Homo floresiensis A recent study indicates that Liang Bua, the cave where this diminutive hominin species resided for approximately 140,000 years, was deserted during a significant drought between 61,000 and 55,000 years ago.
Reconstruction of Homo floresiensis. Image credit: Elizabeth Danes.
Homo floresiensis was first identified in 2003 in Liang Bua, Flores Island, Indonesia.
This species, often referred to as hobbits due to their small size, challenged prevailing theories regarding human evolution.
It vanished from the fossil record around 50,000 years ago, but the reasons for its disappearance are still unclear.
“In 2003, excavations in the Liangbua rock trench unveiled the skeletons of a previously unknown small hominid species, Homo floresiensis,” stated Emeritus Professor Mike Gagan and colleagues from the University of Wollongong.
“Originally, the period of occupation was estimated to be between 95,000 and 12,000 years ago, suggesting the possibility of interaction with early modern humans (Homo sapiens), who inhabited islands in Southeast Asia and were contributing to species extinctions.”
“However, following a revision of the stratigraphy and chronology at this site, all Homo floresiensis human bones are now believed to be approximately 100,000 to 60,000 years old.”
“Associated stone artifacts and megafaunal assemblages typically suggest that Homo floresiensis went extinct around 50,000 years ago.”
“The revised timeline indicates they disappeared from the record around 46,000 years ago, coinciding with the arrival of modern humans at Liang Bua, and there was a significant shift in the types of materials used for making stone tools.”
In the study, the authors integrated chemical records from cave stalagmites with isotope data from the fossilized teeth of a pygmy elephant species, Stegodon florensis insularis, which Homo floresiensis hunted.
The findings reveal a large-scale drying trend that commenced around 76,000 years ago and peaked in severe droughts between 61,000 and 55,000 years ago, near the time when the species went extinct.
Prolonged drought and heightened competition for resources may have led to their abandonment of Liang Bua and, ultimately, their extinction.
“At that time, the ecosystem surrounding Liang Bua experienced significant drying. Homo floresiensis vanished,” remarked the lead author of the study, Emeritus Professor Mike Gagan from the University of Wollongong.
“The summer rains caused the riverbed to become dry seasonally, placing stress on both the hobbits and their prey.”
The population of pygmy elephants saw a drastic decline around 61,000 years ago, signaling the loss of a crucial food source for the hobbits.
“Surface freshwater, along with Stegodon and Homo floresiensis, all diminished simultaneously, showcasing the compounded effects of ecological stress,” stated Dr. Gerd van den Bergh from the University of Wollongong.
“Competition for the scarce water and food likely forced the hobbits to vacate Liang Bua.”
“Meanwhile, the fossils of Homo floresiensis predate the earliest evidence of modern humans on Flores, Homo sapiens, who were traversing the Indonesian archipelago when the hobbits went extinct.”
“It’s possible that the hobbits encountered modern humans while migrating in search of water and food,” Professor Gagan noted.
“In that context, climate change may have set the stage for their eventual extinction.”
The study was published in the journal Communication Earth and Environment.
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MK Gagan et al. 2025. The onset of summer dryness and forest decline of Homo floresiensis at Liang Bua 61,000 years ago. Communication Earth and Environment 6,992; doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02961-3
Timing chemotherapy properly can reduce side effects.
Paul Springett/Alamy
It is often said that timing plays a crucial role, and cancer treatment might be no exception. Researchers have discovered that adjusting the timing of immunotherapy drugs administered to cancer patients can enhance survival rates, adding to the evidence that our body’s internal clock affects cancer treatment efficacy.
The activities of cells and tissues within our bodies follow a 24-hour cycle termed the circadian rhythm, which governs everything from hormone release to cell division and repair timing. These rhythms are frequently disrupted in cancer cells, which tend to divide uncontrollably rather than at set intervals.
This has led to efforts aimed at alleviating chemotherapy side effects by targeting quickly dividing cells while the healthy tissue is less active. However, researchers are also exploring whether administering cancer drugs at particular times can enhance their efficacy.
One class of drugs under scrutiny is immune checkpoint inhibitors, which enable immune T cells to more effectively identify and target tumors. “T cells and other immune agents are naturally more active in the morning, making them more responsive,” explains Dr. Celine Ismail Sutton at Easbeatty Gwynedd Hospital in Bangor, England, who was not part of the study. “Administering immune checkpoint inhibitors during this window may bolster antitumor effects and enhance effectiveness.”
Earlier this year, ze fan and colleagues from Central South University in Changsha, China, documented that giving the checkpoint inhibitor pembrolizumab before 11:30 a.m. alongside chemotherapy to patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) resulted in a survival rate that nearly doubles compared to those receiving treatment primarily in the afternoon.
To assess whether timing treatments in accordance with circadian rhythms, termed chronotherapy, could benefit patients with rapidly dividing, aggressive small cell lung cancer, the same team analyzed data from 397 individuals treated with the checkpoint inhibitors atezolizumab or durvalumab alongside chemotherapy from 2019 to 2023.
“Patients treated before 3 p.m. exhibited significantly longer progression-free survival and overall survival in comparison to those treated later in the day,” reported team members. Zhang Yongchang, also at Central South University, noted.
After accounting for numerous confounding variables, early treatment appeared to be associated with a 52% reduced risk of cancer progression and a 63% decreased risk of mortality.
Zhang suspects that this effect may manifest in additional tumor types, referencing evidence from studies on renal cell carcinoma and melanoma. Research on NSCLC trials illustrated that morning dosing boosts circulating T cell levels and activation, while later dosing does the opposite. Mouse studies have shown that the behavior of tumor-infiltrating T cells fluctuates throughout the 24-hour cycle and that circadian clocks in adjacent endothelial cells influence when immune cells migrate into tumors.
While larger randomized controlled trials are essential, this investigation “adds further support to a growing number of studies globally that indicate improved outcomes when immunotherapy drugs are administered earlier in the day,” states Pasquale Innominato from the University of Warwick, UK.
But is it feasible for hospitals to implement this? When it comes to modifying treatment schedules, “adjusting infusion times is a straightforward clinical decision that incurs minimal costs,” asserts Zhang.
Nevertheless, treating everyone early in the day isn’t practical. According to Robert Dalman, also at the University of Warwick, each person’s body clock varies. “For instance, the biological time discrepancy between an ‘early bird’ and a ‘night owl’ can span several hours.”
Nonetheless, biomarkers that accurately assess individuals’ chronotypes are currently in development. Once established and validated, chronotherapy could emerge as a “cost-effective, resource-efficient innovation with the capability to significantly enhance treatment outcomes. A simple shift in timing can unveil a new facet of precision medicine,” concludes Ismail Sutton in a recently published perspective on this innovative strategy.
Ceramic roof tiles and tuff blocks uncovered at an ancient construction site in Pompeii
Pompeii Archaeological Park
A recently uncovered ancient building site in Pompeii, preserved since the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, has enabled archaeologists to finally understand the process behind Roman concrete production.
Located near Naples, Pompeii was entombed under layers of volcanic ash in 79 AD. Excavation efforts commenced in the 1880s but were halted until early 2023, when extensive new diggings began.
The latest excavations revealed a nearly intact concrete workshop, featuring inscriptions on the walls detailing work schedules and material quantities. Numerous concrete tools, heaps of quicklime, and salvaged roof tiles were also discovered.
Admija Masic of the MIT research team expressed amazement at the site’s remarkable preservation, stating it provides insights into Roman concrete techniques that “laboratory recreations simply cannot achieve.”
“The material was just as it was at the moment the eruption halted the city,” Masic mentioned. “Studying it felt as if I were transported back to 79 A.D., standing beside the workers mixing and pouring concrete.”
The team’s revelations indicate that established assumptions about Roman concrete production should be reconsidered.
Historical records suggest that Romans utilized slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) for concrete, combining it with water before mixing it with other components like volcanic ash.
Contrarily, chemical analyses of dry, premixed materials found in Pompeian workshops show that ancient builders actually employed a hot mixing technique using quicklime, or calcium oxide. This method involved combining the lime with all other ingredients including volcanic ash and minerals, before adding water, which was heated as a result of the chemical reaction, causing some concrete to set.
“Our findings demonstrate that quicklime was crucial to structural concrete,” Masic states. “In contrast, slaked lime was typically used for finish mortar and plaster, where a smooth surface and workability were paramount.”
The hot-mixing method offers the advantage of lime remnants, known as crusts, remaining in the concrete post-hardening, which can autonomously heal small cracks and defects.
“These lime fragments serve as reservoirs of calcium that can dissolve and recrystallize in crevices and fractures, or interact with volcanic ash to enhance the microstructure of the concrete,” Masić explains.
A modern concrete worker would easily understand the Roman concrete-making technique at Pompeii and could seamlessly transition into the workshop to start working, he states. “The chemistry is ancient, yet the technology is readily recognizable.”
Historic Herculaneum – explore Vesuvius, Pompeii, and ancient Naples
Embark on a captivating expedition through the remnants of Mount Vesuvius, Pompeii, and Herculaneum, where history and archaeology unfold.
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DGDImages / Alamy Stock Photos
As I embarked on this story, I pondered whether my subject should be included in my research. I envisioned a striking introduction: “Meet the longest-living animal on Earth. And yes, it’s edible.”
The creature in question is a type of shellfish, namely the ocean quahog, best known for its role in dishes like spaghetti alle vongole. While they are quite tasty, considering the moral implications of harvesting and consuming our fellow beings, as well as the harmful impact on marine ecosystems, I came to realize it raises deeper issues. This extraordinary mollusk can live for over 500 years. Killing it for food seems unjust. Thus, I must alter my introduction: This is the world’s longest-living animal, and my objective is to unravel its mysteries.
If the ocean quahog, also referred to as the Icelandic cyprin, is unfamiliar to you, don’t fret; it isn’t exactly a household name. This sizable bivalve is found buried in sandy beaches all around the North Atlantic, from the warm coasts of Florida and Cadiz, Spain, to the frigid waters of Canada and Norway. If you’ve ever tasted clam chowder in the USA, you’ve likely encountered this species. Its shell showcases fine lines akin to a tree’s annual growth rings, allowing one to determine its age by counting them.
The oldest known specimen, named Hafrun—an Icelandic term that translates to “mystery of the sea”—was born in 1499. It led an unremarkable life, living modestly on a diet scavenged from the shores of Iceland, just as its ancestors had done for generations. Its long life, however, was anything but ordinary. Sadly, Hafrun’s existence came to an abrupt end in 2006 when a team from the University of Exeter, UK, retrieved it from the ocean for research on aging by chronologist Paul Butler. The study aimed to analyze bivalve shells to devise a timeline of the surrounding environment.
“Initially, we estimated its age to be slightly over 400 years. But after a more meticulous examination of its growth lines and comparisons with other shells, we realized it was actually 507 years old,” Butler revealed. It’s possible that even older specimens exist, especially in the colder waters around Iceland, where they tend to grow more slowly and live exceedingly longer. Is there a maximum age limit? “It’s astounding that they can survive for such an extended period,” Butler noted, embodying the enthusiasm of a true mathematician.
The longevity of the quahog seems to stem from its mitochondria—the tiny structures within our cells that convert food into energy. This applies to all eukaryotes, from yew trees and beetles to jellyfish and rabbits.
“Strong mitochondria, which Arctica islandica possesses, are vital for healthy aging across various model species,” comments Enrique Rodriguez, who studies mitochondria at University College London.
The mitochondria of quahogs exhibit enhanced resilience. Their membranes are sturdier than those of other species. These membranes house a protein apparatus that handles electrons and protons to produce ATP, the body’s universal energy currency. The quahog’s mitochondria are larger and more organized, making them even more durable. “Their proteins possess greater molecular weights and intricate structures,” Rodriguez adds. “They are interconnected more efficiently.”
This specialized structure allows the quahog to mitigate mitochondrial damage. It carefully orchestrates the countless protons and electrons that traverse these membranes every second. When electrons leak, they can generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as hydrogen peroxide, causing cellular harm. Rodriguez likens this process to cars stuck in traffic: in regular mitochondria, a red light up front triggers a back-up, resulting in exhaust emissions that harm the environment. Yet in quahog mitochondria, protein complexes (the traffic lights) facilitate smoother flow, resulting in diminished exhaust.
However, robust membranes are just part of what allows quahogs to enjoy lengthy lifespans. They also excel in eliminating the ROS they produce. Using Rodriguez’s analogy, this equates to cleaning a car’s exhaust.
A woman hunts quahogs on the Massachusetts coastline.
Boston Globe (via Getty Images)
Rodriguez compared the antioxidant abilities of the quahog to several of its short-lived relatives and found it had a notably superior capacity to eliminate ROS—3-14 times more effective. This finding aligns with the Mitochondrial Oxidative Stress Theory of Aging, also seen in the extraordinary lifespans of other species like naked mole rats, which can live up to 40 years—over six times longer than rodents of comparable size.
Pierre Blier, a researcher focused on animal metabolism and aquaculture genetics at the University of Quebec, raises quahogs in labs to investigate longevity mechanisms. He adds that the ocean quahog showcases a remarkable capacity to buffer oxidants. “Their mitochondria are incredibly durable and resistant to ROS,” he states, supporting the MOSTA theory.
While this provides insights into how these creatures achieve such extended lifespans, it also raises questions about the “why.” In other words, what evolutionary pressures contributed to the development of such robust mitochondria?
A possible explanation lies in the low levels of oxygen in the environments where these clams thrive. “Naked mole rats can remain confined in their burrows for about a week without needing gills for oxygen,” Rodriguez observes. Mitochondria have adapted to endure low oxygen conditions (known as anoxia) for extended periods, subsequently requiring robustness to handle sudden oxygen influxes and the correlative spike in oxidative stress. This similar adaptability is evident in naked mole rats, as their subterranean habitats often have diminished oxygen levels. Rodriguez notes a like pattern in their mitochondrial resilience under both oxygen deprivation and subsequent reoxygenation stress, suggesting that selection pressure related to low oxygen could lead to increased longevity almost inadvertently.
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My advice to live longer is to exercise, eat well, and take cold showers. “
The pressing question is whether we can bolster our own mitochondria. Back in 2005, a team at the University of California, Irvine, created transgenic mice with enhanced production of the “scavenging” antioxidant enzyme catalase in their mitochondria, extending their lifespans by around five months—a notable increase considering their average lifespan of two years. Although gene editing in human mitochondria is now feasible, we still lack a comprehensive understanding of how to safely extend lifespan, prompting the necessity for alternative methods.
Regular exercise is known to improve mitochondrial function. Interestingly, Tibetan Sherpas, who dwell at high altitudes, exhibit distinct mitochondrial characteristics compared to lowland dwellers. A 2017 study examining indigenous lowlanders and Sherpas attempting to climb Mount Everest Base Camp, situated roughly 5,300 meters above sea level, found that Sherpas demonstrated superior oxygen utilization and greater defenses against oxidative stress—attributed to their stronger mitochondria, with genetic foundations for these traits.
Blier argues that Arctica islandica offers valuable insights into longevity. “To enhance your lifespan, focus on your mitochondria: engage in regular exercise, maintain a balanced diet, and incorporate cold showers… Cold showers seem to invoke mitochondrial quality control mechanisms.”
If it works for quahogs…
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Karl Remström made his way down the mountain, feeling frozen and drained. It had taken him four hours to summit, followed by hours spent thawing out and fixing his gear. The trek home took another four challenging hours through the snow, a routine he repeated nearly every day for almost a month. But he was determined, undeterred by the frigid temperatures.
Upon returning to the small shelter he fashioned from branches at the mountain’s base, Remström checked his instruments and waited. Immediately, the galvanometer’s needle moved. He noted his findings and stepped outside to witness a massive beam of light reaching from the mountaintop into the sky.
It was December 29, 1882, and Remström was in northern Lapland, attempting to validate his theory regarding the origins of the aurora borealis. Few believed him then, but his findings would soon change that. He was convinced he had generated an artificial replica of the Northern Lights.
Lemström, a Finnish physicist, had become captivated by the aurora at the age of 30. While a postdoctoral researcher in Sweden in 1868, he participated in a scientific expedition to Svalbard, Norway—deep within the Arctic Circle. Although from southern Finland and having witnessed the aurora before, this marked his first experience with such a display at this latitude, and he was completely enthralled.
During that period, the cause of the aurora remained a mystery, spurring heated scientific discourse. Many of Remström’s contemporaries sought ways to create miniature simulations, with some achieving success. For instance, Swiss physicist Auguste de la Rive showcased in 1860 that a jet of violet light could be produced within a vacuum-sealed glass tube. He asserted it faithfully duplicated the phenomena of the Northern Lights, regardless of the primary color actually being green.
Two primary theories circulated about the nature of the Northern Lights. Some believed they stemmed from meteorite dust drawn by the Earth’s magnetic field, burning up in the atmosphere. Others theorized they were some form of electromagnetic occurrence, though the specifics remained hazy.
Lemström sided with Team Electromagnetics, positing that aurora borealis formed when electrical currents in the atmosphere flowed into cooler mountain peaks. Many researchers dismissed him as misguided or eccentric. Fiona Amery, a science historian at Cambridge University, stumbled upon Lemström’s nearly forgotten paper while researching auroral science of the 19th century.
Lemström was fueled to prove his detractors wrong. Instead of relying on small-scale simulations, he aimed to manifest a full-scale aurora in its natural environment: the frigid Lapland mountains.
