highlight the complexity of our microbiome,” remarks Segata, who also consults for Zoe. “Their effects might depend on the presence of other microorganisms, specific bacterial strains, or particular dietary factors.”
This classification of “good” and “bad” bacteria enables researchers to assess an individual’s gut health on a scale from 0 to 1000, which is already being applied in Zoe’s gut health assessments.
“Think of a healthy gut microbiome as a network of chemical factories. We need a diverse range of species and a predominance of beneficial bacteria to generate health-promoting chemicals that benefit the entire body,” says Tim Spector, PhD from King’s College London and co-founder of Zoe.
Nonetheless, establishing a definitive model of a healthy gut microbiome is challenging. “Defining a healthy microbiome is not straightforward, as gut composition is impacted by diet and can shift due to environmental factors, age, and health conditions requiring long-term treatment,” adds Moura.
“We need to view our bodies and microbiomes as two intricate systems that combine to create an even more complex system,” says Segata. “A change in one element can subtly affect everything else. Understanding the causative relationships is often quite complicated.”
Segata advocates for larger studies to further clarify these links and represent a wider global population. However, once a health and microbiome baseline is set, he believes it should be feasible to recommend specific foods to optimize gut bacteria.
“This site, dating back 400,000 years, represents the earliest known evidence of fire not just in Britain and Europe but across the globe,” stated Nick Ashton, co-author of the study and curator at the British Museum. He noted that this discovery pushes back the timeline of when our ancestors might have first harnessed fire by approximately 350,000 years.
Researchers are uncertain about the uses of fire by these hominin ancestors. They may have roasted meat, crafted tools, or shared narratives under its glow.
Understanding when our ancestors mastered the use of fire is crucial to unraveling the complexities of human evolution and behavior.
One hypothesis suggests that the ability to start fire contributed to the increase in brain size among early humans, as cooking facilitates easier digestion and boosts caloric intake. Another theory posits that controlling fire may have fostered social gathering spots at night, boosting social behavior and cognitive evolution.
“We know brain size was increasing towards its current capacity during this period,” remarked Chris Stringer, research head in human evolution at London’s Natural History Museum and another author of the Nature study. “The brain is energetically costly, consuming about 20 percent of the body’s energy. Thus, the ability to use fire enhances nutrient absorption from food, provides energy for the brain, and allows for the evolution of larger brains.”
Stringer emphasized that this finding does not signify the beginning of fire usage among humans but is merely the earliest instance researchers can confidently point to. Other early indications of fire use have been found in regions of South Africa, Israel, and Kenya, though these are contentious and open to interpretation.
From an archaeological standpoint, it’s challenging to ascertain the cause of wildfires or whether they were initiated by humans.
“The key question is whether they collected it from a natural source, managed it, or created it themselves. On the surface, this appears to be a robust case suggesting that the group knew how to start fires,” noted Dennis Sandogyas, a senior lecturer in the archaeology department at Simon Fraser University in Canada, who was not part of the study.
In the recent Nature study, researchers highlight the presence of deposits with fire residue, fire-cracked stone tools including a flint hatchet, and two small fragments of pyrite likely brought to the site by humans for fire-making, as indicated by geological analysis.
The prehistoric hatchet stone tool was discovered near a 400,000-year-old fire site that researchers believe was frequently used by Neanderthals. Road to Ancient Britain Project
Other outside researchers expressed skepticism.
Much of the evidence presented is “circumstantial,” wrote Will Loebloeks, a professor emeritus of paleolithic archaeology at Leiden University in the Netherlands, in an email.
Lowbrokes pointed out that later Neanderthal sites, dating to around 50,000 years ago, showed flint tools with wear signs indicating they had been struck against pyrite to produce sparks, an indication of humans creating fire. This evidence isn’t present in the current study.
“While the authors conducted thorough analysis of the Burnham data, they seem to be overstating claims by suggesting this is the ‘earliest evidence of a fire outbreak,'” Lobruks noted.
For our ancestors, fire was vital for warmth, nutrition, deterring predators, and even melting resins used in adhesives.
However, Sandgate emphasized that the evolution of fire-starting is not a straightforward path; it included sporadic adaptations and innovations. Evidence exists that early groups who learned to create fire sometimes lost that ability or ceased its use for cultural reasons.
“We must be cautious not to generalize any single instance … as proof that from this moment forward everyone will know how to start a fire,” Sandogyas remarked, referencing nearly 100 modern hunter-gatherer groups that have been meticulously observed. Some lacked the ability to generate fire.
“It’s probable that the art of fire-making was discovered, lost, rediscovered, and lost again across various groups over time. Its history is undoubtedly intricate.”
This festive season, whatever you may do, chances are you didn’t have to hunt it or gather it from the wilderness yourself. We owe this to our ancestors, who underwent one of humanity’s most significant transformations around 10,000 years ago, transitioning from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to one of farming.
The reasons behind this shift remain puzzling, especially since our species thrived for roughly 300,000 years without practices like milking, sowing, or shepherding. Various theories have been proposed. Perhaps agriculture provided a more dependable food source, or it reduced reliance on neighbors. Maybe the significance of a particular location related to spirituality, or perhaps a desire to remain close to buried loved ones played a role.
Or was it social friction that shaped this change? It might sound humorous, but just as today, alcohol could have served as a social lubricant. Maintaining relationships often involves sharing drinks, and if our ancestors wished to facilitate these connections, they would have needed to produce cereals. So could it be that alcohol motivated our ancestors to change their way of life?
