Monte Sierpe, meaning “Mountain of the Serpent” and informally referred to as the “Zone of Holes,” is situated in the Pisco Valley of southern Peru. It comprises around 5,200 meticulously aligned holes. Recent studies indicate that the site may have originally functioned as a barter market, bringing together a variety of people for trade.
Aerial view of Monte Sierpe looking northeast. Image credit: Jacob Bongers, University of Sydney.
Stretching over 1.5 km in the Pisco Valley of the southern Peruvian Andes, Monte Sierpe features approximately 5,200 carefully aligned holes (ranging from 1–2 m in width and 0.5–1 m in depth) arranged in distinct sections.
This extraordinary structure likely dates back to at least the Late Middle Period (1000-1400 AD) and was actively used by the Incas (1400-1532 AD).
Initially brought to modern attention in 1933 following an aerial photo published in National Geographic, the specific purpose of the monument remains a mystery.
Speculations about its function include various roles such as defense, storage, accounting, water collection, fog capture, and horticulture, but the actual intent continues to elude researchers.
“What led ancient people to excavate over 5,000 holes in the hills of southern Peru? Were they used for gardens? Did they provide water? Did they serve agricultural purposes?” inquires Dr. Jacob Bongers, a digital archaeologist from the University of Sydney.
“While we cannot ascertain their purpose, our new data offers significant clues and supports emerging theories regarding the site’s utilization.”
Utilizing drone technology, Dr. Bongers and his team mapped the site, uncovering numerical patterns in its layout that indicate intentional organization.
Interestingly, the archaeologists also found that the configuration of Monte Sierpe resembles that of at least one Inca quipu (an ancient knotted string for accounting) discovered in the same valley.
“This discovery significantly enhances our understanding of the origins and variety of indigenous accounting practices both within and outside the Andes,” noted Dr. Bongers.
Soil samples taken from the holes revealed ancient maize pollen, one of the Andes’ key staple crops, along with reeds traditionally utilized for basket making for millennia.
These surprising findings indicate that ancient people likely planted crops in the holes, using woven baskets and bundles for transport.
“This is quite intriguing. Perhaps this area functioned as a pre-Inca market, akin to a flea market,” remarked Dr. Bongers.
“We estimate that the pre-Hispanic population in this region was around 100,000. It likely served as a meeting point for traveling merchants, including llama caravan traders, as well as local professionals like farmers and fishermen to trade goods like corn and cotton.”
“Fundamentally, I believe these holes served as a form of social technology that unified individuals and later evolved into a comprehensive accounting system under the Inca Empire.”
“Numerous questions remain: Why is this monument unique to this location and not found throughout the Andes?”
“Was Monte Sierpe a type of ‘landscape’? – Nevertheless, we are gradually moving closer to unraveling the mysteries of this fascinating site. It’s genuinely exciting.”
Refer to the study published in the Journal on November 10, 2025 ancient.
_____
Jacob L. Bongers et al. Indigenous accounting and interaction at Monte Sierpe (“Band of Holes”), Pisco Valley, Peru. ancient published online on November 10, 2025. doi: 10.15184/aqy.2025.10237
Paleontologists from the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science, the University of Texas at El Paso, and Montana State University unearthed fossil bones of a tenontosaurus sp. This early Cretaceous ornithopod dinosaur from North America inhabited the Yucca Formation located in the far west of Texas, USA. Notably, this southernmost finding of Tenontosaurus in the interior West is around 400 km east of the Arizona record and about 900 km southwest of the north-central Texas record.
Tenontosaurus is a genus of iguanodont ornithopod dinosaur that roamed North America around 115 million years ago during the early Cretaceous period.
This genus includes two known species: Tenontosaurus tilletti and Tenontosaurus dossi.
Both species possessed particularly long and broad tails, which were strengthened by a framework of bony tendons, similar to their backs.
The recent fossils were retrieved from the Upper Yucca Formation of the Indio Mountains, situated approximately 35 km southwest of Van Horn in West Texas.
“I wasn’t specifically searching for fossils that day,” stated Dr. Jason Ricketts, a paleontologist at the University of Texas at El Paso.
“While examining rocks in the area, we spotted debris weathered from the soft shale.”
“There was no need for excavation; I simply collected them. It was a surprising and thrilling discovery. My family joined me to help gather the pieces.”
“Fossils of dinosaurs are uncommon in West Texas, and finding fossilized bones instead of just footprints is especially rare.”
“The fossils were found as separate fragments, with the largest confirmed to be a part of a femoral leg bone.”
“Despite their imperfect state, these fossils hold significant scientific value,” he remarked.
“Before this discovery, similar fossils were only found in other regions of Montana, Idaho, Arizona, and Texas.”
This new finding extends the known range of Tenontosaurus further southwest than previously documented.
“Until now, fossils of this kind were mostly located in northern and eastern states, such as Utah and Wyoming,” Ricketts noted.
“This discovery… indicates that Tenontosaurus lived as far south as West Texas.”
While research on the fossil fragments continues, the authors hope this discovery will encourage additional exploration in West Texas, where dinosaur fossils are largely uncharted.
“This finding demonstrates that there is still a wealth of knowledge to acquire about our region’s prehistoric history,” said Dr. Ricketts.
“It’s a privilege to contribute, even if only in a small way, to that larger narrative.”
Spencer G. Lucas et al. 2025. An ornithopod dinosaur that lived in the early Cretaceous of West Texas. Bulletin of the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science 101:291-294
Researchers from Stellenbosch University and other institutions utilized advanced uranium-lead (U-Pb) dating along with elemental mapping to analyze traces of uranium and lead in the calcite of fossilized dinosaur eggshells discovered in the United States and Mongolia.
An artist’s reconstruction of a troodontid dinosaur that had just hatched from a fragment of an egg shell. Image credit: Eva Utsukiyouhei.
The ages of numerous fossil remains globally remain uncertain.
Without precise geological age data for fossils, paleontologists face challenges in comprehending the relationships among different species and ecosystems over time and across regions.
Traditionally, they depend on dating minerals like zircon and apatite found alongside fossils, but these minerals are not always available.
Efforts to date fossils such as bones and teeth often lead to ambiguous results.
Dr. Ryan Tucker and his team at Stellenbosch University adopted a novel strategy. They applied advanced U-Pb dating and elemental mapping to identify trace quantities of uranium and lead in the calcite of fossilized dinosaur eggshells.
These isotopes function as a natural clock, enabling scientists to ascertain when an egg was buried.
Studies of dinosaur eggs sourced from Utah in the United States and Mongolia’s Gobi Desert have indicated that the eggshells can accurately reflect their ages to about 5% in comparison to the true ages of volcanic ash.
In Mongolia, researchers have for the first time directly dated a significant area where dinosaur eggs and nests have been preserved, tracing back to approximately 75 million years ago.
“Eggshell calcite is remarkably adaptable,” states Dr. Tucker.
“This introduces a fresh method for dating fossil sites lacking volcanic layers, which has posed a challenge for paleontology for many years.”
By demonstrating that dinosaur eggshells can reliably record geological time, this research bridges biology and earth sciences, providing scientists with a powerful tool for dating fossil remains worldwide.
“Directly dating fossils is a dream for paleontologists,” remarked Dr. Lindsay Zanno, a paleontologist at North Carolina State University and the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences.
“With this innovative technology, we can tackle previously insurmountable riddles of dinosaur evolution.”
The team’s study was published in the journal Communication Earth and Environment.
_____
RT Tucker et al. 2025. U-Pb calcite dating of fossil eggshells as an accurate deep-earth chronometer. Communication Earth and Environment 6,872; doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02895-w
Research led by scientist Hannah Long at the University of Edinburgh has found that specific regions of Neanderthal DNA are more effective at activating genes responsible for jaw development than those in humans, potentially explaining why Neanderthals had larger lower jaws.
Neanderthal. Image credit: Natural History Museum Trustees.
“With the Neanderthal genome being 99.7% identical to that of modern humans, the variations between species are likely to account for differences in appearance,” Dr. Hanna stated.
“Both human and Neanderthal genomes consist of roughly 3 billion characters that code for proteins and regulate gene expression in cells. Identifying the regions that influence appearance is akin to searching for a needle in a haystack.”
Dr. Long and her team had a targeted approach, focusing on a genomic area linked to the Pierre Robin sequence, a condition marked by an unusually small mandible.
“Individuals with the Pierre Robin sequence often have significant deletions or rearrangements in this portion of the genome that affect facial development and restrict jaw formation,” Dr. Hanna explained.
“We hypothesized that minor differences in DNA could produce more nuanced effects on facial structure.”
Upon comparing human and Neanderthal genomes, researchers discovered that in this segment, approximately 3,000 letters long, there are only three one-letter variations between the species.
This DNA region doesn’t code for genes but regulates when and how certain genes, particularly SOX9, which plays a crucial role in facial development, are activated.
To confirm that these Neanderthal-specific differences were significant for facial development, scientists needed to demonstrate that the Neanderthal version could activate genes in the appropriate cells at the right developmental stage.
They introduced both Neanderthal and human versions of this region into zebrafish DNA and programmed the cells to emit different colors of fluorescent protein based on the activation of either region.
By monitoring zebrafish embryo development, researchers observed that cells responsible for forming the lower jaw were active in both human and Neanderthal regions, with the Neanderthal regions showing greater activity.
“It was thrilling when we first noticed the activity of specific cell populations in the developing zebrafish face, particularly near the forming jaw, and even more exhilarating to see how Neanderthal-specific variations could influence activity during development,” said Dr. Long.
“This led us to contemplate the implications of these differences and explore them through experimental means.”
Recognizing that Neanderthal sequences were more effective at activating genes, the authors questioned whether this would lead to enhanced target activity affecting the shape and function of the adult jaw, mediated by SOX9.
To validate this idea, they augmented zebrafish embryos with additional samples of SOX9 and discovered that cells involved in jaw formation occupied a larger area.
“Our lab aims to further investigate the effects of genetic differences using methods that simulate various aspects of facial development,” Dr. Long remarked.
“We aspire to deepen our understanding of genetic variations in individuals with facial disorders and improve diagnostic processes.”
“This study demonstrates how examining extinct species can enhance our knowledge of how our own DNA contributes to facial diversity, development, and evolution.”
The findings are published in the journal Development.
_____
Kirsty Utley et al. 2025: Neanderthal-derived variants enhance SOX9 enhancer activity in craniofacial progenitor cells, influencing jaw development. Development 152 (21): dev204779; doi: 10.1242/dev.204779
Scientist Hannah Long and her team at the University of Edinburgh have discovered that specific regions of Neanderthal DNA are more effective at activating genes related to jaw formation compared to human DNA, which might explain why Neanderthals had larger lower jaws.
Neanderthal. Image credit: Natural History Museum Trustees.
“The Neanderthal genome shows a 99.7% similarity to the human genome, suggesting that the differences between the species contribute to variations in appearance,” explained Dr. Hanna.
“Both the human and Neanderthal genomes comprise around 3 billion characters that code for proteins and regulate gene usage in cells. Therefore, pinpointing regions that affect appearance is akin to finding a needle in a haystack.”
Dr. Long and her collaborators had a targeted hypothesis regarding where to initiate their search. They focused on a genomic area linked to the Pierre Robin sequence, a condition characterized by a notably small jaw.
“Some individuals with Pierre Robin sequence exhibit significant deletions or rearrangements in this genomic region that disrupt facial development and impede jaw formation,” stated Dr. Hanna.
“We speculated that minor variations in DNA could subtly influence facial shape.”
Through the comparison of human and Neanderthal genomes, researchers identified that in a segment approximately 3,000 letters long, there are just three one-letter differences between the two species.
This DNA segment lacks any specific genes but regulates the timing and manner in which genes, particularly SOX9, a crucial factor in facial development processes, are activated.
To demonstrate the significance of these Neanderthal-specific differences for facial development, researchers needed to confirm that the Neanderthal region could activate genes in the correct cells at the appropriate developmental stage.
They introduced both Neanderthal and human variants of this region into zebrafish DNA concurrently and programmed the cells to emit different colors of fluorescent protein based on whether the human or Neanderthal region was active.
By monitoring zebrafish embryo development, researchers observed that the cells crucial for lower jaw formation were active in both regions, with the Neanderthal regions showing greater activity than those of humans.
“We were thrilled when we first detected the activity in a specific group of cells within the developing zebrafish face, near the jaw, and even more so when we realized that Neanderthal-specific differences could modify this activity during development,” Dr. Long noted.
“This led us to ponder the potential implications of these differences and how we may explore them experimentally.”
Recognizing that Neanderthal sequences were more adept at activating genes, the authors inquired whether this would correlate with heightened activity in target cells, influencing the shape and function of the adult jaw as governed by SOX9.
To test this hypothesis, they administered additional samples to zebrafish embryos. They found that the cells involved in jaw formation occupied a larger area.
“In our lab, we aim to investigate the effects of additional DNA sequence differences using methods that replicate aspects of facial development,” Dr. Long said.
“We aspire to enhance our understanding of sequence alterations in individuals with facial disorders and assist with diagnostic efforts.”
“This research illustrates that by examining extinct species, we can gain insights into how our own DNA contributes to facial variation, development, and evolution.”
Findings are detailed in the journal Developmenthere.
_____
Kirsty Utley et al. 2025: Variants derived from Neanderthals enhance SOX9 enhancer activity in craniofacial progenitor cells that shape jaw development. Development 152 (21): dev204779; doi: 10.1242/dev.204779
Astronomers have a limited timeframe to determine if they will intervene to stop asteroid 2024 YR4 from colliding with the moon in 2032. A brief observation period utilizing the James Webb Space Telescope is set to commence in February, as new findings indicate that the potential for impact is rising to over 30%, posing a significant threat to satellites and future lunar infrastructures.
Discovered late last year, 2024 YR4 quickly emerged as the most probable asteroid to strike Earth. The worst-case scenario initially estimated a collision probability of 1 in 32 for 2032. However, further observations have nearly eliminated the chance of an Earth impact, leaving a 4 percent possibility of a collision with the moon, which could endanger numerous vital satellites orbiting Earth due to debris.
Despite the considerable risk associated with this asteroid, space agencies have yet to take action, although NASA researchers are exploring potential deflection strategies, such as deploying a nuclear charge near the asteroid.
The asteroid has recently moved out of range for Earth’s telescopes, limiting astronomers’ ability to obtain further data on its orbit until it reappears in 2028, which may not allow enough time to execute a deflection mission.
Fortunately, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) anticipates a brief operational window to observe the asteroid in February 2026 and again in April 2024, offering a critical opportunity to plan a deflection mission. Andrew Rivkin from Johns Hopkins University in Maryland remarked, “By 2028, it will be in close proximity, so capturing data in early 2026 grants us additional time.”
This advantageous positioning will enable JWST to observe 2024 YR4, which follows a distinct orbit around Earth, undetectable by other ground-based telescopes, but the observation will still be challenging, as the asteroid is expected to be dim, even for JWST’s highly sensitive instruments. There will be two narrow windows for observation on February 18th and 26th.
Rivkin and his team computed how new data regarding the asteroid’s positions and velocities could alter the existing understanding based on these observations. Their findings indicate an 80% likelihood of reducing the probability of a lunar impact to under 1%, while there is a 5% chance that the risk could increase to 30% or higher. JWST should have a chance to repeat these observations in 2027, but this will provide less time for decision-making, according to Rivkin.