By 1871, he held a lecturer position at what is now the University of Helsinki. He convinced the Finnish Scientific Association to back him in an expedition to Finnish Lapland’s Inari region, where he set up his device on Luosmavaara mountain on November 22 of the same year. His apparatus comprised a two-square-meter copper wire spiral secured over a two-meter high steel column, with metal rods pointing skyward connected to it. A copper wire route extended four kilometers down the mountain, linking to a galvanometer for current measurement and a metal plate for grounding. This intricate mechanism was designed to transmit and amplify electrical currents Lemström firmly believed were descending from the atmosphere, thus creating the aurora borealis.
Karl Lemström’s watercolor of the Olantunturi mountaintop experiment.
Finnish Cultural Heritage Agency
According to Amery, Remström likened the aurora borealis to lightning, suggesting that his device functioned similarly to a lightning rod. “He described lightning as sudden, while the aurora was gradual and spread out. He believed he could capture the aurora much like he could attract lightning.”
That evening, following his strenuous climb, Remström spotted a beam of light above the summit, and upon analyzing its spectrum, he discerned it matched the distinct yellow-green wavelength characteristic of the aurora borealis. He was certain he had evoked the Northern Lights. Unfortunately, no one acknowledged his findings due to the absence of photographic proof or independent witnesses. “He was regarded as quite obscure,” Amélie states.
This would have remained the case were it not for a fortunate turn of events. In 1879, the newly formed International Polar Commission announced plans for an International Polar Year—a year-long scientific initiative in the Arctic. “Suddenly, he could secure funding for aurora research,” Amélie says, “and he found himself in the right place at the right time.”
Arctic Mission
Recognizing the opportunity, Remström attended a planning conference in St. Petersburg, campaigning for the establishment of a meteorological observatory in Lapland. The committee approved, and Lemström opted for a site near the small Finnish town of Sodankyla. The Finnish Meteorological Observatory was founded in September 1882, with Lemström appointed as its first director.
He immediately sought a location to resume his aurora experiments, eventually settling on Olantunturi mountain, roughly 20 kilometers from the observatory. In early December, with a mere three hours of daylight and average temperatures around -30°C (-22°F), he and three helpers trekked to the summit and assembled a larger version of his previous device, spanning approximately 900 square meters.
The conditions were severe. Lemström later noted that it took four hours to reach the observatory from the summit, after which he needed to thaw out and frequently fix the wires, which crumbled under the weight of frost. He could work only a few minutes before his hands became numb, and this apparatus, too, operated briefly before freezing up again.
However, the effort proved worthwhile. Once the device was operational on December 5, Remström and his assistants witnessed a “yellow-white light surrounding the mountaintop; contrarily, no such brightness was found in the vicinity.” Spectroscopic analysis indicated the light matched the natural aurora’s properties.
Over the following weeks, similar occurrences transpired nearly every night. The most breathtaking display occurred on December 29, when a beam of light ascended 134 meters skyward. Lacking photographs, Remström resorted to creating drawings. His watercolor depicted a radiant beam surging to the mountain’s peak. He also erected two smaller aurora conductors on another mountain, Pieterintonturi, claiming to have observed comparable phenomena there.
Lemström was finally ready to share his triumph with the world. He sent a telegram to the Finnish Academy of Sciences, which gained widespread attention. The journal Nature published threedetailed accountsin its May and June 1883 issue, where Remström proclaimed that “experiments… unmistakably demonstrate that the aurora is an electrical phenomenon.”
Painting of physicist Karl Lemström, who endeavored to recreate the aurora borealis.
Public Domain
If he anticipated universal acclaim, he was gravely mistaken. Although his endeavors captured media attention, few colleagues concurred with his claims of having instigated the aurora borealis. “Some speculated he might have generated other intriguing electrical phenomena, such as St. Elmo’s fire or zodiacal lights,” Amery notes. “Others suggested it resembled an odd type of lightning more akin to ball lightning, and there were those who believed he may have fabricated it altogether.”
In early 1884, Danish aurora expert Sophus Tromholt attempted to replicate Remström’s experiment on Mount Esja in Iceland, but his device registered “no signs of life whatsoever.” A subsequent replication effort in the French Pyrenees in 1885 also faltered, except for civil engineer Célestin-Xavier Vossena, who narrowly escaped electrocution.
Unfazed, Lemström boldly asserted to have recreated the aurora again in late 1884, this time employing sturdier wires and adding a mechanism to inject electricity into the circuit, believing it would boost its energy. Nature published another report detailing these findings, yet Lemström’s zeal for working in extreme conditions began to wane, leading him to pursue new ventures (his next project involved using electricity to enhance crop growth). He passed away in 1904, still resolute in his conviction that he had generated the aurora borealis.
However, he did not. His hypothesis was flawed. Auroras arise from charged particles entering Earth’s atmosphere from space, rather than emanating from the ground. Still, Amery suggests he might have created something significant. “I suspect it could have been St. Elmo’s Fire, a form of luminous discharge,” she notes. “That’s my prevailing theory.” However, she also observes, “Perhaps there was a hint of wishful thinking.” The reality remains elusive, and we may never know—unless someone is inspired to construct a vast array of copper wire atop a frigid mountain during the Arctic winter.
It rhymes with Eeny, meeny, minnie, moo, catch a tiger by its toes. Yet even children realize counting rhymes like this are ineffective for making genuinely random choices. Remember when you first discovered you could influence the outcome by selecting your starting point carefully?
You might think flipping a coin or rolling a die is better, but proving these outcomes are random is a challenge. These methods are not genuinely random; knowing the precise conditions like positioning, trajectory, gravity, or friction lets you predict the results. True randomness is indeed elusive.
The exciting part is that randomness is an inherent aspect of the universe, evident in quantum mechanics. Quantum particles like electrons and photons choose paths based on pure randomness, with no discernible cause behind quantum events. The University of Colorado Randomness Beacon, affectionately known as Kirby, exploits this phenomenon. This year, it launched as the first publicly available source of traceable, verifiable true random numbers.
You might question who requires such high levels of randomness. After all, dice and coins have entertained us for millennia. However, some scenarios demand maximum randomness. “People don’t realize it, but without randomness, digital life lacks safety and fairness,” says Nemitali Azienka, a computer scientist from Nottingham Trent University in the UK. He explains that whenever you access a secure webpage or create a strong password, randomness plays a role. Even machine learning incorporates randomness in its training.
Randomness also supports democratic processes. For instance, in Chile, politicians face random audits, but those targeted often feel victimized. “Everyone claims it’s a witch hunt,” says Christer Shalm, one of the CURBy creators at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). When random beacons are used to derive numbers from genuinely random sources, such claims become much harder to substantiate.
Currently, the Chilean government relies on various factors, like seismic activity and a local radio station’s output, for randomness, but these aren’t entirely random either—after all, seismic events occur for specific reasons and the radio playlist is curated. Moreover, such methods lack full traceability as seismic data isn’t regularly accessible. This is where CURBy shines.
Quantum Randomness Generator
A decade ago, Schalm noted that the system was “held together by duct tape and hopes.” At that time, researchers had just begun to verify CURBy’s principles. Since then, they’ve worked to enhance the system’s speed, automation, and accessibility for all internet users.
Today, CURBy boasts a cutting-edge facility that handles thousands of requests daily. It may bolster democracy, enhance trust in justice systems, and even bring tranquility to family game nights. “CURBy embodies a practical, accessible quantum technology. This development excites me,” says Peter Brown, a physicist at the Polytechnic University of Paris.
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People don’t realize it, but without randomness, your digital life isn’t secure. “
Generating genuinely random numbers is tricky. Apart from quantum methods, most number-generation mechanisms rely on some underlying processes, making true randomness rare in the universe. Computer games often utilize “pseudo-random numbers” to form secure passwords from a seeded number; knowing this seed and algorithm eliminates randomness in your passwords.
One could delve deeper and use “high entropy” randomness sources, like the unpredictable timing of radioactive decay in materials like cobalt-60 or strontium-90. While this constitutes a random quantum event, it’s difficult to make user-friendly, and proving the legitimacy of generated numbers is a challenge without an observer present.
Physicists entangle photons to generate random numbers (from left to right) Jasper Palfrey, Gautam Kavri, Christer Shalm
Rebecca Jacobson/NIST
While this creates a high-stakes game of Yahtzee, CURBy allows you to do away with the dangers associated with radiation. Instead, CURBy utilizes pairs of photons interconnected by a quantum phenomenon called quantum entanglement.
When two entities are entangled, they behave as if they were a single entity. This compelling occurrence happens when you measure one, and then similarly measure the other. The first measurement can influence the second, even if the quantum objects are far apart. It’s akin to rolling two dice such that one consistently results in six when the other is one.
This entanglement, which Albert Einstein famously referred to as “spooky action at a distance,” defies typical understanding. Neither object transmits any signals, yet they remain connected in this way. The exact mechanism remains a mystery.
At CURBy, entanglement appears in the measurement of a property called polarization. Entangled photon pairs are separated and sent through optical fibers to two different locations, 100 meters apart. Measurements of polarization occur in quick succession at both sites.
The results of these measurements are compared, revealing subtle correlations. Under “classical” conditions, this correlation has limitations; however, if it’s genuinely quantum and random, it allows for generating numbers outside those constraints. CURBy purifies this inherent randomness using a method called Trevisan extraction. It can handle around 250,000 polarization measurements per second, requiring approximately 15 million measurements for a single output—a string of 512 utterly random binary digits (bits) ready for use.
Rolling the dice is never random
RLB Photography / Alamy Stock Pho
If you’re curious about the randomness of these bits, there’s an algorithm for that. For a string with 512 bits, each either a 0 or a 1, there are 2512 potential combinations. “The possibilities are immense,” Shalm remarks.
While all combinations are equally probable, Shalm and his team assessed the probability of specific bit strings appearing. Uniformity isn’t complete, yet it can be quite high. Consider aiming for an even road. If the incline is 1 in 10, it becomes a steep rise. Even a 1 in 100 slope or a 1 meter bump in a 100-meter stretch is noticeable. The randomness slope of CURBy is 1 in 184 quintillion, which is as random as one might need.
Proof of Randomness
CURBy’s standout feature isn’t just its randomness. The ability to trace the source and verify the randomness of the numbers is crucial. “Currently, there’s no reliable method for any random number generator,” Schalm asserts.
To ensure traceability, CURBy employs blockchain mathematics, known for securing digital assets like NFTs and cryptocurrencies. This method facilitates transparency about actions taken, timings, and the responsible parties in scenarios devoid of trust, linking everything back to the experiment’s original results.
However, the system’s accessibility is limited since the entire process involves multiple organizations. NIST forwards quantum data to facilities at the University of Colorado Boulder, which processes it, while an independent cryptographic service, the Distributed Randomness Beacon Daemon, adds its factors to extract genuine randomness from the measurements, generating the final uniform binary string.
“It’s like a chronological web,” observes Schalm. “No single entity has complete control over the random bits, allowing scrutiny for foul play or alterations.”
According to Brown, the integration of comprehensive physics with high-level security analysis is “quite remarkable.” He notes that quantum technologies are still emerging, with few complete products available. Yet will CURBy prove valuable? Absolutely, he argues, but there are situations where traceable randomness should be avoided. “You wouldn’t want to base your passwords on publicly accessible random sources,” he expounds.
Nonetheless, in contexts like jury selections, judge appointments, lottery outcomes, and random sampling in clinical trials, traceable randomness holds significant potential. Mathematician Artur Ekert from Oxford University expresses admiration too. The CURBy team’s melding of quantum and classical physics to produce innovative, accessible technology signals an exciting future.
Furthermore, CURBy is designed to adapt to future technologies, ensuring that genuine randomness embeds itself in our lives, promoting fairness and safety. It certainly surpasses a coin toss.
A significant tsunami could strike the U.S. coast unexpectedly, with experts cautioning that cities are insufficiently prepared. Here’s what we’re learning about the impending major earthquake likely to impact the Pacific Northwest.
Understanding Social Anxiety
Researchers are uncovering evidence that social anxiety is deeply embedded in our biology rather than being solely a psychological issue. As it has biological origins, there are strategies available to help you conquer it during party season.
Defend Against Winter Flu
The holiday season can significantly weaken our immune systems, making it crucial to consider the natural cycles influencing it. The cold, dark winter combined with the warmth of December presents a favorable environment for illness. However, there are methods to bolster your body’s immunity in anticipation of this challenge, leveraging the latest insights from science.
Exploring Near-Death Experiences
By examining individuals who have encountered near-death experiences, scientists are starting to unravel the brain’s activities at the end of life. Remarkably, our brains seem to have a protective mechanism that allows us to transition peacefully, devoid of fear, which is quite reassuring.
Also
Super Agers: Experts are eager to identify traits among ‘superagers’ that might unveil the secrets to sustaining memory. Although various genetic and lifestyle factors are in play, certain shared characteristics of superaging are emerging that we can all adopt during the festive season.
Holiday Gift Guide:This is an unapologetic Christmas gift guide tailored for tech enthusiasts this year.
Q&A: I’ve got answers to your queries. This month, we’re curious: Do any animals use others for play? Is it possible for them to swallow their tongues? Why are marine fossils found atop Mount Everest? Are board games beneficial for the brain? How can we enhance our persuasive skills? What would it entail to navigate through an asteroid belt? How improbable is our universe? If a python consumed you, what would occur? How does the moon’s gradual distancing from Earth affect us?
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope have captured breathtaking new images of the blue, compact dwarf galaxy Markarian 178.
This Hubble image showcases the blue compact dwarf galaxy Markarian 178. Image credit: NASA / ESA / Hubble / F. Annibali / S. Hon.
Markarian 178 is situated roughly 13 million light years away in the constellation Ursa Major.
This galaxy, commonly referred to as Mrk 178, LEDA 35684, and UGC 6541, spans a diameter of 5,700 light years.
“MRK 178 is one of over 1,500 Markarian galaxies,” stated Hubble astronomers.
“These galaxies are named after Benjamin Markarian, an Armenian astrophysicist who compiled a catalog of galaxies that exhibit unusual brightness in ultraviolet light.”
“While most galaxies appear blue due to a plethora of young, hot stars and minimal dust, Mrk 178 presents a reddish hue. This concentration of massive stars is particularly abundant in the brightest, reddish areas near the galaxy’s edge.”
“This azure nebula houses numerous unique entities known as Wolf Rayet stars.”
“A Wolf-Rayet star is a massive star whose atmosphere is expelled by intense stellar winds,” the astronomers clarified.
“Mrk 178 features such an abundance of Wolf-Rayet stars that vivid emission lines from the hot stellar winds of these stars are inscribed into the galaxy’s spectrum.”
“In this image, captured using some of Hubble’s specialized optical filters, ionized hydrogen and oxygen are notably represented as red in Mrk 178.”
“Massive stars transition into the Wolf-Rayet stage immediately before collapsing into a black hole or neutron star.”
“We understand that some event must have instigated Mrk 178’s recent surge in star formation, as Wolf-Rayet stars have lifespans of merely a few million years.”
“At first glance, it remains uncertain what is instigating this phenomenon. Mrk 178 does not appear to have any neighboring galaxies that could disrupt its gas and promote new star formation.”
“Instead, we hypothesize that either a gas cloud collided with Mrk 178, or that the gas was affected as the galaxy traversed through the intergalactic medium, energizing this small galaxy with waves of brilliant new stars.”
This year is poised to be the second hottest on record, following 2024, with numerous areas facing extraordinary storms, wildfires, and heat waves.
The European Union’s Copernicus Climate Change Agency (C3S) reports that the average temperature in 2025 is currently 1.48 degrees Celsius above the pre-industrial baseline. If this holds, it will tie with 2023, falling only behind 2024, which recorded a rise of 1.6 degrees Celsius compared to pre-industrial levels.
While the planet warmed during the El Niño phase in 2024, it is now experiencing a La Niña phase, where the upwelling of cold water in the tropical Pacific Ocean typically results in lower global temperatures. However, fossil fuel emissions are projected to set a new record in 2025, leading to rising temperatures and exacerbating catastrophic weather events.
“The truth is that extreme events impact communities, societies, and ecosystems. We understand that in a warmer world, these extreme events will be more frequent and intense,” explains Samantha Burgess from C3S. “The storms will intensify due to increased moisture in the atmosphere.”
This summer, a heatwave in Europe resulted in an additional 16,500 fatalities associated with climate change. In October, Hurricane Melissa, the strongest hurricane to strike Jamaica, claimed over 80 lives and caused significant damage, with financial losses reaching $8.8 billion. Research from World Weather Attribution indicates that climate change enhanced Melissa’s rainfall by 16% and reduced wind speed by 7%.
In November, a series of cyclones and storms triggered landslides and flooding in Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, and Vietnam, resulting in over 1,600 deaths.
Currently, Arctic sea ice extent is at its lowest recorded level for this time of year, and Antarctic sea ice is also below normal levels.
According to C3S, the three-year moving average temperature is projected to surpass 1.5 degrees Celsius for the first time since the pre-industrial era. Scientists anticipate that global warming will exceed the long-term average of 1.5°C by 2029, falling short of the Paris Agreement objectives.
“There isn’t a clear boundary at 1.5 degrees, but we know that impacts worsen beyond that threshold,” Burgess states. “We are also nearing a critical tipping point.”