Anthropologists have pondered this possibility since the 1950s, but at that time, technology was lacking to test such ideas. One challenge is differentiating between beer and bread, with many believing bread was more likely to kick-start agricultural growth. The archaeological evidence shows that both baking and brewing involved similar processes. Wang Jiajing from Dartmouth College and others needed to figure out how to distinguish the starches from beer and bread and determine which appeared first.
This led a select group of archaeologists, including Wang, on a quest to uncover the earliest known signs of alcoholic beer production.
One promising starting point is ancient settled societies, such as Egypt, where beer production was clearly established. Archaeologists frequently uncover distinctive pottery that resembles fermentation tanks. “They simply refer to it as ‘beer bottle’,” Wang explains. Recently, she and her colleagues confirmed these vessels were used for brewing and storing alcohol by identifying characteristic microscopic remains found inside. At Hierakonpolis in southern Egypt, for instance, fragments of beer bottles were discovered containing starch granules from grains, yeast cells, and “beer stones” made of calcium oxalate. Evidence suggests beer was brewed there from a mixture of wheat, barley, and grasses around 5,800 to 5,600 years ago, predating the first pharaohs by over 2,000 years.
A rice wine pot built 8,700 to 9,000 years ago in Qiaotou, Zhejiang Province, southern China
Wang Jiajing
“They were producing beer on an almost industrial scale,” said Wang. However, these early brews were not like today’s ales or lagers. “They sprouted the grains, cooked them, and used wild yeast to convert sweetness into alcohol,” she explains. The result was not a clear liquid, but rather a “slightly fermented sweet porridge.”
Such findings offer a template for the kind of evidence needed to confirm prehistoric beer production. The next obstacle was identifying how far back such evidence could reach.
In 2016, Li Liu from Stanford University, along with Wang and colleagues, uncovered ceramic vessels at the Mijiayao archaeological site in northern China. They identified traces of beer brewing from 5,000 years ago. This culture used unique plant mixtures for their beer, including broom sorghum millet, Job’s tears millet, barley, and tubers. Five years later, Wang and Liu identified further evidence of ancient drinking at the Xipu ruins near Xi’an, which belonged to the Yang Shao culture. Large pots fermented rice and grains using a fungus called red mold, which is still involved in making fermented foods like rice wine using the starter Kuu. They theorized that elites may have consumed beer at “competitive feasts.”
Oldest Alcoholic Beer
However, the earliest evidence comes from the mountain culture in the lower Yangtze River in southern China, discovered by Liu, tracing back to one of the earliest agricultural societies from approximately 10,000 to 8,500 years ago. In 2021, Wang’s team highlighted findings from the Kaminoyama site, showing that rice and Job’s tears, along with unidentified tuber remnants, were likely used for beer brewing during funerary feasts, indicating a practice highly integrated into their culture.
Just a year ago, Liu and her team described the earliest evidence of brewing in East Asia, analyzing 12 pottery shards from the Kaminoyama site’s deepest layer, dating back 9,000 to 10,000 years. “This depicts the early stages of the Ueyama culture,” she notes. The fragments featured rice, Job’s tears, traces of acorns, lilies, and remnants of carcasses. The Kuu starter included both Monascus and yeast.
At this juncture, Liu confirms, “domestication was already in progress,” and beer production was clearly a factor as well. “When we have surplus grain, we also produce surplus alcohol,” she adds.
Yet while there’s a strong connection, evidence is still elusive. Surprisingly, the oldest bread predates Ueyama beer and actually relates to the establishment of agriculture. Archaeologists discovered evidence of bread-like products, created by the Natufians at Shubaika 1 in Jordan, who generally maintained a foraging lifestyle despite some periods of settlement.
Rice terraces in Guangxi province, China
Sébastien Lecoq / Alamy Stock Photo
To add complexity, evidence has emerged suggesting that these hunter-gatherers may also have brewed beer. At the Rakefet Cave in Israel, a Natufian burial ground with around 30 interred individuals, Liu, Wang, and their colleagues discovered three stone mortars filled with various wild plants, including wheat, barley, and beans, which were fermented to create a porridge-like beer. These vessels date back between 11,700 and 13,700 years, indicating that brewing predates agriculture.
The ongoing debate about which came first, beer or bread, remains unresolved. “We don’t have conclusive evidence to clarify that yet,” Liu remarked. Similarly, it’s uncertain whether beer, bread, or another factor played the most significant role in the agricultural revolution, which ultimately laid the foundation for our food and drink traditions today.
“I wouldn’t be astonished if both were motivating factors,” Wang stated. After all, history is rarely straightforward—especially prehistory.
Instagram alerts that accounts for users under 16 will be terminated
Stringer/AFP (via Getty Images)
Australia’s groundbreaking social media restrictions on users under 16 have officially started, unveiling some contentious issues from the inaugural day of the new law. Notably, some minors managed to sidestep age verification measures intended to prevent them from accessing their accounts.
This initiative has garnered backing from numerous parents who hope it will mitigate online harassment, promote outdoor activities, and lessen exposure to inappropriate material. However, critics argue that the ban may be ineffective or even counterproductive, as highlighted by a variety of satirical memes.