Nonetheless, it remains uncertain whether space agencies would opt to plan missions in the event of increased risks. “The question of whether planetary defense extends to the moon is entirely new, and different agencies may have varied responses,” Rivkin noted. “If a company operates many satellites, they might advocate for a particular course of action.”
Richard Moisle from the European Space Agency indicated that while the current budget does not allocate for deflection or reconnaissance missions regarding the asteroid, they will reevaluate if next year’s observations indicate a heightened risk of collision. “We chose to delay our decision until next year to allow for a thorough evaluation of our options,” Moisle stated.
Hot flashes are a prevalent symptom experienced both before and after menopause.
Chay_Tee/Shutterstock
The occurrence and intensity of menopausal hot flashes can be significantly reduced using hypnotic audio recordings, which can be conveniently listened to at home.
Up to 80% of women experience hot flashes during menopause—a sudden sensation of overheating that can lead to excessive sweating, discomfort, anxiety, and interruptions in sleep, primarily caused by a sharp decline in estrogen during this phase. While dietary modifications, hormone replacement therapy, and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) may provide relief, they are often inconvenient and may not be effective for everyone.
“Many people believe in the connection between the mind and body, suggesting that we can influence our physical state through mental processes,” states Gary Elkins from Baylor University in Waco, Texas. “This hypnotherapy demonstration highlights the remarkable strength of the mind-body connection.”
Clinic-based hypnosis has demonstrated its effectiveness in alleviating hot flash symptoms, surpassing the results of CBT. However, a more accessible option is needed, according to Elkins. His team has created a six-week at-home program that involves listening to 20-minute audio recordings daily, designed to promote hypnotic relaxation and evoke cool imagery.
To evaluate its effectiveness, they recruited 250 postmenopausal women (average age 56) who reported at least four hot flashes daily. Participants were assigned either to a hypnosis program or a sham program offering 20 minutes of white noise.
After six weeks, the hypnosis group reported an average reduction of 53 percent in their hot flash scores, measuring frequency and severity, compared to the start of the program. The sham group also noted improvements, with a 41% reduction, likely due to a placebo effect, according to Elkins.
Twelve weeks following the intervention, both groups continued to report enhancements from their initial scores, with the hypnosis group showing a 61% overall improvement. In contrast, the sham group enjoyed a 44% improvement after 12 weeks. Elkins suggested that participants might have continued listening to the recordings voluntarily or practiced self-hypnosis based on what they learned.
This indicates that home hypnotherapy may serve as a practical, cost-effective solution for managing perimenopausal hot flashes. While the precise mechanism remains unclear, research indicates it could enable the brain to adapt and rewire itself to better handle various life challenges, potentially elucidating its effectiveness in alleviating pain and anxiety.
Karo people overlooking the Omo River Valley in Ethiopia
Michael Honegger/Alamy
Here’s a snippet from Our Human Story, a newsletter focusing on advancements in archaeology. Subscribe to receive it monthly in your inbox.
On the eastern shores of Lake Turkana in Kenya lies Namorotuknan Hill, where a river once flowed but has since dried up. The area features a dry landscape with sparse shrubbery.
Between 2013 and 2022, a team of researchers led by David Brown from George Washington University excavated clay layers adjacent to the river. Their findings included 1,290 stone tools crafted by ancient humans, dating back between 2.44 and 2.75 million years. They reported their discoveries in Nature Communications last week.
The tools belong to the Oldowan type, which are prevalent in various regions of Africa and Eurasia. These items are among the oldest Oldowan tools ever found.
Brown and his team noted a remarkable consistency in the tools’ design. Despite spanning 300,000 years, the creators displayed a preference for specific rock types, indicating a reliable and habitual approach to tool-making rather than isolated incidents.
The tools from Namorotuknan represent yet another significant discovery from the Omo Turkana Basin, a key site for understanding human origins.
Basins, Cradles, and Rifts
Since the 1960s, the Omo Turkana Basin has served as a focal point for human evolution research.
It stretches from the sandy beaches of southern Ethiopia, where the Omo River flows southward into Lake Turkana—one of the world’s longest lakes, extending deep into Kenya. The Türkwel and Kerio rivers also flow into its southern reaches.
Various fossil-rich locations pepper the basin. On the lake’s western side is the Nachukui Formation, while the Kobi Fora is situated on the east. Additional archaeological sites include the Usno Formation near Omo in the north and Kanapoi near Kerio in the south.
Map of fossil and tool sites in the Omo Turkana Basin
François Marchal et al. 2025
Led by François Marchal, a team from France’s Aix-Marseille University has compiled all known human fossil findings from the Omo Turkana Basin into a database. They detailed these patterns in the Human Evolution Journal, offering a snapshot of historical paleoanthropological research and a wealth of knowledge about human evolution.
Research in the Omo Turkana Basin began with early expeditions led by a collaborative French, American, and Kenyan team, including notable figures such as Camille Aramboul, Yves Coppens, F. Clark Howell, and Richard Leakey. Leakey also spearheaded explorations in the eastern Koobi Fora and western sites like Nachukwi.
Richard Leakey was a pivotal figure in the study of human evolution during the 1960s, 70s, and 80s. He is part of a family legacy in paleoanthropology, being the son of Louis and Mary Leakey, renowned for their groundbreaking work in the Oldupai Valley, Tanzania; his daughter Louise continues the exploration of human evolution.
Research on the Omo Turkana Basin transcends individual contributions. Marchal’s team collected a substantial 1,231 hominin specimens from around 658 individuals, accounting for about one-third of all known hominin remains across Africa.
Alongside the Great Rift Valley of East Africa—encompassing places like the Oldupai Gorge and the Cradle of Humanity in South Africa—the Omo Turkana Basin ranks as one of Africa’s richest hominid fossil sites.
Discovery
To the north, near the Omo River, researchers have uncovered some of the earliest Homo sapiens remains on record. At Omo Kibishu, two skull fragments and several bones were found, along with numerous teeth. Ongoing studies reveal these remains date back significantly further than initially believed, once estimated at 130,000 years, later revised to 195,000 years ago, and a subsequent analysis in 2022 indicated they could be at least 233,000 years old. Of all discovered, only the fossils from Morocco’s Jebel Irhoud are older, dating back to about 300,000 years.
The fossils from Omo Kibishu and Jebel Irhoud significantly deepen our understanding, suggesting that our species may have been evolving far earlier than the previously accepted timeline of around 200,000 years.
This trend also extends to the Homo genus, encompassing various groups like Homo erectus and Neanderthals. Determining which branch of Homo originated first remains complex—although records regarding Homo are sparse before 2 million years ago, they become increasingly elusive as one goes further back.
By meticulously analyzing fossils from the Omo Turkana Basin, Marchal and his team determined that Homo thrived in the region between 2.7 and 2 million years ago.
The earliest known Homo specimens in this basin are from the Shungra Formation, estimated to be between 2.74 and 2.58 million years old. Despite being announced in 2008, detailed examinations have yet to be conducted.
Faced with this gap, Marchal’s team posits that an influx of unexamined material could bring the number of known early Homo individuals to 75, creating a substantial and informative dataset, suggesting that there is “much more than just a handful of fossils.”
Notably, the Homo genus became well-established in the Omo Turkana Basin between 2.7 and 2 million years ago. While they were not the dominant species, another genus, Paranthropus, featuring smaller brains and larger teeth, was twice as prevalent. Numerous species from the Australopithecus genus also existed, indicating a period of cohabitation among different hominins. Importantly, some Homo individuals likely produced the Oldowan tools found.
This type of discovery is made possible by decades of dedicated research, and it is anticipated that the Omo Turkana Basin will continue to illuminate our origins for years to come.
Neanderthals, ancient humans, and cave art: France
Accompany New Scientist’s Kate Douglas on an intriguing journey through time, exploring significant Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic sites across southern France, from Bordeaux to Montpellier.
Airplanes are typically defrosted using antifreeze spray.
Jaromir Chalabala / Alamy
Static electricity has the potential to eliminate up to 75% of frost from surfaces, which could lead to significant energy savings and a reduction in the millions of tons of antifreeze currently utilized for vehicle defrosting.
In 2021, Jonathan Boreyko and his team at Virginia Tech serendipitously discovered that frost becomes electrically charged during its formation. They successfully employed this natural electric field to charge an adjacent water film, which could effectively dislodge ice crystals from the frost as a natural deicing agent. However, the impact was minimal and did not significantly affect total frost levels.
Now, Boreyko’s research group has engineered a more advanced defrosting system that utilizes ultra-high voltage copper electrodes positioned above frosted surfaces like glass or copper. This innovative system can eliminate half of the frost in approximately 10 to 15 minutes, and up to 75% if the surface is highly water-repellent. “Instead of tapping into the voltage created by the frost, we’re enhancing the effect by applying our own voltages,” Boreyko explains.
To achieve a 50% reduction in frost, their method requires electrodes charged to 550 volts, which is more than double the voltage generally supplied by utility power in many regions. Nonetheless, the current from these electrodes is minimal, making them relatively safe. Boreyko noted that accidental contact with the electrodes would result in an electric shock similar to that from electric fences used on farms.
Boreyko states that this low current draws less energy—less than half of what would be needed to directly heat the frost.
An effective and swift defrosting technique could be applicable not just to car windows and roadways but also in the aerospace sector, where significant quantities of antifreeze are employed to prevent ice accumulation on aircraft wings, which can impact flight performance.
“Instead of applying hundreds of liters of antifreeze to the aircraft wings during taxi to eliminate ice, we could employ this machine, which would move around the airport runway, utilizing a high-voltage wand to clear away all the ice and snow,” Boreyko remarks.
Scientists in Australia have discovered a new species of native bee featuring tiny, devilish horns, leading to its whimsically infernal name, Lucifer.
The species is called megachile lucifer. It was identified in 2019 during research on endangered wildflowers in Western Australia’s Goldfields, as reported in a recent study published Monday in the Journal of Hymenoptera Research.
The lead author of the study, Kit Prendergast, who is also a part-time researcher at Curtin University, explained that the female bee earned its name due to its uniquely upturned horns.
“While crafting a description for the new species, I was watching the Netflix series lucifer,” Prendergast mentioned in a statement on Tuesday. “The name felt just right.”
This species was discovered by scientists researching endangered wildflowers. Kit S. Prendergast; Joshua W. Campbell
Following DNA analysis revealed that this species does not correspond with any known bees in current databases, marking it as the first new member of its group to be described in over two decades, according to researchers.
Researchers hypothesize that the approximately 0.9-millimeter-long horns could be used for accessing flowers, competing for resources, or protecting nests, although their precise function remains uncertain. Male bees of this species lack horns.
Prendergast emphasized the significance of studying native bee species, noting that new species may be endangered due to threats such as habitat disruption and climate change.
“If we are unaware of which native bees exist and the plants they rely on, we risk losing both before realizing their importance,” she stated.
Reports indicate that Australia is home to around 2,000 native bee species, with over 300 yet to be scientifically named and described, according to CSIRO, Australia’s National Science Agency.
Tobias Smith, a honey bee researcher from the University of Queensland, mentioned in an email to NBC News on Tuesday that Australia’s native honey bees are “understudied and data-scarce,” resulting in insufficient knowledge about the conservation status of “nearly every species.”
Smith, who did not participate in the study, noted that Australian authorities need “stronger policies” to safeguard native bees from habitat loss, inadequate fire protection, and the heightened threat of large-scale fires.
Smith encouraged Australians to “venture out and seek out our native bees and appreciate their presence.”
A major clash in the world of mathematics may see resolution thanks to computers, potentially bringing an end to a decade-long dispute surrounding a complex proof.
It all began in 2012 when Shinichi Mochizuki, a mathematician from Kyoto University in Japan, shocked the mathematical community with his extensive 500-page proof of the ABC conjecture. This conjecture stands as a significant unsolved issue at the very essence of number theory. Mochizuki’s proof relied on an intricate and obscure framework that he developed, known as Interuniversal Teichmuller (IUT) theory, which proved challenging for even seasoned mathematicians to grasp.
The ABC conjecture, which has been around for over 40 years, presents a seemingly straightforward equation involving three integers: a + b = c, investigating the relationships among the prime numbers that constitute these values. The conjecture offers profound insights into the fundamental interactions of addition and multiplication, with ramifications for other renowned mathematical conjectures, including Fermat’s Last Theorem.
Given these potential consequences, mathematicians initially expressed excitement over verifying the proof. However, Mochizuki noted that early attempts faced challenges and more focus was needed on understanding his findings. In 2018, two distinguished German mathematicians, Peter Scholze from the University of Bonn and Jakob Stix from Goethe University in Frankfurt, announced that they had found possible flaws in the proof.
Mochizuki, however, dismissed these critiques. Lacking a central authority to arbitrate the debate, the credibility of the IUT theory has split the mathematical community into opposing factions, with one side comprising a small collective of researchers aligned with Mochizuki and the Kyoto Institute for Mathematical Sciences, where he teaches.
Now, Mochizuki has suggested a path forward to resolve the deadlock. He proposes transferring proofs from their existing mathematical notation, intended for human comprehension, to a programming language known as Lean, which can be validated and checked by computers.
This approach, known as formalization, represents a promising area of research that could revolutionize the practice of mathematics. Although there have been earlier suggestions for Mochizuki to formalize his proof, this marks the first time he has publicly indicated plans to advance this initiative.
Mochizuki was unavailable for comment on this article. However, in recent reports, he asserted that Lean would be an excellent tool for clarifying certain disputes among mathematicians that have hindered acceptance of his proof. He stated, “This represents the best, and perhaps only, way to achieve significant progress in liberating mathematical truth from social and political constraints.”
Mochizuki became convinced of the advantages of formalization after attending a conference on Lean in Tokyo last July, particularly impressed by its capacity to manage the mathematical structures essential to his IUT theory.
This could be a vital step in overcoming the current stalemate, noted Kevin Buzzard from Imperial College London. “If it’s articulated using Lean, that’s not strange at all. Much of what’s found in papers is written in unusual terms, so being able to express it in Lean means that this unusual language has become universally defined,” he explains.
“We seek to understand why [of IUT], and we’ve been awaiting clarity for over a decade,” remarked Johann Kommelin from Utrecht University in the Netherlands. “Lean will aid in uncovering those answers.”
However, both Buzzard and Kommelin acknowledge that formalizing IUT theory is an immense challenge, necessitating the conversion of a series of mathematical equations that currently exist only in a human-readable format. This effort is anticipated to be the largest formalization endeavor ever attempted, often requiring teams of specialists and taking months or even years.
This daunting reality may dissuade the limited number of mathematicians capable of undertaking this project. “Individuals will need to decide whether they are willing to invest significant time in a project that may ultimately lead to failure,” Buzzard remarked.
Even if the mathematicians succeed in completing the project and the Lean code indicates that Mochizuki’s theorem is consistent, disputes about its interpretation could still arise among mathematicians, including Mochizuki himself, according to Kommelin.
“Lean has the potential to make a significant impact and resolve the controversy, but this hinges on Mochizuki’s genuine commitment to formalizing his work,” he adds. “If he abandons it after four months, claiming ‘I’ve tried this, but Lean is too limited to grasp my proof,’ it would just add another chapter to the long saga of social issues persisting.”