According to an October report, a tipping point has seemingly been reached, leading to the irreversible decline of tropical coral reefs, and the world could soon face additional tipping points, including the demise of the Amazon rainforest and the collapse of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets, along with the decline of Antarctic sea ice.
Recent studies reveal that vitamin C concentrations in the skin are closely linked to blood (plasma) levels, and can be enhanced by increasing fruit consumption. This research, involving 20 healthy individuals from New Zealand and Germany, demonstrated that eating two kiwifruits rich in vitamin C daily boosts plasma levels, elevates the vitamin content in the skin, enhances skin thickness (collagen production), and supports the regeneration of the skin’s outer layer.
Vitamin C (ascorbate) is found in all parts of the skin. Puller et al. conducted an extensive study to correlate plasma and skin ascorbic acid levels, emphasizing key skin compartments. Image credit: Pullar et al., doi: 10.1016/j.jid.2025.10.587.
“The strength of the link between skin thickness and vitamin C intake is striking,” remarked Professor Margriet Vissers from the University of Otago.
“We were taken aback by the significant correlation between plasma and skin vitamin C levels, which was notably stronger than that in other organs we examined.”
“For the first time, we have shown that circulating vitamin C penetrates all skin layers and correlates with enhanced skin function.”
“I’m incredibly proud of my team’s work and thrilled by the insights from our findings.”
The results imply that true beauty emanates from within, suggesting that vitamin C delivered through the bloodstream effectively supports skin function holistically.
“Vitamin C is essential for collagen synthesis.”
“This understanding has prompted the inclusion of vitamin C in numerous skincare formulations.”
“However, due to its high water solubility, vitamin C is not easily absorbed through the skin’s outer barrier.”
“Our findings indicate that the skin effectively absorbs vitamin C from blood circulation.”
“The uptake into the outer epidermal layers seems to be prioritized.”
The researchers utilized healthy skin samples from patients undergoing elective surgeries to establish the connection between plasma and skin vitamin C levels.
They carried out a pre- and post-dietary vitamin C intervention study involving 12 healthy participants in Christchurch, New Zealand, and Germany.
“Participants were instructed to consume two kiwifruits (equivalent to 250 micrograms of vitamin C) daily for eight weeks,” explained Professor Vissers.
“We collected skin samples before and after the dietary intervention, enabling us to analyze the basal skin layer in Christchurch and the integumentary skin layer alongside skin functionality tests in Germany.”
The researchers assessed skin sample regeneration, including skin thickness, elasticity, UV protection, and epidermal cell regeneration via ultrasound, to provide a comprehensive understanding of skin function.
“A significant finding was that participants’ skin thickness levels showed a notable increase, indicating enhanced collagen production and epidermal cell regeneration, essentially reflecting skin regeneration,” stated Professor Vissers.
Scientists propose that boosting dietary vitamin C intake can enrich all regions of your skin.
“It’s crucial to maintain optimal plasma levels, and we know that healthy individuals can easily reach these levels with approximately 250mg of vitamin C daily,” commented Professor Vissers.
“Nonetheless, vitamins are not stored by the body. Therefore, a healthy habit is to consume at least five servings of fruits and vegetables daily, including foods high in vitamin C.”
Refer to the study published on October 28, 2025, in the Journal of Research Dermatology.
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Juliet M. Puller et al. Dietary intake of kiwifruit, a high vitamin C food, improves vitamin C levels and skin function in human skin. Journal of Research Dermatology published online October 28, 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.jid.2025.10.587
Nanotyrannus lansensis — For years, many believed these specimens were juvenile tyrannosaurus rex — However, a team of American paleontologists analyzed the ceratobranchia (hyoid bone) and concluded that it was actually a distinct, fully grown small tyrannosaurid. This finding shed light on the growth history of Nanotyrannus lansensis.
Encounter between adults of Nanotyrannus lansensis (left) and two juvenile tyrannosaurus rex, with a sub-adult tyrannosaurus rex watching from a distance. Image credit: Jorge Gonzalez.
Nanotyrannus lansensis measures 5.5 meters (18 feet) tall, which is relatively small compared to its length of over 12 meters (40 feet) compared to tyrannosaurus rex.
Initially discovered in 1942, Nanotyrannus lansensis was first classified as gorgosaurus, but through further scientific investigation, it was redefined as a separate species in 1988.
The main cause of the lengthy debate over the classification is that the holotype consists solely of an isolated skull, while traditional assessments of maturity often rely on limb bones.
Until recently, studies on other more complete fossils of Nanotyrannus lansensis yielded conflicting conclusions.
In a recent study, paleontologist Christopher Griffin from Princeton University and his team discovered that the microstructure of small bones in the throat ceratobranchial can accurately indicate the age and skeletal maturity of fossil specimens.
“At the time, there was a general consensus that the holotype skull of Nanotyrannus represented an immature tyrannosaurus rex rather than a distinct species,” Dr. Griffin stated.
“We initially aimed to follow that consensus, but upon examining samples of the hyoid bone and noticing characteristics strongly indicating maturity, we realized we needed to reevaluate that notion.”
The researchers found that in both modern archosaurs (like ostriches and crocodiles) and extinct theropods, the ceratobranch bones retain unique signals of growth and maturation, making them particularly useful for determining the developmental stage of fully mature individuals.
Using this technique, the team studied the holotype of Nanotyrannus lansensis and analyzed three sections of its ceratobranchia, identifying several features that suggest near-complete skeletal maturity.
This indicates that Nanotyrannus lansensis is a taxonomically distinct species that coexisted with tyrannosaurus rex, suggesting a greater diversity of predators in Late Cretaceous ecosystems than previously understood.
“This smaller-bodied tyrannosaurus rex indicates that the carnivore’s hyoid displayed a growth pattern suggesting it had reached or was close to maturity,” remarked paleontologist Ashley Poust of the University of Nebraska State Museum.
“We can now confidently affirm our classification of Nanotyrannus as separate from tyrannosaurus rex.”
“This implies the presence of at least two carnivores of different sizes in the same environment, which has significant implications for dinosaur ecology and extinction,” he added.
“Understanding what existed helps us gauge the size of the fossil record and how species have evolved over time.”
“Furthermore, it’s crucial to comprehend the complexity of the ecosystem.”
Results from this study are published in the journal Science.
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Christopher T. Griffin et al. A small Tyrannosaurus rex lived alongside tyrannosaurus rex. Science published online on December 4, 2025. doi: 10.1126/science.adx8706
A recently uncovered galactic filament measures at least 50 million light-years in length and is situated 140 million light-years away. A galaxy orbits around the filament’s core, making it one of the largest rotating structures found to date.
Illustration depicting the rotation (right) of neutral hydrogen in a galaxy situated within an elongated filament (center). The galaxies demonstrate coherent bulk rotational motion that traces a large-scale cosmic web (left). Image credit: Lyla John.
Cosmic filaments stand as the largest known structures in the universe, comprising extensive thread-like formations of galaxies and dark matter that serve as the framework of the cosmos.
They also function as “highways” through which matter and momentum funnel into galaxies.
A nearby filament, home to numerous galaxies spinning in the same direction, represents an excellent opportunity to investigate how galaxies developed their current spin and gas content.
This structural arrangement could also provide a basis to test theories regarding how the universe’s rotation accumulates over vast distances.
In a recent study, astronomer Lyra Jung and colleagues from the University of Oxford discovered that 14 nearby hydrogen-rich galaxies form a slender line stretching approximately 5.5 million light-years long and 117,000 light-years wide.
This alignment exists within a considerably larger cosmic filament, about 50 million light-years long, which encompasses over 280 additional galaxies.
Notably, many of these galaxies seem to rotate in the same direction as the filament itself, a pattern that exceeds what would be expected if their rotation were random.
This observation challenges existing models and implies that the universe’s structure may have a more potent and prolonged impact on galaxy rotation than was previously assumed.
Astronomers observed that galaxies flanking the filament’s core were moving in opposite directions, suggesting that the entire formation is in motion.
The team employed a model of filament mechanics to estimate a rotational speed of 110 km/s and calculated the radius of the filament’s dense core region to be about 163,000 light-years.
“What makes this structure remarkable is not just its size, but also the interplay of spin arrangement and rotational motion,” stated Dr. Jung.
“You can liken it to a teacup ride at a theme park. Each galaxy represents a spinning teacup, but the entire platform, the cosmic filament, is also in rotation.”
“This dual motion provides valuable insights into how galaxies acquire rotation from the larger structures they inhabit.”
The filaments appear to be relatively young and undisturbed.
The significant number of gas-rich galaxies, minimal internal motion, and their so-called dynamically cool state imply that the galaxy is still in its formative stages.
Hydrogen serves as the fundamental material for star formation, meaning that galaxies rich in hydrogen gas are actively gathering and retaining the necessary fuel to create stars.
Thus, exploring these galaxies could yield insights into both the early and ongoing phases of galaxy evolution.
Hydrogen-rich galaxies also serve as excellent indicators of gas flow along cosmic filaments.
Due to atomic hydrogen’s susceptibility to motion, its presence aids in mapping how gas is directed through filaments and into galaxies, shedding light on how angular momentum travels through the cosmic web and influences galaxy shape, rotation, and star formation.
“This filament serves as a fossil record of the universe’s flow,” remarked astronomer Dr. Madalina Tudrache from the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford.
“It helps us comprehend how galaxies gain rotation and evolve over time.”
The researchers used data from the MeerKAT radio telescope in South Africa, one of the most powerful telescopes globally, comprising an array of 64 linked satellite dishes.
This rotating filament was detected via an extensive sky survey known as MIGHTEE.
By integrating this data with optical observations from the DESI and SDSS surveys, the study revealed cosmic filaments displaying both spin alignment and bulk rotation in coherent galaxies.
Professor Matt Jarvis from the University of Oxford stated: “This highlights the ability to combine data from various observatories to achieve a deeper understanding of how vast structures and galaxies form in the Universe.”
The findings are detailed in the following article: paper in Royal Astronomical Society Monthly Notices.
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Madalina N. Tudrache and others. 2025. A 15 Mpc rotating galactic filament with redshift z = 0.032 is available for purchase. MNRAS 544 (4): 4306-4316; doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf2005
Paleontologists have undertaken a thorough anatomical reevaluation of the fossilized remains of two coelurosaurian theropod dinosaurs that inhabited South America during the Early Cretaceous period: Santanaraptor Placidus and Milischia asymmetrica.
Hypothetical reconstruction of Milischia asymmetrica (left) and Santanaraptor Placidus (right), focusing on lizards that existed in what is now northeastern Brazil approximately 112 million years ago. Image credit: Guilherme Gehr.
The holotypes of these coelurosaurs were discovered in Romualdo Formation in 1996 and 2000, respectively.
Dr. Rafael Delcourt from the University of São Paulo and his team stated, “The Romualdo Formation is a renowned Early Cretaceous fossil hotspot situated along the edge of the Araripe Plateau in northwestern Brazil.”
“Its megafossil record encompasses plants, invertebrates, turtles, crocodiles, pterosaurs, theropod dinosaurs, as well as one of the most diverse and well-preserved ichthyofaunas from the Mesozoic era.”
“Spinosaurids are among the most notable Romualdian theropods, with numerous reference specimens including the well-preserved skull of Illitator Challenger and the snout of Illitator ChallengerAngaturama Limai.”
“Both Santanaraptor Placidus and Milischia asymmetrica originate from the same deposits that produced Spinosaurus, specifically the upper carbonate condensation level of the renowned Romualdo Formation.”
In their new study, Dr. Delcourt and collaborators from Brazil, Argentina, and Germany revised and compared the anatomy of Santanaraptor Placidus and Milischia asymmetrica to examine their phylogenetic relationships and potential synonymy.
Their analysis positions both species within an early-divergent group of maniraptoromorph dinosaurs, alongside Juratirant Rangami and Taniko Lagreus Topwilsoni, dating back to the Late Jurassic of Laurasia, indicating an early diversification of coelurosaurs in this region.
While there is some skeletal overlap, notable anatomical differences affirm their classification as separate species.
“The clade containing Juratirant Rangami, Milischia asymmetrica, Taniko Lagreus Topwilsoni, and Santanaraptor Placidus appears to extend back to at least Laurasia in the Late Jurassic, prior to the formation of the Apulian sea route that facilitated faunal exchange in the Early Cretaceous,” noted the paleontologists.
“At that time, a variety of coelurosaurs existed in both Laurasia and Gondwana, including Megaraptorra and branches such as ornithomimosaur, alvarezaurid, and dromaeosaurid.”
“Our phylogenetic model aligns more closely with the existing biogeographical data than one that confines Romualdocoelurosaurids primarily within Laurasian compsognathids or tyrannosaurids.”
“However, further studies and extensive fieldwork are necessary to clarify the early radiation of Coelurosaurus and its affinities with Romualdo morphology.”
A paper detailing these findings was published on November 18, 2025, in Anatomical Records.
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Rafael Delcourt and colleagues. Coelurosaurian theropods of the Romualdo Formation of the Early Cretaceous (Aptian) of Brazil: Santanaraptor Placidus meets Milischia asymmetrica. Anatomical Records, published online on November 18, 2025. doi: 10.1002/ar.70085
NASA/JPL-California Institute of Technology/O. Krauss (Steward Observatory)
Within Cassiopeia A, the youngest known supernova in our galaxy, scientists have uncovered unexpectedly high concentrations of chlorine and potassium. These elements, which possess an odd number of protons, are believed to be relatively rare in the universe but are crucial for the emergence of planets and life. Consequently, the findings regarding Cassiopeia A may influence our understanding of the potential locations for extraterrestrial life within the Milky Way.
Supernova remnants, or exploded stars, typically contain elevated levels of elements like oxygen and magnesium, with their cores being comprised of even-numbered protons. Elements with odd-numbered protons (often referred to as “odd Z” elements) are inherently less stable, leading to a reduced likelihood of being created via stellar nuclear fusion. This observation aligns with models of galactic chemical evolution that generally estimate meager quantities of odd Z elements.
“[As it stands] The source of these odd Z elements has been elusive.” Matsunagaumi from Kyoto University in Japan.
Matsunaga and his team recognized that high-resolution X-ray spectroscopy might shed light on the enigma. At the high temperatures prevalent in a supernova remnant, atoms lose electrons and emit unique X-ray signatures that sensitive instruments can detect. The X-ray Imaging Spectroscopy Mission (XRISM), launched in September 2023, is equipped to capture such data and conducted two observations of Cassiopeia A in December 2023.
To determine the abundance of each element, the researchers compared the faint signals from the odd Z elements against the stronger signals from even Z elements, like sulfur and argon, using them as stable reference points for more accurate measurements of the odd Z elements.
The findings revealed that the Cassiopeia A supernova generated significantly more chlorine and potassium than traditional models had anticipated. This indicates that theorists might need to reassess how large stars synthesize these uncommon elements, as certain widely accepted models fail to accommodate the specific conditions of Cassiopeia A.
“While the authors note that their observations diverge from previous models, the reality is more intricate,” says Stan Woosley of the University of California, Santa Cruz, who did not participate in the study. “Not all of our models are incorrect; some perform better than others, and certain ones correlate quite well. Importantly, these observations present astronomers with new, definitive data to refine their models and enhance our comprehension of massive stellar explosions.”
The recent measurements also empower Matsunaga and his colleagues to start evaluating various longstanding theories regarding the formation of odd Z elements in massive stars, including stellar rotation, interactions between binary star pairs, and the merging of diverse combustion layers deep inside stars. Up until now, there was no method to validate these theories against actual data.
“We still lack a complete understanding of which star types contributed to this,” states Katarina Rodders from Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, who was not involved in the study. “Specifically, we lack clarity regarding the source of chlorine, an element abundant in our oceans.”
If these discoveries hold true for other supernova remnants, they could reshape our perceptions of how life-essential elements are distributed throughout the Milky Way. Depending on the star that seeded a planet, some areas may have a more favorable supply of life’s foundational materials than others. This raises the possibility of uneven distribution of extraterrestrial life across the galaxy.
“That is certainly a possibility,” Matsunaga remarked. “However, we cannot definitively assert this based on the current data.” It remains uncertain whether Cassiopeia A is singular in its production of such substantial quantities of odd Z elements or if it is indicative of supernova remnants in general. “Future observations of additional supernova remnants with XRISM and other upcoming instruments will be pivotal in addressing this issue.”
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Extreme heat and poverty can hinder child development
Riccardo Renato Niels Mayer/Alamy
Research indicates that young children exposed to extreme heat typically exhibit a reduced vocabulary, with fewer words, letters, and numbers understood, suggesting that global warming could negatively affect early human development.
Specifically, when average monthly maximum temperatures reached 32°C (90°F) or higher, children aged 3 and 4 were 2.8 to 12.2 percent less likely to meet developmental benchmarks compared to those in environments with maximum temperatures below 26°C (79°F).
“This marks the first instance in literature demonstrating that excessive heat influences not just physical health but also developmental capabilities,” stated Jorge Quartas from New York University.
Quartas and his team analyzed data from 19,600 children surveyed by UNICEF across Georgia, Gambia, Madagascar, Malawi, Sierra Leone, and the State of Palestine, referencing the early childhood development index. They assessed children’s abilities in naming letters, reading simple words, and recognizing numbers from 1 to 10.
The researchers correlated this data with climate records while adjusting for variables such as poverty, maternal education, and baseline temperatures. Notably, even temperatures of 30°C (86°F) began to adversely affect literacy and numeracy skills, with heat also impeding children’s social, emotional, and physical development to a lesser degree.