Andrew Hammond, associated with KJR, a consultancy in Canberra where he oversaw age verification initiatives for the Australian government, is keenly observing how the current situation evolves. He mentioned having spoken to several parents of children covered by the ban, none of whom had lost access to their accounts yet. “Some have reported they circumvented it or haven’t yet been prompted,” Hammond stated, though he anticipates more accounts will be disabled next week.
Meta, the parent company of Instagram and Facebook, has initiated account removals about a week ago. A spokesperson affirmed, “As of today, we have disabled all accounts confirmed to be under 16.” They confirmed, “As the social media ban in Australia takes effect, we will preclude access to Instagram, Threads, and Facebook for teenagers known to be under this age and will restrict newcomers under 16 from setting up accounts.”
While Meta did not disclose the specific number of accounts terminated, a representative referred to earlier data indicating that approximately 150,000 users aged 13 to 15 are active on Facebook, and around 350,000 on Instagram in Australia. This implies that at least half a million accounts belonging to young Australians have been deleted on these two platforms alone.
The company stated its dedication to fulfilling its legal responsibilities, yet many concerns voiced by community organizations and parents have already manifested on the first day of the ban. These include risk of isolating vulnerable youth from supportive online communities, nudging them towards lesser-regulated apps and web areas, irregular age verification practices, and minimal concern for compliance among numerous teenagers and their parents, according to the spokesperson.
Mr. Hammond raised further questions, particularly regarding the status of minors under 16 who are vacationing or studying in Australia. The government has clarified that this regulation applies equally to visiting minors. While Australian accounts have been deleted, Mr. Hammond suspects that visitors’ accounts may simply be momentarily suspended. “It’s been merely a few hours since the ban was enacted, so there remains substantial uncertainty about its implementation,” he stated.
Australia and other nations are closely monitoring the repercussions as the law is fully enforced. “We will soon discover how attached minors under 16 are to social media and the actual situation that unfolds,” he said. He speculated that perhaps “they will venture outside to play sports.” Nonetheless, he warned, “if their lives are deeply intertwined with it, we may witness a plethora of attempts to evade these restrictions.”
Should I store my car keys in a Faraday box? Perhaps. With the advent of keyless entry, you can unlock your car just by approaching it, which is particularly handy when you’re carrying shopping and need to access the trunk.
However, depending on electromagnetic signals for locking and unlocking your vehicle—rather than using a traditional key—means there’s a risk. With the right technology, someone could intercept and misuse that digital communication.
In the UK, there were almost 130,000 vehicles stolen from April 2023 to March 2024. Furthermore, more than half of these incidents involved thieves manipulating the signal from the car key without ever having physical access to it.
This problem mainly affects vehicles with passive keyless entry systems, which enable you to unlock the door just by being within a certain range of the car without pressing any buttons. These systems work by emitting a signal detectable by nearby cars.
The distance at which this works varies by manufacturer, but theoretically, if your keys are inside the house and your car is in the driveway, the keys and the car are far enough apart that no signal should reach them.
Nevertheless, thieves may use devices to extend the key’s signal range, executing what’s known as a relay attack, which typically involves multiple devices.
The first thief situates themselves outside the house within range of the keys and captures the signal to relay it to a second accomplice positioned next to your vehicle.
While keyless cars offer convenience, they also present potential security vulnerabilities – Credit: Getty
They utilize their devices to capture the exact data contained within the signal, which is then relayed to their accomplice with a second device near your car. The vehicle recognizes the key-specific signals and unlocks as if the key were present.
To prevent this scenario, apart from switching to a lower-tech vehicle, ensure that your key doesn’t emit any signals when you don’t need to unlock your car.
Some manufacturers are offering “sleeping fobs” in newer models that employ motion-sensor technology to halt signal transmission when the key is not likely to be needed.
Additionally, some companies are developing keys that operate on bandwidths much more difficult to relay.
One day, we may eliminate keys entirely, replacing them with biometric technologies like fingerprint or facial recognition for car access.
For now, if your vehicle employs keyless entry and a sleep mode isn’t available, it’s advisable to find alternative ways to block the signal.
This is where a Faraday box or pouch becomes useful. These containers are lined with conductive material to prevent signals from entering or exiting.
You might also wrap the key in aluminum foil or store it in a microwave or refrigerator—just ensure the latter is turned off.
This article addresses the query (submitted by Radhika Bhatia): “Should I keep my car keys in a Faraday box?”
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In 1986, NASA’s Voyager 2 conducted the sole direct measurement of Uranus’ radiation environment. These findings revealed a well-recognized system characterized by a weak ion emission band and an unexpectedly strong electron emission band. Nevertheless, these observations might not have been taken under standard conditions. A recent study by scientists at the Southwest Research Institute compared Voyager 2’s data with comparable phenomena on Earth. Their findings, in conjunction with a new interpretation of the Voyager 2 flyby, suggest that the interaction of solar wind with Uranus’ magnetosphere may have amplified electromagnetic waves, enabling electrons to reach relativistic speeds. This opens new avenues for exploration at Uranus and emphasizes the necessity for missions orbiting the planet.
Allen et al. The researchers compared the effects on space weather of the high-speed solar wind structures that caused intense solar storms on Earth in 2019 (first panel) (second panel) with conditions observed on Uranus by Voyager 2 in 1986 (third panel), revealing a potential solution to a 39-year-old mystery regarding the extreme radiation belts discovered. Image credit: SwRI.