Despite Mochizuki’s enthusiasm about Lean, he concedes with his critics that interpreting the meaning of the code might lead to ongoing disputes, expressing that Lean “does not appear to be a ‘magic cure’ for completely resolving social and political issues at this stage.”
Nevertheless, Buzzard remains optimistic that the formalization project, especially if successful, could propel the decade-old saga forward. “You can’t contest software,” he concludes.
Caves in the Hebrus Valley of Mars may have been sculpted by ancient water flows
NASA Mars Earth Surveyor
Subsurface caves shaped by flowing water on Mars may have provided ideal conditions for life, with potential remnants still present today.
Throughout Mars, numerous openings resembling cave entrances are found, primarily near volcanic regions. This implies these features were likely formed by processes related to volcanic activity rather than water.
Earth is home to numerous karst caves, created by the dissolution of soluble rock by water. However, scientists have yet to find equivalent caves on Mars, despite evidence indicating the planet was once covered in water billions of years ago.
Currently, Ding Vermicelli, a professor at Shenzhen University in China, has identified eight caves that seem to have been formed by ancient water flows instead of volcanic activity. These caves are situated in the Hebrus Gorge, a northwestern region characterized by extensive valleys and depressions likely shaped by ancient floods.
Previous Mars missions, including NASA’s Mars Global Surveyor (which orbited Mars from 1997 to 2006), have mapped these caves. Ding and his team analyzed material near one cave entrance using spectroscopic data from that mission, revealing a notable presence of carbonate and sulfate minerals typically associated with water.
They also detected signs of an ancient stream ending near the cave entrance, similar to patterns seen near karst caves on Earth. James Baldini from Durham University, UK, noted, “On a map, you’d expect a river to emerge to the surface only to disappear suddenly, as the cave system absorbs its water.”
Daniel Le Corret from the University of Kent in the UK mentioned that while the mineralogical and geological data implies these may be water caves, they appear quite similar to other Martian caves of volcanic origin. “I’ve spent countless hours evaluating the global catalog of Martian caves and these resemble known volcanic formations,” he said.
If these caves are indeed formed by water, they might be excellent locations for searching for life. “For life to exist, water and a protective environment from Mars’ intense surface radiation are essential,” Baldini remarked. “Volcanic caves and lava tubes also present good avenues for potential life, though they don’t necessarily involve water.”
Mars’ water caves may contain stalagmites—bulbous rock formations generally found in Earth’s karst caves—and could act as time capsules of Mars’ ancient climate conditions, such as temperature.
However, stalagmites require thousands of years of sustained water flow to develop, and determining their formation timing could be challenging, even if rovers or drones succeed in collecting samples, according to Baldini.
Mysteries of the Universe: Cheshire, England
Join a weekend with some of science’s leading minds as you delve into the enigmas of the universe, featuring a tour of the renowned Lovell Telescope.
What truly drives the increase in blood fats? It seems our cholesterol levels are more influenced by our digestive processes than by our actual diets.
The Joy of Others
If you consistently agree when you’d prefer to decline, you might be a people-pleaser. Prioritizing others can sometimes detrimentally affect your well-being and relationships. Esteemed health journalist Amy Arthur delves into the psychology behind this phenomenon and offers guidance on escaping the people-pleasing cycle.
The Microbiome
Our gut is inhabited by countless bacteria, both alive and deceased. Surprisingly, it’s the dead bacteria—known as postbiotics—that have scientists intrigued. These postbiotics may significantly impact our gut health more than was previously understood. Strategies exist to leverage this knowledge for better health.
Preparing for Cold and Flu Season
Being stuck in bed during the holiday season is never enjoyable. Thankfully, there are proactive measures you can adopt to reduce the risk of getting sick. This issue debunks three prevalent myths surrounding cold and flu prevention. Discover what truly works (and what doesn’t).
Plus
Type 1.5 Diabetes: 14% of those diagnosed with type 2 diabetes may actually have a rare autoimmune condition. An in-depth analysis of its long-standing concealment and guidance on identification.
Ferrari Goes Electric: The anticipated EV version of this iconic vehicle could redefine the electric car landscape. Automotive reporter Quentin Wilson investigates this groundbreaking model.
Q&A: Your most intriguing inquiries answered. Topics include how the brain forms a sense of self, the deepest submarine dive, mechanisms behind hula hoop lifting, the number of electrons in the universe, gender-switching in animals, best air-purifying houseplants, longest-lived insects, and more.
Don’t forget that BBC Science Focus is also accessible on all major digital platforms. You’ll find it available on Android, Kindle Fire and Kindle e-readers, and the iOS app for iPad and iPhone.
As soon as you exit the school environment, physical activities like sports and exercise cease to be mandatory. If you’ve allowed your kids a long hiatus since then, you’re overlooking the numerous advantages that consistent exercise can offer.
If you’re over 40, you might have fallen into the mindset that the benefits of fitness are a lost cause. Physical wellness was dismissed long ago, and the thought of reclaiming it seems futile.
However, this belief is misguided.
Even if you’ve adopted a sedentary lifestyle, increasing your movement can lead to substantial health improvements.
In recent studies published in the British Journal of Sports Medicine, researchers discovered that adults who exercised regularly had a 30 to 40 percent reduced risk of dying from any cause later in life.
Moreover, individuals who transitioned from inactivity to activity were 22 percent less likely to die compared to those who remained sedentary.
Earlier studies featured in JAMA Cardiologyrevealed that over 300,000 participants showed that those who became active after 40 enjoyed the same health advantages as lifelong active individuals.
Science confirms: it’s never too late to embark on a transformative journey.
However, if exercise has been a lower priority for the past 10-20 years, consider starting gradually, rather than preparing for a marathon.
If you’re a heavy smoker, drinker, or significantly overweight, consulting your doctor before initiating a new regimen may be wise.
How can I get started?
Walking is often regarded as one of the finest forms of exercise, according to Stacey Clemes, a Professor of Active Living and Public Health at Loughborough University, UK.
“It has minimal impact on your body, thus lowering the risk of injury. It’s free, and you don’t require special equipment. As long as you have comfortable shoes, you’re good to go.”
Through her research, she has collaborated notably with sedentary populations, such as truck drivers, aiding them to boost their activity levels.
She discovered that fitness trackers and pedometers are invaluable tools for individuals monitoring their exercise.
“It’s quite beneficial to visualize your progress, be it through step count or daily walking hours.” [data] “Using data to establish goals is also an effective strategy,” she adds.
Instead of comparing yourself to others, Clemes encourages building your activity incrementally.
“If you averaged 4,000 steps daily last week, aim for 4,500 this week. There’s robust evidence that even slight increases can lead to health improvements. The key message is to gradually do a bit more and maintain that progression.”
Now, regarding the often-cited goal of 10,000 steps daily—sounds daunting, right?
You may find relief knowing that recent research published in The Lancet indicates that merely 4,000 steps per day correlate with notable health improvements compared to 2,000 steps.
Health benefits continued to increase until reaching 7,000 steps.
Professor Stephen Harridge, the director of the Center for Human and Applied Physiology at King’s College, London, advises starting with attainable goals.
“If you’re completely inactive, begin with something small. Walk to the next bus stop instead of waiting at the nearest one. Opt for the stairs over the elevator.”
“Simple yet effective actions that elevate your overall activity can significantly benefit your muscles, metabolism, and heart health.”
Read more:
How can I avoid injury?
Rather than leaping into an intense training program, it’s wise to gradually lift your activity level to lower your chance of injury.
Injuries not only inflict pain but also demoralize you, making it harder to stay committed to a new exercise routine.
Resuming exercise can be especially tricky for those who were once active in their 20s but paused for life’s demands, says Miho Tanaka Sensei, Director of the Women’s Sports Medicine Program at Massachusetts General Hospital and an Associate Professor of Orthopedics at Harvard Medical School.
“Many feel they can return to their previous training regimen from their 20s,” she explains.
“The challenge lies in the fact that your 40s body responds differently compared to your 20s body; it won’t adjust in the same way to the training methods that may have worked two decades ago.”
This variation occurs as muscle mass begins to decline after 30, decreasing by 3 to 8 percent every decade and accelerating after 60.
Additionally, collagen found in muscles, joints, and tendons begins changing after 30, leading to decreased elasticity.
Thus, it’s crucial to set aside your ego. Attempting to hit previous records may lead to injury—be kind to yourself.
“The margin for injury is smaller, and recovery takes longer,” Tanaka states. “It merely slows your recovery from inflammation.”
Stretching is crucial to counteract the natural flexibility loss associated with aging – Image courtesy of Getty Images
For those new to exercise, Tanaka recommends low-impact activities such as swimming and cycling. These pursuits provide cardiovascular benefits while minimizing joint strain.
From there, you can gradually progress to activities like hiking before attempting high-impact exercises that exert stress on your joints, like running or CrossFit.
Aiming for 150 minutes of moderate aerobic exercise or 75 minutes of vigorous aerobic exercise weekly maximizes benefits, enhancing cardiovascular health while reducing the risk of diabetes and certain cancers.
What types of exercises should I include?
To promote comprehensive health, incorporating resistance training several times a week is essential to combat the natural decline of muscle and bone mass that accompanies age. It’s about more than just bicep curls!
Strengthening your core and back muscles is also crucial.
The good news is that you don’t need to purchase extravagant gym memberships or trendy workout gear to perform these exercises.
Bodyweight exercises like planks, squats, and push-ups are highly effective and can be done at home. The NHS offers some excellent examples on their website.
Tanaka emphasizes that individuals over 40 shouldn’t overlook stretching. “Flexibility and range of motion can diminish,” she points out.
“To function well, whether playing tennis or running efficiently, your joints require adequate range of motion. As you age, this tends to decrease, and stretching can help.”
How can I fit exercise into my routine?
If this all feels overwhelming, considering that many people in their 40s juggle demanding careers, long commutes, childcare, and elder care, here’s a supportive note: studies have shown that consolidating exercise into weekends yields similar benefits as spreading it throughout the week.
This is based on a study involving 64,000 participants aged 40 and above tracked for 18 years.
Researchers found that “weekend warriors” who exercised once or twice weekly were able to lower their cardiovascular disease risk by 41 percent and cancer mortality risk by 18 percent compared to non-exercisers.
In comparison, regularly active people (three or more days a week) experienced a similar reduction in risks—41 percent for cardiovascular disease and 21 percent for cancer.
Still skeptical? All experts agree: the most crucial factor is finding an exercise you genuinely enjoy, ensuring sustained participation.
If running isn’t your thing, perhaps dancing piques your interest? Did you enjoy kickabouts during school? Why not consider walking soccer?
To conclude, Harridge reassures us that it’s entirely feasible to be more physically fit in your 40s than you were in your 20s or 30s.
But he emphasizes that it’s not about reversing aging; it’s about eliminating the detriment that comes from inactivity and getting back on track.
“It’s never too late,” he affirms. “If you’re 40, there’s ample time for life-changing transformations!”
A hibernating species of North American squirrel might provide vital insights for tackling one of the most persistent and lethal heart diseases globally.
California’s biotechnology firm fauna ecology has created a novel drug based on the genetic insights of hibernating mammals.
The small molecule drug, referred to as Faun 1083, targets heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF)—a form of heart failure impacting millions and lacking effective treatments.
Fauna’s strategy draws inspiration from the natural world, as noted by CEO Dr. Ashley Zehnder: “We’re investigating where biological evidence exists for disease resistance or recovery,” as mentioned in BBC Science Focus.
“Years of physiological research indicate that ground squirrels can safeguard their hearts from harm during hibernation. Additionally, heart failure ranks as one of the top causes of death worldwide.”
By examining how the adorable American line squirrel protects its organs while hibernating, Dr. Fauna discovered a gene that aids the animal in averting tissue damage and scarring—critical factors in heart failure among humans.
“What is elevated in the ground squirrel’s system, which shields the heart from harm, may be diminished in humans suffering from heart failure,” Zehnder explains. “This informs our focus on the pathways that are crucial for human health issues.”
Currently, there are limited effective treatments for heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) beyond merely alleviating symptoms – Photo credit: Getty
Fauna’s AI-enhanced discovery platform analyzes these protective traits across animal genomes and human genetic data to identify potential drug targets.
According to Zehnder, the resultant compound Faun 1083 stems directly from research into the cardiac biology of ground squirrels. The new treatment has already shown potential during preclinical trials and is set to undergo animal safety assessments prior to commencing human trials next year.
Fauna Bio’s research is part of a burgeoning field known as ‘comparative genomics,’ which seeks evolutionary insights to enhance human health.
The company is part of the Zoonomia Consortium, which unveils adaptations that enable animals to resist disease and recover from tissue damage.
“Our goal is to leverage evolutionary adaptations,” Zehnder asserts. “Humans rarely cure diseases naturally, but many mammals worldwide do so regularly… Why not utilize the full spectrum of nature’s experiments?”
Astronomers utilizing the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope have captured a remarkable image of the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1511.
This Hubble image features the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1511, located approximately 50 million light-years away in the constellation Hydra. Image credit: NASA / ESA / Hubble / D. Tilker.
NGC1511 resides in the constellation Hydra, about 50 million light-years from our planet.
This spiral galaxy was discovered by British astronomer John Herschel on November 2, 1834.
NGC 1511, also known as ESO 55-4, IRAS 03594-6746, or LEDA 14236, is a principal member of a small galaxy group known as the NGC 1511 Group.
“Like many galaxies, NGC 1511 doesn’t navigate through space alone,” stated Hubble astronomers.
“Instead, it exists alongside a pair of smaller galactic companions known as NGC 1511A and NGC 1511B. Both companions lie outside the scope of this Hubble image.”
“NGC 1511B is the nearest neighbor to NGC 1511, and the two galaxies have likely collided in the past,” researchers remarked.
“A thin filament of hydrogen gas links them, and NGC 1511B is elongated and warped due to this collision.”
Astronomers have also discovered signs indicating that NGC 1511 once had another small companion galaxy that has since been completely annihilated.
“These disruptions have impacted NGC 1511 as well,” the researchers added.
“This galaxy has undergone explosive star formation, and its disk displays unusual loops and plumes that may suggest previous interactions with nearby galaxies.”
“We are utilizing Hubble’s precise observations of NGC 1511 to analyze star clusters nestled within its dusty gas, aiming to comprehend how material circulates from interstellar clouds to stars and back.”
Recent studies indicate that humans possess the capability to detect objects without physical contact, a skill seen in certain animals.
Chen and colleagues. The first study examined human fingertip sensitivity to tactile signals from buried objects, while the second utilized a robotic arm with a long short-term memory model to detect objects. Image credit: Gemini AI.
Typically, human touch is viewed as a sense limited to direct physical interaction with objects.
However, recent insights into animal sensory mechanisms challenge this perception.
Some species of sandpipers and plovers, for instance, utilize a form of remote touch to locate prey concealed beneath the sand.
Remote touch allows for the detection of objects hidden beneath particles by subtle mechanical signals transmitted through the medium when nearby pressure is applied.
In a groundbreaking study, Dr. Elisabetta Versace from Queen Mary University of London and her team explored whether humans share similar capabilities.