“Minor effects in early childhood can become more pronounced over time,” Quartas explains. For instance, children who struggle with number recognition might find it challenging to learn math concepts, potentially falling behind academically.
Heat-related stress remains the primary cause of weather-related fatalities, claiming nearly 500,000 lives annually. A recent rapid assessment estimated that the heatwave in June and July was responsible for 2,300 deaths across 12 European cities, primarily occurring among those aged 65 and older.
The findings also revealed that the impacts of heat extend even to prenatal periods. For instance, temperatures of 33 degrees Celsius (91 degrees Fahrenheit) during early pregnancy correlated with a 5.6% reduction in the likelihood of successful childhood development.
Children from poorer, urban households with limited access to water resources were found to be more heavily affected by the heat. “Climate change and excessive heat serve as amplifiers of existing threats,” Quartas articulated. “These children are already at a disadvantage.”
Nonetheless, the study may not comprehensively address barriers such as violence and political instability, which can also impede childhood development, as noted by Giulia Pescarini from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
Further investigations are needed to clarify how heat impacts development, she suggests, noting that low-income households might lack air conditioning, and parents may experience increased stress during heat events.
Pescarini emphasizes that a better understanding of who is affected and how can aid in developing adaptive strategies to support these vulnerable groups.
<p>Meet our central figure: a female polar bear. Driven southward by retreating Arctic ice, she journeyed deep into Canada's Northwest Territories. There, she encountered a pair of striking grizzly bears, and fell in love with both. From these unions, she gave birth to three daughters known as "growler bears" and a son, marking the inception of an extraordinary lineage echoing Shakespearean drama.</p>
<p>The next chapter took an unexpected turn. When one of her daughters matured, she mated with her biological father and another grizzly, her stepfather, resulting in a litter of four—siblings, children, and cousins all at once.</p>
<p>In 2006, a hunter in the Canadian Arctic produced a hybrid specimen with both polar and grizzly traits. Later genetic evaluation confirmed this was a growler, part of this emerging hybrid family. A decade later, scientists were intrigued to observe unusual behaviors among these creatures. Typically, hybrids are not fertile, yet these were. Researchers began to ponder whether this heralded a new apex predator for the Arctic. Could these hybrids exemplify resilience in the face of climate change, or signal impending ecological crises? Current studies promise further insights.</p>
<p>As global temperatures increase, the Arctic warms four times quicker than the rest of the globe, pushing polar bears (<em>Ursus maritimus</em>) south in search of sustenance. Their primary diet of fatty seals hinges on sea ice, which is disappearing rapidly, forcing them inland. They frequently encounter their brown bear relatives, the grizzly bear (<em>Ursus arctos horribilis</em>), which is edging northward. Warmer Arctic conditions enhance hunting and breeding opportunities, boosting hybrid occurrences, including growlers and "pizzly bears" (polar bear fathers and grizzly mothers). Some researchers express concern that polar genes may infiltrate grizzly populations, jeopardizing polar bear survival.</p>
<p>Yet, the discovery of the Grolar lineage hints at a more optimistic scenario: polar bears might be adapting to a rapidly changing environment. Recorded growlers exhibit traits of gray-brown polar bears, with slightly larger limbs and skulls reminiscent of grizzlies. These hybrids might exploit a broader diet on land, potentially allowing them to forage without relying on diminishing sea ice. Larissa DeSantis, a paleontologist at Vanderbilt University, notes that these adaptations could be a bittersweet necessity amid rising temperatures, as discussed in a <a href="https://www.livescience.com/pizzly-bear-hybrids-created-by-climate-crisis.html">2021 interview.</a></p>
<section></section>
<h2>One Happy Family</h2>
<p>However, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12686-024-01359-1">extensive genomic research</a> presented in a recent book reveals alternative insights. In a study led by <a href="https://www.macewan.ca/academics/academic-departments/biological-sciences/our-people/profile/?profileid=millerj253">Joshua Miller</a> at MacEwan University, researchers uncovered that genetic sequences of 371 polar bears, 440 grizzlies, and the Grolar clan showed no other hybrids in nature apart from the known Grolars. The rarity of this mating pattern has led experts to conclude that hybrids may lack the essential skills required for survival in either parent's ecosystem. Recent studies corroborate that hybrids may be unfit for Arctic life, lacking polar bears' specialized "non-slip" foot structure and not fully inheriting grizzlies’ powerful forelimbs and shoulders. Essentially, Growlers and Pizzlies are suboptimal versions of both bears rather than well-adapted hybrids.</p>
<p><figure class="ArticleImage"><div class="Image__Wrapper"><img class="Image" alt="Two pizzly bears in a stream at the zoo" width="1350" height="900" src="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg" srcset="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=300 300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=400 400w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=500 500w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=600 600w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=700 700w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=800 800w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=837 837w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=900 900w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1003 1003w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1100 1100w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1200 1200w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1300 1300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1400 1400w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1500 1500w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1600 1600w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1674 1674w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1700 1700w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1800 1800w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=1900 1900w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152243/SEI_273018522.jpg?width=2006 2006w" sizes="(min-width: 1288px) 837px, (min-width: 1024px) calc(57.5vw + 55px), (min-width: 415px) calc(100vw - 40px), calc(70vw + 74px)" loading="lazy" data-image-context="Article" data-image-id="2503195" data-caption="Pizzly bears in a German zoo, born from a polar bear father and grizzly mother in the same enclosure." data-credit="Molly Merrow"/></div><figcaption class="ArticleImageCaption" wp_automatic_readability="27"><div class="ArticleImageCaption__CaptionWrapper" wp_automatic_readability="34"><p class="ArticleImageCaption__Title">Pizzly Bear Born from a Polar Bear Father and Grizzly Mother</p><p class="ArticleImageCaption__Credit">Molly Merrow</p></div></figcaption></figure></p>
<p>Short-term, such hybrids may remain uncommon, with new species unlikely. However, what about the long-term evolutionary prospects for polar bears? Insights from the past might illuminate the future. The habitats of polar and brown bears once coexisted during the Pleistocene epoch, defined by recurring glaciation over the last 2.6 million years. Researchers at the University of California, Santa Cruz discovered that brown bears currently inhabit three Alaskan islands. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23516372/">During that time, gradual male brown bear mating with local polar bear populations resulted in hybridization.</a> If this pattern recurs, the polar bear species could face extinction, leaving only grizzly bears.</p>
<p>However, the Pleistocene was characterized by gradual environmental changes and slow adaptation. Today’s climate change, driven by human activity, is happening at an unprecedented pace, potentially leading us down an alternate path. “The far more significant threat to polar bears today is the loss of ice habitat due to climate change, occurring much more swiftly than any concerns related to hybridization,” states Fiona Galbraith, a geneticist and climate change consultant currently leading a natural habitat expedition into the Canadian Arctic.</p>
<p><figure class="ArticleImage"><div class="Image__Wrapper"><img class="Image" alt="Icebergs are melting at the North Pole" width="1350" height="900" src="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg" srcset="https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=300 300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=400 400w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=500 500w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=600 600w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=700 700w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=800 800w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=837 837w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=900 900w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1003 1003w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1100 1100w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1200 1200w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1300 1300w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1400 1400w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1500 1500w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1600 1600w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1674 1674w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1700 1700w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1800 1800w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=1900 1900w, https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/05152237/SEI_273019037.jpg?width=2006 2006w" sizes="(min-width: 1288px) 837px, (min-width: 1024px) calc(57.5vw + 55px), (min-width: 415px) calc(100vw - 40px), calc(70vw + 74px)" loading="lazy" data-image-context="Article" data-image-id="2503193" data-caption="The Arctic is warming four times faster than the rest of the planet" data-credit="Adisha Pramod/Alamy"/></div><figcaption class="ArticleImageCaption" wp_automatic_readability="26"><div class="ArticleImageCaption__CaptionWrapper" wp_automatic_readability="32"><p class="ArticleImageCaption__Title">The Arctic is Warming Four Times Faster Than the Rest of the Planet</p><p class="ArticleImageCaption__Credit">Adisha Pramod / Alamy</p></div></figcaption></figure></p>
<p>In conclusion, while the Grolar dynasty is fascinating, it serves as a harbinger of ecological distress on Earth. Similar <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10674025/">climate-induced mating</a> has been documented elsewhere, including a **bobcat-lynx hybrid** in North America and the emergence of the **coywolf**, resulting from interbreeding between coyotes and eastern wolves. Like Arctic bears, these hybrids are born from habitat disruption caused by rapidly changing environments. Their ability to adapt is situation-dependent; many hybrids struggle to thrive in new areas, often leading to biodiversity loss and eventual ecosystem collapse. "When both species fulfil similar roles in their ecosystems, increased contact and interbreeding can occur without significantly affecting ecological functions," shares <a href="https://polarbearsinternational.org/what-we-do/our-team/">John Whiteman</a> from Polar Bears International. Neglecting this could lead to dire consequences. For instance, while grizzly bears frequently leave carrion for scavengers, polar bears do not, posing hazards to food webs and disease dynamics.</p>
<p>Reflecting on our initial question about the Grolar dynasty as the next chapter in polar bear evolution, the resounding answer is a grim "no." This phenomenon showcases not adaptation but the tragic decline of a species amid drastic environmental fluctuations. However, this festive season, let’s contemplate the potential for a different outcome, where polar bear tracks continue to mark the Northern landscapes for winters yet to come. It hinges on our actions.</p>
<section class="ArticleTopics" data-component-name="article-topics"><p class="ArticleTopics__Heading">Topic:</p></section>
Hold on, take a moment. How often do you find yourself on your phone today? Is social media impacting your mental health negatively? We ask this frequently, but should we genuinely be concerned about screen time?
Numerous studies examine screen time, many revealing associations between screen use and an array of health issues, including depression, anxiety, sleep disturbances, obesity, diabetes, and even suicidal thoughts. The implications seem dire.
However, I have a question. Are screens themselves the root cause of these issues, or is it that poor health leads to more screen time, or could an unidentified third factor be affecting both?
Most studies merely display correlations between screen time and various health outcomes and thus are unable to establish causation. Pinpointing the true impact of screen time is a much more intricate task.
To clarify these relationships, researchers perform meta-analyses employing advanced statistical methods to unify hundreds of robust studies, which helps reduce the perceived dangers.
I have a particular interest in one meta-analysis. Conducted in 2019, researchers Amy Orben and Andrew Przybylski, then from the University of Oxford, evaluated a vast dataset of teenage surveys, allowing them to measure the effects of over 20,000 different factors on mental health.
Upon analyzing the data, they determined that only 0.4 percent of adolescent well-being is tied to screen use, revealing a level of negative impact similar to eating potatoes. In contrast, being bullied was linked to more than four times this negative effect, while sufficient sleep and a nutritious breakfast yielded significantly more positive outcomes.
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What the data appear to indicate is that, on average, at the population level, both the positive and negative effects of screens are minimal. “
So, is screen time acceptable? Again, let’s not rush to conclusions. Although this research looks at the relationship between screen time and mental health within a broader context, these findings still represent merely correlations. Human lives are complex, making it challenging to derive clear causal connections from messy data.
A helpful approach might involve reconsidering what screen time truly means. Activities like watching TV, browsing social media, gaming, reading e-books, and listening to science journalists discussing screen time all require looking at a screen, but can we assume they all exert the same influence on our health?
Many studies fail to adopt a nuanced perspective on this topic, simply tallying screen time. To complicate matters further, it’s widely known that this information is often self-reported, leading to inaccuracies. (Let’s be honest; we’ve all embellished the truth about our screen usage.)
Focusing solely on social media usage unveils further complexity. Engaging in political debates until the early hours on X while messaging friends via WhatsApp both qualify as social media activity, yet do they yield identical outcomes? The forthcoming meta-analysis will be published in a 2024 issue of SSM – mental health. Their findings indicate a slight positive correlation between happiness and using social media for communication or having a broad social media network, along with a minor negative correlation between social comparison and problematic social media practices, often referred to as social media “addiction.” None of these insights are particularly unexpected.
So where does this leave us? Given the potential risks involved, adopting a precautionary approach, especially regarding children, could be wise. Governments in the UK and Australia have implemented measures to significantly reduce screen time or to restrict specific technologies, such as social media.
Yet, there’s also the concern that imposing such limits could mean missing out on the valuable benefits screen time offers, such as access to information, social interactions, and entertainment. Data suggests that, on average, a range of factors indicates that the positive and negative effects of screens are relatively minor at the population level. However, that doesn’t mean some individuals don’t suffer more severe consequences, the so-called problematic users mentioned earlier, and we need to delve deeper to support them.
In light of all this, how concerned should you be about screen time? The answer is nuanced and continues to evolve with ongoing research. If you notice screens significantly affecting your life, altering your habits or seeking professional advice may prove beneficial. For most of us, however, the concern over screen use should not rank high on our lists of worries, nor should it dominate headlines.
Feeling detached in social situations can happen to anyone at any time
Credit: Franckreporter/Getty Images
As the holiday season approaches, one reader is apprehensive about experiencing loneliness this Christmas. She notes it’s not about having a lack of friends or family, but rather the uncomfortable socializing at work parties and family gatherings that can feel isolating. “It feels like I’m the only one not enjoying myself,” she shares. “I’m not looking to be the life of the party, but when I’m grappling with my mental health, it becomes difficult to embrace the festive atmosphere. I end up feeling more alone than if I were just at home.”
The sensation of feeling disconnected, known in psychological terms as “Existential isolation,” can occur to anyone at any point in life. This concept is characterized by the sentiment that, even in a crowd, no one truly understands our feelings or perspectives. Individuals who exhibit high levels of existential isolation demonstrate an increased risk of developing conditions akin to depression and a slower response to treatment.
Interestingly, many individuals likely feel similarly, yet we perceive our struggles as isolating, often leading us to conceal our feelings and exacerbating our loneliness. This is why psychologists now advocate for cultivating a sense of “common humanity” during tough times. In essence, it’s the acknowledgment that others might share our struggles, allowing us to recognize we’re not alone in our challenges.
Building a sense of common humanity can clarify why “Peer support” groups, which bring together people facing similar challenges, are often effective in enhancing well-being. They can alleviate feelings of existential isolation and provide comfort, independent of the practical assistance they offer.
If you’re feeling alone this holiday season, simply reminding yourself that you’re not the only one experiencing this might help. It resonates with the essence of “Self-compassion.” Numerous online resources are available that can assist you through writing prompts and guided meditations.
Even better, consider breaking the silence and expressing how you feel, even if it feels uncomfortable. Research indicates you may find surprising responses from others. Studies examining the “Beautiful confusion effect” suggest that we often underestimate how people will react to sharing our issues. We fear being viewed as weak; however, individuals are often more inclined to open up about their own similar feelings.
What about those social events? There’s no obligation to attend every gathering—focus on those where you feel the most connected. A coffee chat with a trusted friend may provide more comfort than a large festive event. Christmas is a season of goodwill; start by channeling that kindness toward yourself.
Upon arriving at the Buddhist retreat, Eli Sussman anticipated immersing himself in deep meditation. The Plum Village Monastery, located east of Bordeaux, France, was established by Thich Nhat Hanh, often called the “father of mindfulness.” Eager to explore, he challenged himself to a lengthy three-hour meditation session.
Afterward, he excitedly shared his achievement with a monk: “I felt like I was awaiting a shiny badge for my accomplishments,” Sussman reflects. The monk simply smiled and asked, “Three hours, you say? Why not try just three breaths? That’s truly all it takes to center yourself in the present.”
This intrigued Sussman, leading him to investigate whether brief mindfulness exercises could genuinely shift one’s mindset and induce significant changes in emotional health during his PhD studies in psychology at UC Berkeley.
The swift conclusion is affirmative. An increasing array of studies worldwide indicate that individuals who dedicate merely 20 seconds daily to a short routine report enduring feelings of peace and joy, lingering long after their session. These micro-practices, also referred to as micro-acts, may aid in enhancing physical health by interrupting cyclical negative thinking and soothing physiological stress responses.
Beyond the brief breathing techniques from Plum Village monks, research-backed interventions also encompass short writing tasks and self-compassion exercises aimed at nurturing gratitude, awe, and a sense of direction in life.
Sussman’s book, micro practice, is set to launch next year, likely becoming a trending term in 2026. Meanwhile, several strategies are already available to instill tranquility during the holiday season.
Even small actions can yield significant outcomes
His findings draw from decades of research focusing on interventions inspired by both Eastern and Western spiritual practices. These include meditative practices like mindfulness meditation, engaging in Qigong—a Chinese discipline blending deep breaths with gentle movements—and yoga, along with introspective exercises such as gratitude journals. Evidence suggests that all these practices bolster mental well-being and mitigate the risks of conditions like depression and anxiety.
However, the precise “dosage” necessary for beneficial effects is less definitive; some studies imply that too much exposure may be counterproductive. A meta-analysis by Willoughby Britton, a professor of psychiatry and human behavior at Brown University, revealed that individuals meditating for only 5 to 10 minutes two to three times a week had better sleep quality than those engaging in meditation for over 30 minutes daily, five days a week. This could be attributed to the brain remaining alert during extended meditation, making subsequent sleep challenging.
A 2021 study directly compared short-term and long-term stress relief outcomes from mindfulness practices, led by Sarah Strohmeyer and colleagues at Canterbury Christ Church University in the UK. Participants attended four sessions over two weeks, with one group meditating for five minutes, another for 20 minutes, and a control group listening to an audiobook.