In 1986, during its unique flyby of Uranus, Voyager 2 recorded unexpectedly high levels of electron emission bands.
These electron emission belts were surprising, based on extrapolations from other planetary systems.
Since then, scientists have puzzled over how Uranus could maintain such a tightly constrained electron emission belt, making it distinct from other planets in the solar system.
Robert Allen and his colleagues from the Southwest Research Institute hypothesize that the observations made by Voyager 2 might closely resemble processes occurring on Earth due to significant solar wind storms.
They propose that a solar wind structure, known as a corotating interaction region, was traversing the Uranus system at that time.
This accounts for the exceptionally high energy levels detected by Voyager 2.
“Science has progressed significantly since Voyager 2’s flyby,” stated Dr. Allen.
“We aimed to analyze the Voyager 2 data in relation to Earth observations gathered in the years that followed.”
A recent study indicates that during Voyager 2’s mission, the Uranian system may have undergone a space weather event that triggered powerful radio frequency waves—the most intense recorded throughout Voyager 2’s journey.
“In 1986, scientists believed these waves would dissipate and scatter the electrons within Uranus’ atmosphere,” Dr. Allen noted.
“However, they have come to understand that under specific conditions, these same waves can accelerate electrons and contribute additional energy to the planetary system.”
“In 2019, Earth experienced a similar event that resulted in a significant acceleration of radiation belt electrons,” said Sarah Vines from the Southwest Research Institute.
“If a comparable mechanism interacted with the Uranus system, it would explain the unexpected additional energy observed by Voyager 2.”
Nonetheless, these revelations also raise numerous questions regarding the fundamental physics and the sequence of events that allow the emission of such powerful waves.
“This underscores the importance of launching a mission focused on Uranus,” Dr. Allen emphasized.
“This discovery also holds significant implications for analogous star systems like Neptune.”
The results are published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.
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RC Allen et al. 2025. Unraveling the mystery of Uranus’ electron radiation belts: Using insights from Earth’s radiation belts to reassess Voyager 2 observations. Geophysical Research Letters 52 (22): e2025GL119311; doi: 10.1029/2025GL119311
Illustration of a sauropod depicting skin pigment structure as observed under an electron microscope (inset)
Tess Gallagher
Microscopic features discovered in the fossilized skin of sauropods indicate that these colossal dinosaurs might have exhibited colors as vibrant as certain modern birds.
Tess Gallagher, a professor at the University of Bristol in the UK, analyzed sauropod skin fossils estimated to be around 145 million years old, retrieved from the Mother’s Day Quarry in Montana during 2019 and 2022.
While the exact species of the fossil remains uncertain, it is presumed to possibly belong to diplodocus.
The researchers used a scalpel to extract small fragments from the fossil’s four scales, which they investigated with a scanning electron microscope, enabling them to observe cellular details.
Gallagher explained that the skin had been preserved in three dimensions, rather than as mere impressions. Additionally, it exhibited signs of various melanosomes, cellular structures that store melanin, responsible for pigmentation in skin, hair, eyes, and feathers.
“We anticipated finding only minimal melanin traces,” she remarks. “What we uncovered is evidence suggesting sauropods harbored diverse melanosome shapes, which ultimately implies a broad spectrum of color possibilities.”
Every specimen examined by the research team contained melanosomes, primarily in two configurations: rectangular and disc-shaped. Nevertheless, the precise coloration of these sauropods’ skin remains unconfirmed; the structural variety merely indicates potential for numerous shades.
“A diplodocus would have possessed a highly textured exterior showcasing latent color patterns and a wide range of hues,” declared Gallagher.
According to Gallagher, the closest analogy for a disc-shaped structure is the platelet melanosome found in the feathers of contemporary birds. These findings suggest that diplodocus melanosomes might have facilitated the development of various colors. “These creatures could have boasted more striking color patterns, as opposed to the drab gray commonly attributed to ancient fossils.”
Mike Benton, another researcher from the University of Bristol not involved in the study, noted that the shape of the described structures and their preservation suggest they are likely melanosomes.
The researchers are “understandably cautious in their conclusions, but this could represent the first documented instance of colored melanosomes in a sauropod dinosaur,” he remarked.
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This rubbery material is a first for space observations and likely originated during the early formation of the solar system as Bennu’s parent asteroid heated up. Initially soft and pliable, it hardened into an ancient “space gum” made up of a polymer rich in nitrogen and oxygen. The presence of such complex molecules may have contributed essential chemical precursors for the emergence of life on Earth, making their discovery in Bennu’s pristine samples crucial for scientists studying the origins of life and the potential for life beyond our planet.
Electron micrograph of particles taken from a Bennu sample. Image credit: Sandford et al., doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02694-5.
Bennu’s parent asteroid originated from material in the solar nebula (the rotating cloud of gas and dust that formed our solar system) and was composed of various minerals and ice.
As the asteroid warmed from natural radiation, compounds known as carbamates were created through reactions involving ammonia and carbon dioxide.
Despite being water-soluble, carbamates can persist long enough to polymerize and interact with other molecules, forming larger, more complex chains that are water-resistant.
This indicates that the parent asteroid formed before it became a watery environment.
“With this unusual material, we may be observing one of the earliest transformations that occurred in this rock,” stated Dr. Scott Sandford, a researcher at NASA’s Ames Research Center.
“In this ancient asteroid, formed in the early epochs of our solar system, we are witnessing events close to the dawn of time.”