Participants delicately glided their fingers over the sand to locate a hidden cube before making physical contact.
Remarkably, the study outcomes revealed a sensitivity analogous to that found in shorebirds, despite humans lacking the specialized beak structure that facilitates this ability in avians.
Modeling the physical attributes of this phenomenon, researchers concluded that human hands are so sensitive they can perceive buried objects through minute sand displacements.
This sensitivity approaches the theoretical threshold for detecting mechanical “reflections” of granules when the movement of sand is reflected by a stable surface (the concealed object).
When evaluating the performance of humans against robotic tactile sensors trained using long short-term memory (LSTM) algorithms, humans achieved a remarkable accuracy of 70.7% within the anticipated detection range.
Interestingly, the robot could sense objects from slightly greater distances on average but encountered frequent false positives, resulting in an overall accuracy of only 40%.
These findings affirm that humans can genuinely detect objects prior to physical contact, showcasing an extraordinary aspect of our senses typically linked to direct interactions.
Both humans and robots demonstrated performance nearing the maximum sensitivity predicted by physical models of displacement.
This research uncovers that humans can identify objects buried in sand without direct contact, broadening our understanding of the extent of tactile perception.
Additionally, it provides quantitative evidence of tactile abilities previously undocumented in humans.
The study also presents a valuable benchmark for enhancing tactile sensing in assistive technologies and robotic systems.
Emulating human sensory perception, engineers can design robots that incorporate near-human touch sensitivity for practical uses in tasks such as surveying, excavation, and exploration where visual cues are limited.
“This is the first instance of remote contact being examined in humans, reshaping our concept of the perceptual fields of living beings, including humans,” stated Dr. Versace.
“This discovery opens avenues for creating tools and assistive technologies that amplify the human sense of touch,” remarked Dr. Student Chen Zhenchi.
“These insights could lead to the development of advanced robots capable of performing delicate tasks, such as locating untouched archaeological artifacts or navigating sandy or granular terrains like Martian soil or ocean floors.”
“More generally, this research facilitates the development of touch-based systems that enhance safety and effectiveness in exploring hidden and hazardous locations.”
“What makes this study particularly intriguing is the mutual influence between human research and robotic research,” noted Dr. Lorenzo Hamone, a researcher at University College London.
“Human experiments informed the robot’s learning strategy, while the robot’s efficacy offered new interpretations of human data.”
“This serves as a prime example of how psychology, robotics, and artificial intelligence can collaborate, illustrating how interdisciplinary teamwork can ignite both fundamental discoveries and technological advancements.”
Z. Chen and colleagues. Exploring haptics for object localization in granular media: A human-robot study. 2025 IEEE International Conference on Development and Learning; doi: 10.1109/ICDL63968.2025.11204359
Ultrasound can penetrate the skull and reach the brain
Shutterstock/peterschreiber.media
Recent research suggests that pulsed ultrasound waves directed at the brain may enhance survival rates following a specific stroke type by promoting the removal of inflammatory dead blood cells, based on findings from a study involving mice. This technique, which boosts lymphatic drainage efficiency, could also have applications for treating Alzheimer’s disease, with clinical trials anticipated to commence next year.
Hemorrhagic stroke, constitutes around 15% of all strokes and occurs when a blood vessel in the brain bursts, leading to bleeding, disrupting oxygen supply to the brain, and causing cellular damage, which can result in motor and cognitive issues.
Treatments typically involve sealing the ruptured blood vessel with small metal clips and extracting dead red blood cells via a catheter or similar device. Neglecting this procedure can exacerbate inflammation and lead to further tissue damage. However, this method is highly invasive, posing risks of brain damage and infections, as noted by Larg Airan at Stanford University, California.
After an unexpected experience with prolonged ultrasound application during drug activation in mouse brains, Aylan considered whether pulsed ultrasound could be effective in removing the “debris” from the brain. “When I observed the drug’s effects, it appeared to spread throughout the brain, almost as if it were being ‘painted’ over,” he recounted.
To probe this idea, the research team simulated a hemorrhagic stroke by injecting mice with blood from their tails. For three consecutive days, they administered pulsed ultrasound to the skulls of half the mice for 10 minutes each day, while the others received no treatment.
Subsequently, all mice underwent a three-minute test in a water tank divided into four corners, with healthy mice typically turning in either direction 50% of the time. The team discovered that mice treated with ultrasound turned left 39% of the time, compared to 27% for the control group. Additionally, treated mice exhibited stronger grips on a metal bar than their untreated counterparts, indicating they suffered less brain damage, a conclusion that was later substantiated through brain slice analyses conducted post-euthanasia.
One week following the blood injection, around half of the control group mice perished, compared to only one-fifth of the ultrasound-treated group. A rapid increase in survival rates was noted, with an approximately 30 percentage point improvement achieved through just three 10-minute ultrasound treatments, according to Airan.
Further insights revealed that the ultrasound pulses triggered pressure-sensitive proteins in microglia, the brain’s immune cells, reducing their inflammation and enhancing their ability to clear dead red blood cells. Additionally, this technique improved the flow of cerebrospinal fluid, facilitating the removal of dead cells to lymph nodes in the neck, which are part of the lymphatic system responsible for eliminating metabolic waste.
While more investigations are necessary, this method might also have the potential to address various brain disorders. “If ultrasound can efficiently remove larger red blood cells from the brain, it stands to reason it could also eliminate smaller toxic proteins, such as the misfolded tau associated with Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases,” Aylan explained.
Experts are impressed with this promising research due to its non-invasive nature. Kathleen Caron from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill noted that the lymphatic systems in mice and humans show considerable similarities, indicating this approach could be applicable in human cases as well.
The use of ultrasonic irradiation is considered safe, and while research is ongoing to confirm these findings, Aylan is optimistic about the lack of unforeseen side effects from this treatment.
Ultimately, the research team aspires to test this technique on individuals suffering from hemorrhagic strokes that necessitate urgent intervention. They aim to gather additional data on its safety and efficacy for Alzheimer’s patients, with trials projected to begin next year, according to Aylan.
Recent observations of 3I/ATLAS, the third interstellar object confirmed to traverse the solar system following 1I/Oumuamua and 2I/Borisov, reveal a sophisticated multi-jet configuration.
The image of 3I/ATLAS was captured by Lowell Observatory astronomer Qicheng Zhang on October 31, 2025. Image credit: Qicheng Zhang / Lowell Observatory.
Discovered on July 1, 2025, by the NASA-funded ATLAS (Asteroid Terrestrial Impact Last Alert System) survey telescope in Rio Hurtado, Chile, 3I/ATLAS is also referred to as C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) and A11pl3Z.
Originating from the direction of the Sagittarius constellation, this comet holds the designation of being the most dynamically extreme object recorded, characterized by its hyperbolic orbit with high eccentricity and extreme hyperbolic velocity.
3I/ATLAS came closest to the Sun, reaching perihelion, on October 30, 2025.
This interstellar visitor approached within 1.4 AU (astronomical units), or approximately 210 million km, of the Sun, which is just inside Mars’ orbit.
At perihelion, the comet traveled at a remarkable speed of about 68 km/s, and its proximity to the Sun temporarily rendered it invisible to Earth’s telescopes.
Following perihelion, it will once again be observable through telescopes until December as it gradually distances itself from both the Sun and Earth, returning to interstellar space.
The initial post-perihelion optical image of 3I/ATLAS (as shown above) was captured. This was announced on October 31 by astronomer Zhang Qicheng of Lowell Observatory using the Discovery Telescope.
This image of 3I/ATLAS was taken on November 8, 2025 by astronomers from the ICQ Comet Observation Group. Image credit: M. Jaeger / G. Lehmann / E. Prosperi.
On November 8th, three astronomers from the ICQ Comet Observation Group observed the comet situated 29 degrees from the Sun in the sky.
The images they captured depict a complex jet structure with at least seven jets, including several anti-tail planes.
“Given the multitude of jets emerging in various directions, the noted non-gravitational acceleration of 3I/ATLAS implies that more than 10 to 20 percent of its initial mass would need to be ejected near perihelion,” remarked Professor Avi Loeb of Harvard University discussing the ICQ images. He stated,
“Only a small fraction of this mass carries the necessary momentum in the favored direction.”
“Consequently, the debris cloud enveloping 3I/ATLAS likely constitutes a considerable portion of the comet’s original mass.”
This 3I/ATLAS image was taken on November 9, 2025, by astronomers from the British Astronomical Society. Image credit: Michael Buechner / Frank Niebling.
On November 9th, two astronomers from the British Astronomical Association (BAA) studied the comet using two telescopes.
Their combined image displayed a long “smoking” tail along with two anti-tail jets.
“3I/ATLAS is expected to make its closest approach to Earth on December 19, 2025, making the multijet structure an intriguing target for future observations with the Hubble and Webb telescopes,” Professor Loeb mentioned discussing the BAA images. He noted.
The minimum distance to Earth will be 269 million km, roughly 100 times the extent of the jet structure illustrated in the image.
Astronomers are particularly interested in understanding how the orbits of planets around other stars evolve. In an idealized model, orbits consist of two uniform spheres revolving around a common center of mass. However, the reality is often more intricate. These deviations from ideal models provide insights into these systems, shedding light on their geometric arrangements in the universe and the potential presence of unseen companion planets.
Recently, a team of astronomers carried out a large-scale survey of Exoplanet TrES-1 b. The researchers selected TrES-1 b to analyze its orbital changes over the last two decades, since its discovery in 2004, because it belongs to the category of exoplanets that are relatively straightforward to observe: hot Jupiters. Hot Jupiters are gas giants similar in size to our solar system’s Jupiter, but they orbit their host stars at much closer distances, sometimes completing a revolution in just a few days. TrES-1 b orbits a star with just under 90% of the mass of our Sun every three days. This brief orbital period enables astronomers to make numerous observations, facilitating the measurement of orbital changes.
The research team initially gathered data on how much light TrES-1 b blocks from Earth’s viewpoint as it transits in front of its host star, referred to as the transit light curve. Most of the optical data originated from ground-based telescopes, inclusive of contributions from citizen scientists. Additionally, they sourced relevant data from the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite, the Hubble Space Telescope, and the Spitzer Space Telescope. This data allowed them to accurately measure the time it took for TrES-1 b to complete its orbit.
They also discovered that another group of astronomers had employed Spitzer’s infrared array camera. Furthermore, they identified four additional studies from 2004 to 2016 that thoroughly measured how the light from TrES-1 b’s host star was affected by its orbital dynamics, specifically through radial velocity. By combining transit light curves, eclipses, and radial velocity data, astronomers gained a holistic understanding of TrES-1 b, which they then compared with statistical models to interpret its long-term behavior.
The research team sought to fit five distinct models to their observations of TrES-1 b to determine which best represented the data. The first model represented a planet with a constant circular orbit, followed by one with a fixed and slightly elliptical orbit, representing an eccentric orbit. The third model employed a circular orbit that gradually decreases in size, termed decaying orbit. The fourth variant implemented a damped and slightly eccentric orbit, while the final model featured a subtly eccentric orbit that also progresses directionally in relation to the star over time, known as precession.
The researchers concluded that, irrespective of the data subsets used, the most plausible explanation for their findings is that TrES-1 b follows an eccentric precessional orbit. They also noted that the damped trajectory model offered a superior fit compared to the steady trajectory models. This implies that while the changes in the exoplanet’s orbit are evident, the data does not support any hypotheses suggesting no actual alterations in its trajectory.
The researchers further elaborated that the rate at which the exoplanet’s orbit is changing indicates the gravitational influence of another planet within the system. They estimated that this hypothetical planet could be no larger than 25% the size of Jupiter and would have an orbital period of no more than 7 days. However, they noted that there was no direct evidence for such a planet in their data, apart from its inferred impact on TrES-1 b. They did discover another exoplanet in the system, termed TrES-1 c, but its wide eccentric orbit is unlikely to account for the changes observed in TrES-1 b’s orbit.
In conclusion, the researchers asserted that a multifaceted methodology to investigate the orbital timings of exoplanets unveils dynamics that may be overlooked by singular observations and models. They advocated for further studies of the long-term behaviors of exoplanets, necessitating extensive monitoring, more precise radial velocity measurements, and complex simulations of multiple celestial bodies within the gravitational system.
We never just drift off; we abruptly enter slumber.
Dead Mitiei/Shutterstock
The brain doesn’t transition into sleep gradually. Instead, we hit a critical moment where we swiftly shift from being awake to asleep within just minutes. This finding could enhance the understanding and treatment of sleep-related issues like insomnia.
“Sleep is crucial to our existence, yet the mechanisms behind how our brain falls asleep have remained elusive,” states Nil Grossman from Imperial College London. It’s commonly thought that this change occurs gradually, with the brain smoothly moving from wakefulness to sleep; however, evidence for this phenomenon is sparse.
Grossman and his team have created a novel method to investigate how the brain functions during sleep by utilizing electroencephalography (EEG) data. This technique captures the brain’s electrical activity and provides insights into various sleep stages and wakefulness. The researchers analyzed 47 EEG signals using an abstract mathematical framework, treating each data point as if it were plotted on a map. This enabled them to visualize brain activity in its transition towards the designated sleep onset zone, correlating with the second phase of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep.
“Now we can accurately monitor brain activity and determine how close individuals are to falling asleep each second, with a level of precision never achieved before,” explains Grossman.
The method was applied to EEG data acquired during the sleep onset phase of over 1,000 participants, measuring the proximity of brain activity to sleep onset. Generally, this proximity remained stable until about 10 minutes prior to sleep, markedly decreasing in the final moments. Researchers determined that this critical transition occurs roughly 4.5 minutes before sleep, marking the distinct switch from wakefulness to slumber, as noted by Li Junheng, also from Imperial College London. “[This is] the point of no return,” he states.
These findings indicate that the shift from wakefulness to sleep is “not a slow progression, but rather a sudden, dramatic transformation occurring in the last few minutes,” asserts Grossman. Thus, when we “fall asleep,” it closely reflects the underlying activity in our brains. “This showcases nearly the feeling of entering a different state,” he adds.
The research team subsequently gathered brainwave information from another group of 36 individuals, tracking each participant’s sleep patterns over a week. They utilized some of those nights to accurately predict when participants would fall asleep, within a minute of the actual moment.
“This indicates that while individuals differ significantly, each person seems to follow a unique sleep trajectory that recurs night after night,” remarks Laura Lewis from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. However, she notes that it remains uncertain if these patterns alter when external conditions vary, like sleeping in a new environment.
While this framework does not explicitly identify the brain mechanisms responsible for the sleep transition, Lewis believes it could pave the way for future discoveries. “Identifying the precise moment of falling asleep has been quite challenging,” she states. “Once that is established, we can delve into the brain regions and circuits that facilitate sustained sleep.” Understanding the nuances of this transition could also aid in recognizing variations among individuals with insomnia, leading to innovative treatments.
Citroën Racing Formula E car during pre-season testing for the 2025-26 ABB FIA Formula E World Championship
Independent photo agency/Alamy
With their sleek designs, smoking tires, and throaty engines, Formula 1 cars have dominated the speed charts for the last five decades. However, the rise of electric racing has the potential to shift that paradigm, especially as advancements in technology propel Formula E vehicles forward.