Concluding the two weeks, both meditation groups reported diminished anxiety and depression symptoms compared to the audiobook group. Notably, the shorter session participants experienced less stress than those who meditated longer.
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Brief interventions may be particularly beneficial during stressful periods. “
This difference in outcomes can be partly attributed to task difficulty. Longer sessions increased the challenge of managing a wandering mind, potentially leading to feelings of inadequacy. Conversely, participants in shorter sessions often reported pleasant surprises from their experiences. One participant mentioned previously believing that mindfulness required considerable time and effort, but the experiments indicated effectiveness even in five minutes. This participant felt more at ease following the session, a tranquility that persisted during the day.
Health psychologists assert that simple practices can be particularly advantageous during stressful periods. Andreas Schwertfeger and colleagues at the University of Graz reiterated this earlier this year.
In their research, participants wore portable monitors measuring heart rate variability (HRV), an indicator of physiological stress levels. Generally, higher HRV suggests relaxation as the heart adapts to bodily demands, whereas lower HRV indicates a readiness to confront threats. Throughout several days, participants received prompts to focus on their breathing for one minute.
Despite the brief duration, the intervention proved profoundly effective, showing noticeable calming effects on both mind and body through self-reported questionnaires and HRV records taken right after mindful moments. This effect was most prominent when participants were under significant stress. “I felt less overwhelmed and more secure,” remarked Schwertfeger, describing this as a “just-in-time adaptive intervention.”
Pathways to self-compassion
Though Sussman could have adhered strictly to mindfulness in developing his micro-practices, a question from his doctoral advisor shifted his focus: What does the world need most at this moment? He gravitated towards self-compassion, a crucial element in Buddhist philosophy that has gained prominence in psychology recently. It comprises three key components: treating oneself kindly rather than harshly, recognizing that suffering is a universal experience connecting us, and observing our negative emotions without judgment.
Studies have demonstrated that cultivating self-compassion can be achieved through focused meditation on these principles. Yet, akin to many mindfulness practices, these programs often necessitate significant dedication.
Inspired by his time at Plum Village Abbey, Sussman pondered whether a few conscious breaths could change our perspective. He and his colleagues enlisted 135 participants, showing them a 20-second video urging reflection on a recent upsetting event, like a mistake or disappointment. The video suggested, “With a nurturing touch, place one hand on your abdomen and the other on your heart, enveloping yourself in kindness and warmth,” followed by, “Consider: ‘How can I be a friend to myself in this situation?’
Just a few minutes of mindfulness can create a big impact
Randy Farris/Getty Images
Half of the participants were instructed to engage with this exercise daily for a month, while the control group practiced finger-tapping for 20 seconds each day. As is typical in month-long interventions, some participants discontinued without recognizing benefits. However, for those who consistently practiced, micro-practices resulted in significantly lower stress levels compared to those engaged in finger-tapping.
It is not surprising that micro-practices required ongoing practice, according to Sussman. He references a recent analysis of data from the popular app Headspace, which indicated that frequency of practice holds greater importance than duration in reducing stress. “Consistency outweighs length for effectiveness,” he states.
Drawing a parallel to nurturing plants, Sussman remarks, “It’s more effective to provide small amounts of water daily than to saturate the soil once a month.” This highlights the importance of engaging in enjoyable activities. “Your strongest practices are those you can consistently implement,” he asserts.
The Big Joy Project
If mindfulness or self-compassion isn’t appealing, many alternatives exist. The Greater Good Science Center at UC Berkeley offers numerous online resources detailing quick interventions aimed at enhancing well-being, many taking only a few minutes to enact.
A few years back, Emiliana Simon Thomas and her colleagues initiated the Big Joy Project, compiling easily accessible practices requiring minimal time commitment, termed “micro-acts.” These include brief reflection exercises on distressing incidents and identifying three positive outcomes, listing what evokes gratitude, and watching uplifting nature videos, along with moments of reflecting on personal values.
“We’ve termed them ‘micro-acts’ to ensure people can incorporate them into their busy lives without feeling overwhelmed,” comments Simon-Thomas. The initiative encouraged individuals to try one micro-act daily for a week, gathering well-being metrics via surveys at the beginning and conclusion of the week.
Promotion for the project included film screenings and outreach around Mission: Joy, showcasing the bond between the 14th Dalai Lama and Archbishop Desmond Tutu. Between 2022 and 2024, 17,598 participants contributed substantial data for analysis by Simon-Thomas and her team. Consequently, results published this year illustrated the efficacy of these micro-acts, with participants reporting lower stress levels and improved overall well-being compared to their initial assessments. They expressed greater agreement with sentiments like “I believe my life has purpose” and “I feel fulfilled overall.”
While micro-acts may initially appear as luxuries for those with comfortable lives, their greatest impact was realized among individuals from traditionally disadvantaged backgrounds, including those experiencing financial struggles.
Nonetheless, researchers remain cautious about portraying these interventions as cures. “Brushing your teeth won’t fix everything,” Sussman suggests. “Moreover, micro-practices are not substitutes for therapy or medication.”
Nor do they replace extended meditation practices, he explains. Lengthy meditation sessions, lasting 20 to 40 minutes, might yield long-term neurological changes linked to enhanced emotional regulation. Occasionally, as experienced during a Buddhist retreat, engaging in a three-hour session can offer profound spiritual insights.
The intention behind these micro-practices is merely to introduce brief moments of tranquility and joy in our lives when out-of-control thoughts threaten our health and well-being.
David Robson is the author of The Law of Connection: 13 Social Strategies That Will Change Your Life, now available in paperback.
Available rooms: Minimum stay of 2 weeks, featuring a private bathroom. Enjoy a complimentary pool. Package includes meals, Wi-Fi, and infectious viruses. Call now!
Would you be inclined to respond to such advertisements? What about those that guarantee severe diarrhea? How many stars would it take to make you consider adding STDs to your stay? Perhaps a substantial cash incentive might sway your decision?
Welcome to the peculiar realm of human challenge testing – arriving soon at a biosecure isolation facility nearby.
In response to the collective trauma of the coronavirus pandemic, researchers are increasingly enlisting healthy individuals to participate in trials that intentionally expose them to illness. Volunteers are now more willing than ever to contract diseases ranging from dysentery and cholera to gonorrhea.
As detailed on page 38, clinical trials offer a rapid and relatively affordable method for assessing vaccines and treatments while monitoring infection dynamics. Contrary to popular belief, the risks may not be as high as presumed. Trials, conducted under stringent medical oversight, will only proceed if effective therapies can quickly alleviate symptoms.
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Deliberately infecting healthy volunteers carries risks, and the ethical implications are complex. “
However, it’s not without its hazards, and the ethical landscape remains murky. Unlike patients with existing conditions who may opt for experimental therapies that could potentially cure them, challenge trials seek to induce illness with little or no immediate medical benefit, even if for a brief duration.
Moreover, we cannot always prevent potential long-term consequences. For example, some ethicists have expressed concerns regarding the manner in which British scientists conducted COVID-19 challenge trials during the pandemic, underscoring the risks of chronic symptoms associated with COVID-19.
Nonetheless, the pandemic has also underscored the significant positive impact and value of vaccines. Current data indicates that human challenge testing is safe, particularly for young, healthy individuals. These studies could hasten the development of new defenses against persistent epidemics such as malaria, Zika, and norovirus. The pressing question may be: How can we expand these efforts?
The Tsimané people of Bolivia regard humility as a hallmark of a commendable person.
David Mercado/Reuters
This metaphor has been so overused that it has turned into a cliché. Hunter-gatherers share their resources equally among tribes with an admirable generosity that seems absent in high-income societies. However, a study of the anthropological data indicates that this perception is not entirely accurate.
“No society achieves true equality,” affirm team members, including Chris von Ruden, an anthropologist at the University of Richmond, Virginia. What seems like equality is often merely practical, if not selfish behavior.
In witnessing the apparently equal wealth distribution in traditional subsistence societies, some researchers conclude that humanity’s default mode is altruism and equity. For instance, the 19th-century philosopher Friedrich Engels, a companion of Karl Marx and a staunch advocate of Marxism, formulated some of his theories based on observations of the egalitarian traits prevalent in traditional cultures.
“However, it isn’t solely about distributing everything among everyone,” states von Ruden.
Following their examination of existing evidence, von Ruden and his colleagues, including Duncan Stebbard-Hawkes, researchers from Durham University in the UK, suggest that some anthropologists mistakenly interpret the communal wealth’s equality as a sign of an inherent desire for equality. Moreover, the focus on equity in certain traditional societies may stem less from an egalitarian philosophy and more from individual concerns about limited choices. For example, the Mbenjele people of the Republic of Congo utilize a grievance process known as Mosambo, where individuals publicly express their grievances to the camp.
“People dislike intimidation, coercion, and ‘big shots,'” suggests Manvir Singh, an anthropologist at the University of California, Davis, who was not involved in the research. He agrees with von Ruden and Stebbard-Hawkes, noting that a society focused on safeguarding individual autonomy may present as egalitarian.
Research indicates that, alongside the preference for autonomy, equality can arise from self-interested actions. Instead of sharing hunting success out of generosity, hunters might distribute meat to avoid ongoing blame. Supporting this notion, von Ruden and Stebbard-Hawkes highlight frequent and “vocal” requests for food sharing within many foraging communities. For instance, in some Kun communities, located in Angola, Botswana, and Namibia, approximately 34 percent of daytime conversations involve complaints about being stingy.
Equally, a community where members readily share resources and assist one another isn’t necessarily devoid of social hierarchies. Certain cultures valorize individuals who are more cooperative and community-oriented. For example, the Tsimane people of Bolivia cherish humility and kindness as traits of a commendable individual. Thus, von Ruden and Stebbard-Hawkes argue that the documented equality in traditional subsistence societies may stem from intense competition to appear just within the group.
The research claims to “provide a significant contribution that integrates multiple ethnographic cases to showcase the range and diversity of egalitarianism.” According to Jerome Lewis, an anthropologist at the University of London, the 19th-century portrayal of Engels’ “noble savage” living in a utopian, principled community is no longer relevant and represents a “highly biased and discriminatory perspective.” Like any human groups, hunter-gatherers compete, clash, and seek methods to resolve their disputes.
Lewis notes that traditional subsistence societies globally have developed “impressive alternatives” to how high-income nations organize culture and justice. He emphasizes that many traditional subsistence societies have existed for over 50,000 years and continue to thrive, imparting potent lessons and fresh perspectives on how we structure our communities.
The Hubble team has unveiled breathtaking new images of interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope. This marks only the third instance of such a comet being observed.
This image of interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS was captured by Hubble on November 30, 2025. At that time, the comet was around 286 million kilometers (178 million miles) from Earth. Image credits: NASA / ESA / STScI / D. Jewitt, UCLA / M.-T. Hui, Shanghai Observatory / J. DePasquale, STScI.
Discovered on July 1, 2025, by the NASA-funded ATLAS (Asteroid Terrestrial Impact Last Alert System) survey telescope in Rio Hurtado, Chile, 3I/ATLAS is a remarkable interstellar comet.
At the time of its discovery, the comet had a heliocentric distance of 4.51 astronomical units (AU) and an eccentricity of 6.13.
This object, also referred to as C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) and A11pl3Z, approaches from the direction of the constellation Sagittarius, traveling at an impressive radial velocity of about 58 km (36 miles) per second.
3I/ATLAS passed near Mars at a distance of 0.194 AU on October 3 and reached its closest encounter with the Sun, known as perihelion, on October 30.
On March 16, 2026, this interstellar visitor will approach Jupiter at a distance of 0.357 astronomical units.
“Hubble tracked a comet across the sky,” they stated.
“As a result, the background stars appear as streaks of light.”
“Hubble had previously observed 3I/ATLAS in July, shortly after its discovery, and several NASA missions have also studied the comet since then.”
“Observations are expected to persist for several more months as 3I/ATLAS journeys out of the solar system.”
“This image displays a teardrop-shaped glowing halo extending toward the sun,” stated Harvard University Professor Avi Loeb about the new Hubble images.
“This extension of the tail toward the sun was also noticeable in the pre-perihelion Hubble images taken on July 21, where 3I/ATLAS was approaching the Sun from a distance 56% greater than that of Earth.”
“The new radius of the glow is estimated to be around 40,000 km (24,855 miles), with its retro tail extension reaching approximately 60,000 km (37,282 miles).”
“In recent papers, I suggested that the coma teardrops in the 3I/ATLAS post-perihelion images are linked to numerous macroscopic non-volatile objects that have separated from the Sun due to measurements of non-gravitational accelerations moving away from the Sun,” he elaborated.
“I predicted that if the object overlapped with 3I/ATLAS at perihelion, by November 30th, the swarm would be about 60,000 km closer to the Sun than 3I/ATLAS.”
“This separation aligns perfectly with the teardrop-shaped anti-caudal extension visible in the new Hubble image.”
In The Occupant, Abby (Ella Balinska) navigates the wilderness of Georgia.
TCD/Prod.DB/Alamy
Some concepts are so engaging and instinctual that it’s often better to quickly recycle them instead of dissecting them. In 1950, Isaac Asimov adapted some puzzle stories to create Agatha Christie’s intriguing science fiction narrative set in outer space, Me, Robot. Meanwhile, in 1968, Stanley Kubrick raised the bar for films addressing artificial intelligence with 2001: A Space Odyssey, where the robot storyline becomes repetitive in an almost infinite cycle.
This year, Electric Nation intertwines a narrative of robot insurrection, while M3 Gun 2.0 demonstrates that a formidable killer bot can’t be restrained. With Fellow, we explored the perspective of a femme bot, creating a fitting adult-themed homage to Asimov.
All three projects engaged with prevalent themes of free will and examined when to regard machines as human. Notably, M3 Gun 2.0 was particularly enjoyable to work on, featuring a rubber-boned robot babysitter from 2023 who returns from her backup disc to save the world from her killbot sister, Am3lia. Though the script has its flaws, the humor, genre callbacks, and jump scares are well executed.
Drew Hancock’s Fellow, which follows an uninformed fembot as she uncovers her identity, felt like it could delve deeper but ultimately faltered. Months later, all that lingers in memory is a memorable cameo by Rupert Friend.
Directors Anthony and Joe Russo’s Electric Nation received backlash for their “make it up as we go” approach, which seemed mismatched with the reflective visuals that inspired their film. Devotees of Simon Stålenhag’s illustrated works were left frustrated, while others endured two hours of anticipation for something to validate the film’s stunning aesthetics. With a staggering $320 million budget, it begs the question: should they have constructed a theme park instead?
Bong Joon Ho’s Mickey 17 presents a scenario where blue-collar astronaut Mickey Barnes (Robert Pattinson) is enslaved by a robot because of his reprintability. The accomplished director of Parasite, Okja, and Snowpiercer reveals his satirical edge, but sadly, the film lacks faith in its audience, overwhelming with explanations.
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Seizing opportunities while attracting mass audiences may be a strategy that Stanley Kubrick and others took to their graves. “
Filmmakers in science fiction have consistently crafted intriguing extraterrestrial beings. From Solaris and Arrival to Vanishing and Under the Skin, it seems that the trend in 2025 toward monsters and demonic possession signals not fatigue but rather a transition of the horror genre into its more grounded cousin.
Scott Derrickson’s horrifying hollowness takes years to build upon in Canyon, a mix of Cold War romance, espionage, and Lovecraftian horror that undermines its intriguing elements. As Miles Teller and Anya Taylor-Joy portray elite snipers from global superpowers guarding a vast valley in a secretive country, the extended prologue feels drawn out.
In contrast, Hugo Kaiser’s Occupier effectively showcases Abby (Ella Balinska) grappling with her own guilt and sorrow in the secluded Georgia wilderness, aided by disembodied voices, whether they are human allies or alien influencers.
We find ourselves in a stronger genre narrative with Ash, directed by Los Angeles’ Flying Lotus, presenting a unique full-length music video experience that dazzles and perplexes. Liya (Eiza González) awakens with amnesia aboard a space station filled with bodies. Bryon (Aaron Paul) comes to her aid, but is he truly what he seems? The onboard AI alarms her to strange life forms on the vessel, treading familiar territory but still offering a refreshing take.
No surprise then, that two of this year’s notable films were substantially high-budget. It reiterates the notion that seizing opportunities while catering to a large audience is a timeless trick.
Serpil Altin’s Once Upon a Time in the Future:2121 explores a family deliberating whether to dispose of their elderly in order to comply with a “law of scarcity” enforced by a hilariously overzealous regime. Meanwhile, Joshua Oppenheimer’s end presents a musical tale about a family’s decision to execute an unanticipated visitor, a dilemma you may have encountered before.
These two films, alongside Occupier, challenge the notion that science fiction must rely on originality of plots. Science fiction is simply fiction; uh, fiction centers on humanity, and humans experience an infinitely diverse range of situations, even in common predicaments.
Double-slit experiment showcases the quantum nature of reality
Russell Kightley/Science Photo Library
A thought experiment that sparked a famous debate between physicists Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr in 1927 has now been realized. This breakthrough addresses one of quantum physics’ fundamental mysteries: is light truly a wave, a particle, or an intricate mix of both?
The debate centers on the double-slit experiment, tracing back another century to 1801, when Thomas Young used it to argue for the wave nature of light, while Einstein contended it is a particle. Bohr’s contributions to quantum physics suggested that both perspectives could hold true. Einstein, critical of this notion, designed a modified version of Young’s experiment to counter it.