The study explored the properties of this gum-like substance from Bennu.
As more information was revealed, it became apparent that the material was deposited in layers over ice and mineral grains present on the asteroid.
This material was also flexible, resembling the texture of used gum or soft plastic.
During their analysis, researchers observed that this peculiar material could bend and create indentations when pressure was applied.
The object was translucent and became brittle upon radiation exposure, reminiscent of a lawn chair left outdoors for several seasons.
“Analyzing its chemical composition shows that it contains similar chemical groups found in polyurethane on Earth, thus making this Bennu material comparable to ‘space plastic’,” Dr. Sandford explained.
“However, the material from ancient asteroids goes beyond just being polyurethane, which is a structured polymer.”
“It has a more random assortment of connections, with varying elemental compositions for each particle.”
The team’s findings were published in the Journal on December 2, 2025, in Nature Astronomy.
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SA Sandford et al. Nitrogen- and oxygen-rich organic material indicates polymerization in preaqueous low-temperature chemistry in Bennu’s parent body. Nat Astron published online on December 2, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41550-025-02694-5
Utilizing ESA’s XMM-Newton along with the X-ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission (XRISM)—a collaborative endeavor led by JAXA, ESA, and NASA—astronomers detected an ultrafast outflow from the supermassive black hole in NGC 3783, moving at 19% the speed of light (57,000 km/s).
An artist’s conception of NGC 3783’s wind-blown supermassive black hole. Image credit: ESA/ATG Europe.
NGC 3783 is a luminous barred spiral galaxy located about 135 million light-years away in the Centaurus constellation.
This galaxy was initially discovered by British astronomer John Herschel on April 21, 1835.
Also referred to as ESO 378-14, LEDA 36101, or 2XMM J113901.7-374418, it is a prominent member of the NGC 3783 group, which contains 47 galaxies.
NGC 3783 hosts a rapidly rotating supermassive black hole with a mass of 2.8 million solar masses.
“We have never witnessed a black hole producing winds at such speeds before,” stated Dr. Li Gu, an astronomer at the Netherlands Space Research Organization (SRON).
“Swift bursts of X-ray light from a black hole immediately provoke superfast winds, and for the first time, we observe how these winds develop within just a day.”
During 10 days of observations, mainly using the XRISM space telescope, astronomers monitored the emergence and acceleration of a burst from NGC 3783’s supermassive black hole.
While such explosions are typically attributed to intense radiation, in this instance, the likely cause is a sudden shift in the magnetic field, akin to solar flares caused by the Sun’s outbursts.
It is known that supermassive black holes emit X-rays, but this marks the first occasion where astronomers have distinctly observed rapid ejections during these X-ray bursts.
This finding emerged from the longest continuous observation conducted by XRISM to date.
Over these 10 days, scientists noted fluctuations in the brightness of the X-rays, particularly within the soft X-ray band.
Such fluctuations, including explosions lasting three days, are not uncommon for supermassive black holes.
What sets this explosion apart is the simultaneous expulsion of gas from the black hole’s accretion disk—a swirling disc of matter in orbit around the black hole.
This gas was expelled at astonishing speeds, hitting 57,000 km/s, or 19% of the speed of light.
Researchers identified the origin of this gas as a region approximately 50 times larger than the black hole itself.
Within this chaotic region, gravitational and magnetic forces are in extreme interaction.
The emission is believed to be the result of a phenomenon known as magnetic reconnection, which occurs when the magnetic field rapidly reorganizes and releases vast amounts of energy.
“This is an unparalleled opportunity to explore the mechanisms behind ultrafast ejections,” Dr. Gu remarked.
“The data indicate that magnetic forces, resembling those involved in coronal mass ejections from the Sun, are responsible for the acceleration of the outflow.”
“A coronal mass ejection occurs when a hefty plume of hot solar plasma is hurled into space.”
“In contrast, supermassive black holes can produce similar events, but these eruptions are 10 billion times more potent and far smaller than solar phenomena we’ve observed.”
Scientists propose that the black hole activity observed may mirror its solar counterpart, driven by an abrupt burst of magnetic energy.
This challenges the widely-held theory that black holes expel matter predominantly through intense radiation or extreme heat.
These findings provide fresh insights into how black holes not only consume matter but can also expel it back into space under specific conditions.
This feedback process plays a critical role in galaxy evolution, affecting nearby stars and gas and potentially contributing to the structure of the universe as we know it.
“This discovery highlights the effective collaboration that underpins all ESA missions,” noted XMM-Newton project scientist and ESA astronomer Dr. Eric Courkers.
“By focusing on an active supermassive black hole, the two telescopes unveiled something unprecedented: rapid, ultrafast flare-induced winds similar to those generated by the Sun.”
“Interestingly, this suggests that solar physics and high-energy physics may operate in surprisingly similar fashions throughout the universe.”
The team’s paper was published in the December 9, 2025 issue of the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.
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Gu Lee Yi et al. 2025. Investigating NGC 3783 with XRISM. III. Emergence of ultra-high-speed outflow during soft flares. A&A 704, A146; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202557189
Europa, Jupiter’s frigid moon, is an oceanic environment that stands out as a key player in the quest for extraterrestrial life. Its surface is characterized by various landforms believed to originate from salty water sources beneath its icy crust, potentially making it the most accessible body of liquid water in the solar system. Notably, the asterisk-shaped “spider” located in the center of Manannan Crater was identified during NASA’s Galileo mission. Planetary scientists have recently introduced a novel hypothesis regarding the formation of this spider-like structure, drawing on morphological analysis and initial analog modeling. They propose that it may have formed through a process akin to the creation of dendritic “lake stars,” a seasonal phenomenon observed in frozen terrestrial ponds and lakes.