Formula E recently introduced its fourth-generation vehicle, capable of generating up to 600 kilowatts, equating to about 815 horsepower, enabling speeds of over 350 kilometers per hour. 320km/h has already been achieved.
Despite Formula 1’s current edge with top speeds exceeding 370 km/h, Formula E vehicles already demonstrate a 30% faster acceleration than their F1 counterparts, with the existing third generation capable of sprinting from 0 to 60 mph in just 1.82 seconds. As power and energy retention technology evolves, Formula E CEO Geoff Dodds anticipates that races on tracks such as Silverstone and Monte Carlo will showcase even faster speeds.
“In the upcoming years, this vehicle may equal or even surpass the speed of an F1 car,” Dodds stated. “It’s more about the principles of physics than our skill.”
A significant advantage lies in the exceptional efficiency of electric motors. In consumer electric vehicles like Tesla, Kona, and Ioniq, up to 90% of the energy used is efficiently directed towards movement. In contrast, conventional combustion engines, such as those in F1, lose roughly 25 percent of energy as heat, while F1’s hybrid motors waste around 50 percent. Conversely, Formula E cars achieve energy efficiency rates of 96%, largely due to regenerative braking systems that recharge the battery.
Electric motors deliver maximum torque instantly, eliminating the lag associated with gear shifts during acceleration. The fourth-generation Formula E cars utilize permanent all-wheel drive with distinct motors for each axle, enhancing acceleration, subject to the grip of the still-developing fourth-generation tires.
A notable challenge for Formula E is its battery technology. At the outset of the series in 2014, competitors had to switch vehicles mid-race to complete the distance. Sylvain Filippi, director of Envision Racing Team, remarks that Formula E could currently construct vehicles boasting 1,000 horsepower, surpassing F1’s capabilities for a single lap, but the battery limitations hinder such performance across numerous race laps.
“We’re not yet able to fit 80 liters of fuel equivalent into a single battery. It simply doesn’t exist,” Filippi elaborated. “The advantage of conventional fuel lies in its high energy density.”
Formula E Gen 4 cars can exceed speeds of 350 kilometers per hour
Formula E
Formula E aims to transition from liquid lithium-ion batteries to solid-state alternatives in its upcoming fifth-generation vehicles, which promise reduced weight and enhanced energy storage. This advancement could potentially enable Formula E cars to outperform Formula 1 in direct competitions, according to Dodds.
Nonetheless, even solid-state batteries struggle to match the energy density of liquid fuels, suggesting that F1 may maintain an advantage in race laps, as noted by Daniel Auger, PhD from Cranfield University in the UK.
“They’re definitely in for an exciting contest,” he remarked. “Yet, it’s likely that battery limitations will still play a significant role.”
However, this debate may remain purely theoretical, as the two racing formats adhere to different regulations. For instance, Formula E does not permit tire changes during pit stops and features “Attack Mode” functionality, inspired by power-ups from the Mario Kart series.
Brands such as Porsche, Jaguar, and Nissan are now focused on refining the powertrain and energy management systems of their fourth-generation vehicles to maximize performance ahead of their race introduction scheduled for December 2026.
Many of the technological developments from Formula E might also trickle down to consumer electric vehicles. For instance, the current Porsche Cayenne Electric incorporates direct oil cooling technology that originated in Formula E.
The performance metrics of Formula E “demonstrate the capability of electric vehicles to equal or surpass the performance of traditional internal combustion engines,” insists Graham Evans from S&P Global. “Moreover, this can be achieved with a stronger commitment to environmental sustainability.”
Sure! Here’s the rewritten content while keeping the HTML tags intact:
Data Center in Ashburn, Virginia
Jim Roe Scalzo/EPA/Shutterstock
As the artificial intelligence sector grows swiftly, concerns about the ecological effects of data centers are increasingly being discussed. New projections indicate that the industry may fall short of achieving net-zero emissions by 2030.
Fenki Yu and researchers from Cornell University in New York have evaluated the potential energy, water, and carbon consumption of current leading AI servers by 2030, under various growth scenarios and specific U.S. data center locations. Their analysis integrates anticipated chip production, server energy demands, and cooling efficiency, coupled with state power grid data. While not all AI enterprises have declared net-zero objectives, major tech firms involved in AI, like Google, Microsoft, and Meta, have set targets for 2030.
“The rapid expansion of AI computing is fundamentally altering everything,” says Yu. “We’re striving to understand the implications of this growth.”
The researchers estimate that establishing AI servers in the U.S. may require between 731 million to 1.125 billion cubic meters of additional water by 2030, along with greenhouse gas emissions ranging from 24 million to 44 million tons of carbon dioxide each year. These estimates hinge on the pace of AI demand growth, the actual number of advanced servers that can be produced, and the sites of new U.S. data centers.
To address these issues, the researchers modeled five scenarios based on varying growth rates and outlined potential measures to minimize the impact. “The top priority is location,” Yu explains. By situating data centers in Midwestern states with abundant water resources and a significant share of renewable energy in the power grid, the environmental fallout can be mitigated. The team also emphasizes that transitioning to decarbonized energy sources and enhancing efficiency in computing and cooling processes are essential strategies for minimizing environmental impact. Collectively, these three measures could potentially lower industry emissions by 73% and reduce water usage by 86%.
However, public resistance may disrupt these predictions, particularly regarding the environmental ramifications of establishing data centers. In Virginia, where 1/8 of the world’s data centers are located, residents have voiced opposition to upcoming construction plans, citing concerns over water resources and broader environmental impacts. Similar petitions against data centers have arisen in Pennsylvania, Texas, Arizona, California, and Oregon. As per Data Center Watch, a firm that monitors data center developments, local opposition is stalling approximately $64 billion worth of projects. Even where certain locations successfully deny data center projects, questions remain regarding their potential power and water consumption.
This new research is viewed cautiously by those analyzing and quantifying AI’s environmental effects. “The AI field evolves so quickly that making accurate future predictions is incredibly challenging,” says Sasha Luccioni from the AI company Hugging Face. “As mentioned by the authors, breakthroughs in the industry can radically alter computing and energy needs, reminiscent of DeepSeek’s innovative techniques that reduced reliance on brute-force calculations.”
Chris Priest from the University of Bristol in the UK concurs, highlighting the necessity for increased investment in renewable energy infrastructure and the importance of data center placement. “I believe their projections for water usage in direct cooling of AI data centers are rather pessimistic,” he remarks, suggesting that the model’s “best case” scenario aligns more closely with “business as usual” for contemporary data centers.
Luccioni believes the paper underscores a vital missing element in the AI ecosystem: “greater transparency.” She notes that this issue can be addressed by “mandating model developers to track and disclose their computing and energy consumption, share this information with users and policymakers, and commit to reducing overall environmental impacts, including emissions.”
Topic:
If you need further adjustments or another type of rewrite, let me know!
Aerial overview of Nabuyatom Crater, located south of Lake Turkana, Kenya
Martin Harvey/Alamy
The arid conditions of East Africa have led to a decline in the water levels of Kenya’s Lake Turkana for millennia, triggering rising earthquakes and volcanoes beneath its surface. This risk associated with climate change could potentially impact other water bodies globally as precipitation and drought patterns shift.
Lake Turkana is often referred to as the cradle of humanity. Fossils from at least six different human species, dating back 4.2 million years, have been unearthed here, with some believed to have lived alongside each other. As the size of these lakes decreased over thousands of years, our ancestors faced not just a more arid environment but also increased geological activity.
“We believe that during these eras, there would have been a rise in the frequency of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions,” states Christopher Scholz, a researcher at Syracuse University in New York. “The challenging conditions observable today in the region would have been further intensified.”
Situated in the Great Rift Valley between Kenya and Ethiopia, Lake Turkana is the world’s largest desert lake, a greenish body of saline water surrounded by sandy shrublands and breezy outcrops. However, 9,000 years ago, it was considerably larger and enveloped by rich grasslands and forests.
Between 4,000 and 6,000 years ago, the climate shifted towards drier conditions, causing the lake’s level to fall by 100 to 150 meters. Such a drop in water levels lessens the pressure on the lakebed below, potentially influencing seismic behavior. To investigate the impact of this climatic alteration, Scholz and his team pinpointed specific sediment layers that correspond to various historical periods from cores previously extracted from the lakebed.
They conducted sonar scans from a boat over 27 faults on the lake floor to analyze how the sediment layers were displaced vertically on either side of each fault. Their findings suggested that as the climate grows drier, the sides of faults slip past one another at an accelerated average rate of 0.17 millimeters per year.
“The key mechanism here involves tightening and loosening this deformation area, which causes earthquakes,” Scholz explains. “A drier climate coupled with lower lake loads will facilitate a slicker fault line.”
Computer simulations indicate that as water mass diminishes, an increase in magma movement occurs beneath the lake. One of the volcanic islands in Lake Turkana erupted in 1888.
Research previously demonstrated that declining sea levels heighten volcanic activity at ocean ridges. However, this provides the first solid evidence of a similar trend occurring around this lake, according to Ken McDonald from the University of California, Santa Barbara. “It’s akin to loosening the cork on a champagne bottle,” he remarks. “Reducing the pressure increases the likelihood of magma ascending within the Earth’s crust and erupting.”
While climate change is currently leading to higher water levels in Lake Turkana, it may take millennia for seismic and volcanic activities to stabilize significantly.
Nevertheless, the authors of the study advocate that seismic risk assessments should take into account how climate change affects water levels. Moreover, policymakers should factor in seismic vulnerabilities when planning the construction or deconstruction of dams.
“They should install [seismometers] before making any substantial alterations,” McDonald advises.
“This year’s Leonid meteor shower coincides almost perfectly with the new moon…”
Walter Pacholka, Astronomical/Scientific Photo Library
Watching a meteor shower is a captivating experience, in part due to the unpredictability of these events. Even under ideal conditions, the sight can be overwhelming, especially when forecasts predict hundreds of meteors per hour. However, gathering with friends to witness this celestial display can make it special, even if only a few shooting stars appear.
This year’s Leonid meteor shower aligns perfectly with the new moon, offering an excellent opportunity to see numerous meteors streaking across the sky. While it may not reach hundreds each hour, I highly encourage you to take a look.
Meteor showers happen at the same time annually because they align with Earth’s orbit around the sun, bringing in debris remnants from comets and asteroids. This results in an influx of dust particles entering the atmosphere, creating brilliant flashes as they burn up.
The Leonid meteor shower originates from the remnants left by Comet Tempel-Tuttle, a 3.6-kilometer-wide comet that orbits the sun every 33 years. During peak times, the Leonid shower transforms into a meteor storm, showcasing thousands of meteors per hour. The last storm occurred in 2002, so another isn’t expected for another decade.
If you’re fortunate, you might witness a meteor like the one shown in the image. The Leonid meteor shower begins on November 6 and lasts through the end of the month, peaking from the evening of November 17 to the morning of November 18. With the new moon on November 20, the moon will be a thin waning crescent during the peak of the shower. For the best view, aim for just after midnight local time, regardless of your location. The Leonid meteor shower generally has a gradual peak, so it’s worth observing on days surrounding the 17th if the skies are clear.
Meteor showers derive their names from the constellations from which the meteors appear to originate, but you don’t need to locate the Leonid constellation to enjoy them. However, Leo is easy to spot and visible from most areas of the world, excluding extreme southern latitudes. To find it, look for its signature backward question mark or sickle shape, positioned near the Big Dipper. If you need assistance in locating it, consider using a mobile app.
For an optimal meteor shower experience, make yourself warm and comfortable. Since you might be sitting still for extended periods, a hot water bottle or a straight-backed chair can help prevent neck pain. Stay away from light pollution as much as possible. If you’re watching from home, turn off the lights and allow your eyes to adjust. Enjoy!
Aerial view of the Band of Holes in Monte Sierpe, Peru
JL Bongers
A hillside in Peru, featuring over 5,000 aligned holes, could have served as an immense Incan accounting tool or spreadsheet.
The “band of holes” that winds down the slopes of Monte Sierpe (Snake Mountain) has intrigued archaeologists since its aerial images surfaced in 1933. Various hypotheses have been presented regarding the purpose of these pits—ranging from tombs and defensive structures to water storage or horticultural uses during the Inca Empire, which flourished from 1438 to 1533.
“This 1.5-kilometer-long series of holes has stumped researchers for decades,” states Jacob Bongers from the University of Sydney.
To uncover the purpose of these holes, Bongers and colleagues examined sediment from 19 holes and utilized a drone to capture the clearest aerial visuals of sinkholes measuring 1 to 2 meters in diameter and between 50 centimeters to 1 meter deep.
The analysis unveiled pollen from consumable crops like corn, amaranth, chili peppers, and sweet potatoes, in addition to wild plants like sweet potatoes typhus rash (bush), commonly used for making baskets and rafts.
Bongers points out that the distance of the holes from fertile areas suggests pollen couldn’t have dispersed via wind. He proposes that local communities from the Chincha culture, active from about 900 to 1450 AD, may have lined the pits with vegetation and filled them with goods transported by llamas in woven baskets.
“Our data supports the theory that items were brought to this site and placed in the holes,” he says, noting that the absence of much pottery could be attributed to the use of baskets. “Initially, we believe this was a barter market, later evolving under the Inca Empire into a vast accounting device.”
Circa 1480, the Chincha fell under Incan dominance yet maintained autonomy; historical records indicate they were mandated to pay tributes, says Bongers. The concept of the accounting tool materialized from aerial photography, which enabled a more precise tally of the holes (approximately 5,200) and their arrangements.
The layout encompasses at least 60 sections or blocks. Researchers argue that it mirrors certain Incan counting methods, such as the knotted cord device known as Kipus, likened to a calculator or abacus. However, Bongers asserts that a more fitting analogy for this site’s design is a spreadsheet that documents food and goods contributions from the local populace.
Holes in Monte Sierpe, Peru
C. Stanish
“There are intriguing mathematical patterns; some sections consist of multiple rows of eight holes, with alternating counts of 8 and 7. This suggests deliberate intent behind their arrangement,” Bongers comments.
He believes the different sections may align with distinct groups from the densely populated and agriculturally productive regions surrounding Monte Sierpe, where approximately 100,000 people resided in the Pisco and Chincha valleys.
The specific Kipu structures from the Pisco Valley share layout similarities with the holes in the field, divided into roughly similar sections, consisting of a total of 80 departments.
“While the 5,200 holes are certainly large enough to accommodate items, they lack a clear decimal organization, which we would expect given the Incas’ decimal system; thus, the arrangement appears more complex than mere groups of ten,” remarks Karenlee Overmann from the University of Colorado Colorado Springs. “The hall itself is divided into approximately 60 sections, while the Kipu represents 80, indicating a notable numerical disparity.”
Bongers acknowledges this discrepancy but notes uncertainty around how long the site was in use or how the holes’ placement and function evolved in relation to the Kipu. “We are observing the end state, which might have started with just a few sections, growing in response to population increases,” he explains.
Located near a junction in the pre-Hispanic road network and between two major Incan administrative regions, Tambo Colorado and Lima la Vieja, supplies may have been collected here rather than in urban centers.
Overmann finds the study commendable for weighing various hypotheses about the holes’ purpose, but she suggests a simpler explanation could be at play. “Peru boasts a rich tradition of crafting substantial petroglyphs visible from long distances,” she mentions. “Perhaps they were simply engaging in that practice.”