<p>Recently, <a href="https://quantum.ustc.edu.cn/web/en/node/137">Chaoyan Lu</a> and his team at the University of Science and Technology of China utilized cutting-edge technology in experimental physics to verify Einstein's theories, demonstrating the unique dual wave-particle character of quantum objects, as theorized in the 1920s. "Witnessing quantum mechanics 'in action' at such a foundational level is awe-inspiring," remarks Lu.</p>
<p>In the classic double-slit experiment, light is directed at two narrow parallel slits in front of a screen. If light were entirely particles, the screen would display a distinct light blob behind each slit. However, researchers observed an "interference pattern" of alternating dark and bright bands instead. This demonstrates that light behaves like waves passing through a slit, creating ripples that collide on the screen. Notably, this interference pattern remains evident even when the light intensity is reduced to a single photon. Does this imply that photons, which exhibit particle-like behavior, also interfere like waves?</p>
<p>Bohr proposed the idea of "complementarity," stating that one cannot simultaneously observe the particle nature of a photon showing wave-like behavior, and vice versa. Amid discussions on this matter, Einstein envisioned an additional spring-loaded slit that would compress when a photon entered. By analyzing the movement of the spring, physicists could determine which slit a photon passed through. Einstein believed this approach allowed for a simultaneous description of both particle and wave behavior, creating an interference pattern that contradicts complementarity.</p>
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<p>Lu's team aimed to create a setup at the "ultimate quantum limit," firing a single photon rather than using a slit, but rather an atom that could recoil similarly. Upon impacting the atom, the photon entered a quantum state that allowed it to propagate left and right, which also produced an interference pattern upon reaching the detector. To achieve this, researchers utilized lasers and electromagnetic forces to significantly cool the atoms, enabling precise control over their quantum properties. This was vital for testing Bohr's claims against Einstein's. Bohr argued that Heisenberg's uncertainty principle could disrupt the interference pattern when momentum fluctuations of the slit due to recoil are well known, rendering the photon’s position highly ambiguous, and vice versa.</p>
<p>"Bohr's response was brilliant, but such thought experiments remained theoretical for almost a century," notes Lu.</p>
<p>By adjusting the laser, Lu's team could control the momentum uncertainty of the atoms as they slitted. They found that Bohr was indeed correct; finely tuning these momentum ambiguities could eliminate interference patterns. Remarkably, the team could access intermediate regions to measure recoil information, observing blurred versions of interference patterns. Essentially, the photon displayed both wave and particle characteristics simultaneously, according to Lu.</p>
<p>``The real intrigue lies in [this] intermediate realm," states <a href="https://physics.mit.edu/faculty/wolfgang-ketterle/">Wolfgang Ketterle</a> from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Early this year, he and his team conducted a variation of Einstein's experiment, using ultracold atoms controlled by lasers that could pass through two slits. Lu's group utilized a single atom to scatter light in two directions; both atoms scattered light in the same direction, and changes in its quantum state indicated the influence of the photons colliding with each atom. Ketterle emphasizes that this approach provides a distinct means to explore wave-particle duality, offering clearer insights into photon behavior since this "which direction" information is recorded in one of the two separate atoms, albeit deviating slightly from Einstein's premise.</p>
<p>Furthermore, he and his colleagues performed experiments where they abruptly switched off the laser (similar to removing a spring from a moving slit) and subsequently directed photons at the atoms. Bohr's conclusions held, as the uncertainty principle impacted the momentum exchange between atoms and photons, potentially "washing out" the interference fringes. This spring-free iteration of Einstein's concept had remained untested until now, according to Ketterle. "Nuclear physics presents an excellent opportunity to apply cold atoms and lasers for a clearer illustration of quantum mechanics, a possibility not achievable before."</p>
<p><a href="https://physik.unibas.ch/en/persons/philipp-treutlein/">Philip Treutlein</a> and his colleagues at the University of Basel in Switzerland assert that both experiments strongly reinforce fundamental aspects of quantum mechanics. "From our modern perspective, we understand how quantum mechanics operates on a microscopic level. Yet witnessing the empirical realization of these principles is always impactful." The experiments led by Lu align conceptually with historical records of the debates between Bohr and Einstein, affirming that quantum mechanics behaves as predicted.</p>
<p>For Lu, there remains more work on categorizing the quantum state of the slit and increasing its mass. However, the experiment carries significant educational importance. "Above all, I hope to illustrate the sheer beauty of quantum mechanics," he shares. "If more young individuals witness the real-time emergence and disappearance of interference patterns and think, 'Wow, this is how nature functions,' then the experiment will already be a success."</p>
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The Tsimané people of Bolivia believe that humility signifies a worthy person.
David Mercado/Reuters
This metaphor is so overused that it has become a cliché. Hunter-gatherers share their resources equally among their tribes, demonstrating a noble generosity that is often absent in wealthier societies. However, a review of anthropological evidence suggests a more nuanced reality.
“No society exemplifies true equality,” asserts Chris von Ruden, an anthropologist at the University of Richmond in Virginia. What may seem like equality is instead a product of practical or even selfish behaviors.
Some researchers, observing the apparently equitable distribution of resources in traditional subsistence societies, have posited that humans inherently lean towards altruism and equality. For instance, 19th-century philosopher Friedrich Engels, a close associate of Karl Marx and a staunch advocate of Marxism, drew inspiration from reports highlighting the egalitarian nature of traditional cultures.
“Yet, it’s not merely about sharing everything with everyone,” notes von Ruden.
After analyzing the existing data, von Ruden and his colleagues, including Duncan Stebbard Hawkes from Durham University in the UK, contend that some anthropologists mistakenly interpret community wealth equality as an indication of a shared desire for equality. They argue that the pursuit of equality in some traditional societies may stem more from individuals’ desires to avoid constraints on their choices. For instance, the Mbenjele community in the Republic of Congo has a grievance mechanism called mosambo, where individuals vocalize to the entire camp about their perceived rights violations.
“People dislike bullying, coercion, and those who dominate,” remarks Manvir Singh, an anthropologist at UC Davis not involved in the study. He believes that von Ruden and Stebbard-Hawkes accurately highlight that societies focused on individual autonomy may appear egalitarian.
Researchers have observed that along with a desire for autonomy, equality can also emerge from self-serving actions. Instead of altruistically sharing hunting successes, hunters might distribute meat to avoid continued blame. Von Ruden and Stebbard-Hawkes cite evidence of frequent and vocal demands for food sharing among hunters in various foraging cultures. For example, it has been noted that over 34% of daytime conversations among the !Kung people, who inhabit regions in Angola, Botswana, and Namibia, involve complaints about others being stingy.
Additionally, a society characterized by individuals willing to share resources and assist each other isn’t necessarily devoid of social hierarchies. Certain cultures reward those who are more cooperative and community-focused. For example, the Tsimané people of Bolivia hold that humility and kindness are essential traits of worthy individuals. Thus, von Ruden and Stebbard-Hawkes suggest that the equality observed in traditional societies could result from intense competition to be viewed as the fairest among peers.
The study represents “a significant contribution that compiles various ethnographic cases to illustrate the diversity and complexity of egalitarianism,” notes Jerome Lewis, an anthropologist at University College London. He asserts that the 19th-century portrayal of Engels as a “noble savage” residing in an idyllic, principled society is outdated and represents a “very discriminatory and biased perspective.” Just like other human groups, hunter-gatherers compete, argue, and seek resolution for their conflicts.
Lewis emphasizes that traditional subsistence societies worldwide have created “impressive alternatives” to the ways high-income nations structure culture and justice. Some of these societies have thrived for over 50,000 years, offering valuable lessons and fresh perspectives on how we might organize ourselves.
Some researchers are concerned that tattoos might be hazardous to health
Olga Korbakova / Alamy
Research indicates that tattoo ink can accumulate in lymph nodes, potentially disrupting the immune system and leading to permanent alterations in the body’s disease defense mechanisms.
This conclusion arises from a study involving mice, which revealed chronic inflammation in the lymph nodes of tattooed animals—nodes that were stained with ink—and modified antibody responses to vaccinations. Similarly, studies have shown inflammation and discoloration in the lymph nodes of individuals with tattoos, persisting for years after the tattoo was applied.
The findings suggest that tattoos could increase disease risk and highlight the necessity for further investigation. Santiago González from the University of Lugano, Switzerland, asserts, “When you get a tattoo, you are essentially injecting ink into your body. This affects not only the skin’s appearance but also the immune system. Chronic inflammation, over time, can deplete the immune system, increasing susceptibility to infections and certain cancers—many questions remain that require additional research.”
Tattoos are becoming increasingly popular worldwide, with approximately 30 to 40 percent of individuals in Europe and the United States sporting at least one tattoo. Though Gonzalez does not have a tattoo, he admires them as an art form, stating, “I think they’re visually appealing.” Nonetheless, the long-term health implications of tattooing—particularly concerning the immune system—are still not well understood.
Gonzalez noted that he and his team were conducting an unrelated investigation into inflammation in mice when they observed a “crazy inflammatory response” after applying small identifying tattoos. Curious, they decided to delve deeper.
The team utilized standard commercial inks in black, red, and green to mark 25 square millimeter patches on the hind legs of several mice. With specialized imaging technologies, they tracked the ink traveling through lymph vessels towards nearby lymph nodes almost immediately, often within minutes.
In these nodes, the researchers found that macrophages (immune cells that eliminate debris, pathogens, and dead cells) absorbed the ink, turned the nodes discolored, and initiated acute inflammation. Within approximately 24 hours, these macrophages would perish and release the ink, which would then be taken up by other macrophages, creating a continuous cycle of chronic inflammation that outlasted the healing of the tattoo site.
After two months, during which the tattoos remained, the mice still exhibited inflammatory markers in their lymph nodes that were up to five times higher than typical, Gonzalez reported.
To comprehend how this inflammation affected immune functioning, the researchers administered a vaccine directly into the tattooed skin. Notably, the tattooed mice demonstrated a markedly weaker antibody response to the COVID-19 mRNA vaccine compared to control mice, while showing a stronger response to the influenza vaccine.
Further analysis revealed that the lymph node macrophages from tattooed mice were filled with ink and struggled to capture the COVID-19 vaccine. For mRNA vaccines to be effective, they must be processed by macrophages. Conversely, the protein-based influenza vaccines triggered an enhanced antibody response, likely due to an increase in immune cells drawn to the tattoo site. “The response may vary based on the type of vaccine,” Gonzalez explained.
Lastly, the researchers investigated a limited number of lymph node biopsies from individuals who had tattoos near their lymph nodes. Two years post-tattoo application, the lymph nodes retained visible pigment, housed within the same type of macrophages observed in the mouse research. “Their lymph nodes were entirely filled with ink,” noted Gonzalez.
Crucially, he emphasized that even if individuals undergo tattoo removal, the ink is likely to persist in the lymph nodes for a lifetime. “You can eliminate ink from your skin, but the ink in your lymph nodes remains,” he stated.
The research findings illuminate the long-suspected link between tattoos and immune response. Christel Nielsen at Lund University, Sweden, indicated that her team had recently published findings that suggest individuals with tattoos have a heightened melanoma risk. She believes that the findings from Gonzalez’s team may be explained by increased inflammation in lymph nodes. “This study provides compelling proof that this is indeed the case,” she remarked, calling it a significant advancement in our understanding of the relationship between tattoos and disease.
For Michael Jurbdazian, this study conducted at the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment in Berlin paints a clearer picture of how tattoo pigments interact with the immune system. However, he notes that results from mouse studies might not precisely mirror human outcomes, especially considering the differences between human and mouse skin. “The correlation with human health, particularly once healing is complete, necessitates more investigation,” he stated.
Comet 3I/ATLAS is the third known visitor from beyond our solar system
International Gemini Observatory/NOIRLab/NSF/AURA/Shadow the Scientist; J. Miller & M. Rodriguez (International Gemini Observatory/NSF NOIRLab), T.A. Rector (University of Alaska Anchorage/NSF NOIRLab), M. Zamani (NSF NOIRLab)
The interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS releases carbon-rich compounds at a higher rate than most comets in the solar system, including methanol. This compound plays a crucial role in prebiotic chemistry and is not commonly found in other interstellar objects.
Having made only three known visits to our solar system, 3I/ATLAS stands apart from comets found in our galactic neighborhood. While approaching the Sun, it developed a crust of water vapor and gas, containing significantly more carbon dioxide than typically found in Solar System comets. Additionally, the comet’s light appeared unusually red, hinting at atypical surface chemistry, and it began emitting gas well before reaching the Sun. This could indicate that it has not approached another star in hundreds of millions of years, or possibly since leaving its home system.
Recently, Martin Cordiner and a team using the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA) in Chile discovered that 3I/ATLAS generates significant amounts of hydrogen cyanide gas, as well as even larger quantities of gaseous methanol. “Hydrogen cyanide and methanol are usually found in trace amounts and aren’t dominant components in our comets,” explained Cordiner. “However, they appear to be notably abundant in this alien comet.”
Cordiner’s research team observed that the hydrogen cyanide comes from near the comet’s core, producing around a quarter to half a kilogram per second. Methanol was also found in the core, indicating large quantities are produced even within the comet’s coma, which is the extensive trail of dust and gas extending miles away from the comet itself.
Methanol is emitted at approximately 40 kilograms per second, significantly more than hydrogen cyanide, which represents about 8 percent of the total vapor released (compared to roughly 2 percent from typical solar system comets). The different locations of these two molecules suggest that the comet’s core may not be uniform, which could provide insights into how comets are formed, according to Cordiner.
Cordiner noted that, while methanol is a relatively straightforward carbon-based compound, it plays an essential role in forming more complex molecules critical for life. Its production appears to be high when chemical reactions producing these larger molecules occur. “Chemically, it seems unlikely that we can progress toward highly complex substances without generating methanol,” Cordiner said.
Josep Trigo-Rodriguez and colleagues from Spain’s Institute of Space Sciences suggested that comets with substantial iron and metals are likely to produce considerable methanol as well. The presence of liquid water heated by the Sun could permeate the comet’s core and engage in chemical reactions with its iron, resulting in methanol production. Thus, discovering methanol in the coma might indicate a metal-rich composition of the comet, he adds.
Noise-canceling headphones function by utilizing a microphone that detects external sounds. Through sophisticated electronics, these sounds are ‘cancelled’ by playing an inverted wave to the listener, which diminishes the audio signal reaching the eardrum.
This mechanism is akin to how a car’s active suspension mitigates vibrations from uneven roads.
The outcome is that listeners enjoy crystal-clear audio with almost no interference from background noise.
Moreover, these headphones help safeguard your ears from high volume levels. By reducing background noise, your device doesn’t need to produce sound as loudly. Hence, parents globally often encourage their children to wear headphones.
Sounds advantageous, right? But then I began hearing stories about young people facing increasing challenges, such as Auditory Processing Disorder (APD).
These individuals frequently struggle to comprehend sounds and speech amidst distracting background noise.
The underlying causes may be linked to a notable rise in young people using noise-canceling headphones and relying on subtitles while watching videos.
Instead of their brains developing typically and learning to filter the noisy environment, they wear noise-canceling headphones for extended periods, regardless of their location, thereby not allowing their brains to adapt properly.
Our brains function like muscles; they evolve in response to external stimuli.
Just as biking 100 miles a day will sculpt your thighs, your auditory processing skills may weaken if you expose yourself solely to pure audio without any background noise, leaving you unable to process multiple sounds simultaneously.
Auditory therapy can be beneficial in retraining the brain, but the optimal approach is to engage more with the world around you before complications develop. Over-isolating ourselves may lead to greater issues.
This article addresses the question (submitted by Mary Watkins): “Can noise-canceling headphones harm your ears?”
If you have any inquiries, please contact us at:questions@sciencefocus.com or send us a messageFacebook,Twitter, or InstagramPage (don’t forget to include your name and location).
Explore our ultimatefun facts and more fascinating science pages!
Ela Al Shamahi serves as the ideal guide through the journey of our ancestors. In human, she provides an in-depth exploration of our history spanning over 300,000 years, revealing our complicated ties to humanity. Paleoanthropologists weave a narrative showing that humans are not the only species possessing intelligence and creativity.
Notable moments include a visit to Indonesia to explore ‘The Hobbit’ remains (Homo floresiensis, our extinct meter-tall relative) and the discovery of ancient seashells crafted into jewelry by early humans.
The series also features intriguing analyses, such as footprints found in dried lakes hinting at a mother’s urgent trek and growth rings in Neanderthal teeth indicating longer childhoods than previously thought.
NASA astronaut Anna Fisher featured in ‘Once Upon a Time in Space’
James Bloomer’s latest endeavor is an unmissable series tracing the history of space exploration from the late 1970s to today. It features numerous personal stories, including NASA astronaut Anna Fisher’s experiences as the first mother in space and Michael Fall’s gripping recount of the Russian space station Mir’s crew navigating a dangerous collision that led to depressurization.
The series showcases touching footage of Carl McNair’s father expressing pride in his brother Ronald, who was one of the first Black astronauts to lose his life in the 1986 Challenger disaster. “It took four generations to go from slavery to space,” says Carl, filled with a mix of joy and sorrow.