Damkhan Alla topographic map of Manannan. Image credit: McCune et al., doi: 10.3847/PSJ/ae18a0.
“The spider-like feature may have resulted from an eruption of molten salt water following the Manannan impact,” explains Dr. Elodie Lesage from the Planetary Science Institute.
“This presents an opportunity to understand the subsurface characteristics and the salt water composition at the impact’s time.”
Dr. Lesage and colleagues are also researching similar “spiders” on Mars, which are tree-like formations in the regolith near the planet’s south pole.
Their findings on Mars have been applied to other celestial bodies, including Europa.
Martian spiders develop as a result of gases escaping beneath a seasonal dry ice layer; however, the Europa study speculates that the “asterisk-shaped” features could have emerged post-impact.
“Lake stars are radial branching designs that occur when snow accumulates on a frozen lake, creating holes in the ice due to the snow’s weight, allowing water to flow through and spread out energetically,” stated Dr. Lauren McCune from the University of Central Florida and NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
“We believe a similar process could have happened on Europa, with subsurface brine erupting after the impact and dispersing through the porous surface ice.”
The research team has informally designated the Europa feature as Damhan Alla, which translates to “spider” in Irish, differentiating it from Martian spider formations.
To validate their hypothesis, they studied lake stars in Breckenridge, Colorado, and conducted field as well as lab experiments using a cryogenic glovebox equipped with a Europa ice simulator cooled by liquid nitrogen.
“In our experiments where we passed water through these simulants at various temperatures, we observed similar star-like formations even at extremely low temperatures (-100 degrees Celsius or -148 degrees Fahrenheit), lending support to the idea that such mechanisms could occur on Europa after the impact,” Dr. McCune remarked.
Scientists also created models showing how the saltwater beneath Europa’s surface would react following an impact, including an animation illustrating the process.
While observations of Europa’s icy features are primarily reliant on images captured by the Galileo spacecraft in 1998, the researchers aim to explore this further with high-resolution images from NASA’s Europa Clipper mission, anticipated to arrive at the Jupiter system in April 2030.
“Although lake stars offer significant insights, terrestrial conditions differ vastly from those on Europa,” Dr. McCune notes.
“Earth possesses a nitrogen-rich atmosphere, while Europa’s environment features extremely low pressures and temperatures.”
“This investigation combined field data and laboratory trials to better simulate Europa’s surface conditions.”
The team will further examine how low-pressure systems affect the formation of these landforms and explore whether such structures can form beneath Europa’s icy crust, akin to how flowing lava generates smooth, rope-like textures known as pahoehoe on Earth.
While the primary focus was geomorphology, this discovery sheds light on subsurface activity and habitability, crucial for future astrobiological studies.
“By employing numerical modeling of saline reservoirs, we assessed the potential depth of the reservoir (up to 6 km, or 3.7 miles below the surface) and its longevity (potentially several thousand years post-impact),” Dr. Lesage stated.
“This data is invaluable for upcoming missions investigating viable ecosystems beneath ice shells.”
The team’s results were published in Planetary Science Journal.
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Lauren E. McCune et al. 2025. A lake star as an Earth analogue of Europa’s Manannan Crater Spider feature. Planet. Science. J 6,279; doi: 10.3847/PSJ/ae18a0
This year brought many revelations about our ancient human relatives
WHPics / Alamy
This is an excerpt from Our Human Story, a newsletter about the revolution in archaeology. Sign up to receive it in your inbox every month.
If we try to summarize all the new fossils, methods, and ideas emerging from the study of human evolution in 2025, we might still be here in 2027. This year has been packed with developments, and I doubt it’s feasible for one individual to digest everything without isolating themselves from other distractions. This is particularly true in human evolution, which is a decentralized field. Unlike particle physicists, who often unite in teams for large-scale experiments, paleoanthropologists scatter in diverse directions.
There are two ways this year-long endeavor can falter. One risk is getting overwhelmed by an insurmountable amount of research, rendering it indecipherable. The other is simplifying the information to the point where it becomes incorrect.
With that in mind, here are three key points I want to clarify as we head into 2025. First, there have been remarkable discoveries about the Denisovans, reshaping our understanding of this mysterious group and challenging some of our previous assumptions. Second, we’ve seen a variety of new discoveries and ideas regarding how our distant ancestors created and utilized tools. Finally, we must consider the broader picture: how and why our species diverged so significantly from other primates.
The Denisovan Flood
Hebei Geography University
This year marks 15 years since we first learned about the Denisovans, an ancient group of humans that inhabited East Asia tens of thousands of years ago. My fascination with them has persisted, and this year, I was excited to witness a surge of discoveries that broadened our knowledge of their habitats and identities.
Denisovans were initially identified primarily through molecular evidence. The first fossil discovered was a small finger bone from Denisova Cave in Siberia, which defied identification based solely on its morphology, but DNA was collected in 2010. Genetic analyses revealed that Denisovans were closely related to Neanderthals, who lived in Europe and Asia, and that they interbred with modern humans. Currently, populations in Southeast Asia, particularly Papua New Guinea and the Philippines, possess the highest concentration of Denisovan DNA.