Bongers concurs that this could be one of the functions. “However, both perspectives could coexist. It’s a massive, iconic form, yet it also fulfilled a practical role, serving as a type of social technology. Without the internet or cell phones, how did people know when and where to gather? Building a prominent site visible from afar may have been the solution.”
Historic Herculaneum – discover Vesuvius, Pompeii, and ancient Naples
Embark on an intriguing journey through the ruins of Mount Vesuvius, Pompeii, and Herculaneum, where history and archaeology come alive.
This month, nine seismic observatories in Alaska are expected to lose power, leaving tsunami forecasters without essential data to assess whether an earthquake could generate destructive waves heading toward the West Coast.
These stations depended on federal support that lapsed last year, and the Trump administration declined to renew it this fall. Information from the observatories is vital for researchers studying the size and shape of earthquakes occurring along the Alaska subduction zone, a fault known for producing some of the globe’s most potent earthquakes, thereby endangering California, Oregon, Washington, and Hawaii.
Michael West, director of the Alaska Earthquake Center, mentioned that the removal of the observatory could postpone the notification of a potential tsunami in Alaska’s coastal regions, with areas like Washington state potentially facing less precise forecasts.
“Statistically, the last tsunami in the United States originated from Alaska, and the next one will likely follow suit,” he stated.
This is yet another setback for the U.S. tsunami warning system, which has already been grappling with underfunding and staff shortages. Researchers are alarmed that the network might be on the verge of collapse.
“The entire tsunami warning system is regressing,” West said. “There are numerous issues at play.”
In the United States, there are two tsunami warning centers that operate continuously—one in Palmer, Alaska, and another in Honolulu. These centers provide forecasts that assist emergency managers in deciding if coastal evacuations are necessary after an earthquake. Data from Alaska’s seismic stations has historically been integral to the center’s operations.
Both centers are already experiencing staffing shortages; currently, only 11 of the 20 full-time positions at the Alaska center are filled, as reported by Tom Fahey, union legislative director for the National Weather Service Employees Organization. Meanwhile, in Hawaii, four out of 16 positions remain vacant. (Fahey indicated both sites are looking to hire scientists.)
Furthermore, funding for the National Tsunami Hazard Reduction Program, which finances the majority of state tsunami risk reduction initiatives, has been slashed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). In 2025, a mere $4 million was allocated—significantly less than the historic $6 million provided.
“You’re on life support,” West remarked regarding the program.
Tsunami evacuation route sign in Bolinas, California.Steven Lamb/San Francisco Chronicle, via Getty Images file
Additionally, due to probationary layoffs in February under the Trump administration, NOAA terminated Corinna Allen, director of the National Weather Service’s tsunami program, as reported by Washington state seismologist Harold Tobin. Allen, who had just recently joined the agency, refrained from commenting through a spokesperson for her new employer, the Washington State Department of Natural Resources.
These recent reductions coincide with the Trump administration’s broader strategy to cut federal spending, especially on science and climate research. NOAA enacted cuts in February, including hundreds of layoffs, reductions in weather balloon launches, and a halt to research on climate and weather disaster costs.
Most of the closed seismic stations in Alaska are located in isolated regions of the Aleutian Islands. West noted that this chain extends westward from the Alaska Peninsula towards Russia, following a subduction zone on the ocean floor. KHNS is Alaska’s public radio station, which first reported the news of the stations going offline.
A NOAA grant of approximately $300,000 annually had supported these stations. The Alaska Earthquake Center sought a new grant to continue operations through 2028 but was turned down, according to emails between West and NOAA officials examined by NBC News.
NOAA spokesperson Kim Doster stated that the federal agency ceased funding in 2024 under the Biden administration. Uma Bhatt, a professor at the University of Alaska Fairbanks and deputy director of the institute managing the grant, mentioned that the University of Alaska Fairbanks managed to raise funds in the spring to keep the program running for another year, anticipating that federal support would follow. Unfortunately, that funding never materialized.
“The removal of these observations does not hinder the Tsunami Warning Center from fulfilling its mission,” Doster remarked. “AEC [Alaska Earthquake Center] is one among many partners aiding the National Weather Service’s tsunami initiatives, and the NWS continues using various methods to guarantee the collection of seismic data throughout Alaska.”
The White House has not responded to requests for comment.
West indicated that the Alaska Earthquake Center supplies a significant portion of the data utilized for tsunami alerts in the state. The grant funding the nine seismic stations also facilitated a data stream that included inputs from the center’s additional sensors. Consequently, tsunami warning centers across the nation will no longer have direct access to that data feed.
West noted that the stations spread across the Aleutian Islands cover an extensive geographical expanse.
“There’s nothing else in the vicinity,” he pointed out. “It’s not like there’s another piece of equipment 20 miles away; there aren’t even any roads.”
West intends to abandon the station later this month but will leave the equipment behind.
Washington State’s Tobin expressed concerns that the closures “might lead to delays and diminish the quality of tsunami warnings.”
“Surveillance is sparse in this region. We need to be vigilant,” he remarked, adding, “These programs often operate unnoticed until a critical event occurs.”
The Alaska-Aleutian subduction zone stands out as one of the most active fault lines globally, having previously triggered substantial tsunamis. In 1964, a magnitude 9.2 earthquake unleashed a tsunami that claimed 124 lives, with 13 fatalities in California and five in Oregon. The majority of California’s casualties occurred in Crescent City, where waves reaching 6 meters obliterated 29 city blocks, according to the city’s website.
Experts in tsunami studies emphasized that the observatory stations in the Aleutian Islands are crucial for the swift identification of nearby earthquakes. The closer an earthquake is to a sensor, the lower the uncertainty regarding the resulting tsunami.
NOAA’s Tsunami Warning Center aims to generate an initial forecast within five minutes, which is vital for local communities. (In the event of a significant earthquake in the Aleutian Islands, the first waves could reach nearby Alaskan towns within minutes.) The only data available quickly enough to facilitate these initial projections comes from seismic signals, as opposed to buoy-mounted tide gauges or pressure sensors.
Subsequently, the warning center provides a more detailed wave height prediction about 40 minutes later. Daniel Ungaard, director of tsunami programs at the Washington Geological Survey, noted that without sensors in Alaska, there would be increased uncertainty about projected wave heights, complicating decisions on whether to initiate evacuations along Washington’s coastline.
“We strive to avoid unnecessary evacuations,” he explained, emphasizing that unwarranted alerts could result in wasted time, resources, and credibility.
Last year, tsunami warning centers nationwide were inundated. In December, a magnitude 7.0 earthquake near Cape Mendocino, California, activated a tsunami warning along the coast. July saw an 8.8 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula, prompting a widespread warning along the U.S. West Coast, just west of the Aleutian Islands.
NOAA has been instrumental in establishing many seismic observatories that form part of the Alaska Earthquake Center network. However, West mentioned that over the past two decades, the agency has decreased its support. The nine bases developed by NOAA were decommissioned in 2013.
“Now is the moment for NOAA to decide on their commitment,” he declared. “I aim to ignite a conversation about tsunami preparedness in the United States, ensuring it doesn’t merely arise in response to the next catastrophic tsunami.”
Contemporary artificial intelligence (AI) models are vast, relying on energy-hungry server farms and operating on billions of parameters trained on extensive datasets.
Is this the only way forward? It seems not. One of the most exciting prospects for the future of machine intelligence began with something significantly smaller: the minute worm.
Inspired by Caenorhabditis elegans, a tiny creature measuring just a millimeter and possessing only 302 neurons, researchers have designed a “liquid neural network,” a radically different type of AI capable of learning, adapting, and reasoning on a single device.
“I wanted to understand human intelligence,” said Dr. Ramin Hassani, co-founder and CEO of Liquid AI, a pioneering company in this mini-revolution, as reported by BBC Science Focus. “However, we found that there was minimal information available about the human brain or even those of rats and monkeys.”
At that point, the most thoroughly mapped nervous system belonged to C. elegans, providing a starting point for Hassani and his team.
The appeal of C. elegans lay not in its behavior, but in its “neurodynamics,” or how its cells communicated with one another.
The neurons in this worm’s brain transmit information through analog signals rather than the sharp electrical spikes typical of larger animals. As nervous systems developed and organisms increased in size, spiking neurons became more efficient for information transmission over distances.
Nonetheless, the origins of human neural computation trace back to the analog realm.
For Hassani, this was an enlightening discovery. “Biology provides a unique lens to refine our possibilities,” he explained. “After billions of years of evolution, every viable method to create efficient algorithms has been considered.”
Instead of emulating the worm’s neurons one by one, Hassani and his collaborators aimed to capture their essence of flexibility, feedback, and adaptability.
“We’re not practicing biomimicry,” he emphasized. “We draw inspiration from nature, physics, and neuroscience to enhance artificial neural networks.”
read more:
What characterizes them as “liquid”?
Conventional neural networks, like those powering today’s chatbots and image generators, tend to be very static. Once trained, their internal connections are fixed and not easily altered through experience.
Liquid neural networks, however, offer a different approach. “They are a fluid that enhances adaptability,” said Hassani. “These systems can remain dynamic throughout computation.”
To illustrate, he referenced self-driving cars. When driving in rain, adjustments must be made even if visibility (or input data) becomes obscured. Thus, the system must adapt and be sufficiently flexible.
Traditional neural networks operate in a strictly unidirectional, deterministic fashion — the same input always results in the same output, and data flow is linear within the layer. While this is a simplified view, the point is clear.
Liquid neural networks function differently: neurons can influence one another bidirectionally, resulting in a more dynamic system. Consequently, these models behave stochastically. Providing the same input twice may yield slightly varied responses, akin to biological systems.
C. elegans is a small worm, about 1 mm long, that thrives in moist, nutrient-rich settings like soil, compost piles, and decaying vegetation. – Credit: iStock / Getty Images Plus
“Traditional networks take input, process it, and deliver results,” stated Hassani. “In contrast, liquid neural networks perform calculations while simultaneously adjusting their processing methods with each new input.”
The mathematics behind these networks is complex. Earlier versions were slow due to the reliance on intricate equations requiring sequential resolution before yielding an output.
In 2022, Hassani and his team published a study in Nature Machine Intelligence, introducing an approximate way to manage these equations without heavy computation.
This innovation significantly enhanced the liquid model’s speed and efficiency while preserving the biological adaptability that conventional AI systems often lack.
More compact, eco-friendly, and intelligent
This adaptability allows liquid models to store considerably more information within smaller infrastructures.
“Ultimately, what defines an AI system is its ability to process vast amounts of data and condense it into this algorithmic framework,” Hassani remarked.
“If your system is constrained by static parameters, your capabilities are limited. However, with dynamic flexibility, one can effectively encapsulate greater intelligence within the system.”
He referred to this as the “liquid method of calculation.” Consequently, models thousands of times smaller than today’s large language models can perform comparably or even exceed them in specific tasks.
Professor Peter Bentley, a computer scientist at University College London, specializing in biologically-inspired computing, noted that this transformation is vital: “AI is presently dominated by energy-intensive models relying on antiquated concepts of neuron network simulation.”
“Fewer neurons translate to a smaller model, which reduces computational demand and energy consumption. The capacity for ongoing learning is crucial, something current large models struggle to achieve.”
As Hassani stated, “You can essentially integrate one of our systems into your coffee machine.”
“If it can operate within the smallest computational unit, it can be hosted anywhere, opening up a vast array of opportunities.”
Liquid models are compact enough to run directly on devices like smart glasses or self-driving cars, with no need for cloud connectivity. – Credit: iStock / Getty Images Plus
AI that fits in your pocket and on your face
Liquid AI is actively developing these systems for real-world application. One collaboration involves smart glasses that operate directly on users’ devices, while others are focused on self-driving cars and language translators functioning on smartphones.
Hassani, a regular glasses wearer, pointed out that although smart glasses sound appealing, users may not want every detail in their surroundings sent to a server for processing (consider bathroom breaks).
This is where Liquid Networks excel. They can operate on minimal hardware, allowing for local data processing, enhancing privacy, and reducing energy consumption.
This also promotes AI independence. “Humans don’t depend on one another for function,” Hassani explained. “Yet they communicate. I envision future devices that maintain this independence while being capable of sharing information.”
Hassani dubbed this evolution “physical AI,” referring to intelligence that extends beyond cloud settings to engage with the physical realm. Realizing this form of intelligence could make the sci-fi vision of robots a reality without needing constant internet access.
However, there are some limitations. Liquid systems only function with “time series” data, meaning they cannot process static images, which traditional AI excels at, but they require continuous data like video.
According to Bentley, this limitation is not as restrictive as it appears. “Time series data may sound limiting, but it’s quite the opposite. Most real-world data has a temporal component or evolves over time, encompassing video, audio, financial exchanges, robotic sensors, and much more.”
Hassani also acknowledged that these systems aren’t designed for groundbreaking scientific advancements, such as identifying new energy sources or treatments. This research domain will likely remain with larger models.
Yet, that isn’t the primary focus. Instead, this technology aims to render AI more efficient, interpretable, and human-like while adapting it to fit various real-world applications. And it all originated from a small worm quietly moving through the soil.
A team of researchers from the University of Copenhagen has identified three new species within the genus Nectophrynoides from Tanzania’s East Arc Mountains.
Nectophrynoides luhomeroensis seen here as an adult. Image credit: Slane et al., doi: 10.3897/vz.75.e167008.
The genus Nectophrynoides belongs to the family Nudibranchidae and currently comprises 13 recognized species that are endemic to the wet forests and grasslands of Tanzania.
Commonly referred to as tree toads, Nectophrynoides species exhibit viviparous reproduction, a feature that is quite rare among frogs.
All known species of Nectophrynoides inhabit the East Ark Mountains, with Nectophrynoides biviparus also found in the southern highlands of neighboring Tanzania.
“The three newly identified frog species are part of a rare group in the genus Nectophrynoides,” said Dr. Christian Slane and his colleagues at the University of Copenhagen.
“Instead of laying eggs that develop into tadpoles, female toads carry their young inside their bodies, giving birth to small, fully-formed toads.”
“This adaptation makes these amphibians among the few worldwide capable of internal fertilization and true live birth.”
“While it is widely recognized that frogs usually develop from tadpoles, this represents just one of many reproductive strategies within the diverse frog population,” noted Dr. Mark D. Schatz from the Natural History Museum of Denmark.
“In fact, around 8,000 frog species exhibit various reproductive modes, many of which differ significantly from the classic narrative.”
“Only a select number of frog species in South America and Southeast Asia have developed a similar reproductive strategy, rendering these toads unique in the animal kingdom.”
“Live births in frogs and toads are exceedingly rare, with less than 1% of frog species exhibiting this trait, making these new species particularly fascinating,” remarked Dr. H. Christoph Liedtke from Spain’s National Research Council.
In this study, the authors examined 257 specimens of Nectophrynoides and identified three new species: Nectophrynoides luhomeroensis, Nectophrynoides hehehe, and Nectophrynoides saliensis.
“The introduction of these three new species raises the total number of known viviparous anurans globally to 20, with 16 belonging to the genus Nectophrynoides,” stated the researchers.
“The distinct reproductive and ecological characteristics displayed by these bufonids underscore the potential loss of ecological function should these species face extinction.”