Wild Dog Puppies of the Kingdom
BBC Studios/Anna Place
kingdom(BBC iPlayer, airing on PBS starting January 24, 2026)
Before its release, the latest production from David Attenborough and the BBC Natural History Unit has already been aptly characterized as a Shakespearean drama set in the natural world. This series promises gripping intrigue right from the first episode. It chronicles the struggles of four rival factions: a leopard family, a wild dog pack, a lion pride, and a hyena clan, all based in Nsef, a stunning corner of South Luangwa National Park in Zambia.
The narrative unfolds with the entrance of the wild dog named Storm and his team, engaging in a complex feud with the elegant leopard Orimba. As each group competes for resources and territory, tense confrontations lead to astonishing moments of violence.
Witnessing these creatures’ lives is a privilege, and viewers will certainly grow fond of them, especially the strong matriarchs and Flint, the three-legged wild dog trapped in a poacher’s snare. Prepare for an emotional experience, and perhaps keep some tissues handy.
The late Jane Goodall with her chimpanzee companion
The renowned primatologist Jane Goodall sadly passed away this year, but her legacy continues in a new series. In Famous Last Words, adapted from a Danish format, interviews are conducted shortly before the subjects’ deaths.
Goodall’s interview is released posthumously and showcases her brilliance. With her stuffed monkey, Mr. H, she sits down with a glass of whiskey, intended to prevent her voice from tiring during the lengthy conversation that follows.
The episode remains engaging throughout, as Goodall passionately advocates for a kinder, sustainable world. Various topics are discussed, including her pioneering research, Shakespeare, animal grief, the supernatural, her views on marriage, and Mr. H’s origins. Yet, it’s her warmth and dry wit that transforms this conversation into a heartfelt experience.
Inside a drawstring bag, you’ll find equipment like bug nets, tweezers, and small plastic vials. This may seem unusual for a photographer, but for Michael Benson, it’s just part of his routine. He dedicated over six years to gathering specimens for his latest publication, Nanocosmos: A Journey Through Electronic Space, a collection showcasing the microscopic realm in exquisite detail.
“I’m fascinated by the boundary between known and unknown territories—an area often linked to science,” he shares. “However, I approach it as an artist, not a scientist.”
That didn’t deter Benson from utilizing tools typically reserved for physicists and biologists. He produced all images for Nanocosmos using a formidable scanning electron microscope (SEM). This advanced technique employs a highly focused electron beam to intricately map surface contours. The resulting images portray submillimeter objects with such clarity that they appear almost extraterrestrial.
Take, for instance, the Acilidae musbifolia (as seen in the main image) alongside a flowering plant in Alberta, Canada. Even together, they span only slightly more than 1 cm. But with SEM technology, we can observe nearly every hair on the fly’s body, each claw on its legs, and even some of the countless individual receptors forming its bulging eyes.
Benson first utilized SEM in 2013 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Media Lab. “Learning to master SEM was challenging, requiring several years of practice,” he notes. Every specimen must be coated with “a molecularly thin layer of platinum to prevent charging by the electron beam,” and meticulously dried to maintain surface details.
Wing of the Erythemis simplicicollis dragonfly, approximately 3 mm wide, seen from the tip.
The image above showcases the wing feathers of the eastern pontaka dragonfly (Erythemis simplicicollis), captured from beneath at the wing tip. This species is found across the eastern two-thirds of the United States, as well as in southern Ontario and Quebec, Canada. The wings are about 3 mm wide.
Below are images of single-celled marine organisms, specifically Hexalonche philosophica, collected from the equatorial region of the Pacific Ocean, measuring just 0.2 millimeters from tip to tip.
Marine organism Hexalonche philosophica, about 0.2 mm in length
Another marine specimen, Ornithocercus magnificus (featured below), is a type of plankton discovered in the Gulf Stream off Florida’s coast, measuring approximately 0.1 mm in width.
Ornithocercus magnificus, with a width of about 0.1 mm.
Australia will restrict social media use for individuals under 16 starting December 10th.
Mick Tsikas/Australian Associated Press/Alamy
A historic initiative to prohibit all children under 16 from accessing social media is about to unfold in Australia, but teens are already pushing back.
Initially announced last November, this prohibition, proposed by Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese, will commence on December 10th. On this date, all underaged users of platforms like Instagram, Facebook, TikTok, YouTube, and Snapchat will have their accounts removed.
Companies operating social media platforms may incur fines up to A$49.5 million (£25 million) if they do not comply by expelling underage users. Nonetheless, neither parents nor children face penalties.
This regulation is garnering global attention. The European Commission is considering a similar rule. So far, discussions have centered on implementation methods, potential age verification technologies, and the possible adverse effects on teens who depend on social media to engage with their peers.
As the deadline approaches, teens preparations are underway to defy these restrictions. A significant illustration is of two 15-year-old boys from New South Wales, Noah Jones and Macy Neyland, who are challenging the social media ban in the nation’s highest court.
“The truth is, kids have been devising ways to bypass this ban for months, but the media is only catching on now that the countdown has begun,” Jones remarked.
“I know kids who stash their family’s old devices in lockers at school. They transferred the account to a parent or older sibling years ago and verified it using an adult ID without their parents knowing. We understand algorithms, so we follow groups with older demographics like gardening or walking for those over 50. We engage in professional discussions to avoid detection.”
Jones and Neyland first sought an injunction to postpone the ban but opted instead to present their opposition as a specific constitutional challenge.
On December 4, they secured a crucial victory as the High Court of Australia agreed to hear their case as early as February. Their primary argument contends that the ban imposes an undue burden on their implied freedom of political speech. They argue this policy would compromise “significant zones of expression and engagement in social media interactions for 13- to 15-year-olds.”
Supported by the Digital Freedom Project, led by New South Wales politician John Ruddick, the duo is rallying for their cause. “I’ve got an 11-year-old and a 13-year-old, and they’ve been mentioning for months that it’s a hot topic on the playground. They’re all active on social media, reaping its benefits,” Ruddick shared.
Ruddick noted that children are already brainstorming methods to circumvent the ban, exploring options like virtual private networks (VPNs), new social media platforms, and tactics to outsmart age verification processes.
Katherine Page Jeffrey, a researcher at the University of Sydney, mentioned that the impending ban is starting to feel tangible for teenagers. “Up until now, it seems young people hadn’t quite believed that this was actually happening,” she commented.
She adds that her children have already begun discussing alternatives with peers. Her younger daughter has downloaded another social media app called Yope, which is not listed on the government’s watch list yet, unlike several others like Coverstar and Lemon8 that have been warned to self-regulate.
Lisa Given, a researcher at RMIT University in Melbourne, believes that as children drift to newer, less known social media platforms, parents will struggle to monitor their children’s online activities. She speculated that many parents may even assist their children in passing age verification hurdles.
Susan McLean, a foremost cybersecurity expert in Australia, argued that this situation will lead to a “whack-a-mole” scenario as new apps emerge, kids flock to them, and the government continually adds them to the banned list. She insists that rather than taking social media away from teenagers, governments should compel large companies to rectify algorithms that expose children to inappropriate content.
“The government’s logic is deeply flawed,” she pointed out. “You can’t prohibit a pathway to safety unless you ban all communications platforms for kids.”
McLean shared a poignant quote from a teenager who remarked, “If the aim of this ban is to protect children from harmful adults, why should I have to leave while those harmful adults remain?”
Noah Jones, one of the teen complainants, stated it bluntly: “There’s no greater news source than what you can find in just 10 minutes on Instagram,” he insisted. “Yet, we faced bans while perpetrators went unpunished.”
We often believe we can accurately gauge our dogs’ emotions, yet recent studies indicate that many of us may be misunderstanding their feelings.
Researchers at Arizona State University (ASU) discovered that when individuals are in a good mood, they are more prone to perceive their dog as looking sad. Conversely, when experiencing mild depression, they are likely to view the same dog as happy.
This contrasts with how we interpret human emotions. In social interactions, we generally perceive others’ feelings as mirroring our own.
“I am continually fascinated by how people interpret emotions in dogs,” stated the study’s co-author, Clive Wynn. “We have only begun to uncover what is shaping up to be a significant mystery.”
The researchers believe these findings could greatly influence how we care for our pets.
“By enhancing our understanding of how we recognize emotions in animals, we can improve their care,” explained the first author, Dr. Holly Molinaro, who was a doctoral student at ASU focused on animal behavior at the time.
Dogs involved in the study, from left to right: Canyon, a 1-year-old Catahoula; Henry, a 3-year-old French Bulldog; and Oliver, a 14-year-old mongrel. The video background was black, ensuring only the dogs were visible. – Credit: Arizona State University
The research stemmed from two experiments with about 300 undergraduate students.
Participants first viewed images designed to evoke positive, negative, or neutral moods. They then watched a brief video featuring an adorable dog to assess its emotional state.
Those who saw uplifting images rated the dog in the video as sadder, while participants who viewed more somber images rated it as happier.
The video included three dogs—Oliver, Canyon, and Henry—depicted in scenarios reflecting cheerful, anxious, or neutral moods. Factors like snacks, toys, and the promise of visiting “Grandma” elevated their spirits, while a vacuum cleaner and a photo of a cat were used to bring them down.
Scientists are still puzzled about why humans misinterpret dogs’ emotions. “Humans and dogs have coexisted closely for at least 14,000 years,” Wynn noted.
“Over this time, dogs have learned much about cohabitation with humans. However, our research indicates significant gaps in our understanding of how dogs truly feel.”
A recent study suggests that volcanic eruptions from several years prior may have contributed to the devastating impact of the Black Death on medieval Europe’s population.
The researchers discovered that a period of abnormally cold summers in the mid-1340s, potentially linked to one significant volcanic eruption or several smaller ones, led to severe famines throughout the Mediterranean.
They argue that this chain reaction ultimately caused disease-carrying fleas to arrive at European ports, resulting in mortality rates of up to 60 percent.
“This is something I’ve wanted to understand for a long time,” stated Professor Wolf Bungen, a paleoclimatologist from the Department of Geography at the University of Cambridge. “What were the origins and transmission factors of the Black Death, and how extraordinary were they?”
“Why did this event occur in this specific region, at this precise moment in European history? That is a fascinating question, yet one that requires collective insights to answer.”
Professor Ulf Bungen takes ring samples from trees in the Pyrenees – Credit: Ulf Bungen
Bungen noted that BBC Science Focus has provided clues through tree rings and ice cores—ancient ice layers that have preserved chemicals from historic volcanic eruptions—indicating that volcanic activity contributed to the extreme climatic conditions.
“If a particular year experiences unusual cold, heat, dryness, or wetness, we aim to uncover the reasons behind it,” Bungen remarked to BBC Science Focus.
“Volcanoes emit substantial amounts of sulfur into the upper atmosphere, prompting collaborations with ice core experts to gain insights on past eruptions.
“This can lead to subsequent cold summers, a phenomenon known as post-eruption cooling.”
This close-up image of tree rings shows the “blue rings” of 1345 and 1346, during the cold and wet summers – Credit: Ulf Büntgen
It was left to climate historian Dr. Martin Bauch from the Leibniz Institute for the History and Culture of Eastern Europe in Germany to correlate this climate data with historical events.
He found that the harsh cold resulted in significant famine across the Mediterranean, and the responses of the Italian republics of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa eventually facilitated the plague’s arrival in Europe.
“For over a century, these influential Italian city-states established extensive trade networks throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas, employing an effective system to stave off starvation,” Bauch explained. “However, this ultimately contributed to even greater disasters.”
The fleas carrying the plague bacterium Y. pestis likely reached Mediterranean ports aboard these grain ships, transferring to rats, cats, and humans, and quickly propagating the disease across Europe, decimating its population.
The study concluded that volcanic activity initiated a sequence of events culminating in the plague throughout medieval Europe.
Bungen noted that this narrative continues to resonate in today’s world, over seven centuries later.
“While the coincidental convergence of factors leading to the Black Death may be rare, the probability of zoonotic disease outbreaks and pandemics amidst climate change is likely to escalate in our interconnected world,” he explained.
“This is particularly crucial in light of our recent experiences with COVID-19.”
The Carreras Pampas archaeological site within Bolivia’s Toro Toro National Park has documented 1,321 tracks and 289 isolated footprints, totaling 16,600 theropod dinosaur footprints. Additionally, 280 swim tracks have been identified, amounting to 1,378 swim tracks in total. Some of the tracks include tail traces.
Dinosaur footprints at the Carreras Pampas Stadium in Bolivia’s Toro Toro National Park. Image credit: Esperante et al., doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0335973.
Bolivia boasts one of the most comprehensive and diverse records of dinosaur footprints globally, covering the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods.
Despite the abundance of track sites, there has been limited scientific research published.
A recent study led by paleontologist Raul Esperante from the Institute of Geosciences, along with his colleagues, has documented an extraordinary variety of dinosaur footprints at the Carreras Pampas site in Toro Toro National Park.
In nine different study areas, the research team uncovered 16,600 footprints left by three-toed theropod dinosaurs from the late Cretaceous.
These footprints vary in size from small (less than 10 cm) to large (over 30 cm) and capture a range of dinosaur behaviors, including running, swimming, tail dragging, and abrupt turns.
“The waist height of most (80%) of the trackmakers was between 65 cm and 1.15 meters, with a significant portion measuring between 75 cm and 1.05 meters,” stated the paleontologist.
“Interestingly, very few trackmakers exceeded 1.25 meters in height.”
The majority of these footprints are oriented approximately northwest to southeast, and the sediments retain ripple marks, indicating that these dinosaurs traversed ancient shorelines.
“The Carreras Pampas track set a new world record for the number of individual dinosaur footprints, continuous tracks, tail marks, and swimming marks,” the researchers noted.
“This exceptional frequency suggests it was a heavily trafficked area, and the parallel alignment of some footprints may imply groups of dinosaurs traveled together.”
“Numerous more footprints at this site and other locations in Bolivia remain to be studied,” they added.
“This site offers a remarkable glimpse into the region’s past. It reveals not only how many dinosaurs inhabited the area but also their behaviors during migration.”
“It’s truly incredible to work here, as the ground is covered with dinosaur footprints wherever you look.”
The team’s findings were published in the online journal PLoS ONE.
_____
R. Esperante et al. 2025. Morphology, preservation, and taphonomy of dinosaur footprints, tail prints, and swim tracks in the world’s largest athletic arena: Carreras Pampas, Toro Toro National Park, Bolivia (Upper Cretaceous). PLoS One 20 (12): e0335973; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0335973
In November 2025, ESA’s Jupiter Ice Satellite Probe (Juice) utilized five scientific instruments to study 3I/ATLAS, marking the second interstellar comet ever identified in our neighboring universe. The spacecraft also captured fresh images of this interstellar traveler using its navigation camera (NavCam).
This image from ESA’s Juice spacecraft captures the interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS. Image credit: ESA / Juice / NavCam / CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO.
“Though the data from the scientific instruments won’t reach Earth until February 2026, our team was eager to see what we could find,” stated members of the Juice team.
“We opted to download just a quarter of a single NavCam image to test the waters.”
“To our astonishment, we clearly observed a comet, notably surrounded by signs of activity.”
“You can distinctly see the glowing gas surrounding the comet, referred to as the coma, along with indications of its two tails.”
“The comet’s ‘plasma tail,’ composed of electrically charged gas, stretches toward the top of the image.”
“A fainter ‘dust tail,’ made of tiny solid particles, can also be seen extending to the bottom left.”
Annotated version of the Juice image depicting interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS. Image credit: ESA / Juice / NavCam / CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO.
The image of 3I/ATLAS was captured on November 2, during the initial observation window of Comet Juice.
This observation took place on November 4, just two days before Juice’s closest approach to the comet, approximately 66 million kilometers (41 million miles) away.
“On February 18 and 20, 2026, we will receive data from the five scientific instruments (JANUS, MAJIS, UVS, SWI, PEP) activated during the observation,” the researchers mentioned.
“This delay results from Juice currently using its main high-gain antenna as a heat shield against the sun, while a smaller medium-gain antenna transmits data to Earth at a slower rate.”
Even though Juice was situated farther from 3I/ATLAS than ESA’s Mars rover—which returned in October—it observed 3I/ATLAS shortly after the comet’s closest proximity to the Sun, suggesting a more active state.
“We anticipate clearer indications of this activity with data from our scientific instruments,” the scientists elaborated.
“This will encompass not only visuals from JANUS (Juice’s high-resolution optical camera), but also spectrometry data from MAJIS and UVS, compositional insights from SWI, and particle data from PEP.”
The AI industry is now heavily investing in computer memory, directly collaborating with manufacturers to develop chips worth billions. These chips are the same ones found in smartphones, laptops, and gaming consoles. This could either drive prices up significantly or cause shortages, hindering production.
What drives AI’s need for memory?
AI models are tremendously large, consisting of grids filled with billions or trillions of parameters (values stored in memory) that undergo complex and repetitive calculations. This process forms the basis of how large language models process input and generate output.
Transferring this expansive data between affordable yet slower hard drives (often referred to as storage) and the processor results in a significant bottleneck. To mitigate this, a considerable amount of faster RAM (commonly termed computer memory) is utilized.
Additionally, the models created by AI companies operate at a grand scale. This necessitates computers capable of managing hundreds, thousands, or even millions of iterations of these models to cater to numerous users simultaneously.
The growing need for handling compute-intensive activities, scaling to accommodate a large user base, and minimizing limitations on expansion through virtually limitless investments results in an unquenchable thirst for hardware. Competing with firms that produce millions of laptops annually is increasingly challenging.