Since then, researchers have been on the hunt for additional Denisovan remains, though this endeavor has progressed slowly. Until 2019, the second identified example was a jawbone excavated from Baisiya Karst Cave in Xianghe, located on the Tibetan Plateau. Over the next five years, several more fossils were tentatively attributed to Denisovans, notable for their large size and pronounced teeth compared to modern humans.
Then came 2025, which brought numerous exciting findings. In April, Denisovans were confirmed in Taiwan, when a jawbone dredged from the Penghu Strait in 2008 was finally identified using preserved proteins. This discovery significantly extends the known range of Denisovans to the southeast, aligning with where their genetic markers remain today.
In June, the first Denisovan facial features emerged. A skull discovered in Harbin, northern China, was described in 2021 and designated as a new species, named Homolonghi. Initially presumed to belong to Denisovans due to its large size, proteins extracted by Qiaomei Fu and her team from the bone and mitochondrial DNA from dental plaque confirmed its Denisovan origins.
So far, these findings align well with genetic evidence indicating that Denisovans roamed extensively across Asia. They also contribute to a coherent image of Denisovans as a larger species.
However, two additional discoveries in 2025 were surprising. In September, a crushed skull thought to belong to an early Denisovan was reconstructed in Unzen, China, dating back approximately 1 million years. This finding suggests that Denisovans existed as a distinct group much earlier than previously believed, indicating that their common ancestor with Neanderthals, known as Ancestor X, must have lived over a million years ago. If confirmed, it implies a longer evolutionary history for all three groups than previously thought.
Just a month ago, geneticists released a second high-quality Denisovan genome extracted from a 200,000-year-old tooth found in Denisova Cave. Notably, this genome is distinctly different from the first genome described recently, as well as from modern Denisovan DNA.
This indicates the existence of at least three groups of Denisovans: early ones, later ones, and those that hybridized with modern humans—this latter group remains a total archaeological enigma.
As our understanding of Denisovans deepens, their history appears much longer and more diverse than initially assumed. In particular, Denisovan populations that interbred with modern humans remain elusive.
For the past 15 years, Denisovans have captivated my interest. Despite their widespread presence across continents for hundreds of thousands of years, only a handful of remains have been documented.
Fortunately, I have a penchant for mysteries. Because this puzzle won’t be solved anytime soon.
Tool Manufacturing
TW Plummer, JS Oliver, EM Finestone, Houma Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project
Creating and using tools is one of humanity’s most critical functions. This ability isn’t unique to our species, as many other animals also use and even make tools. Primatologist Jane Goodall, who passed away this year, famously demonstrated that chimpanzees can manufacture tools. However, humans have significantly elevated this skill, producing a more diverse array of tools that are often more complex and essential to our survival than those of any other animal.
As we delve deeper into the fossil record, we’re discovering that the practice of tool-making dates back further than previously thought. In March, I reported on excavations in Tanzania revealing that an unidentified ancient human was consistently creating bone tools 1.5 million years ago, well over a million years before bone tools were believed to become commonplace. Similarly, while it was previously thought that humans began crafting artifacts from ivory 50,000 years ago, this year, a 400,000-year-old flake from a mammoth tusk was discovered in Ukraine.
Even older stone tools have surfaced, likely due in part to their greater preservation potential. Crude tools have been identified from 3.3 million years ago at Lomekwi, Kenya. Last month in Our Human Story, I mentioned excavations in another part of Kenya demonstrating that ancient humans consistently produced a specific type of Oldowan tools between 2.75 million and 2.44 million years ago, indicating that tool-making was already a habitual practice.
Often, tools are found without associated bones, making it challenging to determine their makers’ identities. It’s tempting to assume that most tools belong to our genus, Homo, or perhaps to Australopithecus, our more distant ancestors. However, increasing evidence suggests that Paranthropus—a hominin with a small brain and large teeth, which thrived in Africa for hundreds of thousands of years—could also have made tools, at least simple ones like the Oldowans.
Two years ago, Oldowan tools were discovered alongside Paranthropus teeth in Kenya—admittedly not definitive evidence, but strongly suggestive. This year, a fossil of Paranthropus revealed that its hand exhibited a combination of gorilla-like strength and impressive dexterity, indicating capable precision gripping essential for tool-making.
How did these ancients conceive of their tools? One possibility, suggested by Metin Eren and others this year, is that they didn’t consciously create them. Instead, tool-like stones form naturally under various conditions, such as frost cracking rocks or elephants trampling them. Early humans may have utilized these “natural stones,” knowledge of which eventually led to their replication.
As humans continued to develop increasingly complex tools, the cognitive demands of creating them likely escalated, potentially facilitating the emergence of language as we needed to communicate how to make and use these advanced tools. This year’s research explored aspects like the difficulty of learning various skills, whether close observation is necessary, or if mere exposure suffices. The findings suggest two significant changes in cultural transmission that may correlate with technological advancements.
Like most aspects of evolution, tool-making appears to have gradually evolved from our primate predecessors, reshaping our cognitive capabilities in the process.
Big Picture
Alexandra Morton Hayward
Now let’s address the age-old question of how and why humans evolved so distinctly, and which traits truly set us apart. This topic is always challenging to navigate for three main reasons.