“Given the risk of losing these species and their contributions to amphibian biodiversity, there is a significant need to intensify conservation efforts to safeguard them.”
“Further research is crucial to fully comprehend the behavior and ecology of these remarkable arboreal toads.”
This discovery is detailed in the following article: paper published in Vertebrate Zoology.
_____
C. Slane et al. 2025. Museology and integrated taxonomy reveal three new species of glandular viviparous tree toads (Nectophrynoides) from the Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania (Anura: Bufonidae). Vertebrate Zoology 75: 459-485; doi: 10.3897/vz.75.e167008
Peek-a-boo is an entertaining game for young children. Due to their limited understanding of object permanence, hiding faces from babies brings joyful smiles as they try to grasp what’s happening in the world around them.
Playing this game with the wealthiest and most powerful nation may not be as amusing, but the Trump administration has certainly given it a shot.
For years, U.S. federal agencies carried out extensive public health research to guide policies addressing issues like drug addiction and food insecurity. However, these invaluable data collection efforts have now been significantly reduced or entirely scrapped (see, US public health system is flying blind after deep cuts).
By figuratively covering its eyes, the U.S. government seems to be wishing these challenges will vanish, when, in reality, the opposite is likely to occur.
As we learned during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic, data, monitoring, and preparedness are crucial for preventing disasters. Statistical agencies and data collectors aren’t just collecting data; they’re our frontline defense against uncertainty.
“
Not all heroes wear capes, but some do their best to create them from spreadsheets. “
The U.S. isn’t alone in this forgetfulness. The UK’s Office for National Statistics, once regarded as exemplary, has experienced a decline in recent years. Facing issues of poor-quality data and inaccurate statistics due in part to a lack of funding.
A significant part of the issue is the perception of this type of work as dull. No politician ever gained votes by vowing to conduct surveys on every mailbox, and statisticians hardly become celebrities.
However, this needs to change. Not all heroes wear capes, but some strive to craft them from spreadsheets. This vital data-driven work deserves recognition and reinforcement. Governance without object permanence is ill-advised, and sadly, the United States is on the brink of discovering this reality.
This striking image of 3I/ATLAS was taken by the International Gemini Observatory in Chile, revealing the comet’s coma formed of gas and dust.
Image Credit: International Gemini Observatory/NOIRLab/NSF/AURA/Shadow the Scientist
3I/ATLAS, an interstellar comet traversing our solar system, presents a challenge in determining its origin due to potential alterations from cosmic rays over billions of years that could have completely transformed its characteristics.
Initially detected in July, astronomers have begun to analyze its intriguing traits, including its coma, which features carbon dioxide levels at least 16 times greater than standard comets in our solar system, marking it as one of the most CO2-rich comets ever seen.
While some researchers theorized that this might indicate an unusual star system as the comet’s birthplace (or, less plausibly, a link to extraterrestrial life), a more straightforward explanation has emerged.
Roman Maggiolo and colleagues from the Belgian Royal Institute for Astronautics and Aeronautics assert that the elevated CO2 concentrations are likely a result of significant alterations to the outer layers of 3I/ATLAS over billions of years due to cosmic rays.
“This slow process has often been neglected or underestimated, yet it profoundly impacts objects like comets and interstellar bodies,” Maggiolo states.
The team compared their findings from 3I/ATLAS to lab experiments that simulate cosmic ray bombardment of ice composed of water and carbon monoxide, akin to that found on comets. These experiments revealed that this process generates substantial CO2 and leaves behind a carbon-rich residue that aligns with observations from the comet.
“Gradually, cosmic rays create reactive radicals—molecular fragments that break down and reform, thereby altering the ice’s chemical makeup,” Maggiolo explains.
This revelation poses a setback for comprehending the origins of comets, as cosmic rays can obliterate critical evidence. Previously, astronomers thought interstellar comets like 3I/ATLAS were remarkably preserved, acting as cold fossils with vital data about other star systems; however, a more cautious approach may now be necessary concerning the insights they can provide.
Although its swift passage through the solar system limits the chances for satellites to explore and directly sample these comets, there remains a sliver of hope for clarifying the true nature of 3I/ATLAS.
Currently, the comet is nearing the Sun and isn’t visible from Earth but is anticipated to resurface in December. This close encounter might result in sufficient melting of the outer ice layer to unveil materials shielded from cosmic rays, as noted by Maggiolo. However, this is contingent upon how much ice has already vanished since its entry into the solar system and the thickness of the icy crust, details that are still unclear.
Cyriel Opitum, a professor at the University of Edinburgh in the UK, emphasizes that forthcoming observations utilizing both the James Webb Space Telescope and ground-based telescopes will be essential in uncovering primitive material beneath the comet’s surface. “We are looking forward to an exciting few months ahead,” she states.
Chile: The World Capital of Astronomy
Discover the astronomical treasures of Chile. Experience the world’s most advanced observatory and gaze at the stars beneath the clearest skies on the planet.
Many claim that children keep us feeling youthful, but it’s a complex issue.
Javier Zayas/Getty Images
For centuries, humanity has sought to comprehend the aging process. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle theorized that aging correlates with the passage of time. The reduction of water necessary for bodily functions was his primary focus.
A contemporary concept known as the disposable soma hypothesis proposes that aging is the cost of reproduction; evolution, it argues, favors genetic replication above all else. This results in a fundamental trade-off. The substantial energy expended on having and nurturing offspring is often compromised by investments in DNA repair, disease resistance, and organ maintenance.
This idea is particularly relevant for women, who allocate more resources to reproduction through pregnancy and nursing than their male counterparts. However, when researchers examined whether women with more children had shorter lifespans, findings were inconsistent. Some studies supported the hypothesis while others did not.
“It’s challenging to extract clear correlations between childbearing and longevity,” said Elizabeth Bolland from the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, a professor not involved in the research.
Euan Young and associates from the University of Groningen in the Netherlands postulated that variations in reproductive costs depend on maternal environment, noting, “In favorable conditions, this trade-off is less apparent. It’s during challenging times that it becomes noticeable,” Young remarked.
To explore this hypothesis, researchers examined parish records of over 4,500 Finnish women spanning 250 years, including the era of Finland’s Great Famine from 1866 to 1868. Young highlighted how difficult times impacted reproduction and longevity.
They discovered that for women who lived before and after the famine, or those who had no children during that period, there was no notable correlation between child quantity and lifespan. Conversely, women who gave birth during the famine experienced a reduction in life expectancy of six months for each child born.
This research stems from a study released last year, which utilized a dataset from the pre-industrial populace of Quebec, Canada, tracked over two centuries. This previous work illustrated trade-offs in mothers likely to be in poor health or facing high stress, without evaluating the influence of specific environmental conditions.
In contrast, Young’s team emphasizes catastrophic events as factors that underscore these reproductive trade-offs. “This extensive dataset enables us to control for confounding variables,” he stated. “This study brings us closer to understanding causality without needing laboratory-controlled experiments,” remarked Bornd.
This investigation further endorses the energy demands of pregnancy and breastfeeding, which necessitate substantial additional calorie intake daily. During periods of starvation, women cannot acquire sufficient energy from food, which compromises their body’s “basal metabolism.” As a result, essential bodily functions may decelerate or cease, leading to deteriorated health and shortened lifespans, Young explained. This scenario clarifies why previous studies often identified these trade-offs predominantly in lower socio-economic groups, who typically reside in resource-limited conditions.
Bolland noted that this trade-off’s occurrence under particularly adverse circumstances, alongside a time when women usually had more children, may help clarify why women generally outlive men. In the UK, girls born between 2021 and 2023 are projected to live four years longer than boys.
In contemporary Western societies, reproductive costs have significantly diminished, with the average number of births declining drastically over centuries, as noted by Bornd. Consequently, it’s likely that very few women reach the stage where lifelong costs become evident. Bolland and colleagues noted in their study analyzing Utah’s historical population, that this threshold was only observed when women had five or more children. The average woman in the United States is now expected to have 1.6 children throughout her lifetime.
Therefore, other environmental factors may play a larger role in explaining the lifespan disparity between genders. For instance, men are generally more prone to smoking and tend to consume more alcohol, both of which influence longevity, according to Bolund. The current gap in longevity between men and women likely results from a mix of reduced reproductive costs for women relative to earlier historical periods, alongside differences in lifestyle choices.
Research also indicates that variations in sex chromosomes are significant. “Differences between the sexes extend beyond reproductive costs; thus, further research is essential to delineate how different factors impact sex-specific aging,” Young concluded.
A plume of ice particles, water vapor, and organic compounds shooting from Enceladus’s southern polar area
NASA/JPL-Caltech
The hidden oceans of liquid water beneath Enceladus’ icy exterior have long positioned Saturn’s moon as a prime candidate in the search for alien life, and the prospects appear even brighter. Recent findings revealing heat from the frozen northern pole indicate that the ocean is stable over geological periods, allowing the potential for life to thrive.
“For the first time, we can assert confidently that Enceladus is in a stable condition, which has significant implications for its habitability,” states Carly Howett from Oxford University. “While we already knew about the presence of liquid water, a variety of organic molecules, and heat, stability was the crucial missing element.”
Howett and her team utilized data from NASA’s Cassini spacecraft, which orbited Saturn from 2004 to 2017, to analyze the heat leaking from Enceladus. The moon’s interior is warmed by tidal forces resulting from Saturn’s gravitational pull, but up to now, this heat had only been observed escaping from the south polar region.
A delicate balance is necessary for life to develop in Enceladus’s ocean. It’s essential for the ocean to emit as much heat as it receives. Although the recorded heat from the South Pole doesn’t account for all incoming heat, Howett and her colleagues discovered that the North Pole is approximately 7 degrees warmer than previously assumed. Together with the heat from the South Pole, the overall heat balance is nearly precise. Due to a thicker ice shell near the equator, a substantial amount of heat escapes primarily in the polar regions.
This indicates that the ocean must maintain stability over extended durations. “Quantifying this is challenging, but we don’t anticipate a freeze in the near future, nor have we seen one recently,” Howett explained. “We understand that life requires time to evolve, and now we can affirm that this stability exists.” Nevertheless, discovering life, if it indeed exists, presents its own challenges. Both NASA and ESA are planning missions aimed at unearthing such life for decades ahead.
A cosmic network is disrupting a galaxy’s star-forming abilities. Galaxies require gas to generate stars, and a distant dwarf galaxy, nearly 100 million light-years away, is being deprived of this essential material by an expansive web of cosmic constituents.
While one half of the galaxy known as AGC 727130 seems relatively normal, its opposite side shows gas stretching well beyond its perimeter, being torn apart by unseen forces. Researchers from Columbia University in New York identified this collapsing galaxy utilizing the Very Large Array, a radio observatory situated in New Mexico Nicholas Luber.
Even though AGC 727130 is in proximity to two other dwarf galaxies, the researchers concluded that it isn’t close enough to engage with them in a way that would create turbulent gas. Their findings imply that the gas is expelled through a mechanism known as ram pressure stripping. This occurs when a galaxy traverses an intragalactic cloud—in this case, part of the cosmic web—leaving behind its gas. Without this gas, galaxies become “quenched” and are unable to create new stars.
The filamentous structures in the cosmic web are so slender that it would likely take more than one filament to strip gas from a galaxy, yet AGC 727130 resides at the junction of multiple filaments. “The concept that a cosmic web could extract gas from galaxies through collisional pressure is not surprising and likely happens frequently, but it’s challenging to confirm,” states Luber. “We were fortunate to observe this phenomenon.”
Identifying such galaxies poses a challenge because the gas removal is a gradual process, and galaxies that have already lost their gas tend to be exceedingly faint. “What’s intriguing about this outcome is that low-mass extinguished dwarf galaxies are exceptionally rare; only a few, less than 0.06 percent, are believed to exist without a substantial host galaxy,” comments Julia Blue Bird, a radio astronomer based in New Mexico.
Even among that limited number of extinguished dwarf galaxies, only a scant few have had their gas stripped by the cosmic web rather than through interactions with other galaxies. “This might be… the first definitive case of such an occurrence,” remarks Jacqueline Van Gorcom from Columbia University. Several large radio telescopes are poised to unveil new gas maps across extensive regions of the universe, which could provide additional insights regarding these galaxies.
This discovery is crucial in addressing a cosmological dilemma known as the missing satellite problem. Current cosmological models suggest there should be significantly more dwarf galaxies orbiting larger ones than we currently observe. “We struggle to find many quenched dwarfs; is it because they’re hard to detect, or are they simply not present? This suggests that quenching may also be occurring far from larger galaxies,” states team member Sabrina Stierwalt from Occidental College in California. Uncovering additional galaxies quenched by the cosmic web could help reconcile discrepancies between model predictions and actual observations.
Paleontologists from China and Brazil have reported the discovery of 320 phytoliths (tiny mineral structures formed within plant cells) found in the fossilized stomach of a pterosaur species known as Synopterus atavismus.
Rebuilding the life of Synopterus atavismus. Image credit: Maurilio Oliveira / Science China Press.
Pterosaurs, a group of reptiles that went extinct during the Mesozoic Era, were the first vertebrates to develop powered flight.
However, their dietary habits remain largely enigmatic.
Various hypotheses have been proposed regarding pterosaur diets, including insectivorous, piscivorous, carnivorous, omnivorous, herbivorous/frugivorous, filter feeding, and generalized diets.
Though stomach contents provide compelling evidence, such finds are exceedingly rare.
In addition to scales associated with the thorax of Eudimorphodon, only five confirmed instances of pterosaur gastric contents have been documented since the Late Triassic in Italy, all related to Rhamphorhynchus from the Late Jurassic Solnhofen limestone in Germany.
These instances largely consist of remains like dead fish, along with some unidentified items.
In a recent study, Dr. Xiaolin Wang from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and colleagues investigated the contents of fossilized stomachs from Synopterus atavismus, which existed in China approximately 120 million years ago.
They identified numerous small gastroliths in the stomach contents, from which they extracted 320 phytoliths.
“Phytoliths are microscopic silica structures formed during plant growth, exhibiting diverse morphologies across different plant species and even within various parts of the same plant,” the paleontologists stated.
“This discovery marks the first extraction of phytoliths from a pterosaur and the second documented instance of a pterosaur featuring a gastrolith.”
Specimen of Synopterus atavismus. Image credit: Jiang et al., doi: 10.1016/j.scib.2025.06.040.
To determine whether Synopterus atavismus was indeed herbivorous, the researchers explored other possible interpretations.
“Initially, we confirmed that surrounding rocks did not contain the phytoliths found in the stomach, eliminating contamination as a factor,” the researchers commented.
“We also considered the possibility that the plant material could have originated from animals that consume plants.”
“However, Synopterus atavismus exhibited a rapid metabolism akin to that of birds. If it had consumed vertebrates or insects, traces like bones, scales, or hard insect shells would have been present in the stomach, but none were found.”
“The hypothesis of eating soft-bodied creatures like caterpillars was also insufficient. Why would it require so many gastroliths if hard food wasn’t part of its diet?”
“These stones typically assist in breaking down tough materials such as insect shells and plant matter, making them unneeded for softer prey.”
“Lastly, prior research suggested that Tapejara wellnhoferi, a close relative of Synopterus atavismus, had robust jaws adapted for consuming plants, reinforcing this conclusion.”