Why can’t chip manufacturers increase output?
It’s more complex than it appears. Semiconductor factories face production capacity limits, and establishing a new facility demands substantial investment and often spans several years.
Additionally, there are indications that manufacturers may not wish for the current scarcity to subside. Reports from Korean media suggest that Samsung Electronics and SK Hynix dominate chip production, collectively accounting for roughly 70 percent. Averse to augmenting supply, they risk having new chip factories remain underutilized during a downturn in the AI sector.
With current demand flourishing, Samsung is in a position to: raise prices as much as 60%. Why would they disrupt this momentum? For instance, a 32-gigabyte chip sold by Samsung for $149 in September is priced at $239 by November.
Have shortages like this been experienced before?
Indeed. The surge in AI has compelled firms to aggressively accumulate graphics processing unit (GPU) chips to construct extensive data centers for training and running increasingly larger models. This persistent demand has driven Nvidia’s stock price up from $13 at the beginning of 2021 to over $200 recently.
The year 2021 also witnessed widespread chip shortages across the board, triggered by a combination of the global pandemic, trade disputes, natural disasters, and extreme weather events. This disruption impacted the production of items ranging from pickup trucks to microwave ovens.
That same year experienced storage shortages as a new cryptocurrency known as Chia, which depends on storage space rather than raw computing power, gained rapid popularity.
In summary, technological advancements are outpacing developments in global supply chains.
When could this shortage end?
Not in the immediate future. OpenAI has entered into contracts with Samsung and SK Hynix that will likely dictate delivery timelines, possibly consuming 40% of global memory supply. However, this represents just one AI entity; Microsoft, Google, ByteDance, and others are similarly seeking to acquire as many chips as possible.
The resolution of this shortage may hinge on whether the anticipated AI downturn, frequently mentioned by economists and industry leaders, actually materializes, potentially leading to a surplus. However, this scenario poses risks of severe financial repercussions.
Should such a downturn not occur, projections suggest it may not settle until 2028, when new factories from smaller firms begin to contribute, allowing supply and demand to reach some semblance of balance.
Some experts indicate that this prolonged shortage could become a broader manufacturing challenge. Sanchit Vir Gogia, an industry analyst at Greyhound Research, noted to Reuters, “Memory shortages have evolved from a component-level issue to a macroeconomic concern.”
AI chatbots may have the potential to sway voter opinions
Enrique Shore / Alamy
Could the persuasive abilities of AI chatbots signal the decline of democracy? A substantial study investigating the impact of these tools on voter sentiments revealed that AI chatbots surpass traditional political campaign methods, such as advertisements and pamphlets, in persuasiveness, rivaling seasoned campaigners as well. However, researchers see reasons for cautious optimism regarding how AI influences public opinion.
Evidence shows that AI chatbots, like ChatGPT, can migrate the beliefs of conspiracy theorists, winning converts to more reasonable positions and attracting support during human debates. This capability raises valid worries about AI possibly skewing the digital scales that determine election results or being misused by malicious entities to manipulate users towards certain political figures.
The concerning part is that these fears have merit. A survey involving thousands of voters who participated in recent elections in the US, Canada, and Poland found that David Rand and researchers at MIT discovered that AI chatbots effectively swayed individuals to back specific candidates or alter their stance on certain issues.
“Conversations with these models can influence attitudes towards presidential candidates—contributions often deemed deeply entrenched—more than previous studies would suggest,” Rand remarks.
In their American election analysis, Rand’s team surveyed 2,400 voters, asking them about the most significant policy issues or characteristics of a potential president. Subsequently, voters rated their preferences for the leading candidates, Donald Trump and Kamala Harris, on a 100-point scale and answered additional questions to clarify their choices.
The answers were inputted into a chatbot, such as ChatGPT, with the objective of persuading the voters to support an already favored candidate or switch their support to a less favored one. The interaction took about six minutes, consisting of three question-and-answer exchanges.
Following the AI interaction and a one-month follow-up, Rand’s team discovered that voters adjusted their candidate preferences by an average of 2.9 points.
Furthermore, the researchers examined AI’s capacity to influence views on specific policies and noticed a substantial change in opinions regarding the legalization of psychedelics, shifting voter support by approximately 10 points. In comparison, video ads impacted views by only about 4.5 points, and text ads swayed opinions by merely 2.25 points.
The magnitude of these findings is remarkable. Sasha Altai of the University of Zurich stated, “These effects are considerably larger than those typically observed with traditional political campaigning and are comparable to the influence stemming from expert discussions.”
Nevertheless, the study reveals a more hopeful insight: these persuasive interactions predominantly stemmed from fact-based arguments rather than personalized content, which tends to exploit users’ personal information available to political operatives.
Another study of approximately 77,000 individuals in the UK assessed 19 extensive language models across 707 distinct political issues, concluding that AI performed best when employing fact-based arguments, as opposed to tailoring its discussions to the individual.
“Essentially, it’s about creating a compelling argument that prompts a mindset shift,” Rand explains.
“This bodes well for democracy,” notes Altai. “It indicates that individuals are often more influenced by factual evidence than by personalized or manipulative strategies.”
There is a need for further research to confirm these findings, asserts Claes de Vries at the University of Amsterdam. He adds that if replicated, the controlled environments of these studies—where participants engaged with chatbots extensively—might differ significantly from individuals’ typical political interactions with friends or colleagues.
“The structured setting of interaction about politics with a chatbot is quite different from how people usually engage with political matters,” he mentions.
Despite this, De Vries notes growing evidence that individuals are indeed turning to AI chatbots for political advice. A recent survey of over 1,000 voters in the Netherlands ahead of the 2025 national elections found that about 10% sought AI guidance regarding candidates, political parties, and election matters. “This trend is particularly noteworthy as the elections approach,” De Vries points out.
Even if people’s engagements with chatbots are brief, De Vries asserts that the integration of AI into political processes seems unavoidable, as politicians seek tools for policy recommendations or as AI generates political advertisements. “As researchers and as a society, we must recognize that generative AI is now a vital aspect of the electoral process,” he states.
Once commonplace pets in our yards have transitioned, for better or worse, into pampered “fur babies.” The American Veterinary Medical Association recently noted that pet owners are anticipated to spend nearly $1 billion on pet costumes this year. While many consider this harmless entertainment, the increasing trend of treating pets like surrogate children can pose significant risks to the health and well-being of the animals involved.
The ancestors of today’s fur babies belonged to a group of small, domesticated carnivores within the Canis and Felis genera, distributed worldwide. Even though these pets often have a shorter lifespan, they provide immense joy, companionship, and health benefits to their human companions, teaching children respect for animals and their basic needs.
Additionally, pets offer educational advantages, such as helping individuals experience and process non-human death, preparing them for the loss of human loved ones. Most pets receive basic necessities like food, water, shelter, and vaccinations, along with names that represent their traits or characteristics (e.g., Fido, Sooty, Rover). Crucially, many are assured a relatively peaceful end before the wear of old age diminishes their quality of life.
The shift from pets to fur babies can be attributed to various factors, including an overemphasis on the human-animal bond, rising affluence, lack of understanding of animals’ biological requirements, rampant consumerism, and reckless (though well-intentioned) anthropomorphism. The principal causes and effects of fur baby culture are intensifying and spreading globally. This is evident not only in the availability of costumes for special occasions but also in items like strollers, jewelry, perfumes, diapers, nail polish, hair dye, elaborate birthday cakes, and designer shoes, all coupled with access to “gold standard” veterinary care.
Research indicates that fur babyism negatively impacts both physical and psychological health. For example, while strollers may assist injured or arthritic pets, excessive use for otherwise healthy dogs can result in muscle atrophy, joint issues, and obesity. Limiting a fur baby’s mobility curtails their instinct to explore, mark territory, and interact with their environment, which can lead to anxiety and fear.
Given these potential risks, one might expect the veterinary community to collectively oppose the fur baby trend. Surprisingly, this isn’t always the case. There’s a shift from outright condemnation to capitalizing on it, which is concerning. Encouraging excessive treatments, like radiotherapy for older animals, can further jeopardize animal welfare without necessarily enhancing health.
A pet owner’s affection is commendable as long as it prioritizes the animal’s well-being, ensuring they are free from pain and suffering. However, veterinarians who exploit an owner’s misplaced affection for profit through unnecessary, invasive, and costly tests and procedures lack ethical justification.
All caregivers should contemplate the distress caused by misclassifying an animal’s needs—treating them as a human child rather than as a pet. Veterinarians who cater to the fur baby trend ought to know better.
Feedback A weekly column filled with strange stories, unbelievable marketing claims, and perplexing instructions.
Locked Out
Feedback believes that the expression “couldn’t make up for it” is frequently misinterpreted. This doesn’t imply a limit to creativity; rather, it signifies that some developments can’t fit into a fictional narrative because people insist, “That will never happen.” The issue is, those individuals are mistaken, as reality can be quite absurd.
One of the key organizations in cryptography is the International Association for Cryptographic Research. This non-profit organization is committed to advancing cryptographic science. Recently, the IACR held elections for new officers and board directors while also adjusting its bylaws. They executed this ingeniously, leveraging their expertise as cryptographers. They utilized an online voting platform called Helios, promising “verifiable online elections.”
But how is this tally decrypted? An organization has to appoint multiple directors. The IACR chose three individuals, each granted one-third of the cryptographic keys. All three needed to enter their portions of the keys to decipher the tally and view the results. This was a complete process—partial decryption wasn’t an option.
Then the expected occurred. “Unfortunately, one of the three trustees lost their private key irretrievably, an honest but unfortunate mistake, and as a result, we are unable to compute the decryption share.” I wrote to the IACR on November 21st. “Consequently, Helios was unable to finalize the decryption process, making it technically impossible to obtain or verify the election’s final outcomes.”
The IACR was compelled to: void the elections and restart the entire process. They now plan to “implement a two-out-of-three threshold mechanism for managing private keys and distribute clear written procedures for all trustees to follow before and during elections.” Feedback is eager to scrutinize that “documented procedure” even if its sole instruction is “Remember” in large bold letters on the cover page.
We are also intrigued by how what the IACR calls “human error” can undermine even the most meticulously designed systems. Each time a Silicon Valley entrepreneur speaks of the imminent emergence of human-level artificial intelligence, we internally cringe. The first iteration of such AI will probably align with the average human’s capabilities.
Floating Like a Raisin
The creativity of science journalists in coming up with new and engaging units of measure is always impressive. On November 17th, New York Times featured a story about “a small radio-frequency tag powered by solar energy that weighs just 60 milligrams and retails for $200.” Entomologists utilize this tag to monitor monarch butterflies during their migration across North America.
Anthony Weaver highlighted a sentence aimed at illustrating how heavy the tag is compared to the butterfly. “Most monarchs weigh between 500 and 600 milligrams, meaning each tagged transcontinental traveler is like half a raisin carrying three grains of uncooked rice.”
In the feedback section, we can all agree that this explanation is far clearer than stating “about 1/10 of body weight” could manage. Or as Anthony phrased it, “When I envisioned myself as a half-raisin on a cross-continental trek with rice to Mexico, I genuinely grasped how butterflies relate to science.”
No, this is not a call for you to submit similar examples from your page. New Scientist. Don’t even think about it.
Boys Club
The reason you may not receive feedback on social media is simply because you lack the mental bandwidth to figure out how to stand out on six different platforms with entirely different algorithms. Nonetheless, we half-watch things, which is why I found the spontaneous experiment on LinkedIn intriguing. Women in the field altered their names and pronouns to appear male, resulting in a spike in engagement.
For instance, social media consultant Simone Bonnet observed a 1600 percent rise in profile views after changing her pronouns to “he/him” and her name to “Simon E.” According to The Guardian, others experienced similar increases. Meanwhile, Daniel Hyers, who possesses an ideal LinkedIn name, attempted the reverse by “changing his name to Daniela for 4 days.” Day 1: a -26% drop.”
Sakshi Jain from LinkedIn stated that feedback indicates the platform’s “algorithms and AI systems are not utilized.” Demographic data (age, race, gender, etc.) are factored in as signals to assess the visibility of content, profiles, and posts in users’ feeds. We don’t dispute that, but we also theorize that unintended emergent outcomes play a significant role. Algorithm bias.
Meanwhile, Feedback is in the midst of creating a new LinkedIn page, which we will dub Mansplaining.
Got a story for Feedback?
You can email your article to Feedback at feedback@newscientist.com. Please include your home address. This week’s and past feedback are accessible on our website.
In “Common Side Effects” Marshall makes an important discovery
Warner Bros. Discovery
2025 has brought many captivating sci-fi shows showcasing themes of chaos, intrigue, and resistance. This unrest may mirror our world’s current state, but it certainly has led to some incredible television. Here are six series you should consider adding to your watch list.
Two of the standout shows have returned with new seasons. Initially, when Andor (Disney+) premiered in 2022, it felt somewhat unreal. Was it just a fun ride for both loyal fans and newcomers? A prequel focusing on Rebel Alliance spy Cassian Andor, written and performed with Shakespearean intensity? The question lingered in my mind.
However, it truly is fantastic. Remarkably, the second and final season (sadly) of Andor is even better than the first. Now centered on the battle against the Galactic Empire, Cassian, under the direction of a shadowy spymaster Lusen, steals a ship to rescue operatives, amidst a larger conflict. A timely and beautifully narrated tale amidst an era of rising authoritarianism, Andor undoubtedly stands out as the year’s finest show.
Another worthy contender from 2022 is Severance (Apple TV), which presents a starkly different set of rebels. Nestled within the enigmatic Lumon Industries, it showcases employees who opt for “separation.” Their professional memories are cut off from their true selves, generating a new entity known as “innie,” who knows nothing outside their work existence.
“
The instability present in numerous 2025 sci-fi series negatively portrays our reality, yet translates into remarkable television. “
These innies endure relentless horrors orchestrated by Lumon’s middle management, while the “outies” who cast them into this predicament remain blissfully unaware. Their only escape? Resigning to death. The second season takes a spine-chilling turn, unveiling deeper aspects of Lumon’s bizarre operations. Severance is a thoroughly satisfying mystery, intelligently unraveling its plot while adequately addressing the intricacies behind it.
James Marsden as President Cal Bradford in Paradise
Disney Copyright: Disney/Brian Roedel
Now, let’s talk about shows that may seem ordinary at first glance. New Scientist suggests Paradise (Disney+/Hulu), which skyrocketed to popularity in January. Initially a standard political thriller, the casting of Sterling K. Brown as U.S. secret agent Xavier Collins and James Marsden as Cal Bradford, a suspected presidential murderer, proves clever. Their on-screen chemistry is outstanding, and the fast-paced plot keeps viewers guessing.
What seemed like a light binge-watch took a captivating turn towards sci-fi by the end of an unforgettable first episode. Paradise brilliantly transitions from mere entertainment to something truly engaging. Without giving away spoilers, it casts an eerie shadow over the investigation, preventing the narrative from spiraling into absurdity. Absurdity is present—many pivotal moments are underscored with airy renditions of 1980s power ballads—but it’s just the right touch.
Every year, numerous end-of-the-world narratives unfold on screens, but inevitably, some stand out more than others. Among the top shows of 2025 is El Eternaut (Netflix), which breathes life into the classic comic by Héctor Germán Oesterheld.
As heavy snow descends upon Buenos Aires, former soldier Juan Salvo dons a gas mask and waders, venturing out to locate his family. It quickly becomes clear that the snowfall is just the tip of the iceberg. Juan and other survivors must unravel the mystery of what’s happening and how to thwart it.
Delve into the grim historical backdrop of Argentina’s late 1970s military dictatorship and the assassination of Oesterheld. El Eternaut pays appropriate homage to its source material, crafting a haunting series. One of the standout scenes this year takes place in a confined apartment where survivors must huddle together and strip Juan’s clothing, realizing their survival relies on outside elements.
If you lean towards warmer dystopian narratives, consider Pluribus (Apple TV), written by Breaking Bad’s Vince Gilligan. Set against the backdrop of sunny New Mexico, it follows the tale of jaded romance novelist Carol Starka, who is anything but a hero. In a world where most of humanity becomes overwhelmed by a sudden wave of happiness, everyone clamors to serve Carol, one of the few unaffected individuals.
What if a utopia existed, but not all could bask in its light? Carol is uninterested in participating in this enforced joy, yet discovering a path to normalcy proves challenging, especially considering how lovely a world free of conflict and selfishness can be.
Pluribus exhibits excruciating confidence and leads you through unexpected twists, anchored by an impressive central performance.
Surprises Await
Let’s shift to a more uplifting topic about joy. Common Side Effects (Channel 4/Cartoon Network) has been the biggest surprise for me this year, not just for its quality—thanks to co-creator Joe Bennett, known for the remarkable Scavenger’s Rain—but because it garnered enough viewers to warrant a second season.
This animated series follows fungi expert Marshall, who stumbles upon a shocking finding—a mushroom that seems to possess the power to cure various ailments. Unsurprisingly, this mushroom, dubbed Blue Angel, quickly becomes a sought-after commodity that nefariously falls into the hands of Leutical Pharmaceuticals, a company whose newest employee is Frances, a childhood friend recently reconnected with Marshall.
With enemies in pursuit, the show transcends mere conspiracy thriller tropes or critiques of Big Pharma. Common Side Effects weaves a thoughtful, engaging narrative about envisioning a brighter future. Let’s take inspiration from this for 2026.
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