First, human uniqueness is multifaceted and often contradictory. Social scientist Jonathan R. Goodman suggested in July that evolution has forged humans to embody both “Machiavellian” traits—planning and betraying one another—and “natural socialist” instincts driven by strong social norms against murder and theft. Claims that humans are inherently generous or instinctively cruel tend to oversimplify the matter excessively.
Second, our perceptions of what makes us unique are shaped by the societies in which we exist. For instance, many cultures remain predominantly male-focused, leading our historical narratives to center around men. While the feminist movement is working to amend this imbalance, progress remains slow. Laura Spinney’s article on prehistoric women suggested that “throughout prehistory, women were rulers, warriors, hunters, and shamans,” a viewpoint made viable only through dedicated research.
Third, reconstructing the thought processes of ancient people as they adopted certain behaviors is inherently difficult, if not impossible. Why did early humans bury their dead and enact funerary rituals? How were dogs and other animals domesticated? What choices shaped ancient humans’ paths toward change?
Still, I want to spotlight two intriguing ideas surrounding the evolution of the human brain and intelligence. One concerns the role of placental hormones that developing babies are exposed to in the womb. Preliminary evidence suggests these hormones may contribute to brain growth, equipping us with the neural capacity to navigate our unusually complex social environments.
Another compelling possibility proposes that the genetic changes associated with our increased intelligence may have also led to vulnerabilities to mental illness. In October, Christa Leste-Laser reported that genetic mutations linked to intelligence emerged in our distant ancestors, followed by mutations associated with mental disorders.
This notion has intrigued me for years, rooted in the observation that wild animals, including our close relatives like chimpanzees, do not appear to suffer from serious mental illnesses such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Perhaps our brains operate at the edge of our neural capabilities. Like a finely-tuned sports car, we can excel but are also prone to breakdowns. While still a hypothesis, this concept is difficult to shake off.
Oh, one more point. Although we often shy away from discussing methodological advancements, as readers generally prefer results, we made an exception in May. Alexandra Morton Hayward and her colleagues at the University of Oxford developed a method to extract proteins from ancient brains and potentially other soft tissues. Though such tissues are rarer in the fossil record compared to bones and teeth, some remain preserved and may offer a wealth of information. The first results could be available next year.
Homo floresiensis A recent study indicates that Liang Bua, the cave where this diminutive hominin species resided for approximately 140,000 years, was deserted during a significant drought between 61,000 and 55,000 years ago.
Reconstruction of Homo floresiensis. Image credit: Elizabeth Danes.
Homo floresiensis was first identified in 2003 in Liang Bua, Flores Island, Indonesia.
This species, often referred to as hobbits due to their small size, challenged prevailing theories regarding human evolution.
It vanished from the fossil record around 50,000 years ago, but the reasons for its disappearance are still unclear.
“In 2003, excavations in the Liangbua rock trench unveiled the skeletons of a previously unknown small hominid species, Homo floresiensis,” stated Emeritus Professor Mike Gagan and colleagues from the University of Wollongong.
“Originally, the period of occupation was estimated to be between 95,000 and 12,000 years ago, suggesting the possibility of interaction with early modern humans (Homo sapiens), who inhabited islands in Southeast Asia and were contributing to species extinctions.”
“However, following a revision of the stratigraphy and chronology at this site, all Homo floresiensis human bones are now believed to be approximately 100,000 to 60,000 years old.”
“Associated stone artifacts and megafaunal assemblages typically suggest that Homo floresiensis went extinct around 50,000 years ago.”
“The revised timeline indicates they disappeared from the record around 46,000 years ago, coinciding with the arrival of modern humans at Liang Bua, and there was a significant shift in the types of materials used for making stone tools.”
In the study, the authors integrated chemical records from cave stalagmites with isotope data from the fossilized teeth of a pygmy elephant species, Stegodon florensis insularis, which Homo floresiensis hunted.
The findings reveal a large-scale drying trend that commenced around 76,000 years ago and peaked in severe droughts between 61,000 and 55,000 years ago, near the time when the species went extinct.
Prolonged drought and heightened competition for resources may have led to their abandonment of Liang Bua and, ultimately, their extinction.
“At that time, the ecosystem surrounding Liang Bua experienced significant drying. Homo floresiensis vanished,” remarked the lead author of the study, Emeritus Professor Mike Gagan from the University of Wollongong.
“The summer rains caused the riverbed to become dry seasonally, placing stress on both the hobbits and their prey.”
The population of pygmy elephants saw a drastic decline around 61,000 years ago, signaling the loss of a crucial food source for the hobbits.
“Surface freshwater, along with Stegodon and Homo floresiensis, all diminished simultaneously, showcasing the compounded effects of ecological stress,” stated Dr. Gerd van den Bergh from the University of Wollongong.
“Competition for the scarce water and food likely forced the hobbits to vacate Liang Bua.”
“Meanwhile, the fossils of Homo floresiensis predate the earliest evidence of modern humans on Flores, Homo sapiens, who were traversing the Indonesian archipelago when the hobbits went extinct.”
“It’s possible that the hobbits encountered modern humans while migrating in search of water and food,” Professor Gagan noted.
“In that context, climate change may have set the stage for their eventual extinction.”
The study was published in the journal Communication Earth and Environment.
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MK Gagan et al. 2025. The onset of summer dryness and forest decline of Homo floresiensis at Liang Bua 61,000 years ago. Communication Earth and Environment 6,992; doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02961-3
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