“Thus, phytoliths clearly indicate direct dietary intake, while gastroliths were utilized as tools for grinding plant material.”
The team’s paper is published in the October 15, 2025 issue of the journal Science Bulletin.
_____
Jiang Shunxin et al. 2025. First phytoliths discovered in pterosaurs – evidence of herbivory. Science Bulletin 70 (19): 3134-3138; doi: 10.1016/j.scib.2025.06.040
A newly released map and digital dataset called Itiner-e expands the known length of the Roman Empire’s road network by over 110,000 km.
Itiner-e is the most intricate and comprehensive open digital dataset of roads throughout the Roman Empire. Image credit: de Soto et al., doi: 10.1038/s41597-025-06140-z.
During its peak in the second century AD, the Roman Empire boasted a population exceeding 55 million and extended from present-day Britain to Egypt and Syria.
While the extensive road network facilitated development and maintenance, maps remain incomplete, and existing digitized versions are of low resolution.
“The study of Roman roads has a long-standing history,” remarked Tom Brumans, a researcher at Aarhus University, along with his colleagues.
“A plethora of information about roads has been confirmed through archaeological excavations, surveys, milestones placed regularly along Roman routes, and historical texts like the Antoninian Itinerary and the Poitingeriana Table, which offer a detailed regional overview of key connections between settlements and Roman roads.”
“However, the pursuit of identifying and locating this diverse body of research is complicated by a lack of comprehensive integration and digitization across the empire.”
Researchers employed archaeological and historical records, topographic maps, and satellite imagery to compile the Itiner-e dataset.
This dataset includes 299,171 km of roads, covering an area of approximately 4 million km, a marked increase from the prior estimate of 188,555 km.2.
The growth in road coverage is attributed to enhanced documentation in the Iberian Peninsula, Greece, and North Africa, as well as adjustments to existing road routes based on geographical realities.
This includes the provision for roads traversing mountains to follow winding paths, rather than straight lines.
Itiner-e encompasses 14,769 road segments, with 103,478 km (34.6%) classified as primary roads and 195,693 km (65.4%) as secondary roads.
Only 2.7% of the road locations are known with certainty, while 89.8% remain less precise, and 7.4% are based on hypotheses.
“Itiner-e is the most detailed and comprehensive open-access digitization of Roman roads, and it also highlights existing knowledge gaps in the road system,” the authors stated.
“They emphasize that Itiner-e does not reflect temporal changes in the road network, and further studies are necessary to explore this across the Roman Empire.”
“Itiner-e could serve as a valuable resource for future research on the impact of Roman roads on connectivity, governance, migration, and disease transmission within the empire.”
For maps and datasets, refer to the paper published in Scientific Data.
_____
P. De Soto et al. 2025. Itiner-e: A high-resolution dataset of roads in the Roman Empire. Scientific Data December 1731. doi: 10.1038/s41597-025-06140-z
A new expansive map of the Roman road system reveals that the empire’s land transport network has effectively grown by nearly 60% and is accessible to all. You can explore it online.
The initiative, named Itiner-e, combines topographical mapping, satellite images, and centuries of historical documentation, and claims to be the first publicly available dataset of this nature.
“It emerged from significant frustration,” states Tom Bluemans of Aarhus University, Denmark. “This is among the most enigmatic areas in Roman archaeology. There’s a saying: ‘All roads lead to Rome.’ So why can’t we access a download of all the roads in Rome? Where are they located?”
Brughmans and his team constructed a representation of the road network around 150 AD, utilizing extensive evidence from research and outlining more accurate paths of previously identified routes. They also assigned confidence ratings to each road segment based on the reliability of the source.
Their findings indicate that the total length of the road network in that period was around 299,171 kilometers, significantly surpassing the government’s previous estimate of 188,555 kilometers from the Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World.
The dataset reveals that even though there is compelling evidence for starting and ending points of many roads, only 2.8% of the entire network can be pinpointed accurately (within 50 meters in mountainous regions and 200 meters in flatter areas).
Roman route through mountains to Delphi in Ancient Greece
itinerary-e
For the Blueman family, this highlights the challenges associated with securing resources to excavate an entire Roman road, resulting in many efforts remaining unfinished. Additionally, major roads have undergone numerous reconstructions throughout history, complicating efforts to uncover the original paths.
While Roman roads are renowned for their straightness, it’s a misconception that they were always constructed that way. Katherine Fletcher from Manchester Metropolitan University in the UK, who did not participate in the study, comments, “Straight paths weren’t always economical or practical, particularly through mountainous regions.” She adds, “In many instances, if a route already existed, the Romans adapted it instead of forging an entirely new one.”
Gaining a deeper understanding of the Roman road network could enhance our grasp of many pivotal events in European history. According to Blumans, developments like early Christianity, widespread migration, and continent-wide pandemics were all influenced by the Roman road system.
Despite their significance, roads are frequently overshadowed because they lack the allure of grand amphitheaters or gladiators, Fletcher notes. “It’s akin to that famous scene in Monty Python where they discuss what the Romans did for us, and they mention, ‘And roads…well, clearly roads! Not to mention roads.’
Explore Historic Herculaneum – Experience Vesuvius, Pompeii, and Ancient Naples
Join a captivating journey through the ruins at Mount Vesuvius, Pompeii, and Herculaneum, where history and archaeology come alive.
Jacob was fitted with a tracking collar and lost his left hind leg in a poacher’s trap.
alex burakowski
A lion that suffered the loss of a leg due to a poacher’s trap has developed a remarkable new hunting technique, surprising conservation experts.
Last year, Jacob, an 11-year-old lion residing in Uganda’s Queen Elizabeth National Park, was observed swimming 1.5km (approximately 1 mile) through a river teeming with crocodiles, making this the longest recorded swim of its kind.
Typically, injured carnivores adapt by scavenging, stealing livestock, or, if fortunate, receiving assistance from their pride. However, Jacob, who has also lost an eye after an encounter with a buffalo, has only his younger brother Tib for support.
Many researchers believed he would eventually perish after losing his left hind leg in 2020. “However, he has demonstrated incredible resilience,” notes alexander braczkowski from the Cambra Lion Monitoring Project, supported by the Volcano Safari Partnership Trust, a Ugandan NGO dedicated to conservation and community progress.
Even Braczkowski, who has been observing Jacob since 2017, was astonished by his survival. Yet, the mystery has now been unraveled through thermal drone footage, revealing that this lion has begun to mimic the behavior of a leopard.
Unable to overpower his prey as a typical lion would, Jacob now ambushes them at short distances within dense foliage, employing stealth and agility.
According to Braczkowski, Jacob also hunts species typically avoided by other lions. The nocturnal footage has shown him hunting and successfully taking down 200kg wild pigs, either solo or in cooperation with his siblings.
“Jacob’s inability to sprint limits his ability to chase down prey,” Braczkowski noted. “It’s apparent that he has shifted his diet towards specific types of pigs. This adaptation further supports his leopard-like tactics and risk-taking behavior, but it’s essential for his survival, and it’s evidently working.”
Loss of limbs from traps is a “common” issue for big cats, according to Andrew Loveridge of Panthera, a non-profit organization focused on global wild cat conservation.
Jacob and his brother Tib wearing tracking collars
alex burakowski
Adaptation is also essential, he emphasized. Craig Packer from the University of Minnesota has studied lion behavior for decades, noting, “We’ve observed similar adaptive behavior in other lion populations, all of which had the advantage of four healthy limbs.”
However, as Braczkowski observes, the lions in Queen Elizabeth Park typically target large, agile prey like antelopes and buffalo.
“Sometimes, lions exhibit leopard-like behavior, such as climbing trees,” he remarks, referencing George Schaller and his groundbreaking fieldwork on Serengeti lions in the 1960s, which provided valuable insights into predator-prey dynamics.
Even the tree-climbing lions maintain distinct hunting modalities, Schaller adds, highlighting that lions referred to as tripods (those missing limbs) usually rely on their pride for survival.
Braczkowski has tracked Jacob during his swims across the Kazinga Strait multiple times over the past two years, noting an average daily distance of 1.73 kilometers, which, while less than a healthy lion, marks a significant achievement for an injured animal, potentially driven by an insufficiency of suitable prey or the quest for a mate.
Jacob’s novel hunting strategy could become a replicable behavior that might help combat declines in lion populations facing habitat loss, climate change, and human encroachment. Consequently, Jacob holds significant “symbolic and genetic” importance, according to Braczkowski.
Schaller remarked that Jacob represents a beacon of resilience: “He’s akin to a fighter jet in the natural world.”
Conservation and rewilding of the Central Apennines: Italy
Explore Italy’s Central Apennine region for an intriguing overview of the principles and practicalities of rewilding.
A recent study from Yonsei University in Seoul, South Korea, challenges the previously accepted notion that dark energy is causing the accelerated movement of distant galaxies away from us. The researchers found no evidence supporting the idea that the universe is currently accelerating. If validated, this finding could significantly alter our understanding of dark energy, address the “Hubble strain,” and provide insights into the universe’s past and future.
The expansion of the universe may be slowing down, not accelerating. Image credit: M. Weiss / Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
For over three decades, astronomers have generally accepted that the universe is expanding at an increasing rate due to a hidden force dubbed dark energy, which functions as a sort of anti-gravity.
This conclusion, derived from distance measurements of far-off galaxies using Type Ia supernovae, earned the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2011.
However, Professor Yongwook Lee of Yonsei University and his team have introduced new evidence suggesting that Type Ia supernovae, once thought to be the universe’s “standard candle,” are significantly affected by the age of their progenitor stars.
“Our findings indicate that the universe is currently in a phase of decelerating expansion, and that dark energy is evolving at a much faster rate than previously assumed,” stated Professor Lee.
“If verified, these outcomes would signify the most substantial shift in cosmology since the identification of dark energy 27 years ago.”
Even after adjusting for brightness, supernovae from younger star populations seem systematically dimmer, while those from older populations appear brighter.
Utilizing a more extensive sample of 300 host galaxies, the researchers validated these findings with remarkable significance (99.999% confidence), indicating that the dimming of distant supernovae is influenced not only by cosmological factors but also by stellar astrophysical characteristics.
After correcting for this systematic bias, the supernova data no longer aligned with the classic ΛCDM cosmology model that includes a cosmological constant.
Instead, it aligns more closely with a new model backed by the Dark Energy Spectroscopy Instrument (DESI) project, based on Baryon Acoustic Oscillations (BAO) and Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) data.
Both the adjusted supernova data and the results from BAO+CMB demonstrate that dark energy diminishes and evolves significantly over time.
Importantly, when the corrected supernova data were integrated with BAO and CMB findings, the traditional ΛCDM model was decisively ruled out.
Most notably, this comprehensive analysis reveals that the universe is not accelerating as much as once believed, but has already transitioned into a state of slowing expansion.
“The DESI project has yielded significant results by merging unadjusted supernova data with baryon acoustic vibration measurements, concluding that while the universe will decelerate in the future, it is still accelerating at present,” remarked Professor Lee.
“Conversely, our analysis, which incorporates an age-bias correction, indicates that the universe is already entering a slowing phase today.”
“Surprisingly, this aligns with predictions made independently from BAO analyses, which has yet to receive much attention.”
To further validate their findings, the researchers are now conducting an evolution-free test using only supernovae from young, contemporaneous host galaxies across the entire redshift range.
Initial results already support their primary conclusion.
“With the Vera C. Rubin Observatory set to discover more than 20,000 new supernova host galaxies within the next five years, accurate age measurements will provide a more robust and conclusive examination of supernova cosmology,” stated Yonsei University professor Chul Chung.
The team’s paper published today in Royal Astronomical Society Monthly Notices.
_____
Song Joon Hyuk et al. 2025. Strong founder age bias in supernova cosmology – II. Alignment of DESI BAO with signs of a non-accelerating universe. MNRAS 544 (1): 975-987; doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf1685
Amur tiger, also known as Siberian tiger, explores Russian waters
Tamim Ridlo/Shutterstock
tigers between empires Jonathan C. Slugt, Allen Lane (UK). Farrar, Strauss, Giroux (USA)
The Siberian tiger is an extraordinary creature, characterized by its “black and orange striped body.” It lets out a roar reminiscent of a “terrible tide,” especially during the harsh winters of Russia’s Far East. Specifically, we refer to the Amur tiger, whose habitat includes the Amur River basin, one of Asia’s most expansive basins. This river delineates the eastern boundary between Russia and China, and it is the dynamic interaction between these two empires and their Tiger’s Pot properties that constitutes the essence of Surat’s captivating new book, Tigers Between Empires: The journey to save the Siberian tiger from extinction.
Historically, more than 3,000 tigers roamed this vast area of northeast Asia. Facing numerous threats, the Soviet Union was pioneering in 1947 by being the first nation to enact legal protections for tigers. Though tiger populations initially rebounded, large carnivores uniquely reflect the dynamics of human politics. The collapse of the Soviet Union led to poverty in remote regions and a return to trapping for survival. By the close of the 20th century, tigers faced severe challenges on both sides of the border, as hunting, logging, and prey poaching decimated their numbers. Their existence was often equated with a sign of an underdeveloped civilization.
Amidst this landscape, New Englander Dale Mikel arrived to oversee the Siberian Tiger project. In 1992, he found himself in Russia’s Primorye region, bordering the Sea of Japan—a land filled with pristine forests and rich ecosystems. Mr. Surat, who has dedicated decades to this area, serves as a remarkable guide, offering detailed and emotive descriptions of this unique environment. As I read, I felt a surge of longing to experience it myself. There, cliffs adorned with Korean pines and oaks meet the sea, as tigers wander along the shores.
As a field biologist, Surat recognizes the resilience of those engaged in the project. Alongside dedicated Americans, many Russians willingly venture into the wilderness, often skiing for weeks while tracking tigers. The narrative interweaves human and tiger stories, drawing us into the lives of characters like the magnificent Olga, the courageous Severina, and the orphaned Zolushka. Changing perceptions can be just as vital as scientific endeavors. In a poignant moment, a farmer shares how he refrained from shooting Olga, inspired by the narrative he heard from Mikel, reflecting the possibility of coexistence when he viewed her as an individual.
In a climate of growing nationalism, this project and its accompanying book highlight the powerful outcomes that cross-border cooperation can yield. For three decades, Americans and Russians collaborated, motivated by a shared goal, achieving extraordinary results. At the time of its inception, little was known about the Amur tiger, yet their dedication and innovative approaches have rejuvenated chances for this majestic animal.
Years later, in 2022, Mikel departed from Russia after serving in the project for 30 years. Foreign-run NGOs are now unwelcome in the country. However, upon his departure, the protected Amur tiger habitat had expanded to six times its initial size, and the wild tiger population had reached 500—double the total from the mid-20th century. Stability is not guaranteed, and nothing can be taken for granted. Yet, such prospects offer a refreshing optimism for our current world.
Adam Weymouth is the author of lone wolf, shortlisted for the Baillie Gifford Award.
This website uses cookies so that we can provide you with the best user experience possible. Cookie information is stored in your browser and performs functions such as recognising you when you return to our website and helping our team to understand which sections of the website you find most interesting and useful.
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Strictly Necessary Cookie should be enabled at all times so that we can save your preferences for cookie settings.
